Peter Bauer a True Friend of the World's Poor

PETER BAUER A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD'S POOR

SAUVIK CHAKRAVERTI

VIEWPOINT 4 Peter Bauer A True Friend of the World's Poor

Sauvik Chakraverti

n the west Bauer is being A friend who will be sorely missed. remembered as the man who And a friend who will one day be opposed foreign aid most read and honoured in every trenchantly. He called aid Economics classroom in the Third "government-to-government World and whose bust will be Itransfers" and said that they went prominently displayed in every from the poor of the developed Third World bazaar. world to the rich of the underde- A few days before Lord Bauer’s veloped. Margaret Thatcher was death, a report appeared in the strongly influenced by Bauer—she papers saying that the Delhi gov- was instrumental in getting him ernment was putting out posters elevated to the House of Lords in telling the citizens not to give alms 1982, and reportedly asked Third to beggars. Officials were quoted as World leaders at a Commonwealth saying that beggary had become an meeting to read Peter Bauer—but "industry" and a traffic hazard. even she did not close down And further, that judging by the Britain’s Office of Development sheer number of crippled Assistance (ODA). To the bleeding beggars—mainly children—they hearts brigade, Bauer’s opposition were sure there was a "supply to aid would make him an enemy chain" ensuring that cripples were of the world’s poor. In this tribute available in plenty for the trade. to the greatest development econo- If Lord Bauer were here, he mist that ever lived, I will take the would greet this news with a wry position that, contrary to the views smile. It was he who had first made of the bleeding hearts brigade, the penetrating observation that Bauer was really a true friend of widespread beggary on the streets the poor people of the Third World. of India and Pakistan is not a sign

2 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY of poverty; rather, this widespread beggary exists because the predominant communities in both countries, Hindus and Muslims respectively, believe they earn spir- itual merit by giving alms to the poor. This acute observation of his is dated 1965, and is contained in the very first chapter of his book criti- cising Indian planning. In his words: Hinduism and Islam, the two prin- cipal religions [of India], encourage begging, since they enjoin their follow- ers to support beggars. Both religions extol the contemplative life, especially that of the religious mendicant, which encourages the emergence of large numbers of both genuine and bogus Peter Bauer religious mendicants.1 plex as we scratch the surface of He pointed out that, in India, Third World poverty and look at there were no Sikh, Parsi, or Jain phenomena like widespread beg- beggars–because these communi- gary with a more critical eye. ties discourage beggary (a blot on Economics has a lot to do with the entire community), encourage observation. Great economists self-help, and practice collective have not been abstract theo- charity effectively. rists—the so called Ricardian vice Among the Sikhs, for example, is just that: a vice—and Lord Bauer the gurudwara hosts a daily langar was no abstract theorist. He was a where any poor person is free to keen observer. His piercing obser- eat to his heart's content. But with vation on beggary in India and it comes a positive motivational Pakistan has enormous implica- factor: the same poor man is tions if we want to put in place encouraged to go out, struggle, policies that will really help the earn a living, and one day host a poor. If the government of Delhi langar of his own for the poor. has woken up to the fact that beg- There is also a negative motivation- gary is an industry here, it is time al factor: if any Sikh is found beg- the entire planet went into a hud- ging, other Sikhs will come and dle to discuss what constitutes the beat him up! The question: Who is best charity. a true friend of the poor and who is an enemy begins to look more com-

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 3 The phenomenon of widespread give alms generously to beggary in India is best understood every beggar on the street by looking at an example from 3. Contribute to the nature. The road between Roorkee Missionaries of Charity or and Dehradun passes through a other such organisations thick forest. I often drive down this actually working to help road and never fail to notice that, at the poor. various points along the way, thou- sands of monkeys hang around waiting for the scraps of food that t is every person's duty to Hanuman worshippers2 throw at himself, his family and them. Does this prove that the for- Ihis society to help himself est is poor and resourceless? Or and not be a burden on does this illustrate the role of others. This is the only ethic incentives—what psychologists in a free society. Then, the call "positive reinforcement." The only economic policy that monkeys have discovered that should apply is complete hanging around by the road is a economic freedom—with cool way of getting food. Similarly which comes responsibility with beggars. Because civil society gives alms generously, many have found out that beggary is an easy I am happy to report that, after a mode of existence. These beggars brief introduction to basic Econ- do not prove that India is poor. omics, schoolchildren overwhelm- Rather, these beggars prove that ingly go for the third option. There Indian civil society is rich and gen- is no other way to meaningfully erous: indeed, overly generous. help poor people. It is a hard fact Lord Bauer's observations on beg- that life is a struggle against gary mean that global civil society adverse circumstances for all, and must reconsider charity. And then it is every person's duty to himself, the million-dollar question will be his family and his society to help raised: Do we need the state to himself and not be a burden on meaningfully help the poor? I often others. This is the only ethic in a go into schools and lecture on basic free society. Then, the only eco- Economics. The students appreci- nomic policy that should apply is ate free markets, but always ask: complete economic freedom with What about the poor? I then pose which comes responsibility. the question: Of the following It is Bauer who first championed ways to help the poor, which economic freedom for the world's would you choose and why: poor–at a time when the entire 1. Pay taxes to the state and Third World went in for massive ask it to help the poor state-directed development at the 2. Take direct action and advice of the World Bank and the

4 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY IMF. These architects of failed pol- possess the freedom to sell this icy manufactured permanent pov- extremely wonderful alcoholic erty in the Third World by aiding drink. There are countless Indians corrupt, predatory states which who can play musical instruments, economically repressed entire peo- sing and dance, but because the ples. It was Bauer, alone, who dis- State has outlawed the nightlife sented. As the Third World gives industry, they languish in poverty. up statism and moves to free mar- Bauer truly appreciated the eco- kets—and India is definitely pro- nomic skills of poor people in gressing in this direction—it is Africa and Asia. He noted, for Bauer who emerges as the tower- example, how, because of low pur- ing hero. An Economic Times edito- chasing power, retailers would rial obituary on Lord Bauer was break down bulk to extremely titled: He told us so…Bauer emerges small portions: in Africa, you could as a friend of the world's poor for buy matchsticks in pairs; and in another, and equally important India, cigarette vendors regularly reason: he appreciated their facul- sell loose cigarettes. His studies on ties. In the fashionable circles of the rubber industry in Malaya sang development economics, most illu- praises to the ingenuity of small striously represented by the writ- traders who actually managed to ings of Leftists like Gunnar Myrdal collectively farm more rubber than and Amartya Sen—both Nobel the colonials. Thus, Bauer is always Prize winners—the poor of the to be found blasting what he Third World are looked upon as famously called "the denial of the stupid, illiterate ne'er-do-wells, economic principle:" the fact that while their ruling elite are consid- development economics considered an "intellectual-moral elite."3 ered Third World poor to be sub- Neither speak of economic freedom: India is ranked 122 in the World Economic Freedom Index 2001, and Amartya Sen makes no noises about it. He stresses the role of the state in educating the poor. Like Gunnar Myrdal, he considers the poor to be stupid, and the per- sonnel of the State to be in posses- sion of knowledge which will help the poor. Any student of Bauer would point out that poor tribals living in the jungles of Central India possess the knowledge to dis- til mahua from a jungle flower of the same name, but they do not

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 5 human—i.e., something less than mon man." Homo Economicus. To students of In India, it is now a horrific truth Lord Bauer, this 'denial of the eco- that the State is a predator on the nomic principle' is nothing less informal sector. After an aggres- than a crime against humanity: the sive, high-profile campaign by construction of a politico-economic Manushi, even the Prime Minister's system stressing state power by office has been forced to concede assuming the people to be econom- that hawkers, street vendors and ically incapable and irrational. Go rickshaw pullers in Delhi alone to any Third World market and you will see the poorest of the poor bargaining hardest and scouting verything Lord Bauer around most energetically for the stood for has been best deals—while the rich get easi- Evindicated; while the ly conned! Notice also that politi- people in whom Gunnar cians and bureaucrats in the Third Myrdal and Amartya Sen placed World are corrupt, ignorant and so much faith are now openly that they command not respect, but seen as members of Count fear. They possess no functional Dracula's tribe: blood-sucking legitimacy: not a single function of vampires State, starting from traffic regula- tion, is carried out well. It was Bauer who appreciated the poor, cough up 50 crore rupees every and first warned about what eco- month in illegal bribes to police nomic totalitarianism would and municipal functionaries. So we degenerate to. It is high time the have come a long way from "the entire Economics profession stood denial of the economic principle." firm against '"he denial of the eco- We have travelled all the way to nomic principle." "the predatory state". Everything Bauer's appreciation of the eco- Lord Bauer stood for has been vindicat- nomic abilities of the Third World ed; while the people in whom Gunnar poor had a very direct positive ben- Myrdal and Amartya Sen placed so efit: it led to academic interest in much faith are now openly seen as what has since come to be known members of Count Dracula's tribe: as the informal sector. It is estimat- blood-sucking vampires. ed that, in South Asia, the informal But Bauer did much more than sector is growing much faster than merely appreciate the economic its formal counterpart–and this is skills of the people: he was the first living testament to the economic to stress that they were an econom- skills of the people: something ic resource. He strongly opposed Bauer was the first to appreciate. Malthusianism in the Third World- His song was a "fanfare to the com- the "population problem" wallahs— and this was long before Julian

6 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY Simon hit the scene.4 Bauer noted girl, Aastha, was billed as India's that there was no correlation "one billionth" citizen last year: between poverty and population then, the representative of the UN growth rates (or density). He also Fund for Population Activities said that the First World had (UNFPA) in Delhi said: This is not quadrupled its population since an occasion to celebrate. Are we 1800, but incomes had gone up supposed to celebrate death even more. Bauer's prescription for instead? The birth of a little calf stabilising human numbers was brings joy to the cowherd. Is the simple: increased commercial con- birth of a little human not an occa- tact between nations and people so sion of great joy? Why did people that urbanisation and development in the old days say: May your tribe would occur. This is a very impor- increase? tant area where Bauer stands tall: Bauer stands tall as one who he stood for the freedom of people argued against Malthusianism. to reproduce as they deem fit. To With Julian Simon's work follow- him: "The central issue in popula- ing him, and now with the bio-tech tion policy is whether the number revolution, the last nails in of children people have should be Reverend Malthus' coffin have decided by the parents or by the been hammered in. Soon, the agents of the state."5 The "popula- Indian Parliament, the United tion problem" wallahs unleashed Nations and an entire host of econ- tyrannical statist forces on the omists will stand in disgrace for world's poor in the name of con- having considered human infants a trolling human numbers. In India, problem. Bauer will not be one of Sanjay Gandhi's program of forced them. He was a friend of people, all mass sterilisation is fresh memory. people, and he considered them a In China they enforced the "one- resource and their children invalu- child norm" because of which an entire generation of Chinese have 'no brothers, no sisters, no cousins, no uncles, no aunts, two parents and four doting grandparents'. In India, on the 50th anniversary of freedom from colonial rule, the Parliament of India, in an unani- mous resolution, said that population was India's biggest problem: that is, the representatives of the people were saying that their con- stituents are a problem! This is a Parliament—against the people! With much fanfare, a little baby

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 7 able. In the West, to win elections, ous that, if immigration were free, one skill every politician must be people would opt to pay taxes to able to demonstrate is the art of governments of their choice and, in kissing babies. In the Third World, quick time, predatory states, at least in India, where 'population tyrants, rogue dictators and the problem' propaganda has made like would have no taxpayers left. everyone look at every new-born They would be out of business baby with disgust, this skill is without any "global cop." Instead noticeably absent. Once Bauer's teachings have percolated far and wide, the Indian people will expect their representatives to value their offspring and at least ensure that the roads are safe. People are dying on the streets—over 2,000 people died on the streets of Delhi alone last year—and these morons don't care because they believe they are solving the "population problem". Who is a friend of the world's poor? Lord Peter Thomas Bauer? Or these aid agencies, these bleeding hearts, and these international development organisations like the of this happy scenario, in which UNDP, UNFPA, World Bank and government itself faces the market IMF—which prop up these cor- test, these anti-freedom forces keep rupt, ignorant regimes, and who the Third World poor locked in are arbiters of knowledge in devel- with predatory regimes which they opment economics? prop up. And where they go about "alleviating" poverty. Are these he greatest enemies of poor people who travel all over the people are those who oppose Third World in air-conditioned Tfree immigration often under Pajeros true friends of the world's the guise of the "population prob- poor? Or is it someone like Lord lem." They divide the world into Bauer, who carefully studied and nation-states and expect people to reported on the adverse effects of be indentured to their govern- immigration control in Africa ments. In the world of today, there when the continent was divided are just a handful of good govern- into nation-states?6 ments. A predominant majority of Only those who despise poor the members of the United Nations people believe in immigration con- are predatory states whose policies trol. They have nightmares about keep people poor. It is fairly obvi- their countries being swamped by

8 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY the Third World poor. They do not consider these poor people to be auer emerges as a resourceful and energetic econom- true friend of poor ic actors who will soon generate people when he wealth for themselves and their B stands for free immigration adopted homeland. America was and rubbishes the built by poor refugees—and the "population problem." Statue of Liberty says: Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, the wretched Third World poor, let us proceed to refuse of your teeming shore. Send inquire as to what other contribu- these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me. tions his acute powers of observa- I lift my lamp beside the golden door. tion made to our understanding of But not many Americans believe in the Third World. One particular these words any more. Immigra- observation that ranks very high in tion control has degenerated into a my mind is his noting of the fact racket. Hundreds of Punjabi youth that urban overcrowding and have reportedly drowned in the astronomical prices of urban land Mediterranean, off Greece, trying were not due to "overpopulation" to enter Europe illegally. Punjab is but due to the absence of transport India's richest state. Punjabis are connections between cities and great migrants: satellite towns. There was no real National Geographic recently shortage of land; there was a short- reported the case of a Sardarji oper- age of roads. That is, the "popula- ating a tea-shop in Anchorage, tion problem" was impressionistic: Alaska! Punjabi taxi-drivers are a false impression created by poli- found in every Indian city. Punjabis cies that did not allow the people to are also superb entrepreneurs. If spread out evenly over the territory. you travel through the localities of In his essay "Population, Delhi which were peopled by Welfare and Development: Gloom refugees from West Punjab (after Dispelled" (cited above) he says the Partition of India)—they are all quite clearly: "In any case, undesir- rich today. Punjabis are a valuable able crowding in large cities is not economic resource. But because of a function of their size and growth, immigration control, this resource much less of the growth of the is being allowed to perish in the national population: it is the waters of the Mediterranean. Lord inevitable consequence of the pric- Bauer emerges as a true friend of ing of housing and transport, unre- poor people when he stands for lated to the scarcity of these free immigration and rubbishes the resources." (p26). "population problem." This is particularly true in India. I Having established that Peter live in Delhi—the capital of socialist Bauer was a real, true friend of the

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 9 India. Here, the state has not invest- ed in roads at all, although there is a lot of hot air about a National Capital Region comprising many adjoining towns. Delhi does not possess a seamless ring road. There are no proper roads to any satellite town. This is why the capital is bloating while the satellite towns are de-populating. All in-migration focuses on the city. And because transport connections do not exist, people have to live close to work— hence overcrowding. The state had made a monopoly out of housing, money, I would build even more but it did not invest in roads. roads. Take that, you who call for This is true of every Indian city- the role of the state in education. all built in colonial times. They This State cannot educate people. It have all been destroyed while the is itself in need of education. These State and its planners and devel- planners have manufactured per- opment administrators pursue manent poverty. rural development and panchayati raj. Village Mangur is 20 kms from nother great contribution Indira Gandhi's Mehrauli farm- house (which is now well within of Bauer is his definition city limits)—but there is no road. Aof poverty. Poverty, he The people own what could be said, indicates just one thing: the valuable real estate-but they are absence of economic achievement. poor. The same is true of Koppa, 20 Then he went on to add: km from Bangalore's Brigade Road. Economic achievements are made I could give examples from every in markets. People are poor Indian city and town. This is the because they cannot access mar- story all over India. What are kets—as in the case of villagers panchyati raj and rural develop- without roads. Or, when they do ment without road connections go to market, the market is not between villages and towns? Just truly open and free, and they are the most perverted kind of clien- telism. It was Bauer who pointed therefore unable to make as great out that this was happening long an achievement as they would ago. As a student of Bauer, I say: If otherwise have. This is the case I had money, I would build roads; with Mr and Mrs Gupta and their if I had more money, I would build three children going about court- more roads; if I had even more ing death on a scooter. They

10 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY would have been safe in a car if is full of rags-to-riches stories. the market had been free for sec- Indeed, inherited wealth is often a ond-hand car imports. People of curse, and the children of rich peo- the Third World are going about ple often settle down to a life of working hard, generat- idleness, luxury and ing wealth. They are vice. Instead of teach- poor because markets hey do not ing the truth-that are not free. This under- get truth. poverty is a motiva- standing of poverty that TThey are not tor—the socialist Sta- we have today is a great told how wealth is te is teaching this contribution of Lord created by complete nonsense humans—and Bauer's. It is therefore and thereby destroy- humans alone. natural for Lord Bauer ing the vital élan in Instead, they are to ridicule the corner- taught that they our youth. Eager, stone of development and their brethren young minds come economics: the theory of are the "population seeking knowledge. the Vicious Circle of problem;" and, They do not get Poverty (VCP). This lit- further, that knowledge. They do tle piece of nonsense poverty is not get truth. They holds that poor people inescapable are not told how and poor nations are wealth is created by trapped in poverty, from humans—and hum- which they cannot escape without ans alone. Instead, they are taught State help, including foreign aid. that they and their brethren are the This theory was the first thing "population problem;" and, further, taught to me as an undergraduate that poverty is inescapable. They student in Economics in Delhi are taught that the future for them University in 1974. Things have and their nation is bleak. improved since: they now teach Is Amartya Sen calling for a role this rubbish in Class 9! of the State in education? My son Lord Bauer dismisses the VCP entered Class 9 last year in one of with a mere "if the hypothesis were India's best ICSE schools. I saw his true, the world would still be in the Economics textbook and advised him to drop out of school. I gave Stone Age." He adds: "Capital is the him a guitar and said: "Son, learn result of economic achievement, music. If you have music in your not its precondition." These are soul, the rest will invariably look very important words. Every after itself. This 'education' will kill nation that is rich today started off your brain." It is then that I decided poor—including America. History to write a primer on Political

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 11 Economy for young children. India. To develop, the people of the Bauer stands tall as one who North-East require an internation- demolished VCP. He stood for alised economy. Today, they have Truth. In Lord Bauer's view, the to go to Calcutta to shop. They are rural people were not poor; they not poor. were needless. All that they wanted, Another of Bauer's great contri- they obtained from nature. Since butions to our understanding of they had no other needs, they did the fallacies of "planned develop- not work for the market. Bauer's ment" is the unnecessary stress pol- prescription: not aid, not state-led icy makers in the developing world "development", but the letting have placed on export promotion. loose of traders with incentive Bauer is the only one who said that goods. A poor villager would see a countries like India are not poor radio, desire it, and go about ener- because they cannot export; they getically climbing coconut trees, are poor because they cannot pro- harvesting the fruit, selling it in the duce! The shoddy infrastructure market, and making enough to buy limits the ability of the people to the radio. Without the radio— produce. If that was tackled, and without free trade and traders— the market freed (and this includes there were no incentives to work in the labour market) India could the market economy. This observa- become one the world's leading tion is particularly true of North- manufacturing destinations. In his East India -the poorest and most own words: underdeveloped region of socialist Neither in developed nor in underdeveloped economies is there particular merit in directing resources towards exports or eople of the Third import-saving activities instead of World are going simply trying to ensure that they about working hard, P are deployed to contribute most to generating wealth. They present or future output. The dis- are poor because markets tinction between activities yielding are not free. This or saving foreign exchange and understanding of poverty other activities becomes material that we have today is a only if the national currency is great contribution of Lord overvalued in the sense that the Bauer's. It is therefore foreign exchange earned or saved, natural for Lord Bauer to expressed in local currency, under- ridicule the corner-stone of states the contribution of these development economics: resources to the flow of income. In the theory of the Vicious the absence of an overvaluation of Circle of Poverty (VCP) the exchange rate in this sense, any increase in national output makes

12 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY the same contribution to available goods and services, regardless of destination. Thus it follows that the capacity to export or to import does not set up obstacles for development distinct from those stem- ming from the limited capacity to produce.7 Export promotion is just a racket run by the ministry of com- merce. If someone came into your shop and bought, say, a briefcase, would it bother you if he took the briefcase to the house next door or carried it all the way to Singapore? money that marks Peter Bauer's The destination (and the origin) of work is something that is extreme- a good is of no consequence to any ly relevant today, when many market transaction. This under- Third World currencies are collaps- standing of the Third World was a ing. All these currencies are singular contribution of Peter monopolistically issued by states. Bauer. The Bretton Woods system that So what was Peter Bauer's created the IMF and World Bank mantra for the economic uplift- had envisaged a planet divided ment of the Third World? To sum it into nation states, each with the up: free trade, free immigration, essential trappings of sovereignty-- sound money and property rights. which included a central bank. He stood for the eternal verities of Developing countries do not need classical liberal political economy. central banks. Corrupt regimes His emphasis on sound money cannot be allowed to monopolisti- makes him an honest economist, cally issue money and control the one who always opposed debase- allocation of credit. It is time the ment. Bauer and BR Shenoy are the entire profession of economists only economists who opposed the came out strongly on this issue. deficit financing carried out to The future of globalisation fund Nehru's ambitious Second depends on it. Free trade is not Five Year Plan. Bauer went on to possible without freely tradeable repeat on many an occasion that currencies. Globalisation, the free- India's subsequent balance of paying of capital flows internationally, ments problems were all caused by and the consequent inability of this episode of money creation: many Third World central banks to debasement would be a better cope, means that the Bretton word. The emphasis on sound Woods twins have outlived their

BAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR 13 utility. They should both be closed which makes it easier for the poli- down, and open currency competi- cymakers to carry out policies and tion instituted. Sound money is measures which they had planned. something Peter Bauer laid great I think this was the situation in stress on.8 India at the time of the Second Five Lastly, some words on the influ- Year Plan. The signatories of the ence of Lord Peter Thomas Bauer. Majority Report appeared to be While paying a tribute to his influential since the plan accorded friend, the economist BR Shenoy with their views. In reality, they who opposed Nehruvian planning, simply endorsed what the govern- Bauer wrote some telling lines on ment of the day wished to do in Shenoy's influence—and these any case. So they had little influ- words apply equally to Bauer him- ence either on thought or on policy. self. Bauer wrote that Shenoy will In contrast, Shenoy's conduct and not be considered influential in the views influenced a number of peo- standard sense because his open ple in India and beyond.9 dissent meant that the powers-that- Those who meekly went along be ignored him and let him lan- with the government did not exer- guish in the backwoods. Looked at cise any influence of their own: in this light, the economists who they were mere yes-men. In the supported planning in India will long run, it is people like Shenoy be considered influential. Bauer who really exert an influence on said this assessment of a man's society. influence was not accurate. The same is true of Peter Bauer. The political unacceptability or unpopularity of an opinion does not mean that its proponent is less influential than are those whose views are more readily accepted. These latter are sometimes known as realists. There is often a high correlation between the advice ten- dered by economists and the policy adopted without this indicating that the advisers exercise influence in any meaningful sense. They may only advise policymakers to do what the latter intend to do in any case. Indeed, they may have been selected as advisers because the policymakers anticipated that they would tender the kind of advice

14 CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETY References

1 P T Bauer, Indian Economic Policy and Development (Bombay:Popular Prakashan,1965).

2 Hanuman is a monkey-God. Devout Hindus see Hanuman in all monkeys and offer them food.

3 For a detailed discussion of the Bauer-Myrdal debate, see Thomas Sowell, A Conflict of Visions: Ideological Origins of Political Struggles (New York: Quill, 1987).

4 For his most powerful argument against the Malthusians, see Population Growth: Curse or Blessing? (Centre for Independent Studies: Occasional Paper, 1990). See also "Population, Welfare, and Development: Gloom Dispelled" in The Development Frontier: Essays in Applied Economics (London:Harvester Wheatsheaf , 1991). 1 The Development Frontier, Ibid. p.21.

5 "The Economics of Post-War Immigration Policy in British West Africa" in Reality and Rhetoric: Studies in the Economics of Development (Weidenfeld and Nicholson: London, 1984)

6 P T Bauer, The Development Frontier: Essays in Applied Economics (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf,1991,p. 150).

7 This emphasis is seen through all his work, beginning with his dissent on India's second five-year plan cited above.

8 P T Bauer, "BR Shenoy: Stature and Impact," Cato Journal. Vol.18, Number 1, Spring/ Summer 1998. http://cato.org/pubs/journal/cj18n1-1.pdf CENTRE FOR CIVIL SOCIETYBAUER: A TRUE FRIEND OF THE WORLD’S POOR