Topography and Flight: the Creative Application of Aerial Photography and Digital Visualisation for Landscape Heritage
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Topography and flight: The creative application of aerial photography and digital visualisation for landscape heritage Kieran Andrew Baxter, BA (Hons), MSc Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy DUNCAN OF JORDANSTONE COLLEGE OF ART AND DESIGN UNIVERSITY OF DUNDEE With thanks to October 2017 [Open access version] Contents Contents 1 List of Figures 5 Abstract 8 Research activities 9 Conference papers 9 Relevant publications 9 Acknowledgements 10 Declaration 11 Introduction 12 Chapter 1 - Aerial photography: The cultural resistance of the technological image 17 1.1 Introduction 17 1.2 Wartime reconnaissance 19 1.2.1 Optical warfare 19 1.2.2 The heroic aviator 20 1.3 The modernising aerial view 21 1.3.1 Rural planning 22 1.3.2 Urban planning 23 1.4 Global ecology and local environment 24 1.4.1 Patrick Geddes and the Outlook Tower 25 1.4.2 Globalisation and postcolonial imperialism 27 1.4.3 Environmentalism 29 1.5 Aerial archaeology 31 1.5.1 The typography of aerial observation 31 1.5.2 Visualisation beyond vision 32 1.6 Drones and remote sensing 34 1.6.1 Narrativisation of surveillance warfare 34 1.6.2 Civil applications of drones and remote sensing 36 1.7 Summary 37 Chapter 2 - Aerial artworks: Creative responses to the experience of flight 40 2.1 Introduction 40 2.2 Modern painting and the aerial view 41 1 2.2.1 Tullio Crali 42 2.2.2 Paul Nash 43 2.2.3 Peter Lanyon 43 2.2.4 Yvonne Jacquette 44 2.3 Aerial art-photography 45 2.3.1 Margaret Bourke-White 46 2.3.2 Emmet Gowin 47 2.3.3 Marilyn Bridges 48 2.3.4 Georg Gerster 50 2.3.5 Yann Arthus-Bertrand 50 2.3.6 Patricia Macdonald 51 2.4 Summary 54 Chapter 3 - New Media: Cinematic illusion and virtual reality 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Magic and realism in new media 58 3.2.1 From stage to screen 59 3.2.2 Computer generated photorealism 61 3.2.3 Stereoscopy 63 3.3 The flying camera 64 3.3.1 Early cinema in flight 64 3.3.2 Visual effects cinematography 65 3.4 Embodiment and virtual reality 67 3.4.1 The obstructions and freedoms of digital presence 68 3.4.2 Immersive virtual reality 69 3.5 Summary 70 Chapter 4 - Archaeological vision: From the Romantic to the Postmodern 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Romantic vision 74 4.2.1 Landscape painting: Beauty and the sublime 75 4.2.2 Neo-Romantics 77 4.3 Land art 78 4.4 Post-processual landscape archaeology 81 4.4.1 Landscape visualisation and GIS 82 2 4.4.2 Phenomenology of landscape 83 4.5 Solutions in creative practice 85 4.5.1 Temporality, embodiment and photography 86 4.5.2 Grounding the aerial view 89 4.5.3 Interpretation for public engagement 92 4.5.4 CGI and moving image 94 4.6 Summary 96 Chapter 5 - Methodology 98 5.1 Introduction 98 5.2 The research-practice 99 5.2.1 Fieldwork 100 5.2.2 Lab work 105 5.2.3 Evaluation 107 5.3.4 Aesthetic approach 107 5.3 Summary 109 Chapter 6 - Main case study: The Caterthuns 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 The site 112 6.3 The research-practice 117 6.3.1 Fieldwork 118 6.3.2 Lab work 124 6.4 The film outcome 128 6.4.1 Audience response 129 6.4.2 Survey: Visualising the Caterthuns 130 6.5 Summary 137 Chapter 7 - Supporting case studies 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Approaching Links of Noltland 139 7.2.1 Fieldwork 141 7.2.2 Lab work 142 7.2.3 The outcome 145 7.3 SERF hillforts of Strathearn 146 7.3.1 Fieldwork 147 3 7.3.2 Lab work 148 7.3.3 The outcome 149 7.4 Summary 151 Chapter 8 - Conclusion 152 8.1 Lived experience and visualisation technologies 152 8.2 The contribution of creative practice 153 8.3 Impact 154 8.4 Future directions 157 8.5 Concluding points 160 References 162 Appendix A - Artist interviews 173 Email interview with Dr Patricia Macdonald, April 2013 173 Email interview with Marilyn Bridges, September 2016 176 Email interview with Dr Aaron Watson, March 2017 178 Appendix B - Visualising the Caterthuns questionnaire 182 Appendix C - Visualising the Caterthuns example images 185 Appendix D - TAG-On-Sea 2013 Conference poster 190 Appendix E - Aerial photography exhibition posters 191 High & Low exhibition of aerial photographs, Falkland Centre for Stewardship, 2013 191 Above the Tay exhibition of aerial photographs, Discovery Point, Dundee, 2016 192 [Additional appendices included in the original thesis submission have been redacted in this open access version in order to comply with copyright law.] 4 List of Figures [Additional figures included in the original thesis submission have been redacted in this open access version in order to comply with copyright law.] 0.1 Prehistoric settlement site at Jarlshof, Shetland. Kite aerial photograph by the author, 2012. 13 0.2 Digital topographical map derived from aerial photographs showing subtle archaeological features, 15 Castle Law Forgandenny Iron Age hillfort site in Perthshire. Created by the author, 2013. 0.3 Castle Law Forgandenny Iron Age hillfort site with the Earn valley behind. Oblique aerial 15 photograph taken by the author, 2013. 1.1 "The Blue Marble", cropped from photograph AS17-148-22727 taken on December 7, 1972, by 18 the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft at a height of about 18,000 miles. Public domain image. 1.2 The camera obscura on the roof of the Edinburgh Outlook Tower building purchased by Patrick 26 Geddes in 1892. Photograph by the author, 2016. 1.3 Emblem with cross-section of the camera obscura on the top of the Edinburgh Outlook Tower. 26 Views of the city are projected onto a horizontal screen and observed from above. Photograph by the author, 2016. 1.4 “Earthrise” photograph taken from Apollo 8 spacecraft from moon orbit, December 24, 1968. 28 Public domain image. 2.1 Marilyn Bridges, “Side, Imperial Hall”, 2004. © Marilyn Bridges, 2004, used with permission. 49 2.2 Patricia Macdonald, The Play Ground series, “No. 6: Burnt Moorland: Grouse Shooting”, 1999. © 53 Patricia Macdonald, used with permission. 3.1 An avatar flying above a CGI environment. Cathedral reconstruction by the Open Virtual Worlds 68 group, University of St Andrews, © (CC-BY). 4.1 Frames from a “Trans-scape” animation of Ballymeanoch standing stones, Aaron Watson, 2008. 87 © Aaron Watson, used with permission. 4.2 Aerial photograph of Castlerigg stone circle taken from light aircraft. Photograph by the author. 90 4.3 Ground level photograph looking out from Castlerigg stone circle to the landscape beyond. 90 Photograph by the author. 5.1 The research-practitioner participating in excavations at Castle Law Forgandenny hillfort. 100 Photograph by Dr Alice Watterson, 2014. 5.2 Brougham Castle near Penrith, Cumbria, with the earthwork remains of a Roman camp visible in 101 the lower left as a “shadow site”. High aerial photograph by the research-practitioner, 2013. 5.3 The research-practitioner and a Cessna 172 light aircraft used for high aerial photography. 102 Photograph by Kieran Duncan, 2014. 5.4 The research-practitioner photographing from a Cessna 172. Photograph by Kieran Duncan, 103 2013. 5.5 A wide angle, low altitude view of St Andrews Cathedral. Kite aerial photograph by the research- 104 practitioner, 2013. 6.1 White Caterthun with Brown Caterthun behind. Oblique aerial photograph taken from light aircraft 113 5 by the research-practitioner, 2013. 6.2 Brown Caterthun with White Caterthun behind. Oblique aerial photograph taken from light aircraft 113 by the research-practitioner, 2013. 6.3 The location of White and Brown Caterthun. Map data © OpenStreetMap contributors and SRTM, 114 map style © OpenTopoMap (CC-BY-SA). 6.4 “The White Catter-Thun”, engraving from A Tour in Scotland, Thomas Pennant, 1772. Public 115 domain image. 6.5 Cup-marked stone at White Caterthun. Photograph by the research-practitioner, 2012. 117 6.6 Snow reveals a large circular enclosure, kite aerial photograph by the research-practitioner, 2013. 119 6.7 Collecting kite aerial photography at White Caterthun. Photograph taken from the kite line, 2012. 121 6.8 Filming at the cup marked stone using a tracking dolly and jib. Photograph by Kieran Duncan, 121 2013. 6.9 The research-practitioner photographing from a Cessna 172. Photograph by Dr Alice Watterson, 123 2015. 6.10 Martin Groves flying a DJI Inspire 1 UAV at White Caterthun, photograph by the research- 123 practitioner, 2015. 6.11 Components of a visual effects sequence moving from ground level to high altitude, from "The 125 Caterthuns" film. 6.12 White Caterthun, oblique kite aerial photography by the research-practitioner, 2013. 126 6.13 Digital reconstruction sketch of White Caterthun by the research-practitioner, 2014. 126 6.14 Draft layout of the 3D interpretative reconstruction at White Caterthun by Dr Alice Watterson, 127 2014. 6.15 Still frames from “The Caterthuns” film outcome. 128 6.16 The author (right) and collaborator Dr Alice Watterson (centre) receiving the 2016 AHRC 130 Research in Film Doctoral Award presented by Jan Dalley (left), November 2016. 6.17 The five example images used in the questionnaire. For larger versions see appendix C. 132 6.18 Mean reported ratings of existing familiarity from each group. 134 6.19 Results of survey comparing five example images against five criteria. 135 6.20 The reported extent to which “The Caterthuns” film added to each of the criteria for both groups.