THE AIAW VS. the NCAA: a STRUGGLE for POWR to GOVERN WOMEN's ATHLETICS in Amerlcan INSTITUTIONS of HIGHER EDUCATION 1972-1982
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THE AIAW VS. THE NCAA: A STRUGGLE FOR POWR TO GOVERN WOMEN'S ATHLETICS IN AMERlCAN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION 1972-1982 Date E. PIyley Faculty of Kinesiology Submitted in partial hlfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts Faculty of Graduate Studies University of Western Ontario London,. Ontario September 1997 Q Dale E. Plyley 1997 National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Ottawa ON KI A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or seil reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of ths thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT From July 1972 to June 1982 the Association for Intercoilegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), an association created by and for women. govemed and administered women's intercollegiate athletic programs in the United States. Subsequent to 1982, the governance and administration of women's programs fell iargely upon the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which for some 75 years had concemed itself with the promotion and development solely of men's intercollegiate athletics. The final act in the drama of the transition of women's intercollegiate athietics in the United States From women's control to that of men was the court case: AIAW vs. NCAA in 198 1. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the pivotal factors which precipitated the AIAW's civil action against the NCAA for violation of anti-trust laws under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1891). These factors included, (i) Title IX and its implications for intercollegiate athietic programs, (ii) the NCAA's encroachment on the AlAW econornic sphere, and (iii) the NCAA's initiatives into wornen's intercollegiate athletic programrning. In addition, pivotal factors which significantly influenced the court's final decision in favour of the defendant, were analysed. These included the AIAW's failure to: (i) prove its conspiracy claim, (ii) prove the NCAA's intent to monopolize intercollegiate athletics, and (iii) argue that it sustained irreversible darnages. Then, to. women's participation and the status of women's intercollegiate sports in American educational institutions since the passage of Title IX (1972) and the gradua1 involvement of the NCAA in the women's athletic market were examined. The data demonstrated that the structurai configuration of women's intercollegiate athletic programs experienced a transformation, one that occurred at an exceptionally slow rate. The transformation experienced by women's intercollegiate athletics since 1982, under the governance of the NCAA, has not produced a particularly beneficial change for women fiom that experienced under NAW govemance. iii To Mom and Dad, for their Patience, Support and Love ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A good fi-iend of mine told me once that it is the journey in life that is most important, not the destination. If nothing else, my educational expenences at the University of Western Ontario have proved this to be true. 1 have learned that it is the journey and those individuals who enter your life that make al1 things worth while. At this time 1 would like to thank those individuals who have supported my efforts and have made this particular journey easier. First, I extend my sincere gratitude to Professor Robert K. Barney (Bob or B2) for his continued encouragement and patience. This was a serious undertaking and 1 thank him for al1 his efforts, especially during those trying times. To Gord and Scoa 1 wish to acknowledge your exceptional cornputer skills which, on more than one occasion. served me well. To my fiiends. I would like to thank you dl for believing in me, even when things weren't going as planned. A special thank you to J.R. who helped me through the toughest times; just when 1 thought 1 couldn't write another word, you were there to motivate and support me - your efforts and interest were greatly appreciated. Finally, to my parents. 1 would like to Say: 1 love you and thank you for faith and encouragement. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page .. CERTIFICATE OF EXAMINATION ..................................... ...ii ABSTRACT ......................................................... iii DEDICATION ....................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................... vi ... LIST OF TABLES .................................................... viii LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................... ix LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................ x CHAPTER 1 .INTRODUCTION ....................................... 1 Introduction ................................................... 1 PqoseoftheStudy ............................................ 11 Justification for the Study ........................................ 11 Methodology .................................................. 12 Organization .................................................. 12 Delimitations of the Study ........................................ 12 Limitations of the Study ......................................... 13 Endnotes ..................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2 .WHAT IS AT STAKE: DOLLARS OR GENDER AUTONOMY . 21 Introduction .................................................. 21 The Men's Market and the Wornen's Market ........................ 24 Men's Market Participants ....................................... 27 Women's Market Participants .................................... 34 Endnotes ..................................................... 43 CHAPTER 3 .A WARY COURTSHIP: NCAA INITIATIVES IN CONTROLLING WOMEN'S NTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ........................................... 51 Endnotes ..................................................... 66 CHAPTER 4 .PUSH AND SHOVE: THE NCAA AND THE AIAW GO TO COURT ......................................... 73 GenerdComplaint ............................................. 74 The AIAW Conspiracy Claim .................................... 78 Membership Restriction Claim ................................... 80 Commercial Restriction Claim ................................... 92 InjurytotheAIAW ............................................ 98 Endnotes ..................................................... 104 CHAPTER 5 .FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS: THE DEMISE OF THEAIAW ............................................ 119 Twenty-Five Years After Title IX: A Reason for Concern .............. 127 Endnotes ..................................................... 137 APPENDICES ...................................................... 143 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 187 VITA ............................................................. 192 LIST OF TABLES Table Description Page 1 NAIA Itemized Revenues 1979-80 to 198 1-82 ....................... 29 II Breakdown of NCAA Revenues by Category. 1979-80 and 1980-8 1 ...... 32 III Number of AIAW Active Institutional Members fiom 1971-72t0 1981-82 ............................................. 35 IV The Number of AIAW National Championships. Sports Offered and Television Income fiom 1972-73 to 1982-83 ........................ -36 V AIAW Itemized Revenues for 1979-80 to 1981-82 .................... 39 VI NAIA Dues Structure Comrnencing in 1980-8 1 ...................... 40 VI1 1981-82 Distribution of AIAW Non-renewing Institutional Members ..... 100 VI11 198 1-82 AIAW Division I Championship Participants and Percentage of Non-Participation and Non-Renewal ............................. 101 IX Division LA Institutions Meeting the OCR Proportionality Test in1995-96 ....................................................129 X Division 1-A Institutions Recording the Greatest Disparity in the Ratio of Female Undergraduates to Female Student Athletes ................. 130 XI Division 1-AA Institutions Meeting the OCR Proportionality Test in1995-96 ................................................... 131 XI 1 Division 1-AA Institutions Recording the Greatest Disparity in the Ratio of Female Undergraduates to Female Student Athletes ................... 131 XII1 Average Division 1 Operating Expenses for 1995-96 .................. 133 XIV Average Operating Expense and Tearn Size for Division 1 Football andBasketbal1 ................................................ 133 XV Percentage of Total 1995-1996 Division Revenues and Expenses by AthleticProgram .............................................. 134 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page APPENDIX NCAA Constitution Article 1 ....................... 143 APPENDIX AIAW Articles of Incorporation ..................... 144 APPENDIX AlAW National Championships. 1972- 198 1 ........... 145 APPENDIX Excerpt from 1975 NCAA Convention Proceedings ..... 148