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The LIGHT of the DHAMMA

VOL. VI No. 4

2503 B.E.

October 1959 C.E. 4

THE LIGHT OF THE DHAMMA

1. Please regard this not just as a quarterly magazine but as a continuing service for . Your frank criticism will be welcomed in a Buddhist spirit and if there are any questions pertaining to Buddhism that we can answer or help to answer, we are yours to command. 2. Any articles herein may be quoted, copied, reprinted and translated free of charge without further reference to us. Should you care to acknowledge the source we would be highly appreciative. 3 Foreign subscription. (including postage to any part of the world) is but the equivalent of sh 9/- (Nine Shillings) sterling per annum.

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In any country subscribing to the International Postal Union, International Postal Certificates are obtainable from the post office. TRADING BANKS can usually advise, in other cases, how small remittances may be made. THE EDITOR, “THE LIGHT OF THE DHAMMA” Union Buddha Sasana Council 16, Hermitage Road, Kokine Rangoon, Union 0f Burma 5

Vol. VI 2503 B.E. October 1959 C.E. No. 4

CONTENTS ARTICLE PAGE

Editorial…..Avert the Danger to the Dhamma 6 Buddhism versus Materialism…..Myanaung U Tin 13 Buddhism and the Scientific Revolution…..K. N. Jayatilleke, M. A, (Cantab.) 18 The Way to Nibbāna…..Venerable Aggamahāpaṇḍita U Thittila 23 Maṅgalā…..U Sein Nyo Tun, I. C. S. (Retd.) 30 Omniscience of the Buddha…..Venerable Nārada Mahāthera 35 The Essence of the Teaching…..Nyanasatta Thera 39 The Role of Buddhism under the shadow of a thermo-nuclear war ….. U Sein Nyo Tun, I. C. S. (Retd.) 44 Notes and News 45 Book Reviews 48

Also in the original issue: Lohicca Sutta & Cūḷavedalla Sutta…..Translated by the Editors of the Light of the Dhamma The Commentary….. Translated by the Department of Pāḷi, University of Rangoon The Story of the Bālanakkhatta Festival The Story of the Elder Mahākassapa The Story of Two Companion Monks, one of whom is heedless and the other heedful 6 EDITORIAL AVERT THE DANGER TO THE DHAMMA When we closely examine the dialectical unwholesome volitional actions as cause and materialist system of thought, we find that it is their fruits as results. There really does not analogous to the wrong views maintained by exist this world. There really do not exist the Pūraṇakassapa and Ajita Kesakambala, the two other worlds or planes. There is neither mother religious teachers who were the nor father, nor beings born without the contemporaries of the Omniscient Buddha. instrumentality of parents (nor beings that ‘Pūraṇakassapa’s view is akiriya-diṭṭhi (the would come into existence after death). There view of the inefficacy of action), and Ajita really do not exist in this world samaṇas and Kesakambala’s view is natthika-diṭṭhi brāhmaṇas who have followed the Dhamma- (nihilism). The following are the brief path and possess tranquillity of mind, and expositions of their views: having themselves seen through ‘Higher Spiritual Power’, this very world and the other Pūraṇakassapa’s view: “To him who acts, worlds, expound their knowledge thereof to or causes another to act, to him who cuts and others. This being is nothing but the causes another to cut, to him who torments and combination of the Four Great Essentials. On causes another to torment, to him who harasses the dissolution of the body after death, the another or causes me to harass another, to him Element of Extension will go to the earth- who frightens another or causes one to frighten group; the Element of Cohesion will go to the another, to him who kills a living creature, water-group; the Element of Kinetic Energy who takes what is not given, who breaks into will go to the fire-group; the Element of houses, who commits dacoity, or robbery, Motion will go to the wind-group; and the highway robbery or adultery, or who tells lies, Faculties move up to the sky. Four carriers to him there is no evil action. If with a wheel (with the bier as the fifth) carry the corpse; the fitted with razor blades he should make all remains are seen up to the cemetery; the bones living creatures on earth one heap, one pile of become pigeon-coloured; and his offerings end flesh, there would be no evil action thence in ashes. Almsgiving has been prescribed by resulting, no increase of evil action. Were he to fools. Their words are empty, false and idle. go along the south bank of the Ganges killing Both the foolish and the wise, on the and causing to kill men, cutting and causing to dissolution of the body after death are cut men into pieces, oppressing and causing to annihilated and destroyed; and nothing comes oppress men, there would be no evil action again into being.”1 thence resulting, no increase of unwholesome deed would ensue. Were he to go along the Dialectical materialists reject religion on north bank of the Ganges giving alms, causing the ground that it is detrimental to the interests to give alms, sacrifices, and causing to of the class struggle of the proletariat. The offer sacrifices, there would be no thence materialist outlook means that matter, external resulting, no increase of merit. In liberality, in reality, is regarded as primary, and mind as control of the senses, in abstinence from evil secondary, as something that develops on the deeds, in speaking the truth there is neither basis of matter. It follows from this that man’s merit nor increase of it. physical existence, and therefore the ways in which it is preserved, come before the ideas Ajita Kesakambala’s view: “There really which man forms of his own life and methods does not exist almsgiving. There really does of living. In other words, practice comes not exist offering on a big scale. There really before theory. Man got himself a living long does not exist offering on a small scale. There before he began to have ideas about it. But also really do not exist wholesome and 7 the ideas, when he developed them, were Communist League as follows:— “Is there associated with his practice; that is to say, such a thing as Communist ethic? Is there such theory and practice ran together. And this was a thing as Communist morality? Of course so not in the early stages, but at all stages. The there is. It is often made to appear that we have practical ways in which men get their living no ethic of our own; and very often the are the basis of their ideas. Their political ideas bourgeoisie accuse us Communists of rise from the same root; their political repudiating all ethics. This is a method of institutions are formed in the practice of throwing dust into the eyes of the workers and preserving the system of production, and not at peasants. all on the basis of any abstract principles. The “In what sense do we repudiate ethics and institutions and ideas of each age are a morality? reflection of the practice in that age. They do not have an independent existence and history, “In the sense that it is preached by the developing, so to speak, from idea to idea, but bourgeoisie, who derived ethics from God’s they develop when the material mode of commandments. Or instead of deriving ethics production changes. A new custom takes the from the commandments of God, they derived place of the old custom, and gives rise to new them from idealist or semi-idealist phrases, ideas. which always amounted to something very similar to God’s commandments. We repudiate In the Anti-Duhring Engels stated: “We all morality derived from non-human and non- therefore reject every attempt to impose on us class concepts. We say that it is deception, a any oral dogma whatsoever as an eternal fraud in the interests of landlords and ultimate and for ever immutable moral law on capitalists. We say that our morality is entirely the pretext that the moral world too has its subordinated to the interests of the class permanent principles which transcend history struggle of the proletariat. The class struggle is and the differences between nations. We still continuing. We subordinate our maintain on the contrary that all former moral Communist morality to this task. We say: theories are the product, in the last analysis, of morality is what serves to destroy the old the economic stage which society had reached exploiting society and to unite all the toilers at that particular epoch. And as society has around the proletariat, which is creating a new hitherto moved in class antagonisms, morality Communist society. We do not believe in an was always a class morality; it has neither eternal morality. justified the domination and the interests of the ruling class, or, as soon as the oppressed class “The Marxist ethic is strictly materialistic has become powerful enough, it has and naturalistic. Man is the product of Nature represented the revolt against this domination and is bound by Nature’s laws and it is in and the future interests of the oppressed. That accordance with these laws and not with in this process there has on the whole been dreams and ideals, that society develops. The progress in morality, as in all other branches of basis of the Marxist ethic is thus ‘the concrete human knowledge, cannot be doubted. But we human situation’ in which the conditions of have not yet passed beyond class morality. A productions are the determining factors. really human morality which transcends class Hence, the Marxist ethic is simply the antagonisms and their legacies in thought expression of the desire of the workers.” 2 becomes possible only at a stage of society It is, therefore, evident that the Communists which has not only overcome class reject dāna (liberality), sīla (precepts), contradictions but has even forgotten them in bhāvanā (mental contemplation), and they also practical life.” do not believe in kamma and its resultant- On October 2nd., 1929, Lenin addressed to effect. In accordance with their own ideology the 2nd. Congress of the Russian Young they are exercising the policy of “Might is 8 right” and are prone to kill people and rob Nāma signifies mental factors and Rūpa stands them of their properties, or perform any kind for material phenomena. Actually the whole of heinous acts, whenever chance permits and organism is only an aggregate of Four Great opportunity prevails. Essentials (mahābhūta), namely, the element of Extension, the element of Cohesion and Recently, a book has been published in Liquidity, the element of Kinetic Energy and Burmese under the title of “Lu-thay-lu-phyit” the element of Motion, and these attributes or (Man will be reborn as man only). The author qualities are shared in varying combinations by expressed his materialist views according to all material substances both organic and his own idiosyncrasy and totally shared the inorganic. The psychic division consists of wrong views maintained by Ajita Vedanā (Sensation), Saññā (Perception), Kesakambala— “natthi paro loko, natthi mātā, Saṅkhārā (Kamma-formations) and Viññāṇa natthi pitā, natthi sattā opapātikā, natthi loke (Consciousness). These constituent groups samaṇabrāhmaṇā samaggatā, sammā (Khandhās) are governed by the law of cause paṭipannā, ye imañca lokaṃ parañca lokaṃ and effect which takes its pattern from the sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedenti. impulse of volitional action (cetanā) or xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Kamma. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx (There really do not exist the other worlds or Science has given us the means by which planes. There is neither mother nor father, nor we may master the forces of nature for our beings born without the instrumentality of material gain; but it has utterly failed to parents. There really do not exist in this world contribute anything in the field of mentality or samaṇas and brāhmaṇas who have followed morality. Science has no heart. It has no the Dhamma-path and possess tranquillity of respect for any morality whatever; but the mind, and having themselves seen through misery of life from which all sentient beings ‘Higher Spiritual Powers’, this very world and must suffer compels us to make it our duty to the other worlds, expound their knowledge to seek our salvation from suffering. And the others. This being is nothing but the only way that leads to complete deliverance combination of the Four Great Essentials. On from Suffering and is to attain the the dissolution of the body after death, the highest Wisdom and Insight into the true fact Element of Extension will go to the earth- of life. Without morality, science will drag us group; the Element of Cohesion will go to the back into the abyss of the dark ages, and, far water-group; the Element of Kinetic Energy from being an evolution of mankind towards will go to the fire-group; the Element of higher spiritual realms, it may well mean the Motion will go to the wind-group; and the regression of mankind to the lowest realm of Faculties move up to the sky. Four carriers existence, lower even than the state of animal (with the bier as the fifth) carry the corpse; the life. Therein lies the deadly danger of science. remains are seen up to the cemetery; the bones In his “The Limitations of Science”, J.W.N. become pigeon-coloured; and his offerings end Sullivan writes: “Nevertheless, although they in ashes. Almsgiving has been prescribed by adopt very different routes both Eddington and fools. Their words are empty, false and idle. Jeans arrive at very much the same conclusion, Both the foolish and the wise, on the namely, that the ultimate nature of the universe dissolution of the body after death are is mental. We have seen that Jeans has been annihilated and destroyed; and nothing comes led to his conclusion by the impossibility of again into being.) It is purely natthika conceiving anything save pure thought to micchādiṭṭhi (nihilism). which modern mathematical description of the According to the Buddha’s teaching a universe could apply. Eddington reaches his living being, of whatever order, is considered conclusion by reflecting that the only direct under two main heads “Nāma” and “Rūpa”. knowledge we possess is knowledge of mental 9 states. All other knowledge, such as our way that they may be able to maintain right knowledge of the material universe, is inferred views by virtue of which they will be reborn in knowledge often the product of a long and the Happy Course of Existence. complicated chain of inference. Bound For Hell: This it does by showing that science deals As regards the Burma Communists, most of with but a partial aspect of reality, and that them were formerly Buddhists who took there is no faintest reason for supposing that in the Triple Gem and who believed in everything science ignores is less real than kamma and its resultant-effect. But, since they what it accepts.” accepted the Marxist ethic, they have become It is common knowledge that “science is a micchādiṭṭhis (holders of wrong views). From study of things, a study of what is and that the Buddhist point of view they are much to be religion is a study of ideals, a study of what pitied, because, as the holders of wrong views should be.” Sir J. Arthur Thomson maintains they are sure to be reborn in the Lower that science is incomplete because it cannot Worlds. answer the question ‘why’. Man needs more In the Paṭisainbhidā-magga, Mahā-vagga, than material gain; he needs spiritual guidance Diṭṭhikathā, Assādadiṭṭhi-niddesa (Sixth Synod and the Buddha was one of the greatest Edition) page 134, it is stated: “Those who Spiritual Teachers of Mankind. maintain wrong views will on their death be Telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, reborn either in the Animal World or Hell.” psycho kinesis (mind over matter)—all these The Dhammapada says: have now been acknowledged by the scientists to belong to the class of E.S.P. (extrasensory- “Those beings who feel shame in which perception). But the Omniscient Buddha has they should not ,and do not feel shame in taught us all these things more than 2500 years which they should, holding wrong views, go to ago. hell.” 5 An Enemy Of Religion: Those beings who see fear in which there is no fear, and see no fear in which there is fear, Lenin wrote, “The Marxist must be a holding wrong views go to hell. 6 materialist, that is, an enemy of religion. Religion is the opium of the people.”3 Those beings who think it to be faulty which is free from fault and see no fault in It is, therefore, highly expedient for all what is faulty, holding wrong views go to concerned including Buddhists to avert the hell.7 danger now befalling on their respective religions or religious beliefs. Those beings who know a fault as fault and what is free from fault as free from fault, “Na hi verena verāni holding right views go to heaven. 8 Sammantīdha kudācanaṃ, Those who maintain wrong views were averena ca sammanti, described by ancient writers on Buddhism as 4 esa dharnrno sanantano .” vaṭṭa-khāṇuka (stump of the cycle of (Hatred never ceases by hatred in this Suffering) or saṃsāsa-khāṇuka (stump of the world. Through loving-kindness it comes to an round of rebirths), because once they suffer in end. This is an ancient Law.) hell they would have the rarest opportunity to be reborn in the world of men. Although the We, as Buddhists, should have mettā number of Communists in this country is (loving-kindness) and karuṇā (compassion) for negligible, it is to be feared that a small spark all these Communists and help them in such a may make a great fire. It is therefore time for 10 us to nip them in the bud so that their wrong 2. Be courteous to them. views and ideologies may not spread all over 3. Help them. the country. 4. Treat them as equals. Duties Of Parents, Relatives, Friends and 5. Do not keep any secret from them. Teachers: The duties of friends and companions “The duties of parents towards their son towards a man are as follows:— are: 1. Protect him when he is off his guard. 1. Restrain him from vice. 2. Protect his property. 2. Encourage him to do right and virtuous 3. In danger protect him. deeds. 4. Do not forsake him in his troubles. 3. Give him a good education. 5. Show consideration for his family.” 4. Provide him with a young and suitable Relatives and friends of the holders of wife. wrong views should persuade them to visit 5. Hand over to him the share of the family monks and good and virtuous men, hear the 9 wealth.” discourses delivered by them and to observe According to the above Declaration, it is the . They should explain to them incumbent on the parents to see that their that their parents are Buddhists and that they children get good education and that they do should discard the wrong views so that they not perform evil deeds. They should encourage may be reborn in the Happy Course of them to study Buddhist literature, attend Existence. religious classes and visit monks occasionally. “The duties of teachers towards their pupils They should train their children in such a way are: that they do not adhere to wrong views and false ideologies, so that on their death they 1. Train them in the way they have been may be reborn in the Happy Course of well trained. Existence. Then only it can be said that the 2. Make them hold fast what is good for parents have fulfilled their duties towards their them. children. 3. Instruct them in the lore of every art. Dānañca dhamma cariyā ca, 4. Speak well of them among their friends ñātakānañ ca saṅgaho, and companions. anavajjāni kammāni, 5. Provide for their safety in every quarter.” 10 etaṃ maiṅgalamuttamaṃ. The duties of the teachers are to mould the Maṅgala Sutta. character of their pupils. They should give (Practising charity, living in righteousness; religious instructions to their pupils and Supporting one’s relatives explain to them the disadvantages of wrong And doing blameless deeds— doing and the advantages of good actions. They should teach them such things as the Five This is the greatest act of blessing.) Precepts, Maṅgala Sutta, Siṅgālovāda Sutta Again, in the Siṅgālovāda Sutta, the and such other things that will help to build up Buddha declared: their character. They should teach them not to “The duties of men towards their friends associate with the fools and to associate with and companions are: the wise. 1. Be generous to them. “The duties of a monk towards laymen are: 11 1. Restrain them from evil. With regard to the report of the Second 2. Exhort them to do good. Enquiry Committee, we are given to understand that a book on Buddhism suitable 3. Always wish them well with loving- for the students studying in the Middle and kindness. High Schools has been prepared and that the 4. Preach to them the Dhamma. same has been prescribed as a text-book by the 5. Correct and purify them. Show and Education Department. But the scheme has not explain to them the Right Path.”10 been implemented as yet, and Union Buddha There are over 60,000 monks in the country Sāsana Council has also requested the and if each monk undertakes to train one Government to take suitable measures in this micchādiṭṭhi, over 60,000 holders of wrong respect. views might be converted into the holders of In the Universities: right views. They should teach them the Five Precepts and explain to them the disadvantages It is agreeable hearing that the Chancellor of violating the Five Precepts and also of the University of Rangoon appointed a advantages of observing them. They should Committee to enquire into he teaching of teach them the fundamentals of Buddhism and Buddhism in the University, and that the give them religious discourses. They should University authorities have accepted the report teach them kamma and its resultant-effect, the made by that Enquiry Committee. Now, we Five Constituent Groups of Existence, the six have seen that Buddhism is taught in the Bases, the eighteen psycho-physical elements Rangoon and Mandalay University Colleges as and the . They should also optional subjects. Students in the Intermediate preach to them such Suttas as Brahma-jāla Colleges at Bassein, Moulmein, Sandoway, Sutta, Sāmaññaphala Sutta, etc. and teach and Magwe will also have the opportunity to them anicca, dukkha and anattā, the three take Buddhism as an optional subject. At a characteristics of beings. If each of the time when the Buddha-Dhamma has been undertakes to propagate the Buddha attacked by the materialists, it is ardently Dhamma to the people in his neighbourhood, it hoped that the University authorities will make is to be hoped that the danger to the Dhamma Buddhism a compulsory subject, and that the will be averted soon. number of University students taking this subject will increase gradually. Function of the Government: Conclusion: With a view to avert the danger to the Dhamma, the Government appointed two We sincerely believe that if parents, Enquiry Committees, namely, (1) The National relatives, friends and teachers of the holders of Education in Buddhist Monasteries Enquiry wrong views, the Bhikkhus of the country and Committee and (2) The Teaching of Buddhist the Government work in full co-operation, the Literature in the School Enquiry Committee. present danger to the Dhamma will be soon The reports of both the Enquiry Committees averted. have come out. In pursuance of the report of the first 1 Sāmaññaphala Sutta published by the Enquiry Committee, many primary schools Union Buddha Sāsana Council. have been opened in monasteries; but many more are needed in the districts. It is hoped 2 “The Theory and Practice of that they will be opened in the near future in Communism” by R.N. Carew Hunt, pp. 78-79. consultation with the presiding monks of the 3 Lenin on Religion. monasteries. 4 Dhammapada, 5. 12 5 Dhammapada, verse 316. 9 Suttanta Piṭaka, Pāthika-vagga, Siṅgālovāda Sutta, p. 146, 6th Synod Edition. 6 Dhammapada, verse 317. 10 Suttanta Piṭaka, Pāthika-vagga, 7 Dhammapada, verse 318. Siṅgā1ovāda Sutta, p. 146, 6th Synod Edition. 8 Dhammapada, verse 319.

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13 BUDDHISM VERSUS MATERIALISM (By Myanaung U Tin) Nowadays one hears so much about embodiment of a partial truth. Between the two materialism. This word ‘materialism’ is there follows a conflict, out of which at length bandied about everywhere, in all parts of the a new and higher idea, embodying new and world. What does it mean? It means the still partial truth, emerges—to generate in its opinion or belief that nothing exists but matter turn a new opposite and a new conflict. This and its movements and modifications, also, struggle of ideas is fought out again in the that consciousness and will are wholly due to dialectical form of thesis, antithesis and material agency. Materialism, in short, asserts synthesis; and each synthesis becomes, in the the supremacy of matter over mind, or even as moment of its victory, a thesis in terms of denying the existence of mind, save as a which a fresh struggle is to be fought. This derivative quality of matter. Materialism is process must go on until finally the goal is opposed to Idealism. reached in that complete and insuperable thesis which embodies in itself the whole truth and “According to the Idealists, ideas and not nothing but the truth.” 3 things are the ultimate substance of things. The world we seem to know, the world of fact and Marx denied the Hegelian-Platonic notion event, is but a shadowing of a more real world of the primacy of ‘ideas’ and asserted the of pure idea. The thing is nothing, save as a primacy of things over ideas about them. pale and unsubstantial reflection of the idea. “According to Marx, the Hegelian dialectic Mind not merely shapes matter to its will, but is the right method of apprehending reality; but makes it out of nothing save itself. Real things as Feuerbach has already shown, it needs to be or rather the appearances that masquerade as applied directly to the world of things, and real things, owe such half-reality as is used directly as a clue to the interpretation of conceded to them solely to being emanations ordinary human experience. Marx took over, of mind or spirit. Consciousness, which is the and applied directly to the world of human attribute of mind, is therefore regarded as prior affairs, all the Hegelian paraphernalia of to existence in space and time, which is the conflict—of theses, antitheses and syntheses attribute of things. There are no things: they succeeding one another in a ceaseless ascent of are only thoughts thinking them.” 1 mankind towards more developed forms of Karl Marx denounces ‘Crude materialism,’ social and economic organisation.” 4 Marx’s which dismisses mind out of the universe. conception of materialism, therefore, comes to According to Marx, “the things we see and feel be defined as Dialectical Materialism as and experience directly with our minds and against ‘crude materialism.’ senses are real, but they are not static, they are “The Primacy of Matter and the Reality of constantly changing, becoming, waxing and Change are the basic ideas of Communism, but waning, passing into something other than they were not originated by Communist themselves, but their mutations are their own, theorists such as Marx and Engels. They and not reflections of anything external to borrowed them and wove them into a whole, themselves.” 2 thus forming the basis for a new conception of Hegel was an idealist. “In Hegel’s universe, the world. Although stressing the idea of the the evolution of the Idea is accomplished Reality of the Change, Marx and especially dialectically by a ceaseless succession of Engels, stated that the laws of the material ideological conflicts. Every idea that embodies world were unchangeable and independent of a partial truth meets in the world its opposite human beings.” 5 and ‘contradiction’ which is also the 14 There is a strong temptation to discuss here undifferentiated as the material atom of Marx’s “Materialist Conception of History” modern physics. Like the physical atom, a with its class struggles in every age. It must moment of consciousness is a correlational however be resisted. Suffice it to say that, system of its factors, functions, energies or whether materialism is ‘crude’ or ‘dialectical,’ aspects, or what other name we may give to its object is acquisition of material gains with the ‘components’ of that hypothetical psychic no thought whatsoever for the after-life. unit. These ‘components’ are called simply dhammā, ‘states.’” 8 In the Dhammapada 6, the first two verses of Yamaka-vagga run as follows: The foregoing passages are enough to show up the fundamental differences between “Mind foreruns (all evil) conditions, Buddhism and Marxism or Dialectical mind is chief, mind-made are they; if Materialism or Communism, and to say that one speaks or acts with wicked mind, they are not irreconcilable is rather naive, and because of that, pain pursues him, misleading. even as the wheel follows the hoofs of the drought-ox. Nothing is new under the sky. This is a materialistic age; so had there been such “Mind foreruns (all good) conditions, definite periods of materialism in history. mind is chief, mind-made are they; if Materialism was preached in India by some of one speaks or acts with pure mind, the contemporaries of the Buddha; in the pre- because of that, happiness follows him Socratic and the post-Aristotelian Greece; in even as the shadow that never leaves. the 18th Century France; and in the 19th Again, the Buddha said concisely but most Century Germany (1850-80). But at no time in explicitly, “Cittena niyate loko” which means history has it been so organised and that the universe with all its animate and widespread as in these days. inanimate things is the resultant of the mental In the Sāmaññaphala Sutta, forces of all living beings. Part 1 9, King Ajātasattu of Magadha made a To the Buddhists the primary question mention to the Buddha of six doctrines, the however is not of mind versus matter. teachers of which he had met. The best known Existence does not consist of a primary of the six is Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, known to the substance, whether material or spiritual but of Jains as Mahāvira. The Jains known to a number of elements, dhammā. The Buddhists as Nigaṇṭhas, are mentioned classification of these and the problems of their frequently in the Scriptures, and one of their inter-relations form the primary question. chief doctrines, kiriyavāda, the doctrine of action is fairly discussed. The rest stand “In striving for Clear Insight, that is, for a merely as the representatives of certain “vision of things as they really are,” analysis doctrines, Pūraṇa Kassapa of the denial of comes methodically first. It is the first task to moral action, Ajita of materialism and a denial remove, by analysis, the basis for all the of survival of the individual (annihilation), and numerous false notions of substantial unities, Pakudha of another kind of denial of moral be it the unquestioned conviction of the action, Makkhali Gosāla of fatalism and a average man to be an identical Ego, be it the denial of moral responsibility for actions. theological belief in an individual soul, or the Sañjaya is a mere caricature of shallow various concepts of materialistic or idealistic 7 irresolution, because he refused to make a systems.” positive or negative statement on any of the “The analysis shows the smallest accessible points raised by the king. psychic unit, a moment of consciousness, is as little indivisible (a-tomos), uniform and Of the views of these six teachers, two may be singled out for treatment with some 15 emphasis: Ajita’s materialism, and the denial lamentation, pain, sorrow, and despair arise out of moral action by three of them. According to of their inconsistency and change.” The bliss Ajita, “a man consists of the four elements, of the four jhānas is considerable, but it is and when he dies and is cremated the elements certainly, to the Buddha and his followers, not return to their places. Both fools and sages Nibbāna. with the dissolution of the body are cut off and The goal of the Buddhists is the Nibbāna destroyed, and after death they are not.” This whereas the goal of the materialists is the is, to the Buddhists, the doctrine of acquisition and enjoyment of material gains. ucchedavāda. “cutting off,” annihilation. It is Granted that certain of Marx’s doctrines and interesting to note that the materialists of today methods of social analysis throw some “clear hold a similar view that a man is produced by a light by which to seek an understanding both mother and father and his life ends with his of certain key factors in the development of death. Such a view prevails among all the human societies and of fundamental economic materialists, be they dialectical or otherwise. and political problems of today,” 11 Marx’s The materialists say, “The end justifies the dialectical materialism, not to speak of other means” and from this dictum can be adduced types of materialism, fails to take account of that they deny moral action, or disclaim any the fact that complete happiness is not moral responsibility for their actions. achievable, in the visible world of living beings. It is not in the satisfaction of wants or The Brahmajāla Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya, Part needs, but in the removal of the cause of 1) 10 contains the fullest account of theories suffering associated with the world of desires, supposed to have been held by other schools. that real happiness can be found. Material The views fall into two classes, speculations needs there are, of course, but in acquiring about the past and about the future: (A) There them the means are as important as the end. are those who hold views about the beginnings The enjoyment of bad or immoral means will of things in eighteen ways. (B) There are those defeat the end, for the problems will, instead of who hold views about the future in forty-four coming to any final solutions, multiply, as are ways. Of these sixty-two views only two types being witnessed all over the world in this may be dealt with here—(l) There are those materialistic age. who hold in seven ways the annihilation of the individual. This is the annihilation doctrine of In every period of history, there had been Ajita (as also of the modem materialists) but it struggles between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots.’ is elaborated by starting that extinction may between the privileged and the proscribed. On take place (i) with the death of the body account of greed, ill-will and ignorance, according to the materialistic view, or (ii) with wrongs are perpetrated by the strong upon the the death of a “divine self” in the world of weak, by the rich upon the poor, by the sense, or (iii) in the world of form, or (iv to vii) powerful upon the powerless, but a wrong in one of the stages of the formless world. (2) cannot be righted by a wrong, for two wrongs There are those who hold that consists do not make one right. Hence, the struggles for in the enjoyment of this life in five ways, power and material gains go on forever, one either in the pleasures of sense or in one of the leading to the other. Because of these recurring four jhānas or trances. The Buddha, in the very struggles, “Loka Nibbāna” or paradise on first sermon, teaches that ‘being addicted to earth, which the materialists look forward to sensual pleasures’ is one of the two extremes with great hope, zeal and enthusiasm, is still to be avoided by the monk or by one who Utopian. What the Buddhists aspire to reach is seeks Nibbāna. As pointed out by those who not “Loka Nibbāna,” although it is admittedly believe in the bliss of the first jhāna, “sensual a pleasant dream, but to realise supramundane, delights are transitory; they involve pain, their lokuttara-Nibbāna, which alone is genuine very nature is to fluctuate. And grief, peace and bliss. One of the first two conditions 16 required of them is to get rid of the view of amongst mice, and captures one, day by day in annihilation, uccheda-diṭṭhi, which is a most treacherous way. inextricably bound up with the doctrines of the Materialists are obsessed with material materialists. gains, and in their struggles for things dear to A question may be posed whether them they have brought human civilization to materialism prevails only among peoples the brink of total destruction. Two World Wars where Marxism or Communism hold sway and have come in our life-time, and it appears that not in Capitalist countries. In fact, there was the third is not far off; materialism at all times and in all climes. In In the Kalaha-vivāda Sutta, Of respect of this age, it is clear that materialism Contentions, (Sutta Nipāta, Chapter IV, II) 12, is much more in evidence in the Communist the Buddha teaches: countries than elsewhere. Nevertheless, as Prince Bernard of Netherlands said at the “From dear things rise contentions and Congress of World Faiths held recently in disputes, U.S.A., “if materialism enters the Communist Grief with laments and envy in their trains countries by the front door, it slips into the Pride and conceit with slander’s tongue in non-Communist countries by the back-door— wake: through the windows and down the chimney too, it may be added.” Contentions and disputes are envy-linked, And slander’s tongues are born amid As a matter of fact, it must be recognised disputes.” that Marxism was begotten of Industrial Revolution and Capitalism, and the “Desire’s the source of dear things in the Communist and Socialist movements are world nothing more nor less than reactions to the And all the greed that in the world feudal and capitalist exploitations just as the prevails: nationalist movements are counter-blows to the From that is hoping’s and fulfilment’s imperial aggressions. source, Lenin wrote, “The Marxist must be a Which bring man to the common lot materialist, that is, an enemy of religion. beyond.” Religion is the opium of the people.” Whatever “‘Tis pleasant,’ tis unpleasant!’ says the may be said of the Marxists and Communists, world; they can hardly be accused of hypocrisy. They From trust in such there riseth up desire: are the avowed materialists. What is remarkable is that materialism exists, often Man sees in forms becoming and decay with equal intensity, among the people who And shapes his theories about the world.” give lip-service to religion, or among the “Anger and falsehood and perplexity, people who ‘officially’ profess a religion, a These things prevail when those twin World Faith at that, but fail miserably in the states exist. practical application in their daily lives of the religious principles their Masters or Prophets Let doubter in the path of knowledge have taught them. A bitter pill can be sugar- train! coated but is none the less injurious, if it These things by the recluse are taught— contains harmful ingredients. These pseudo- he knows.” religionists are equally dangerous, if not more, This is exactly what is happening in the to society. They may be likened to a cat that world. Desire is the source of all the troubles professes to be pious and to observe the and sufferings. Get rid of it or, at least suppress precept of refraining from killing while living 17 it. That is the way to peace and bliss, here and 1, 2, 3, 4 These quotations are from hereafter. “The Meaning of Marxism” by G.D.H. Cole. This short but objective exposition of 5 “The New Class,” An analysis of the Buddhism vis-à-vis materialism will testify Communist System by Milovan Djilas. how necessary it is on the part of our religious 6 English Translation by leaders and mentors—monks and laymen Nārada of Ceylon. Khuddaka-Nikāya alike—to know the basic features of the Dammapadaṭṭhakathā. 1. Yamaka-vagga, modern creeds so that they can successfully Cakkhupālatheravatthu, verse no. 1, P. 2 and guide their followers and pupils along the Maṭṭhakunḍhalīvatthu, verse no. 2, P. 23 of 6th Right Path. Synod Edition. Materialism may be compared to a banyan 7, 8 Abhidhamma Studies’~ by Bhikkhu tree which gradually swallows up a : Nyanaponika. creeping up stealthily at first, closing in and gripping at later stages, and finally lording 9 Discussion of Sāmaññaphala and over it, brings about its extinction. Brahmajāla Suttas in “The History of Buddhist Thought” by Edward J. Thomas. With the inroads of materialism, both of Capitalist and Communist brands, the 10 Brahmajāla Sutta and Sāmaññaphala traditional and proper regard for the Buddhist Sutta translated by the English Editorial way of life has been declining, and if the youth Department, Union Buddha Sāsana Council, in whose hands lies the future destiny of their Burma. country or world are getting away from it, they 11 “The Meaning of Marxism,” by are not solely to blame. In fact, their teachers G.D.H. Cole. and mentors, as also their parents and teachers, must be prepared to make an honest claim to a 12 E. M. Hare’s translation of Sutta share, a lion’s share perhaps, if they fail in Nipāta, “Woven Cadences of Early their bounden duty to train them in the path of Buddhists”—The Sacred Books of The knowledge, that is, the Middle Path between Buddhists Vol. XV. the Annihilation-belief and the Eternity-belief.

THE BUDDHIST SOCIETY 58, Eccleston Square, LONDON, S. W. 1. The oldest and largest Buddhist movement in the West. It is sincerely hoped that Buddhists all over the world will support it generously. Membership of Society £1 or K 15. This includes subscription to its Quarterly Journal THE . Hon. Secretary for Burma: U KYAW HLA, Civil Lines, Mandalay

18 BUDDHISM AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION By K.N. Jayatilleke, M.A. (Cantab.) It is an historical fact that the scientific Of course there are those who still cling to revolution which took its rise in the the dogmas in the face of science or believe in seventeenth century in the west was largely them in a non-literal sense. But the position responsible for upsetting the earlier religious remains very much the same although people conception of the universe. Not only did are no longer optimistic (after two world wars science controvert the specific dogmas of and in the throes of a third) about the ability of Western religion, but it seemed to have science to usher in a brave new world of peace undermined the foundations as well as the and plenty. It has also been granted that fundamental concepts implicit in the religious mechanistic explanations of the universe need outlook on things. not necessarily rule out teleological ones. Science too has given up the crude materialism The new cosmology of Copernicus, of the eighteenth century and scientists no Galileo, and their successors altered the longer attempt to explain the universe in geocentric picture of the universe although it machine models, while some scientists have was pronounced to be “contrary to the Holy denied that strict determinism holds in the Scriptures.” The new biology (the theory of sphere of the atom. But all this is still a far cry evolution) upset the doctrines of the special from religion. creations and the fall of man. And the new psychology seemed to show that man’s mind What place would Buddhism occupy in like his physical body worked on a pattern of such a context? Are its dogmas and attitudes causal law and that however deep one plumbed no better or no worse than those of other into its depths there was not discoverable in it religions? Some Western writers on religion an unchanging soul which governed its seem to have assumed that this was so, but if activities entirely. one reads through the , one begins to wonder whether the scientific But much more serious was the effect of the revolution would have at all affected religion scientific outlook on the general religious adversely if it had taken place in the context of attitude which involved a belief in a Personal Early Buddhism. God, in purpose and in the objectivity of moral values. Science made its discoveries and I say this because I find that Early progressed quite comfortably on the Buddhism emphasizes the importance of the assumption of universal causation without the scientific outlook in dealing with the problems necessity for teleological explanations or of morality and religion. Its specific ‘dogmas’ divine intervention. It dealt with an amoral are said to be capable of verification. And its universe indifferent to the aspirations of men. general account of the nature of man and the As among men, moral values like economic universe is one that accords with the findings values were subjective since they were of science rather than being at variance with dependent on the needs and desires of men, them. and an ethical humanism was the best that To take this last point first, we find for could be hoped for. Even such an ethics need instance that the Early Buddhist conception of not be universal for, as anthropologists the cosmos is in essence similar to the modern discovered, different societies seem to have conception of the universe. In the Pāḷi texts followed different moral codes which suited that have come down to us we are literally told them and ethical relativism was the scientific that hundreds and thousands of suns and truth about the nature of moral values. moons, earths, and higher worlds, constitute the minor world system, that a hundred 19 thousand times this is the middling world “You have raised a doubt in a situation in system, and a hundred thousand times the which you ought to suspend your judgment. middling world system is the major world Do not accept anything because it is rumoured system. In modern terminology it would seem so, because it is the traditional belief, because as if a minor world system (cūḷanikā-loka- the majority hold to it, because it is found in dhātu) is a galaxy of which we observe about a the scriptures, because it is the product of hundred million through our best telescopes. metaphysical argument and speculation, or The Buddhist conception of time is equally after a superficial investigation of facts, or immense. because it conforms with one’s inclinations, because it is authoritative or because of the There is, of course, no theory of biological prestige value of your teacher.”1 Critical evolution as such mentioned in the Buddhist investigation and personal verification was to texts, but man and society as well as worlds be the guide to true morality and religion. “If are pictured as changing and evolving in anyone were to speak ill of me, my doctrine accordance with causal laws. and my order”, says the Buddha, “do not bear Then in psychology we find Early any ill-will towards him, be upset or perturbed Buddhism regarding man as a psycho-physical at heart, for if you were to be so it will only unit whose ‘psyche’ is not a changeless soul cause you harm. If on the other hand anyone but a dynamic continuum composed of a were to speak well of me, my doctrine and my conscious mind as well as an unconscious in order, do not be overjoyed, thrilled or elated at which is stored the risidua of emotionally heart, for if so it will only be an obstacle in charged memories going back to childhood as your way of forming a correct judgement as to well as into past lives. Such a mind is said to whether the qualities praised in us are real and be impelled to act under the influence of three actually found in us”2 A scientific outlook was types of desires—the desire for sense- thus considered necessary not only for gratification (kāma-taṇhā), the desire for self- discovering the truly moral and religious life preservation (bhava-taṇhā), and the desire for but even for the continual self-examination destruction (annihilation) (vibhava-taṇhā. which such a life demands. Except for the belief in rebirth, this conception The field of moral and religious phenomena of the mind sounds very modern, and one is, again, not a realm of mystery but one in cannot also fail to observe the parallel between which the law of cause and effect holds. The the threefold desire of Buddhism and the principle of causal determination, namely, that Freudian conceptions of the eros, libido, and A is the cause of B if “whenever an event A thanatos. occurs, an event B occurs, and B does not I have brought out these similarities not occur unless A has occurred” is laid down by with the intention of showing that Buddhism the Buddha in these very terms, and he further teaches modern science but that the scientific states that “he speaks only of causes and of revolution does not have the same adverse things which arise from causes”. Thus all effect on Buddhism as it had on another phenomena, including moral and spiritual religious tradition. experience (with the sole exception of Nibbāna which is not a conditioned phenomenon) are Now let us turn to the content of Buddhism said to be conditioned by causal laws. Such as a theory about the nature and destiny of laws are classified according to their sphere of man. First of all it holds that the honest and operation as physical laws (utuniyāma), impartial search for truth even in matters moral biological law (bījaniyāma), psychological and religious is no bar to one’s spiritual laws (cittaniyāma), and moral and spiritual progress. On more than one occasion the laws (dhammaniyāma). Buddha has admonished honest seekers after the truth in the following words: 20 Now there are three laws which are said to theory of rebirth is offered as one capable of govern the life and destiny of the individual. being verified by developing the faculty of They are the law of continuity which makes seeing our former births, a potentiality which for the persistence of individuality (bhava), the is said to be within the reach of all of us. law of moral retribution (kamma)—whereby Rebirth is therefore not a dogma to be morally good acts tend to result in pleasant accepted on faith but a hypothesis capable of consequences for the individual and morally being scientifically verified. The available evil acts in unpleasant consequences, and evidence for rebirth today is roughly of two finally, the law of causal genesis sorts. There is the spontaneous evidence of (paṭiccasamuppāda) which is intended to numerous people from both East and West explain the above laws. who have claimed to remember their past lives, The law of continuity, popularly known as in some cases of which the memories have rebirth, ensures the persistence of the dynamic been confirmed by further investigation (e.g., unconscious of the individual with the death of The case of Shanti Devi, Illustrated Weekly of the physical body. If this unconscious is not India, December 15, 1935; The case of Nellie attained to higher worlds by the moral and Horster, Milwaukee Sentinel. September 25. spiritual development of the individual, it is 1892). There is also the more reliable and more said generally to persist in the spirit-sphere abundant evidence of psychiatrists and (peta-visaya) as a discarnate spirit, and psychologists who have discovered that under subsequently gets reborn as a human being. hypnotic trance the subjects’ memories can be Critics of Buddhism often suggest that this traced back not only to childhood but to prior theory of rebirth is dogmatically accepted or earth lives as well, in some cases of which the taken for granted in Buddhism, but a careful facts have been verified (e.g. A. de Rochas. study of the texts, would show that this is not Les Vies Successives. Bibliotheque the case. Charcomac, Paris; Ralph Shirley, The Ploblem of Rebirth, Rider & Co., London; Professor Buddhism arose at a time when there was Theodore Flournoy, Des Inde a la plantee intense speculation on the problem of survival. Mars; Professor Charles E. Cory, “A Divided There were also several schools of materialism Self”: Article in journal of Abnormal all of which denied survival altogether and Psychology Vol.XIV, 1919). there were the sceptics who merely doubted the possibility of survival. Even experiments The law of moral retribution or kamma as such as the weighing of the body immediately taught in Buddhism has also been criticised on before and after death were performed in order the grounds that it amounts to fatalism. This to discover any evidence of survival. One of again is due to ignorance of the Buddhist the materialist theories mentioned and teaching. Causation in Buddhism is carefully dismissed by the Buddha was that distinguished by the Buddha on the one hand consciousness was a by-product of the material from Strict Determinism, and on the other elements being mixed up in certain proportions from Indeterminism, The Buddha argues that if to form the organic body “in the same way in everything was determined, then there would which the red colour is produced by suitable be no free will and no moral or spiritual life mixtures of betel, arecanut and lime” (none of would be possible and we would be slaves of which is red). Several such materialist theories the past: and if on the other hand everything as well as a number of one-life-after-death- was indetermined (adhicca-samuppanna) or theories, some of which held that the soul was fortuitous, then again the moral and spiritual conscious after death, others that it was life would not be possible, for the cultivation unconscious (but existing), and yet others that of moral and spiritual values would not result it was super-conscious after death, are in moral and spiritual growth. It is because the examined and disposed of by the Buddha. The world is so constituted that everything is not 21 strictly determined or completely indetermined being that it is a state so radically different that the religious life is possible and desirable, from the type of existent things which we can according to the Buddha. conceive of that no meaningful description or definition of it can be given in conceptual In order to explain rebirth and kamma, terms. It is said that to say that one ‘exists’ in some of the Upanishadic thinkers who Nibbāna is wrong, for existence is a concept accepted these doctrines had recourse to the that applies to phenomenal things and has concept of ātman or a changeless soul. The reference to space and time, for Nibbāna is individual continued to be the same because he “timeless, in that one cannot speak of it as had a permanent soul which was the agent of being in the past, present or future,” is not all the actions of the individual as well as the located in space and is not causally experiencer of their fruits. The Buddha was conditioned unlike all phenomenal things: but quick to see that such metaphysical entities it is said to be equally wrong to say that one explained nothing and that it was meaningless “does not exist” in Nibbāna since this implies to assert or deny an unverifiable entity. He a state of oblivion and annihilation. therefore rejected the concept of soul while Nevertheless both positive as well as negative maintaining the doctrine of the observable descriptions are given though they are not to continuity of the individuality, and explained be taken as exact definitions, as Nibbāna is the above two laws of continuity and moral “beyond the scope of logic.” retribution in terms of all the verifiable phenomenal factors which determine the Negatively it is the absence of all continued genesis and growth of the unhappiness, and all phenomenal existence is individual. This is too elaborate to be set out in said to be infected with unhappiness; we are detail. In brief, it describes how the individual unhappy either because we experience mental is conditioned by his psychological past (going or physical pain and have forebodings for the back to past lives which set the general tone of future, or because the pleasant experiences that his character) and the genetic constitution of we have are insecure and never lasting. This is his body derived from his parents, and to take a realistic view of life even in the face continues to act in and react with his of the fact that as the Buddha says “human environment accumulating the experiences of beings enjoy on the whole more pleasant this life in his evolving consciousness experiences than unpleasant ones,” and (saṃvattanika-viññāna) which continues after therefore it would not be correct to call it the death of the body if the threefold desire in pessimism since it has nothing to do with it be still active. wishful thinking. Positively Nibbāna is described as a state of “supreme felicity” Personal and direct knowledge of the (paramaṃ sukhaṃ). operation of these three laws constitutes the ‘threefold knowledge’ (tissovijjā) which the The way of salvation is described as an Buddha and his disciples claimed to have. The eightfold path in which the first step is that of awareness of the fact that and the way in which right understanding and living in accordance one is being conditioned is said to result in one with the true philosophy of life, and as a result ceasing to be conditioned, a state which having right thoughts, right speech, right corresponds to the attainment of the actions, right mode of living, right effort and unconditioned and supreme felicity of right , culminating in the growth of Nibbāna. This is salvation in Buddhism which religious joy and the spiritual and intuitive is literally salvation from the bondage of finite awareness of right concentration. The full fruit conditioned existence. of right contemplation, however, can be repeated by those giving up the active social Strictly, Nibbāna is said to be beyond life for the contemplative life. This meditative description or conception, the reason given life is characterised by the stages of personal 22 mystical consciousness (rūpa-jhāna) and hundreds of his disciples and is capable of impersonal mystical consciousness (arūpa- being verified by every earnest seeker is put jhāna) culminating in the attainment of forward as the criterion of its truth by the Nibbāna. With the growth of his mind and Buddha. The empirical and pragmatic test of spirit there are said to emerge certain faculties science is for the Buddha the test of true latent in him such as telepathy and religion. The faith that he requires is the trust clairvoyance and the ability to see his past that is required to put to the test a certain lives. These cognitive faculties, as explained philosophy of life by devoting one’s entire earlier, make it possible for the individual to being to living it every moment of one’s life. realise the conditioned state in which he is, and And its worth is to be realised by its fruits thereby to attain the Unconditioned. thereof, by each person for himself. Like the Considering the requirements of the path, the scientists working in other fields, the Buddhas Way to Nibbāna is therefore described as the or the Perfect Ones have merely discovered culmination of a person’s moral development these truths which are there for all time and (sīla), intuitional or spiritual have preached them for the good of the world. development(samādhi) as well as his Each one has to seek and work out his own intellectual or cognitive development (paññā). salvation; no one can save another and the The Buddha was once asked “whether he Perfect Ones do merely point the way. 3 hoped to save one-third of the world, one half It would be seen that such a religion is in of the world or the whole world by offering accord with the temper and the findings of this way of Salvation,” to which he replied that science so that Buddhism is not likely to be at he does not claim to save one-third of variance with science so long as scientists humanity, but that just as a skilful door-keeper confine themselves to their methodology and guarding the only entrance to the palace knows their respective fields without making a dogma that all those who seek the haven of this palace of materialism. must enter by this door, even so all those in the past who were saved, who in the present are being saved and who in the future will be 1 Translation of (Kālama-). The saved, have entered, are entering and all will Light of the Dhamma, Vol. II, No. 3. P. 1. enter by this door. 2 Dīghanikāya, Sīlakkhandhavagga Pāḷi, Such is the Teaching of Early Buddhism Brāhmajāla Sutta. P. 1, 6th. Synod Edition. which is offered as a self-consistent scientific hypothesis touching the matters of religion and 3 Dhammapada Commentary, 20 morality which each person can verify for Maggavagga, 1. Pañcasatabhikkhuvatthu, himself. In fact, not being based on revelation, Verse 276 Pg. 253, Sixth Synod Edition. the fact that it has been verified by him and

“Many a birth have I traversed in this round of lives and deaths, vainly seeking the builder of this house. Sorrowful is repeated birth. O house-builder, you are seen; never again shall you build the house. All your rafters are broken; your ridge-pole is shattered. My mind is gone to dissolution; I have attained the end of craving Dhammapada, verses 153 & 154 . 23 THE WAY TO NIBBĀNA Lecture by the Venerable Aggamahāpaṇḍita U Thittila to the High Court Buddhist Association, Rangoon.

Part One The first stage, the root, is called in Pāḷi as Anusaya. At this stage the defilements such as The title of our talk this afternoon is ‘The craving, anger, etc. are lying latent in each of Way to Nibbāna—the way to the highest us. They do not become manifest up to the happiness.’ level of thoughts, feelings and emotions, yet To sum up all the teachings of the they lie latent in each of us. We can prove it. Buddha, we have a stanza:— The fact that we can be made excited and angry shows that we have certain tendencies To refrain from all evil like anger, hatred— though for ordinary To do what is good, purposes we may be called ‘good’ people. We To purify the mind are good only when other people are good; This is the teaching of all Buddhas. otherwise we can be made angry and —Dhammapada 183.1 emotional. This proves that we have certain tendencies. It is a very short stanza; yet it covers all the teachings of the Buddha. It embodies three If one’s actions are according to the law of stages on the Highway to Highest Happiness— Morality, then that is Right Action. When your Nibbāna. I think most of you know that stanza action not only is harmless but also helpful— in Pāḷi and therefore I need not repeat it. There of great service to you as well as to others then are three stages of developing ourselves you can say your action is right. There are towards this Highest Happiness. The order of many things which we think to be good but development of ourselves in accordance with they are only good to us, good only from our the (Aṭṭha Maggaṅga- own standpoint. Majjjhima Paṭipadā) is classified into three In order to do right your mind must be free groups, namely, Sīla (Morality), Samādhi from selfishness, ill-will, hatred, jealousy, etc. (Concentration) and Paññā (Wisdom). The When your mind is pure you can see and know first two steps of the Noble Eightfold Path, things as they really are. Take for instance, the Right Understanding, i.e., understanding of the case of a pot which is filled with water. It is nature of self, and the nature of the Universe, filled in three stages—the bottom, the middle and Right Thought are grouped under Paññā, and the topmost parts. Anusaya is the first or Wisdom; the next three, Right Speech, Right the root stage where the evil tendencies are Action and Right Livelihood are grouped lying latent. The fact that you can provoke a under Sīla, Morality. Right Effort, Right person into anger clearly shows that there is Mindfulness and Right Concentration are anger or the root of anger lying latent within grouped under Samādhi (Concentration). him. This first stage is very quiet—so quiet You may ask, as it has frequently been that we seem to be sacrosanct. asked—Why three stages?—why not one stage Even at the second stage—Pariyuṭṭhāna, only as a basis? The reason is we have three we are still in the realm of thoughts, feelings. stages of defilements—Kilesas, (impurities) The English saying ‘Silence is Golden’ is not such as Lobha, Dosa and Moha, etc. Each of always right. We may say that mere silence is the 10 Kilesas (defilements) has three stages. sometimes far more dangerous than a big For instance, greed or anger has three stages. noise. 24 Then in the final stage they become fierce, branches of a tree. Putting away of defilements dreadful, uncontrollable—both in words as by means of Samādhi (concentration) is called well as in actions. (Vītikkama). That is the top Vikkhambhana Pahāna. Concentration part of our defilements. So Anusaya, represents a more powerful and a higher Pariyuṭṭhāna and Vītikkama—these are the mental culture. So it is far more effective than three stages of defilements. Sīla. Buddhism teaches a method of how to Coming to the third stage of development, control, how to overcome these evil tendencies Paññā (Wisdom):— lying latent in us. To exercise this control we By means of developing one’s insight, need three stages of training towards Wisdom, one is able to dispel the first stage— development—Sīla, Samādhi, and Paññā— the Anusaya stage. It is like cutting a tree by Morality, Concentration, Insight. the root so that it will never grow again. If First comes Sīla, Morality, the observance defilements are cut by means of Wisdom such of precepts. Only the observance of precepts defilements will never rise again. This is called would enable one to overcome the last stage— Samuccheda Pahāna. the outward, visible stage of defilements and As these three stages are interdependent not the other two stages. It is like cutting a tree and interrelated, Sīla, Samādhi and Paññā by the branches at the top. Morality can only should be practised at the same time and not control your words and actions, not your mind. separately. Only to put them in order in the It can only make us good ladies and gentlemen Dhamma we put down three stages separately in the worldly wise sense and nor make us but in practice we must practise them righteous people. Therefore, don’t you say simultaneously. While trying to practise sometimes when you are in the process of Concentration it is easier for you to live rightly observing the “When I am out and understand things rightly. In the same way, of this observance, you will know what I am”. practice of right understanding or insight It is necessary for us to have three stages and enables one to live rightly and concentrate the first is Morality to dispel the outward or rightly. This applies not only during periods of visible stage of defilements that is in us. meditation but in one’s daily life as well. But as there remain two stages undispelled We should be rational beings. We should by morality, the defilements, that we have got react to surroundings, circumstances and rid of, will grow up again and that very soon. events of daily life reasonably and not Therefore, we need the second stage of instinctively or emotionally. training—Samādhi (Concentration or meditation) in order to enable us to dispel the What we need in this world is to be second stage of defilements left undispelled by rational—to try to exercise our reasoning the practice of Sīla—Morality. Concentration powers but it is rather bad for the world that in is mind-control and mental culture. It is like most cases human beings judge according to cutting a tree by the trunk but as there remains their emotions or instincts. the first or root stage undispelled the “The standard of mental development is defilements will rise up again. But very low because the method of public Concentration can clear away the defilements education is wrong, the method of upbringing for a considerable time so that they will not of the children is also wrong. I can prove how rise again so soon. Clearing away of wrong it is. Even the nursery rhymes taught to defilements by Morality—Sīla is called the infants portrayed stories full of cruelty and Tadaṅga Pahāna in Pāḷi (temporary killings without an atom of Love in them. suppression of defilements). Just like the Again, a group of moralists in the West went temporary cutting away of the topmost round the educational institutions in order to 25 test the psychology of the children studying The second precept—taking what is not there. A child was asked to make a sentence given to you freely. The standard of mental comprising the words ‘Mother’, ‘Baby’ and a development in the present world—even of ‘Cat’. The child answered, ‘The cat scratches adults—seems to be much lower than an the baby and the baby cries. Mummy gets intelligent child of 12. It seems that the modern angry and beats the cat’. The same question man, because of his physical body, cannot be was asked in every school in the whole styled as an animal, but by actions many province and there was only one child who people nowadays behave worse than animals. gave the following answer and was given a The positive aspect of this second precept of prize as it contained some love and affection Pañca-sīla is not only to refrain from stealing that should exist between the different beings but to offer material help. Then we do not need on earth. “The cat plays with the baby. to have a big police force or courts to try Mummy is so pleased with the cat that she criminal cases or a Bureau of Special gives some milk to the cat to drink”. Investigation. I myself witnessed a woman who bought a Then comes ‘sexual misconduct.’ cane from a seller and gave it to her little boy Then the next precept ‘Musāvāda’—to to play. The boy instead beat her with it. Many abstain from telling lies is very difficult to parents do not train their children to be good, observe. Not to tell lies is the negative aspect. tame and docile, but encourage them to be The positive aspect is not only to tell the truth cruel, quarrelsome and aggressive by giving but to use such words as are soothing, kindly them toy revolvers, toy swords and air rifles. and comforting to the people who hear them. So the method of training the children in the As for telling lies, if the majority of our race present, scientific world is very wrong. In do not tell lies, even these law courts might not cinemas the most pictures shown are all be necessary. wrong—they encourage shooting and the telling of lies. As for the last of the five precepts—not to take intoxicating liquors and drugs—this has What then is the Buddha’s method? First, almost become an everyday habit taken at Morality. These rules of Morality are firstly every meal in the civilized society. explained in the Pañca-sīla: Not, to kill, not to steal, not to have sexual misconduct, not to tell Really no drinking of any liquor is lies and not to take any intoxicating liquors necessary to keep one healthy mentally, and drugs. In Burma most people think that it morally and spiritually. Once in England my is all well if you observe these five precepts audience argued that since I have not taken any only negatively. To merely abstain from killing liquor in my life, since I am complete is not good enough; so we should emphasize teetotaller, I cannot know the benefits derived the positive aspect of the principle of non- from drinking. Drinking makes you lose killing—to have compassion on all beings control of your mind at least temporarily and including animals. those who drink to excess can be said to become quite mad. Taking liquor is against the In the Discourse on Mettā we said Adosa to law of nature and also the precept laid down by be negative aspect of it, but having Adosa is the Buddha. Drink causes distraction, dullness not all. In the practice of Mettā you have pity, of mind. When done to excess you can become compassion and loving-kindness towards all a stark lunatic. According to Buddhism, drink beings in the whole universe. So also, in the is the cause of all misery, all troubles. By case of practising the Five Precepts. Non- taking drinks you become emotional and it is killing is understood by many as not taking easy for any drunkard to tell lies or to commit life, but this term ‘not to kill’ is broad enough murder, etc. to include all the kind and loving acts. 26 To conclude, I would like to ask the Paññā (wisdom). We dealt with the first stage audience and the as well as the at the last lecture. This time I am going to deal Upāsakas and Upāsakas to emphasize the briefly with concentration (Samādhi) which is positive aspects of these five precepts, the meditation and also wisdom. These are rather Pañca-Sīla. I would like to mention also that serious, because when we come to practise the Buddha’s way of life is a system of concentration, we usually find that it is a dull cultivating ourselves—our higher process. Meditation is not to be talked about, consciousness. It is a way of a good, righteous but to do, to practise. You are not willing to do and happy life. The Buddha says that when a things normally. To talk about things is very good act is performed for several times there is easy. To organize things is very easy. Some a definite tendency to repeat this act. So in people think it needs a genius to organize; but time it becomes a habit. Men are creatures of to do is far more difficult than even to habit. By habit they become slaves of drink, organize. slaves of gambling, slaves of lust and scores of This afternoon I am going to read from the other vices. Also I would like to quote a book that I have written on the subject of Japanese proverb “Man takes drink first, then concentration and how to go about meditation. the drink takes a drink and finally drink takes the man.” CONCENTRATION (SAMĀDHI) Any physical action, if repeated for The spiritual man, having been equipped sometime becomes a habit. In the same way, with Morality and mastery of the senses, is any thought which is allowed to rise up again inclined to develop higher and more lasting and again gives rise to a definite tendency to happiness (i.e. than worldly happiness) by reproduce that type of thought and therefore concentration (samādhi) control and culture of becomes a habit. The Buddha’s method is to the mind, the second stage on the path to use the reproductive power of the mind as well Nibbāna. as the body for the development of ourselves. Concentration is mental culture without By cultivating good habits of mind and body which we cannot attain Wisdom. By we develop ourselves fully. It is called Pāramī concentration we can acquire happiness—a in Pāḷi, meaning fulfilment. In other words, to happiness which is much higher than ordinary make counter habits whenever you have a worldly happiness. Worldly happiness is tendency to be angry, then you can develop dependent. It needs the support and co- mental states of loving-kindness and operation of a partner. Higher mental compassion so that these mental states will be happiness does not require any external help or repeated again and again. And in the end they any partner. “This happiness can be attained will become habits so much so that you will through Jhānas.” Jhāna (Skr. dhyna) is never entertain thoughts of hatred, anger, derived from the root Jhe, to think closely of jealousy and the like. These evil tendencies an object or to burn adverse things, nivaraṇa, will disappear before the tendencies of loving- hindrances to spiritual progress. Jhāna has kindness, even as the darkness of the night been translated as trance, absorption or fades away before the dawn of the rising sun. ecstasy, but it is a special ultra-mundane This is the method given by the Buddha. It is a experience. practical system of changing and developing our inner selves. In Burma we do not talk about Jhāna. We talk very much about Vipassanā. Samaṭha Part Two (meditation, calm) for Jhāna is not thought It is a continuation of our discussion on the much of in Burma because the Burmans think three stages of mental development. They are: that it is not the highest but only the second Sīla (conduct), Samādhi (concentration) and stage to Nibbāna. That is one reason. Another 27 reason is that those who are interested in Parikammanimitta, preliminary object. He Vipassanā meditation think that it is a short cut concentrates on this object for some time, to Nibbāna. In some cases, it is thought that it maybe some days, weeks, months, some years, is a matter of days or a few weeks’ practice until he is able to visualise the object without that one can attain Nibbāna. They like to go to any difficulty. When he is able to visualise the Nibbāna straightaway without waiting for a object without looking at it, he is to continue long time. They have three days’ courses, concentration on this visualised object, seven days’ courses for it. To attain Jhāna you Uggahanimitta, until he develops it into have to prove it by performing a miracle— conceptualised object, Paṭibhāganimitta. At walk on water, sit on water, raise the dead. But this stage the experienced spiritual man is said to attain Nibbāna in the stage of Sotāpanna to be in possession of proximate concentration, needs no proof. That is still another reason Upacāra-samādhi, and to overcome why people are interested in Vipassanā. temporarily the (nivaraṇa), namely, sensual desire, hatred, sloth and The Buddha himself was highly qualified in torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubts. the Jhānas. I would like to talk something about these Jhānas. Some people suggest that To illustrate what we have said. If you are if we are going to spread Buddhism effectively going to take our Pathavī-kasiṇa (device of throughout the world, we must do something earth) as your object, you get hold of a circle different from what we have done now. By made of clay which is called Kasiṇa. In Jhāna you are able to fly up in the sky. You English it is translated as a hypnotic circle can appear and disappear in the air. So, some which is not very correct. So you get a circle of people say that Buddhism can be spread far clay about one span and four fingers. You can quicker than otherwise if we can prove make it as smooth as possible and paint it with Buddhism through the Jhānas. Any way, these the colour of the dawn. This circle is placed Jhānas are a part of the Buddha’s teaching. before you about two and a half cubits away. Jhāna means to think, to concentrate on the Some people do this practice even in the West object to overcome Hindrances. Jhāna also at present. In India it was done long ago and means to burn the adverse things, nivaraṇa, therefore it is very common. The people in the Hindrances to spiritual progress. From this West try to practise it just to see if it works. By same derivative we have “Jhar-pa-na” in the this practice some have acquired a very strong case of death, decay (funeral). Jhāna has been power of concentration. So you prepare that translated as trance, absorption or ecstasy, but circle, place it in front of you at a convenient it is a kind of spiritual experience, ultra- distance so that you can look at it at your ease. mundane experience. While looking at it you must keep your head, neck, and back erect. The purpose is to keep The spiritual man selects one of the forty your mind with the circle. Ordinarily, without objects enumerated in the Visuddhi-magga. concentration you do not know where your The object which he selects should appeal mind is. Any way you try to concentrate on it, most to his temperament. such as emotion, on this physical object, Parikammanimitta. As anger and so on. Those forty objects are explained in the book, it may take day after divided into six groups, according to the types day, month after month, year after year, until of temperament of the people. So if you are you are able to visualise it without the physical going to practise concentration, meditation, for object. the attainment of Jhdna you will have to choose one of the objects suitable for your The Buddha advised us not to take anything temperament. too seriously. You must not strain your mental faculty. You must consider yourself as if your The method is fully explained in the are at play, enjoying it with a cheerful mind Visuddhi-magga. This object is called just as some young people enjoy witnessing a 28 cinema show. At the same time the Buddha nivāsānussati-Ñāṇa), reading thoughts of advised us not to keep our minds in a very others (Paracitta-vijāñāṇa) and various light spirit. You do it for the sake of helping psychic powers (Iddhividha). By these powers other people to add your happiness to the you can see things which the naked eye is not happiness of others. Taken in this spirit, even capable of seeing—no matter how far the the sweeping of the floor can become objects are. There is no barrier which can interesting. So also in meditation you must prevent you from seeing them. You can see think of it as if you are at play so that it through mountains. You can see long long becomes interesting, because it is a good thing distances without any obstructions in between. to do, a necessary thing to do. Unless we clear Even today there are Yogis in India who our minds like this we can never practise the possess these supernormal powers. This Jhāna first stages of the Dhamma, leave alone practice is not necessarily confined to attaining Nibbāna, the highest goal in Buddhism. Hindus also practise it. In Buddhism. Buddhism the practice of the Jhāna is a great help toward the attainment of Nibbāna. Those So you concentrate on this physical object who have reached such high level of until you can visualise it without the object. experience as Jhānas have their minds highly This visualisation in Pāḷi is called refined and it is easier for them to attain the Uggahanimitta. It is the exact replica of the lokuttara stages of development, yet they are object seen. When you come to this stage you not entirely free from all evil tendencies—the do not require the physical object. Then reason is that concentration, as has been stated continue your concentration on the visualised above, can overcome only the second stage of object. The difference between the first object defilement temporarily. As there remains the and the second object is the first being physical first stage untouched, undispelled, the passions and the other mental. But it is exactly the which have been inhibited by concentration same. You carry on concentrating until this would arise again. object becomes bright, shining like a star. The difference between the second and the third The five supernormal powers (Abhiññā) are stages is that in the second you see the object sometimes called occult or hidden or secret with certain defects, but in the third stage there power in English. In Buddhism they cannot be is no defect whatsoever. It is like a shining called occult powers because these powers are star. It is called Paṭibhāganimitta, for every one to possess, if they practise hard conceptualised object. At this stage the enough. experienced spiritual man is said to be in Morality makes a man gentle in his words possession of proximate concentration, and deeds, concentration controls the mind, Upacāra-samādhi, and to overcome makes him calm, serene and steady. Wisdom temporarily the five Hindrances (nivaraṇa), or Insight (Paññā), the third and final stage, namely, sensual desires, hatred, sloth and enables him to overcome all the defilements torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubts. completely. As a tree which is destroyed by the His concentration gradually becomes so root will never grow, even so the defilements enhanced that he is about to attain Jhāna. At which are annihilated by Wisdom (Paññā) will this stage he is said to be in possession of never rise again. Appanā Samādhi. He eventually attains the The spiritual man who has reached the third five stages of Jhāna step by step, and it is stage to the path to Nibbāna tries to understand when he reaches the fifth stage of Jhāna that the real nature of his self and that of the things he can easily develop the five supernormal of the world in general. With his highly powers (Abhiññā— Celestial Eye purified mind he begins to realise that there is (Dibbacakkhu), Celestial Ear (Dibbasota), no ego-principle or persistent identity of a reminiscence of past births (Pubbe- 29 “self” in either internal or external phenomena. rapidly and with certainty, the aspirant will He perceives that both mind and matter which attain his final enlightenment. As he, however, constitute his personality are in a state of has not eradicated the remaining seven fetters, constant flux, and that all conditioned things he may be reborn seven times at the most. are impermanent (Anicca) ,subject to suffering When the aspirant develops deeper insight (Dukkha), and void of self-existence (Anattā). and weakens two more fetters, namely, To him then comes the knowledge that every Sensual Craving (Kāma rāga) and Ill-will form of worldly pleasure is only a prelude to (Paṭigha) he becomes a Sakadāgāmi. Once- pain, and that everything that is in a state of returner. He is so called because he is reborn in flux cannot be the source of real, permanent the world of desires (Kāma loka) only once if happiness. he does not obtain final release in this present The aspirant then concentrates on the three life. characteristics of existence, namely, transiency The third stage is that of Anāgāmi, Non- (Anicca), suffering (Dukkha,) and void of ego returner, who completely discards the above or self-existence (Anattā). Having neither two fetters. He will not be reborn in this world attachment nor aversion for any worldly or any of the realms of sense-pleasure, but he, things, he intensely keeps on developing if he does not attain his final enlightenment in insight into both internal and external this life, will be at death reborn in one of the phenomena until he eliminates three Fetters, higher, suitable planes, and from thence pass namely, Self-illusion (Sakkāya-diṭṭhi), Doubts into Nibbāna. (Vicikicchā,) and Clinging to vain rites and rituals (Sīlabbataparāmāsa.) It is only when he The fourth stage is that of Arahat, perfected destroys completely these three fetters that he saint, who completely annihilates the realises Nibbāna, his ultimate goal, for the first remaining five fetters, namely, Craving for time in his existence. At this stage he is called existence in the world of form (Rūpa-rāga), a Sotāpanna, one who has entered the stream, Craving for existence in the immaterial world the Path that leads to Nibbāna. The Buddha (Arūpa-rāga), Pride and Conceit (Māna), has described this stage as follows:— Restlessness (Uddhacca) and Ignorance (Avijjā). He then realises that rebirth is More than any earthly power, exhausted, the Holy life is fulfilled and what More than all the joys of heaven; was to be done has been done. This is the More than rule over all the world, highest, holiest peace. The Arahat stands on Is the entrance to the Stream. 2 heights more than celestial realising the unutterable bliss of Nibbāna. Symbolically one who has reached the first Aryan stage is said to have entered the stream 1 Khuddaka Nikāya Dhammapad- because just as the water of a river never aṭṭhakathā 14 Buddhavagga, 4- comes backwards towards its source, but flows Ānandatherapañhā vatthu; verse 183, P. 153, steadily and inevitably towards the ocean, so, 6th Synod Edition. 2 Dhammapada, Verse 178.

“Just as a stick, brethren, thrown up into the air, falls now on the butt-end, now on its side, now on its tip, even so do beings, cloaked in ignorance, tied by craving, running on, wandering, go now from this world to the other world, now from the other world to this.” —Saṃyutta-nikāya, xv, 2-11. 30 MAṄGALĀ (FROM SUPERSTITION TO KNOWLEDGE) By U Sein Nyo Tun, Late of the Indian Civil Service. Maṅgalā in Pāḷi means auspicious, inseparable, but of them the former appears to prosperous, lucky, festive. Maṅgalāṃ means be more deep seated, for there seems to be less good omen, auspices, festivity. Maṅgalāṃ evidence among mankind of a desire for the karoti means to perform an auspicious moon than a desire to avoid sudden ceremony such as sprinkling with grains of misfortunes and death. This characteristic is rice, etc., or to get married. Maṅgalāṃ vadati more pronounced in primitive communities means to bestow blessings. Nāma karaṇa than in modern human groups, because maṅgalā means the ceremony of giving a primitive men are less equipped to counter the name. Āhāra paribhoga maṅgalā means the many natural enemies and dangers that ceremony of taking solid food. Kaṇṇa vijjhana surround them than are modern men. The maṅgalā means the ceremony of piercing the necessity to avoid an imminent misfortune or ears. (See Pāḷi Text Societys Pāḷi-English to dispel one that is already in the course of Dictionary by Rhys Davids and Stede). visitation is pressing, and by comparison is more urgent than the necessity to increase In Burma, the word maṅgalā is so happiness and prosperity. commonly and widely used that it has become a Burmese word. To Burmans, it needs neither Thus have men turned to all manners of explanation nor translation, and wherever it is protection and refuges, to trees and mountains, used it conveys the meaning of luck, auspice, to taboos and totems, to kismets and amulets, ceremonial, as in its Pāḷi usage. to signs and omens, to ceremonials and rituals, and to astrology and occult practices. They All these meanings give the positive aspect, have turned to these refuges because they did that is, the aspect of inducing or creating luck, not understand the elemental forces (oft-times prosperity, fulfilment of wishes, etc. There is also man-made forces) that surrounded them, however, a negative aspect to them, that is, the and the intensity of the anxiety that they felt aspect of the prevention of or the protection led them to turn for succour to all species of from dangers, ill-luck, and misfortunes. In accidental and coincidental agencies that none of the meanings given above is this appeared to aid them in the appeasement of aspect mentioned, but nevertheless it is present their troubled minds. Fear, in human nature, in all of them. Thus, in the performance of a has never been a factor contributing towards marriage ceremony, for example, there is not logical reason, and in this instance has led to only the cherished hope that the marriage what are known today as superstitious would be successful and prosperous, but also practices. the hope that the couple would not be separated through the vicissitudes of life, or With the development of knowledge, and through the untimely death of one of the the consequent increase in understanding by partners, or through the machinations of men of the forces of nature to which they are persons of ill-will or authority, or through willy-nilly subject, together with an increased other misfortunes. ability to control those forces towards the creation of better security of life as also of There is in men the world over an ingrained better amenities, the dependence on these desire to avoid evils and misfortunes on the superstitious beliefs and practices has waned. one hand, and to acquire happiness and prosperity on the other. The two are 31 But in spite of the phenomenal strides that it cannot be ignored that modern knowledge, modern knowledge has made especially within despite its unprecedented advancement, is the last half century, these superstitions beliefs incomplete and does not provide an answer to have not been entirely eradicated from the many of the innumerable questions that arise in mental structure of modern men, and this is an individual. There are still large and true of them even in such recognised highly important gaps in modern knowledge which developed and advanced countries as Great remain unexplored, and in regard to which, Britain and the United States. little serious and systematic attempt is as yet being made to explore. Such are fields, for Thus do we still hear of thirteen being an example, of the reaches of the mind beyond the unlucky number, of Friday the thirteenth being phenomenal place, of direct non-phenomenal especially unlucky for sailors and airmen, of relations between mind and mind, and of the the misfortunes attendant on walking under a direct influence of the mind over physical and ladder, or of spilling salt at table, or of material phenomena. breaking a mirror. We have further evidences in the popularity of gypsies as soothsayers, in For men to be able to provide answers to all fortune-telling booths still appearing as regular the questions that confront individuals, they and popular features at fairs and amusement need to seek knowledge beyond the parks, and in fortune-telling, crystal gazing, phenomenal world. But modern science, on and palmistry advertisements in the more which is based modern knowledge, is popular magazines. We have evidences too in predominantly materialistic in its outlook and the common practice of keeping mascots by severely limited in its methods. Its sailors on board ships, and by soldiers in achievements excite the wonder and regiments. admiration of the world, but so does the simple lantern slide in a simple community, and the An enumeration of these vestiges of quality of the spectacular is no reliable guide superstition among modern educated by which to judge its ability to solve all the communities is bound to be considerable. problems that confront men as individuals. Superstition is not dead even in the most Scientific circles themselves are beginning to highly developed of human communities of the realise the limitations of science, and are present day, and this is in spite of the ridicule admitting that science neither has the ability showered on it by informed public opinion, nor intends to probe into the ultimate reality of and in spite of legislative measures against things, meaning thereby that other means fortune-telling and the other allied practices. would have to be found to supplement existing It is possible that these remnants of knowledge and close the gaps that it has left superstition (if remnants they be) are the unfilled. What remains is for the non-scientific continuation of racial habits, for habits once world at large—that is, for those men and formed either in individuals or in human women not immediately and intimately groups are not easily and quickly eradicated. It engaged in scientific research—to realise this is also possible that they are a recrudescence fact. Science needs to be supplemented by induced by man-made forms of insecurity such further knowledge of a non-scientific nature, as wide-spread unemployment, economic and the vacuum left by science with regard to dislocations, world wars, and those modern the ends and aims of life needs to be filled by forms of organized and regimental tyranny this further knowledge, and in this an known as Fascism, Totalitarianism, important aspect comprises the need for Dictatorship, and Communism, not excluding correcting and controlling the mental reactions many other similar but nondescript variations that science and its achievements have and gradations. Against these elephantine produced in men of the present day. bogeys the individual feels helpless. But then, 32 But if science has not succeeded in In time, the controversy between the three dispelling the unreasoning fears of men created groups became heated and contagious. It by an ignorance of the conditions of life under spread to all men, and even devas and brahmās which they live, the complete method of how began to take sides. At length, Sakka, the King to banish the superstitious beliefs that have of the Tāvatiṃsa loka, deputed a deva to afflicted men of all ages and of all climes was approach the Buddha and pose to him the given by the Buddha two thousand, five question as to what constitutes maṅgalā. It is hundred years ago in answer to a specific in answer to this question that the Buddha question put to him by a deva acting as the propounded the Maṅgalā Sutta. mouth-piece and agent of both men and gods. Here, it may be observed, that there are That reply is embodied in what is now known several variations in the English translations of as the Maṅgalā Sutta. If civilised men today the word maṅgalā in the Maṅgalā Sutta. The are still as rabidly superstitious as their most common rendering is blessing. It has also primitive brethren differing from them only in been translated as beatitude, happiness, and the matter of degree, it is because they have good luck. It seems likely, however, that when failed to apply to their thoughts and actions the the deva put his question to the Buddha, method that the Buddha revealed. Those who maṅgalā was used within the meaning of the have applied that method have transcended usage current at the time. It is apparent that superstition and ignorance, and gone the way this current usage was associated with of all Arahats—the way to unalloyed superstition. tranquillity and bliss—Nibbāna. The Buddha’s reply was characteristic of The India of the Buddhas day was a hub of Him and His teachings. He did not pause to mental activity. There were many thinkers, refute the erroneous nature of the current philosophers, and other learned men engaged beliefs, but his reply as to what constituted in probing the secrets and the purposes of life. maṅgalā gave a totally different interpretation On the other hand, there also existed much to the then existing concepts. Whereas men in ignorance and superstition among the common those days looked to external signs and people leading to many misdirected rituals and symbols for protection from evils and ceremonials. It is inevitable that the thinkers promotion of prosperity, the Buddha indicated and teachers applied themselves to these in unmistakable terms that one’s own welfare practices, and discussions arose as to their was entirely dependent on oneself that is, on rightness and propriety. It is stated in the one’s own deeds and thoughts. He indicated introduction to the Maṅgalā Sutta that these that the present deserts of a man or a being is discussions led to controversies, and three dependent both on his present as well as his groups arose each supporting, a certain group past deeds—deeds that he performed not only of signs or omens as auspicious. Apparently, in this life but in his past saṃsāra—but that as the discussions were not the outcome of far as the future is concerned he pointed out ultimate knowledge, but were of a speculative the great importance that present acts played in nature which could not lead to any finality the formulation of one’s own welfare. about the truth. The Maṅgalā Sutta is an epitome of all the The Diṭṭha Maṅgalika group took the stand Buddha’s teachings. Nowhere else in the that from evidence and experience objects of Tipiṭaka is there such a condensation which sight constituted the best auspices. The Suta completely represents all the aspects and Maṅgalika group put forth the opinion that stages of the Buddha Dhamma. sounds were the most auspicious. The Muta Maṅgalika group placed their weight behind It is a comprehensive guide both for the muta signs which covers taste, smell, and lokiya (worldly) and the lokuttara touch. (transcending the worldly). It applies to 33 everybody without distinction—to Kings, and science seems to be to divide lokiya statesmen, politicians, businessmen, maṅgalā into: administrators, clerks, workmen, non-workers, a. Those aiming at securing results to the old, the middle-aged, and the young. within a life-time. This comprehensiveness of the Maṅgalā b. Those aiming at securing results in Sutta is as it should be. The illogical, saṃsāra. Many Buddhists addicted to what are unreasonable, and superstitious beliefs known as kotūhala maṅgalā, which includes characteristic of men of all climes and all ages such acts as choosing an auspicious date, or not excluding our highly developed scientific time, or direction, fall within the former. They age—leading to erroneous, and oft-times may appease their consciences outwardly by harmful acts, are the outcome of incomplete saying that the acts they do in the pursuit of knowledge either of the present or of the past these kotūhala maṅgalā are kusala kammas, and future. If unreason and superstition are to but then they should apply serious thought to be subdued right down to their latent the fact that the habitual application of one’s tendencies, a complete exposition of mind to immediate aims shortens the outlook, knowledge, or how it may be acquired and induces one away not only from the more becomes essential. The Buddha’s inimitable long-term aims of saṃsāra but also from genius lies in the fact that He provided this Nibbāna itself, and Nibbāna has never been exposition in thirty-eight succinct and clear-cut attained by anyone who has not specifically courses of action, easily grasped by all alike— aimed at it. the unlearned as well as the highly intellectual. From the Buddha’s point of view, the only In order that knowledge may be true maṅgalā is the lokuttara maṅgalā, for comprehensive, it must cover both the lokiya there is no true happiness in this or any of the and the lokuttara. Thus, two aspects of other worlds. The Buddha did not entirely maṅgalā emerge, namely: reject lokiya maṅgalā, but it must be used as a 1. Lokiya maṅgalā, and basis for the acquisition of the ultimate truth— the comprehensive knowledge. But the 2. Lokuttara maṅgalā acquisition of this comprehensive knowledge The lokiya maṅgalā comprises the is no easy task, and the Buddha can but show superstitious practices, together with the semi- the way. Widespread ignorance of the truths of superstitious and all other acts based on purely life not only persists, but is actually becoming worldly knowledge—knowledge which go by more general. The appearance of Ariyas is the names of the arts and the sciences. From a becoming more rare, while the great calamity purely worldly point of view, the actions based of modern times—global war—is an ever on the experimental and the more logical present threat. While the great intellectuals of branches of knowledge may appear to be in a human kind remain content at the halfway class far removed from the superstitious acts, house of the peak of worldly knowledge, the but inasmuch as the basis of both is incomplete rest of mankind prefer to tread the easier path knowledge, the two are of the same class from of satisfying their sensual inclinations. In this the lokuttara point of view, especially when in atmosphere, it seems that it cannot be very saṃsāra it is possible for a highly erudite long before the Buddha’s way to personage in one existence to become an comprehensive knowledge is shelved to ignoramus in another. disappear ultimately until a new Buddha From the Buddhist point of view, a more appears in the world many aeons hence. Let significant distinction, within lokiya maṅgalā those who have ears, therefore, repose trust and summon the effort to enter the gates of than the differentiation between superstition wisdom before it is too late. 34

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As to this what think you, brethren? Which is greater, this little sand lifted on my finger-nail, or this great earth? This lord, is greater, even this great earth. A trifle is the little sand lifted by the Exalted One on to his finger-nail. It cannot form a fraction when compared with the great earth—this little sand lifted by the Exalted One on to his finger-nail. Even so, brethren, are the beings that are reborn among humans few in number as against the greater number that are reborn in the four Lower Worlds. —Saṃyutta Nikāya, XX. 5.

NOT BY FAITH ALONE “The Arahat who has destroyed the fluxions, lived the life, done what was to be done, set down the burden, won self-weal, shattered life’s and is freed by Perfect Knowledge, has applied himself to six things: to dispassion, detachment, harmlessness, destroying craving, destroying grasping and to non-delusion. Perhaps some venerable person may think: “Could it be that this venerable man has applied himself to dispassion relying on mere faith alone?” Let him not think so. The fluxion-freed who has lived the life, done what was to be done, who sees naught in himself to be done, naught to be added to what has been done, by the fact of being passionless, has applied himself to dispassion by destroying passion; by the fact of being without hatred, has applied himself to dispassion by destroying hatred; by the fact of being without delusion, has applied himself to dispassion by destroying delusion.” Aṅguttara Nikāya. Book of the Sixes. 35 OMNISCIENCE OF THE BUDDHA By Venerable Nārada Mahāthera. “Buddho Sabbaññutañāno” (The Buddha is the All-knowing One). Omniscience is one of the chief attributes Buddha is called Sabbaññū because He has of the Buddha. It is the six kinds of super- understood all these three worlds relating to knowledge that are peculiar only to the the past, present, and the future. Buddha. According to the Paṭisambhidāmagga At the foot of the Bodhi-tree the Buddha commentary the Buddha’s omniscience realised things as they truly are and gained pertains to the following five fields of Enlightenment. Along with this intuitive knowledge which include everything mundane wisdom, He obtained the key to the and supramundane, namely, 1. Saṅkhāra understanding of everything that should be (formations), 2. Vikāra (change; alteration), 3. known. This knowledge He acquired by His Lakkhaṇa (characteristics), 4. Nibbāna, and 5. own effort in a countless series of rebirths. Paññatti (concepts and ideas). He has taught us only an infinitesimal part 1. Saṅkhāra —(Saṃ—kara, to do). of what He knew. His mission was to teach Everything that is conditioned or everything that which is essential for our emancipation. that has risen from a cause belongs to this On one occasion, as the Buddha was passing group. through a forest He took a handful of leaves Everything cosmic is conditioned by a and declared that what He had taught was cause or causes. There are only two things that comparable to the leaves in his hand and what are unconditioned. They are space which in He had not taught was comparable to the itself is nothingness and Nibbāna which is a remaining leaves in the forest. The vastness of supramundane state. His unrevealed knowledge which is irrelevant to His noble ideal could easily be gauged. The so-called being is composed of mind and matter which are conditioned by causes. In a certain discourse the Buddha has Amongst these causes are Kamma, denied the kind of omniscience attributed to consciousness (Citta), heat (Utu), and food Nigaṇṭha Nāṭaputta, the leader of the Jains. (Āhāra). It may be mentioned that Buddhists The omniscience of this spiritual teacher was do not attribute everything to Kamma. It is similar to “the so-called omniscience” of the only one of the chief causes. Christian God-Creator in that they could see everything at all times. The Buddha possessed There are 71 divisions of mind and matter no such power. He was able to see only one which comprise Saṅkhāra. They are:— thing at a particular time. When, for instance a MATTER.— dark room is lit everything becomes visible; but you see only the desired object. In the The Four Chief Elements: same way with His lamp of omniscience He 1. Pathavī —the element of extension. illuminates the whole world, but He sees only that particular thing which He wishes to see. 2. Āpo —the element of cohesion. 3. Tejo —the element of heat. The Pāḷi term (Sabba) embraces all the three worlds, namely, Sattaloka, the world of 4. Vāyo —the element of motion. beings, Saṅkhāraloka, the world of formations, These four elements are forces, and are and Okāsaloka, the world of space. The fundamental units of matter. They are 36 interrelated and inseparable, but their 20-71. The fifty-two mental properties composition varies. One element may (Cetasika) are treated separately as they preponderate over the other. For instance, in possess distinct characteristics. earth, the element of extension predominates; To sum up, 18 (Divisions of matter) + l in water, cohesion; in fire, heat; in air, motion. (Consciousness ) + 52 (Mental properties) = These four elements are known as the Great 71. Essentials (Mahābhūta Rūpa). Earth, rocks, seas, rivers, trees, etc., are The five kinds of Sensitive Material included in Saṅkhāra as they are conditioned Qualities (Pasāda Rūpa): by heat, etc., though not by Kamma. 5. eye (cakkhu)—Here it does not mean the The second field of knowledge is Vikāra. It naked eye, but the faculty of sight. 6. ear is a kind of peculiar distinct condition of the (sota), 7. nose (ghāna), 8. tongue (jivhā), and aforesaid eighteen divisions of matter. 9. body (kāya). Although they are not realities (Vatthu The five kinds of Sense-fields (Āyatana). dhamma) but, being a form of change about these realities, they are treated as 10. visible form (rūpa)—this includes both Paramattha—ultimate things. shape and colour. 11. sound (saddā), 12. odour (gandha), 13. flavour (rasa), 14. masculinity There are five kinds of Vikāra rūpas, (pumbhāva), 15. femininity (itthibhāva), 16. namely, heart-base (hadayavatthu), 17. vitality 1. Lahutā, levity, 2. Mudutā, pliancy, 3. (jivitindriya), and 18. edible food (āhāra). Kammaññatā, adaptability, 4. Kāyaviññatti, Hadayavatthu is the seat of consciousness. bodily communication, 5. Vacīviññatti, verbal Whether it is the heart or the brain is a communication. controversial point. The Buddha has neither Lahutā is the lightness of matter caused by rejected nor accepted the Cardiac theory. joy, healthy climatic conditions, nutritive food, According to the commentaries it is the heart. etc. It is the lightness in body which a healthy Vitality is produced by Kamma. Such person experiences in contradistinction to the vitality is found only in animate beings heaviness of body experienced by an invalid. including animals. In trees also there exists a Mudutā is the softness or pliancy of matter certain kind of life, but it is not that kind of caused by suitable climatic conditions, food, vitality common to men and animals, because wholesome thoughts, etc. It is opposed to no kamma is accumulated by plants. The kind coarseness and hardness. It is on account of of life found in plants may be caused by Utu, this softness prevalent in matter that one is temperature or heat. Life in plants and beings able to move with case. are thus differentiated. By edible food is meant the nutritive essence. Kammaññatā is the adaptability of matter caused by suitable food, healthy climatic The eighteen divisions of matter are termed conditions, wholesome thoughts, etc. On Nipphanna rūpa—those that are produced by account of this material quality one’s body Kamma and other three sources. quickly responds to actions. 19. Consciousness (Citta). Although there These three are not Vatthudhammas are 89 types of consciousness all are treated as (realities), but merely subtle differentiations of one reality in the sense that all possess matter, which are interrelated and inseparable. awareness as their chief characteristic. Kāyaviññatti—bodily communication. This results from the element of motion caused by 37 the mind. All bodily elements are included in nothingness. By ākāsa is here meant the this. intervening space. In other words, it is the intra-atomic space in which electrons move Vacīviññatti—verbal communication. This about. results from the element of extension caused by the mind. Speech is included in this. Of the 28 forms of rūpas, 18 are included in Saṅkhāras, 5 in the Vikāras, 4 in Lakkhaṇa, In conventional terms Kāyaviññatti and and one in Paññatti. Consciousness, feelings Vacīviññatti are called deeds and speech. (vedanā), perception (saññā), volitional When one wishes to communicate one’s idea activities (saṅkhārā) are included in Saṅkhāra to another that verbal action is termed manḍala. The solitary Dhamma Nibbāna, Vacīviññatti. When one does so by deed then though belonging to the Nāma group, is treated that bodily action is termed Kāyaviññatti. as a separate manḍala which is the fourth field All these five Vikāras are not absolute of knowledge. realities, but manifestations of the aforesaid Nibbāna, literally, means departure from eighteen conditional material forms. craving or in other words extinction of passion. Lakkhaṇa which means salient features, is Nibbāna is a nāma because it causes the the third field of knowledge. mind to bend towards it. Consciousness is a This constitutes birth or arising, decay and nāma because it bends towards the objects. death which are common to all conditioned Nibbāna is a supramundane reality which is things whether animate or inanimate. conceived by the mind. In the Rohitassa Sutta Every form of life and each unit of the Buddha says: “In this one-fathom body consciousness consist of three phases, namely, with mind and perception do I declare the birth (jāti), decay (jarā), and death (maraṇa). world, the arising of the world, the destruction The time duration between the arising and of the world, and the path leading to the passing away of consciousness which may destruction of the world. almost be the billionth part of a second, is the Here the world means suffering. The decay of consciousness. Matter lasts only for destruction of the world means Nibbāna. seventeen thought-moments. The time duration between the first and the seventeenth thoughts’ There are two dhammas that are permanent moment is the decay of rūpa. and are uncaused. They are space and Nibbāna. Space is not, Nibbāna is. The former According to the Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha is not a reality, the latter is the absolute reality. there are four characteristics, namely, upacaya Nibbāna is to be intuited and is not produced. (arising), santati (continuity), jaratā (decay) Hence, it is neither a cause nor an effect. and aniccatā (). The first arising is the upacaya and the subsequent arising is Paññatti is the fifth field of knowledge. It, santati. It is on account of this reason that in literally, means that which makes known or some philosophical treatises only 27 species of that which is made known. Paññatti should not rūpa are enumerated. be confounded with Viññatti which is a reality and a rūpa. With these four salient characteristics (lakkhaṇa) and five Vikāras there are nine There are two kinds of paññatti, namely, anipphanna rūpas, that is matter not caused by Nāma-paññatti and Attha-paññatti. Nāma- Kamma. Of the anipphanna rūpas the paññatti) is merely the name or term such as remaining rūpa known as ākāsa, space, is chair, table, rock, mind, matter, etc. Attha- included in the Paññatti which is the fifth paññatti is the object denoted by the term. manḍala. Ākāsa is a nicca-paññatti, a Languages come within the range of Nāma- permanent concept, because in itself it is paññatti. 38 The first four Manḍalas embrace all Omniscience, it should be understood, is Paramatthas — Ultimate realities — their mundane (lokiya). It is with the functional divisions, and their characteristics. In the fifth sentient consciousness accompanied by manḍala all terms and implied objects are knowledge that the Buddha perceived treated. Therefore everything mundane and whatever He wishes to see supramundane is included in the five kinds of (Somanassasahagata Ñāṇa sampayutta-kiriya Ñeyyamanḍalas—fields of knowledge. As the citta). The Buddha wisdom found in this type Buddha understood all these in every respect of mundane consciousness is called He is called Sabbaññū— Omniscient. There is Omniscience. nothing that is imperceptible to Him. Says the Samantacakkhu—All-round-eye—is Venerable Sāriputta:— another term for Omniscience. Na tassa adiṭṭham’ idhatthi kiñci As He meets with no obstacles in Atho aviññatam’ ajanitabbaṃ’ exercising this knowledge it is also called Anāvaraṇa-ñāṇa—Unobstructed knowledge. (There is nothing in this world that He has not seen, known and understood.)

OUTSTANDING NEW BOOK ON BUDDHISM PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY IN THE ABHIDHAMMA By Prof. H. V. Guenther, PH.D. Prof. Lucknow University Pp. 403 with charts etc. This work is a very important thesis on Buddhism by an eminent and erudite scholar. OPINIONS A notable contribution to the Abhidhamma Philosophy—Prof. S. Mookerjee, M.A., PH.D., Director, Nālanda Pāḷi Institute. A very helpful contribution towards the understanding of Buddhism in the Western World. —Dr. S. A. Burtt, Cornell University, U.S.A. Apply—Maha Bodhi Book Agency, 4-A, Bankim Chatterjee Street, Calcutta-12. 39 THE ESSENCE OF THE TEACHING (By Nyanasatta Thera) 1. What is religion ? Another form of Buddhism, the Mahāyāna the “Great Vehicle,” is a modified form of the The hundreds of definitions of this subject original teaching to make it more acceptable to agree in this respect— “A religion is a body of a greater number of both the erudite and the moral and philosophical teachings, together simple members of the Indian society several with the understanding of those teachings, the centuries after the Buddha, and to the non- faith in the truth of them, and the practice of Indian peoples of Asia who were not fully the accepted doctrine, i.e. the living in satisfied with the pure Theravāda, who yearned accordance with the professed creed.” for higher knowledge without being able to Religion primarily originates from the follow the arduous Path to self-realization. desire to see life in its connection with the past Buddhism was not long confined to Asia and the future. Religion, answers the questions alone: from the earliest times Buddhism was about the purpose and aim of life. H. G. Wells carried also to the West. The remains, of a said, “Religion is the central part of our Buddhist culture have been discovered as far education which determines our conduct.” away as Mexico and other American countries. The Buddhist religion is the system called Buddhist missionaries went to Syria, Egypt, the Buddha’s Teaching, the understanding of Macedon, and other western countries some and faith in the truth of His Doctrine, and the 300 years B.C. observance and practice of this accepted At present the Buddhist Scriptures are Norm: that is to say, the putting into practice in studied in Europe, America and all other everyday life of what we know and believe as countries. The Word of the Buddha is accepted the Truth, the Doctrine of the Buddha. When as their religion by thousands of Europeans thus understood, religion becomes the Path to a and Americans; and disciples of the Buddha of happy life in this world as well as in the next all races, both laymen and monks, can be life; and at the same time religion is the Path found all over the world. Buddhist publications that leads to deliverance from all sorrow, a in English are now eagerly read and way conducting to the realization of appreciated in more than fifty countries of the Enlightenment and Nibbāna—the Highest five continents of the globe; and when we find Good of the Buddhists. supporters or funds to finance Buddhist 2. What is Buddhism? publications in the international language Esperanto, we shall be able, through the Buddhism is the Teaching of the Buddha. services of the Universal Esperanto The Buddha lived in the sixth century B.C. He Association (U.E.A.). and the Buddhist League expounded His Norm in North India. The of Esperantists (B.L.E.), to send our Esperanto Word of the Buddha has been handed down in publications to practically every country of the the Pāḷi language, the tongue used in North world, where they may be easily translated into India in the Buddha’s time. The form of the national languages and thus reach countries Buddhism which has been preserved for 2500 now inaccessible to English Books on years in the Pāḷi is known and practised in Buddhism. Ceylon, Burma, Siam and other countries. It is called Theravāda, the Teaching that the 3. Is Buddhism a Religion? immediate disciples of the the Buddha Some writers on Buddhism especially received from their Master. This Theravāda is Christian authors, object to Buddhism being admitted by all scholars to be the authentic called a religion. Their aim is to prove that Word of the Buddha. 40 some 400 millions of human beings who life as a causally connected and conditioned profess to be Buddhists or accept Buddhism process of existence, a becoming. have in reality no religion and hence should be Buddhism does not deny that there are converted into Christianity. These scholars and heavenly worlds where beings reap the fruit of missionaries, who have never studied any their noble life in the past; and the Buddhist system other than their own, argue that a Scriptures tell us of spheres of misery, states of religion is the system of faith and worship, or woe, where beings suffer for their evil deeds. the belief in an Almighty Creator- God, a But though apparently eternal, both heavens superhuman controlling power entitled to and hells are impermanent states: beings there worship and obedience, together with the will eventually be reborn in human form again. belief in a soul, in eternal heaven and hell, in Grace and many things more. This definition is Finally, the Buddha solemnly declared that too narrow and one-sided, and is far from there is a lasting freedom from all sorrow, a being universal or even general. condition of the highest purity and everlasting happiness, Nibbāna. But Nibbāna is not a Our conception of religion as given above return to God or re-union with the One. If it is universal: all religious systems may be were this, then a repeated separation from the included in our definition; but on the contrary, One would be expected. Nibbāna is a condition Buddhism, the faith of more than 400 millions which must be attained in order to experience does not fall within their concept of religion. and adequately explain its Supramundane Buddhism perfectly explains life in its state. causal connection with the past and the future. Thus we have seen that Buddhism has all Buddhism makes for progress: it points out the the necessary requisites of a religion. A person, path to a happy life now, and also in the next however, who does not like a religion without world. Buddhism is the path that leads to the worship may find in Buddhism alone the most realization of deliverance from all suffering. perfect ideal to be loved, worshipped and Buddhism teaches us that the highest and followed—the Buddha as the symbol of noblest purpose of life is the realization of Realization of perfect Enlightenment and Enlightenment and Nibbāna. Nibbāna, the supreme guide of all beings. Buddhism includes moral responsibility. It 4. The Essence of the Teaching: says that the effect of an evil course of life is an increase of suffering in this world and in The quintessence of the Buddha’s Doctrine future lives; whereas the result of a noble life is the Four Noble Truths: (a) Suffering, (b) its is happiness and Progress on the Path to Cause, (c) its Cessation, and (d) the Path. Perfection. But Buddhism does not support the (a) All conditioned existence, especially view that there is a personal God who rewards, human life, is unsatisfactory. Life is a pardons, or punishes; Buddhism teaches the conditioned process initiated by conception, law of cause and effect in the moral sphere, followed by birth, pain, sorrow, grief, Kamma. Kamma means that we reap what we lamentation, disappointment, despair, union have sown, and that our future depends on our with objects which we hate, separation from present conduct. what we love, old age, disease and death, Buddhism teaches the Dependent which is followed by a new rebirth. Origination of our individual existence; but it (b) The conception of a new life and with it repudiates the belief in a God-Creator. all the manifold suffering is conditioned—or Buddhism speaks of the continuity of caused—by Craving. The Craving for a new existence, rebirth, but without the life and for the objects of the world is transmigration of an immortal soul: it explains nourished by ignorance or Delusion about the 41 true nature of the world and life. This Delusion sorrow is attained and Enlightenment with the makes man crave for eternal life in heaven, or serene condition of Nibbāna is achieved. The for a rebirth as a powerful King or a great individual who has realised this Perfection personage. Instead of learning all about the lives his span of life free from all selfish real nature of things, we always crave for new desires. He devotes himself to the service of objects, which when attained, will not satisfy others: he is a guide of his fellows who strive us. Meanwhile one individual existence ceases for what he has already attained. When such a and the Craving links one life with another. By Holy one dies, there is no more rebirth for him, this craving-force that seeks its own affinity because the life-linking craving has ceased. the two cells become united, and a new life After the death of such a Saint there comes a germinates in a mother’s womb. It is like the perpetual state of Supramundane bliss. Both last spark of a fire which kindles new fuel. the state experienced by the Saint from self- realization to passing-away, and the condition (c) By attaining true insight, the real nature that enters at his demise, are called Nibbāna. of life and the world of Delusion and Craving Nibbāna is freedom from Craving and is understood, and therewith all suffering Delusion. Positively it can be called ceases. Enlightenment, and a serenity unperturbed by (d) The Path that leads to the self- any external contingency. What enters at the realization of the end of craving is moral life, passing-away of the Buddha and of the true culture of mind by the practice of mindfulness Saints is the basic element of supramundane and insight. bliss and peace which abides, and which is Concentration of mind and mindfulness called the supreme good, the blissful lasting lead to the acquisition of insight into the real peace of Nibbāna. The realization of this nature of things. When we see them as condition, either here and now or in the future, Impermanent, Unsatisfactory, and Void of an is the object of all the striving of every genuine abiding self, all Delusion and with it all Buddhist. Craving cease. Then Deliverance from all

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42 THE ROLE OF BUDDHISM UNDER THE SHADOW OF A THERMO-NUCLEAR WAR Broadcast Talk from “Myanma Athan”, the Burma Broadcasting Service. By U Sein Nyo Tun (I. C. S. Retd.) “Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-saṃbuddhassa.” The world today lives under the shadow of concomitant of the unrestricted use of nuclear a thermo-nuclear war—a war that threatens to weapons. But opinion between them and men destroy the majority of civilized mankind, and more concerned with practical affairs is plunge those that remain into miseries never sharply divided. before experienced within historical memory. In Britain, for instance, there has been a How the ordinary man in the street in the highly vocal campaign, led by such Communist countries is reacting to this personalities as Bertrand Russell and J. B. situation is not known with certainty outside of Priestly, for the abolition of nuclear warfare. these countries. It is possible that he faces the On the other hand, the “Economist” has prospect of a cataclysmic war with equanimity, denounced this campaign as “the greatest secure in the thought that Communism would confusion”. This influential journal thinks that emerge victorious. the size of the bomb itself would preclude its use except as a last resort arising from a In the case of the non-communist countries, military miscalculation. “What is needed, ordinary men and women do not appear to be therefore” it continues, “is not a unduly awed or perturbed by the prospect of an pronouncement about abolishing the bomb imminent atomic war. This is not to say that (which, at least in war, would be impossible to they are not impressed by the descriptions and enforce), but a policy to minimize the chance prognostications in the daily press, magazines, of such miscalculation.” books, and on the radio and platform, regarding the repercussions of a modern world As far as men steeped in practical affairs war irrespective of its ultimate result, but the and more immediately related with the destiny impression does not appear to be deep enough of the world are concerned, their attitude is as to create a concerted surge towards the significantly illustrated in the following avoidance and prevention of war, and the incident. This is how the April 1958 issue of maintenance of a stable peace. These ordinary “Worldview”, a monthly journal of the Church men and women seem to be more susceptible Peace Unoin of New York, reports it: to mental disturbances caused by hitches in the “Many Americans must now be aware that week to week changes of programmes at their during the past few months one of the most local cinemas than by the prospects of world- curious Correspondences in world history has wide upsets through the use of inter- been carried on through the pages of the “New continental missiles and hydrogen bombs. The Statesman”, the British Socialist Weekly philosophy of these men and women the world review. First, Lord Bertrand Russell wrote an over in their day to day lives is to live for the open letter to President Eisenhower and Mr. present with little or no thought of the morrow. Khrushchev. Eminent philosophers, scientists, and other In the name of humanity he pleaded with thinkers, on their part, have displayed great both the leaders to re-examine their positions concern over recent developments in world and make a last great effort to halt an arms affairs which appear to aggravate the risks of race that threatens mankind with extinction. the outbreak of a total war together with its 43 “To everyone’s surprise, Mr. Khrushchev look far into the future. The further they can promptly replied to Lord Russell. His letter see into the future the firmer become the was a long one, but, in brief, it said: ‘Dear foundations of morality, while the more does Lord Russell, you’re perfectly right, and the their view become restricted, the less certain peace-loving Soviet Union would like nothing and the less predictable becomes their moral better than to stop the arms race. Just look at behaviour. It is on account of this deterioration our record. But what can we do about the in the moral foundations of the leaders, as in Americans? Just look at their record.’ the masses whom they lead, that the world today lives with so much uncertainty about the “Several weeks later—and even more to eventuality of a war the consequences of which everyone’s surprise—Mr. John Foster Dulles transcend human imagination. The future of (‘at the request of President Eisenhower’) mankind thus rests on a re-imposition of the replied too. His letter was not nearly so long as controls that morality exercises over the social Mr.Khrushchev’s but, in effect, it said: ‘Dear behaviour of men (including their political Lord Russell, you’re perfectly right, and the behaviour). peace-loving United States would like nothing better than to stop the arms race. Just look at In this task of reconstructing morality’s our record. But what can we do about the influence over men, the Buddha-Dhamma (or Russians? Just look at their record.’ Buddhism) can join hands with the other great moral movements of the world. As has been “Now the exchange has apparently ended, indicated above, the successful performance of with a final, exasperated word from Lord this task will depend on how far these great Russell. Both the replies, he notes, were moral movements can induce the majority of ‘extraordinarily similar in tone..... both, in men to look to the future—especially the words, acknowledge that a nuclear war would distant future—and discard the limitations that defeat the purpose of both parties equally, but confine their view to matters of the present. neither draws the moral that the acerbity of From the Buddhist point of view, this long- their disagreements must be lessened since this term outlook can be achieved by the acerbity increases the likehood of a nuclear cultivation of an emotional detachment from war’.” the world, and things worldly, even while One can detect in these acts (as also in retaining an intense interest in them. other acts) of present day leaders of mankind a In certain aspects, this detachment certain restriction in outlook—a limitation of manifests itself in self-sacrifice and altruism. view—arising out of a pre-occupation with But whether these manifestations appear or not current or present events. Thus whether it be in recognisable forms, detachment from the the man in the street, or the thinker, or the man worldly is a contributary factor to the of action, they are all overwhelmingly strengthening of the controls of morality over engrossed in affairs of the present leading to a men. If lobha, dosa and moha—greed, desire forgetfulness of the future—the future that or ambition, hatred or anger, and nescience— comprises not only this life but also beyond it. are the banes that beset humankind today, the When the majority of men are thus virulence of the affliction is abated by a absorbed and obsessed with the present and lessening of the attachments that bind men to become forgetful of the future, there inevitably the world and its appurtenances, whether appears a weakening in their moral conduct. modern or ancient. The foundations of morality conducive of a Modern men are reasonable creatures. With well-ordered peaceful society are laid in the the advance in the facilities of education, they future rather than in the present, and the are becoming more and more reasonable. It is firmness and stability of those foundations therefore a paradox to find them living under a depend on the degree of the ability of men to 44 gigantic threat produced by socially suicidal view the aim of creating a suitable atmosphere proclivities, which in their turn are the for the effective operation of principles of outcome of unreason. It behoves modern men, morality that are based not only on present therefore, to ask themselves: whence does this welfare but also on welfare in the long distant unreason emanate? How does unreason future. In this context, the necessity that manage to become so important a factor within assumes primary importance is the prevention an atmosphere of so much education, so much of war, and not merely the obviation of the use knowledge, and so much logic? of nuclear weapons should war become an ultimate eventuality. War today, as in days If we are to accept the unbounded wisdom gone by, represents a breakdown of human enshrined in the teachings of Gotama, the reason, and when such a failure occurs it Buddha, the root cause of this unreason is would be unreasonable to expect any of the taṇhā, which has been translated as craving but belligerents to exercise some sanity by which includes all the various forms and restraining themselves in the use of the most manifestations of worldly desires, both lethal of weapons. tangible and intangible. And the way in which taṇhā can be kept under check and control so In the higher stages of attainment, the as to ensure the preservation of reason at all emphasis of the Buddha Dhamma is more times is succinctly and practically expressed in personal than social. Not only is the attempt an the direction appamādena sampādetha (Work individual concern, but the realization of these out your own salvation with mindfulness.) attainments enables one to transcend social disruptions and dislocations. In these days of a But the re-imposition of morality’s re-awakening within the Buddha Sāsanā, there influence is essentially a long-term project. are a good many who have it in their power to The weakening process of morality’s authority achieve these attainments, provided they has been gathering momentum within the last decide and do put forth the necessary effort. If two or three hundred years, and the ground that by this effort they reach these attainments, has been lost within these centuries cannot be then, from the personal point of view there is retrieved in a short period. In the meantime, nothing much that they need worry about their the threat of mankind’s near extinction exists own future. But inasmuch as mettā, or with dangerous propinquity, which, if it boundless loving-kindness, forms a necessary becomes a reality, will destroy and render ingredient of these attainments, it would still futile whatever efforts that may be put forth in be within their sphere to attempt the prevention the cause of the long-term project. Neither is of the outbreak of a total war, just as the All sufficient by itself in the context of present day Enlightened Buddha did in the case of the events. internecine strife between King Ajātasattu and The weakness of the short-term project lies King Pasenadī, of Kosala as is mentioned in in its inability to dispel the atmosphere of the Sagāthā Vagga of the Sattyutta Nikāya. 1 uncertainty. But whatever be the degree of this “Sabbe Sattā Averā Hontu” uncertainty, not to try would amount to defeatism—a resignation to the world being May all beings be peaceful plunged into a Dark Age darker than any of the Dark Ages that recorded history yet knows. What is important in this attempt is to keep in 1 Sagāthā Vagga, Saṃyutta Nikāya, p. 84, 6th Synod Edition.

45 NOTES AND NEWS GREAT RECITAL ON THE COMMENTARIES The Pāḷi Canon embodies the Word of the session 15 books of the Aṭṭhakathā were Buddha and the Aṭṭhakathās are commentaries recited. to it. The Pāḷi Canon is difficult both in its The Fourth Session will commence on the meaning and context. It is not easy to 18th November 1959 and it is anticipated that comprehend it with ordinary intelligence. the Session will last for about two months. In Therefore the Aṭṭhakathā is a very important this session 16 books of the remaining instrument for understanding the Buddha’s Aṭṭhakathās will be recited. Word. The Pāḷi Canon may be compared to a lock and the Commentaries to a key. It is Tipiṭakadhara (Pāḷi Text Reciter) Selection exegetical literature on the texts.. Examination. Since the Aṭṭhakathās are very important to With the main object of producing the understanding and appreciation of the outstanding bhikkhus who will be able to carry Buddha’s Word, there have been traditions the Text by heart, the Tipiṭaka-dhara Selection where they were scrutinised and recited at the Examinations have been conducted in the Great Recitals of ancient times. month of December annually at Hermitage Road, Kokine, Rangoon, under the auspices of For this reason the Government of the the Buddha Sāsana Nuggaha Association since Union of Burma gladly accepted the proposal 1948 C.E. of the Supreme Council that at the conclusion of the Pāḷi Text Sangāyanā the The Five Nikāyas which comprise the Great Recital on the Commentaries should be entire Tipiṭaka are divided into 9 parts for the held. purpose of the examination as follows:— The First Session of the Aṭṭhakathā 1. Five Books of . Sangāyanā took place from 26-12-56 and 2. Three Books ot Dīgha-Nikāya. came to a conclusion on 29-1-57. Some 250 3. The first Five Books of Abhidhamma learned bhikkhus from four other Theravādin Piṭaka. countries and the Union of Burma participated. In this Session 14 books of the Vinaya Piṭaka 4. The last Two Books of Abhidhamma Aṭṭhakathā, one book on the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Piṭaka and one book on the Dīgha Nikāya 5. Three Books of Majjhima Nikāya. (Sīlakkhandha)—altogether 6 volumes, were 6. Five Books of Saṃyutta Nikāya. recited. 7. Five Books of Aṅguttara Nikāya. The Second Session commenced on 11-11- 8. The first Five Books of Khuddaka 57 and terminated on 23-1-58, lasting 62 days. Nikāya (Suttanta). Like the previous session some 250 learned 9. The remaining Four Books of Khuddaka bhikkhus from the 5 Theravādin countries Nikā ya (Suttanta). participated. In this Session 13 books of the Aṭṭhakathā were recited. A candidate is required to learn any one part of the above nine and is required to sit for The Third Session commenced on 30-11-58 a written examination. One who passes in any and terminated on 10-2-59, lasting 61 days. one of these parts is given the title of ‘dhara’ Some 300 learned bhikkhus from the 5 relating to any part he sits for. Besides he is Theravādin countries participated. In this given a monthly stipend and various other articles offered by devout donors. 46 Since 1951 the entire responsibility of Higher Standard:—Same book—Chapters VII, conducting the Pāḷi-reciter Selection VIII and IX—Abhidhamma Terms, The Examination has been taken over by the Union Philosophy of Relations and Objects of Buddha Sāsana Council, but the annual Meditation. Examination is conducted through the Buddha The medium of examination is Burmese. Sāsana Nuggaha Association. The examination is by far the hardest examination and of the In all these standards, questions are set on highest standard in the world. The candidates the descriptions, analysis and elucidation of are required to learn the Text by heart and to causally-conditioned arising-and-passing be able to expound thoroughly every passage physical and mental phenomena. No viva voce contained therein. On account of its examination is held. extraordinary difficulty, very few candidates Application forms are obtainable from the have appeared for it and very few passed the Abhidhamma Examination Supervising same. The only bhikkhu who was able to recite Committees, the Regional Representatives of the whole of the Tipiṭaka and obtained over the Union Buddha Sāsana Council and Heads 90% in the written examinations of those parts of Abhidhamma Schools in the Union. is Venerable Tipiṭakadhara Applications are to be duly filled in, signed by Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika Vicittasārābhivaṃsa candidates and sent through the respective who acted as the Visajjaka (Reciter) in the Abhidhamma Examination Supervising Chaṭṭha Sangāyanā Proceedings with the Committees, to the Office of the Executive consent of the Saṅgīti-kāraka Mahātheras. Officer, Union Buddha Sāsana Council. The next Tipiṭakadhara Selection Every application has to be accompanied by Examination will commence on the 27th the following certificates:— December 1959 and will last for 32 days. 55 Bhikkhu candidates have enrolled for this 1. That the applicant is a lay-devotee or nun examination. who has never previously passed in a Pathamange Examination held by the Abhidhamma Examinations Government or a similar examinations; or With a view to diffusing the knowledge of 2. That the applicant is a lay-devotee or nun the essentials of the Abhidhamma (Higher who is sitting for one of the standards, in Doctrine) among the people of the Union of which he or she has never previously Burma, the Union Buddha Sāsana Council has passed. decided to hold Abhidhamma Examinations at various examination centres of the Union. The certificate has, in the case of pupils attending Abhidhamma Classes, to be attested SYLLABUS: by the Abhidhamma Teachers, or in the case of Elementary Standard:—(Abhidhammattha- private candidates by the Regional Saṅgaha) “A resume of all the essential Representatives. doctrines of the Abhidhamma. Every successful candidate obtains a Chapters I, II and III—Types of certificate and in addition, a money prize as Consciousness, Psychic Factors and prescribed by the rules of the Council. Miscellaneous. The next Abhidhamma Examinations will Middle Standard:—Same book—Chapters IV, be held at Rangoon and the various V and VI—Course of Cognition, Examination centres of the Union of Burma on Consciousness that does not come in the the 13th waxing of Nadaw 2503 B. E. (12-12- Course of Cognition and Material Qualities. 59 C.E.) and the two following days.

47 Abhidhamma (Honours) Examinations (c) Second day.—First paper: Purification by Knowledge and Vision of What Is and For those who have already passed the What Is Not Path. three standards of these examinations, a higher examination, the “Abhidhammattha- (d) Second paper: Purification by Knowledge Vibhāvanī-Tīkā Examination”, has been held and Vision of the Way. along with ordinary Abhidhamma (e) Third day.—First paper: Purification by Examinations since 1955. The Knowledge and Vision. “Abhidhammattha-Vibhāvanī-Tīkā” translated into Burmese and printed by the Union Buddha (f) Second paper: Paññābhābhavanānisa- Sāsana Council, is the prescribed textbook. ṃsaniddesa (The Benefits in developing Understanding and general). (Herein, The Examination is sub-divided into three “general” means miscellaneous questions standards—Lower Standard, Middle Standard on the “Practice of the Dhamma”.) and Higher Standard. A candidate is allowed to sit for one or all the three standards in a year. Every successful candidate obtains a certificate and in addition, special prizes as The Abhidhamma (Honours) Examinations prescribed by the rules of the Council. will be held for the fifth time at Rangoon and other Examination centres of the Union simultaneously with the ordinary Abhidhamma NEWS FROM ENGLAND Examinations which have been fixed for 12- 12-59 and the two following days. The Story of Thought waves Every successful candidate obtains a (A brief introduction to the work being done at certificate and in addition, a money prize as the Delawarr Laboratories, Oxford.) prescribed by the rules of the Council. Interesting experinents are being carried out Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification) at the Delawarr Laboratories, Oxford, showing Examination how thought waves can affect a photographic emulsion. It is possible that a new means of The Visuddhi-magga Examination will be communication can be developed. held for the third time at Rangoon and the various Examination centres of the Union By the skilled use of thought-energy most simultaneously with the Abhidhamma forms of life can be affected in some way or (Ordinary and Honours, Examinations on the other even at great distances. Human beings, 12th, 13th and 14th December 1959. animals, plants and soils can be stimulated and beneficial effects observed. In view of the far The prescribed text:—Burmese translation reaching implications of this a Mind and to the Visuddhimagga Part III, published by Matter Trust has been formed for the purpose the Union Buddha Sāsana Council, pages 229 of furthering the study what is termed “The to 603. Physics of the Primary State of Matter”. This There will be no grades in this embraces the study of thought wave effects. Examination. Six papers will be set in all and It has been found that many academically two papers will be examined every day. trained persons are resistant to the evidence Time table:— already obtained. Approximately 30 per cent of humanity, for reasons unknown, are either to (a) First day.—First paper: Purification of accept the evidence or are so directly Doubt. antagonistic that they supply negative thought (b) Second Paper: Purification by waves which counteract the positive results. Overcoming Doubt. 48 Irrefutable evidence is available, however, that evidence of the power of Mind over Matter is thought waves can be photographed. at variance with the current atomic theory. Experiments on blessing the soil and plant —From Religious Digest, July-September, have been carried out at these Laboratories and 1959. elsewhere that clearly show the effect obtained (We hope that if the experiments meet with on plant growth. The evidence is being success, they will be highly conducive to the collated and will be presented to an eminent solution of the theory of “Kammic Energy and scientist in due course. It is clear that such Rebirth”.- Ed.)

BOOK REVIEWS

BUDDHA’S WORDS OF WISDOM, DHAMMAPADA—A Practical Guide to compiled by G.F. Allen—l0s. 6d. nett. George Right Living—Translated by Venerable Allen and Murin, Ltd., London. Bhikkhu Buddharakkhita, and published by Maha Bodhi Society, Bangalore. No price Mr. Allen is well known among the mentioned. Buddhists both in Ceylon and Burma, and has added to the increasing number of Buddhist The author, Venerable Bhikkhu compendiums in English, a very Buddharakkhita has delivered a course of comprehensive handbook of quotations from about one hundred lectures on the the Pāḷi Canon. Mr. Allen has lived in Dhammapada at the Maha Bodhi Meditation monasteries in Burma, and in Ceylon as a Centre, Bangalore, and the present translation Buddhist monk, and as such is thoroughly was the outcome of those lectures. There exist acquainted with the Theravāda Buddhism many translations of the Dhammapada, but the professed by the people in those countries. He venerable Buddharakkhita took great pain in has selected 365 maxims from the selecting the most appropriate English Dhammapada and many other Suttas, and rendering. The book contains valuable notes, arranged them for each day of the year. The but it is a pity that the original Pāḷi was not maxims are short and can be easily memorised. given side by side along with the translation Some of the maxims may well serve as food for the use of those who wish to make a deeper for thought. This bedside book will prove study and read the verses in their original useful not only to the followers of the Buddha, richness. but also to the non-Buddhists. It ought to prove an indispensable book to all those who are interested in Buddhist literature. 49

“Consider, Brahman”, said the Exalted One, “Where the river Ganges has its source and where it reaches the sea. The sand that lies between, that is not easy to count—so many grains of sand, so many hundreds, so many thousands, so many hundred thousand grains of sand. More than that are the aeons that have passed and gone by. Them it is not easy to count:—so many aeons, so many hundreds, so many thousands, so many hundred thousands of aeons.” —Saṃyutta-nikāya, XV, 2-8.

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Brethren, there are these three sensations, born of phassa (contact), rooted in contact, related to contact, conditioned by contact. What three? Agreeable sensation, Disagreeable sensation and Indifferent sensation. Owing to contact there is to be experienced as agreeable, brethren, arises agreeable sensation. By the ceasing of that contact to be experienced as agreeable, that agreeable sensation—arises owing to that appropriate contact to be experienced as agreeable,—ceases, is quenched. Owing to contact that is to be experienced as disagreeable, brethren, arises disagreeable sensation. By the ceasing of that contact to be experienced as disagreeable, that disagreeable sensation arisen owing to appropriate contact, to be experienced as disagreeable, ceases and is quenched. So also as regards contact to be experienced as Indifferent.... Just as, brethren, from the putting together and rubbing together of two sticks warmth is born, heat is produced: as from the changing and parting of those two sticks the warmth so born ceases and is quenched,—just so, brethren, these three sensations born of contact, rooted in contact, related to contact, conditioned by contact, owing to appropriate contact so born,—these feelings so born come to cease.” Saṃyutta Nikāya, XXXVI, 1, 1.10.