TESTING A CONDITIONAL PROCESS MODEL FOR THE

DIFFUSION OF USE OF "NONPROFESSIONAL"

JOURNALISM

by

David Alma Harris

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Communication

The University of Utah

December 2014 Copyright © David Alma Harris 2014

All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School

STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL

The dissertation of David Alma Harris _ has been approved by the following supervisory committee members:

Jakob D. Jensen , Chair 6/10/14 _

Date Approved Kevin Coe , Member 6/10/14 _

Date Approved Glen M. Feighery , Member 6/10/14 _

Date Approved Avery E. Holton , Member 6/10/14 _

Date Approved L. Paul Husselbee , Member 6/10/14 _

Date Approved and by Kent A. Ono , Chair of

the Department of Communication _ and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School ABSTRACT

Using a survey of 167 professional journalists, this study examined the motivations to adopting what is defined in the study as “nonprofessional” journalism.

Previous research was used to provide for a definition of “nonprofessional” journalism as being related to professional journalism ethics. Diffusion of Innovations Theory provided a framework for determining the factors that may or may not be motivating the decision.

The sample used in the study was journalists who held a management-level title at a newspaper in the United Stated. The data were analyzed using conditional process analysis, which allowed for the development of a model that tested for moderated mediation over various paths of thinking involved in the decision. Results show that professional journalists are willing to publish content produced by nonprofessionals when there is either a social need or an economic need in doing so. Furthermore, they are not as concerned about professional journalism ethics where they perceive a social need, but they are when there is an economic need, under certain conditions. Dedicated to my wife. Without her patience and love

this great accomplishment could not have happened. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... vii

Chapters

I INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Rationale ...... 9

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 12

Nonprofessional Journalism ...... 12 Journalism Ethics ...... 30 Theoretical Perspective ...... 50 Hypotheses and Research Questions ...... 55

III METHOD ...... 58

Design ...... 58 Measure ...... 69 Analysis ...... 70

IV RESULTS ...... 77

Scale Construction and Correlation Matrix ...... 77 Conditional Process Modeling ...... 81

V DISCUSSION ...... 85

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research ...... 94 Conclusion ...... 97

Appendices

A MEASURE OF JOURNALISTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD NONPROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM ...... 99

B mPLUS CODE USED IN POWER ANALYSIS ...... 102

C NEWSPAPERS INCLUDED IN THE SURVEY ...... 105

REFERENCES ...... 176

vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks is given to Jakob Jensen, whose keen intellect in the ways of advanced statistical techniques provided for very informative and entertaining evenings over a long-distance Skype connection. Thanks also to the other members of my committee, Avery Holton, Glen Feighery, Kevin Coe, and Paul Husselbee. Without their direction and support, this project would not be what it is today.

Thanks also to my family: Shelly, Jaycee, Luke, Ashlee, and Jeffrey. It is a monumental task to complete this level of research. Without their support, it could not happen. I feel I can now step back out into the sunshine of the day, rub my eyes, and try to remember what it was like to enjoy life. Playing with the children is what life is all about. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The institution of journalism has overcome numerous threats over the past 2 centuries (Schudson, 1973). At the dawn of the 21st century, journalism is threatened once again, this time with concerns about declining readership, loss of advertising revenue, and increasing utilization and competition from nonprofessional journalists (Scott, 2005).

Of these concerns, it has been argued that the latter poses the greatest threat as nonprofessional journalists challenge professional journalism’s role as gatekeeper. “The venerable profession of journalism finds itself at a rare moment in history where, for the first time, its hegemony as gatekeeper of the news is threatened by not just new technology and competitors but, potentially, by the audience it serves” (Bowman &

Willis, 2003, p. 9). Thus, journalism is under the “normalizing gaze” (Foucault, 1995, p.

184) of the “professionals” who are seeking to fit the standards of a participatory system into the hierarchical structure of gatekeeping (Singer, 2008). This process of normalization has occurred with the internet in general. What once was free and open to all has now become a commercialized, megascale shopping mall and 24/7 commercial break, which has encompassed all forms of media before it (Margolis & Resnick, 2000).

Margolis and Resnick call it their “normalization thesis” where political pressure comes 2 from, not only what Lessig (2006) calls East Coast and West Coast Code, the laws that govern the internet from a policy point-of-view and from a programmer’s point-of-view, but also from commercial and political actors who wish to use the web to suit their will and pleasure. The normalization thesis emphasizes “the fact that cyberspace is taking on the characteristics of ordinary life” (p. 2), meaning that it is subject to the corruption, hegemony, and hierarchical structure found in the noncyber world. The normalization thesis is not without its detractors (Wright, 2012). However, it is beneficial to the study of journalism because it notes “that those who have been powerful in the past—the established organizations, the wealthy, and the privileged—are moving into cyberspace and taking their advantages with them” (p. 208).

Before the 20th century, journalism flourished as a means for every day citizens to

“get the word out” regarding events that happened in their local community. Indeed, it was difficult for news to spread more than a few miles because of the lack of electronic communication. News generally travelled in a word-of-mouth fashion with neighbors telling others what they saw. News was essentially a form of gossip. Journalists received no formal training in news production and distribution. McChesney (2003) states,

The notion that journalism should be politically neutral, nonpartisan, professional, even “objective,” did not emerge until the 20th century. During the first two or three generations of the republic such notions for the press would have been nonsensical, even unthinkable. The point of journalism was to persuade as well as inform, and the press tended to be highly partisan. The free press clause in the First Amendment to the constitution was seen as a means to protect dissident political viewpoints, as most newspapers were closely linked to political parties. It was understood that if the government could outlaw or circumscribe newspapers, it could effectively eliminate the ability of opposition parties or movements to mobilize popular support. It would kill democracy. (p. 300) 3

This changed in the early 20th century when the penny press and the first school of journalism, the Missouri School of Journalism, were introduced in the United States

(Muhlmann, 2008). This ushered in the idea of professional journalism (Winfield, 2008).

Journalists were taught in schools of journalism that journalism needed to be free from bias (Schudson, 2001). The precursor to the Society of Professional Journalists adopted a

Code of Ethics with stringent requirements (SPJ Code of Ethics, n.d.). The reporter could not insert his or her own opinion into stories. The stories also needed to be based on facts with no unverified statements used as sources. Finally, news stories should be fair and balanced. Reporters should tell all sides of the story without showing prejudice toward one side or another. The desirability of being free from bias and nonprejudiced toward one side or the other evolved into full-blown objectivity as the need for news outlets to reach the largest audience possible—thus increasing revenue—became more desirable with the advent of new mass distribution technologies. With widespread printing and distributing, together with radio and television broadcast technology, large corporations began to control the flow of news information throughout the 20th century. In order for stories to be heard, reporters needed to work for these large-scale news distribution outlets. However, potential journalists would not be hired unless they adhered to the standards of journalism described above. By the middle of the century, journalism had been standardized into a group of mega corporations that reported the bulk of national news to the American public.

Local journalism continued to thrive, however, through local newspapers that were published for readers in smaller cities and towns across the United States (Teel, 4

2006). In most cases, local newspapers would subscribe to a network feed in order to carry stories of national importance, but stories of local importance would be written by local reporters. The desire for professional journalists who adhered to journalistic standards trickled down to the local level. Indeed, if a story was to make it to print, it would need to have been written by a professionally trained journalist (Schudson, 2001).

As Glasser (1984) notes, however, the evolution into standards, notably objectivity, reduces the responsibility of the journalist to make informed, intelligent decisions and turns the journalist into a professional communicator, one who simply relays information from source to audience. Kovach and Rosenstiel (2007) call this the “discipline of verification” where the journalist’s main focus is on getting what happened correctly into a story through attribution to reliable sources. Glasser (1984) notes that this ensures the status quo because the elites are, more often than not, the reliable sources. He also notes that the concept of objectivity evolved from a motive driven by profit to one that is protected by court rulings that protect the journalist and the news outlet when stories are written in an objective form.

This notion that journalism is a profession with professional standards creeps into the relationship between professional journalists and digital, participatory technologies.

Singer (2003) found this to be especially true when journalists are dealing with political news. She called this a “normalization process” where “content may be evolving in new directions, [but] their concepts of their own role in providing that content are not” (p. 50).

When journalists write blogs, the normalization process continues (Singer, 2005).

Journalism has evolved in the United States, and many of these evolutions have 5 been technologically driven. The advent of mass broadcast technologies, such as radio and television, changed the way journalists cover and report news stories. In the last quarter century, the internet has further changed the way news is provided to consumers.

Widespread diffusion of the internet across the United States, and indeed the world, has allowed modern citizen journalists to practice the craft of journalism without

“professional” credentials. Average citizens, sitting at computers in dark basements, have crafted stories on political, economic, and “hard news” topics. Widespread diffusion of smart phones with high definition imaging technology has allowed untrained eyes to capture events around the world that news videographers can only dream of putting on tape. Technology may play an important role, but it is only half of the story.

Professional journalism is steeped in tradition. Professional journalists are taught fundamentally about bias, truthfulness in reporting, and telling the entire story. They are taught to never insert their own opinion. Contributors, on the other hand, may not only allow bias, they may even attempt to be persuasive (Piatt 2011). The contributing journalist is at the mercy of professional journalists. Professional journalists have fought for the last quarter century against the “onslaught” of citizen journalism. Yet, professional journalists have taken note of technological changes, and they have made attempts in the last few decades to monetize their journalistic “competitors.” Some have put systems in place to solicit and collect stories written by people outside of the traditional newsroom.

These systems started out simply as a place for users to submit photos, video, and information that would then be used in stories produced by professionals. They have 6 evolved into formal systems of organized citizen journalism where users can submit full stories and receive credit (and sometimes pay) for those stories ("About Deseret

Connect," n.d.).

In Salt Lake City, Utah, a news outlet that owns a television station, radio stations, and a newspaper launched a system of organized, participatory journalism called Deseret

Connect. “Although there are at least a couple hundred professional journalists using

Deseret Connect, most members aren't industry-trained reporters, writers and photographers. Some are CEOs, others are undergraduates; some are former and current professional athletes; a few are high-school-age prep reporters; some are New York

Times best-selling authors; and others find time to casually write between caring for their family” (Deseret Connect, n.d, para. 8). The use of the term “professional” in this statement highlights one of the factors influencing the decision to work with contributing journalists. “Professional” journalists seem to know who they are, and they identify with an ideal of what they term “journalism.” They are “industry-trained reporters.” However, as technology has changed, so has the need for professional journalists to work with, what is termed in the current study “nonprofessionals.” Deseret Connect groups professional athletes, book authors, and casual writers to be among this group. This distinction between professional and nonprofessional journalism needs further clarification, however. One purpose of this research is to do this.

With this need to work with these “nonprofessionals” comes decisions that must be made regarding journalism ethics. Deseret Connect felt this first hand recently. For 2 7 years, Richard Burwash, a Deseret Connect contributor, wrote more than a dozen news articles that were published in a number of the system’s distribution platforms including

The Deseret News, ksl.com, and The Oquirrh Times, a community weekly (Burwash,

2010a, 2010b). However, there was a problem with the articles Mr. Burwash wrote: they were actually written by Mike Winder, the mayor of West Valley City, a large suburb of

Salt Lake City. The revelation, provided by Winder himself, made international news

(Allen, 2011) and came at a time when Deseret Connect was trying to prove that professional and nonprofessional journalists could work side-by-side, providing trust and quality ("Contributors," n.d.).

Winder defended his actions. “Unapologetically revealing his real identity, Mr.

Winder said: ‘I thought about all the people just reading about crime in our city and nothing better. I'm trying to stand up for us because we do get the short end of the stick— negative stories’” (Allen, 2011). A short time after these events, a KSL-TV and Deseret

News reporter published what could easily be considered a response to Mr. Winder’s actions from a professional journalist’s perspective (Piatt, 2011). The journalist reprimanded Winder, stating that “as journalists, we work to write without bias and strive for balance and accuracy above all. This issue really is about trust, something media outlets—like KSL and the Deseret News—take very seriously and are accountable for” (para. 2–3). Piatt then questioned whether media outlets should be held accountable for the actions of a nonprofessional journalist whose work was being published by the very same outlet for which he worked. This is a second factor that warrants further discussion in this research: the relationship between professional journalism ethics, which 8 has been established over the course of the last 100 years, and other ethical systems, including participatory and communitarian ethics.

The use of traditional platforms, held in high regard by professional journalists, to publish what was regarded by professional journalists as unethical represents an example of the tensions between traditional journalists and their participatory counterparts. This tension has been actively pursued by journalism researchers (e.g., Lewis 2011, 2012;

Mitchelstein & Boczkowski, 2009; Plaisance 2003; Singer & Ashman, 2009). Although this tension exists, changes in technology and revenue generation have made it so traditional journalists find they must cooperate.

Advertising in online formats has proven to be a difficult way to increase revenue for many journalism outlets. Some journalism outlets have chosen to increase the amount of content distributed, while reducing costs, by utilizing crowdsourcing, the farming out of news content generation to freelance workers who may not have received any formal training in journalism. Although this idea has not caught on with all journalism outlets, many well-known news distributors have chosen this route. CNN, FoxNews, and NBC have all launched formal means of enlisting outside help for content generation (in the form of web sites where people can upload stories, photos, and video). The stories, stills, and video produced by people who have not been trained in professional journalism is, in many cases, published alongside professional stories and has the appearance of being produced by an in-house, professional journalist. But the idea of moving away from professionalization and into the realm of nonprofessional content generation may highlight issues. The third and final purpose of this research is to conduct a quantitative 9 study that examines the decision-making processes including mediating factors, such as economic and social motivations to adopt, and the moderating factors, such as ethical compatibility, and to what extent these factors affect the decision to publish stories created by nonprofessionals.

This study will use diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 2003) to inform and guide the development of a model that explicates the adoption of nonprofessional journalism content by professional journalists. Notably, the present study will identify the characteristics of an innovation that influence adoption. These are observability, relative advantage—which will be broken up into market characteristics and social particularities

—complexity, and compatibility, specifically ethical compatibility. The model created from these characteristics will then be tested using conditional process analysis (Hayes,

2013).

Rationale

Research in the past few years has called for study of the diffusion of use of participatory/citizen journalism and the reasons for the decision to adopt or not adopt

(e.g., publish or not publish) user generated content and in what way (e.g., Domingo et al., 2008; Lewis, Kaufhold, & Lasorsa, 2010).

This study centers on the motivations for adoption. Some of these motivations are taken from diffusion of innovation theory. However, some of the proposed motivations come from more specific concepts such as those of economic factors and social/ community factors, which would both fall under the blanket term “relative advantage” in 10 diffusion theory. In addition, diffusion theory calls for analyzing “compatibility.” This research breaks compatibility apart into a determination of whether ethical incompatibility or simply the fact that working with untrained writers/producers goes against the traditional way that journalists have performed their duties. Domingo and colleagues (2008) note that research in the area of citizen participation in the news production process should be ongoing: “In particular, further research should explore the motivations and context factors constraining or fostering openness at each production stage” (p. 340). The authors propose three areas that need special attention: professional context, meaning existing routines, newsroom organization, ethical guidelines, and media tradition; market context, meaning ownership, size of organization, and competitors’ strategies; and social context, meaning information society policies, public sphere history, and media laws. This study examines these three areas of attention and more.

In a review of 10 years of research, Mitchelson and Boczkowski (2009) propose that the newsroom dynamics introduced by Domingo et al. demonstrate a tension in the newsroom between tradition and change. Lewis, Kaufhold, and Lasorsa (2010) interviewed 29 editors of Texas newspapers and found that the editors either accepted or rejected the use of citizen-produced news based on either practical or philosophical concerns, but they note that it is difficult to generalize their findings to the 1500 daily newspapers in the United States. They call for additional research in, among other things, determining how participatory forms of media production relate to “longstanding norms of professional control” (p. 176). This study answers the questions of how the ideas of 11 tradition and change are related to the decision to adopt the use of nonprofessional journalism.

Finally, researchers have implored for future research that is of a longitudinal nature (Mitchelstein & Boczkowski, 2009; Steensen, 2011). Indeed, journalism 10 years ago (and certainly 10 years from now) is different from today’s journalism. It is important to have a baseline study that examines those factors that are important to journalists when making decisions in today’s world. The study can then be repeated at future times in order to gauge changes to the decision-making environment. In addition to studying change over time, research has also called for the analysis of the decision-making process over geographically diverse countries (Mitchelstein & Boczkowski, 2009). The same baseline study and methodological procedures can easily be applied to future studies of various countries. The results of future studies can then be compared to the baseline study in order to compare and contrast the decision-making process. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Nonprofessional Journalism

The term "nonprofessional" journalism will be used throughout this study. This section presents past research that contributes to a meaning for this term and finishes with a definition. Past research has uncovered many important aspects of nonprofessional journalism. However, many researchers are conflicted regarding how a term such as this should be defined and used. A variety of terms are used to define news that has been contributed by those outside the professional sphere: audience content (Williams, Wardle,

& Wahl-Jorgensen, 2011), user generated content (Hou & Oyedeji, 2011; Jönsson &

Örnebring, 2011; Ots & Karlsson, 2012; Qing & Hollifield, 2011; Williams et al., 2011), and participatory journalism (Deuze, Bruns, & Neuberger, 2007; Engesser, 2008;

Neuberger, 2011; Singer et al., 2011; Vujnovic et al., 2010). This section presents an overview of previous research that explores the varying definitions and the evolution of the notion of nonprofessional journalism. 13

Origin

Past research has sought to trace the origin of the current forms of citizen-based or nonprofessional journalism. Eksterowicz, Roberts, and Clark (1998) trace the origin to the early 20th century notion of muckraking. “Like the present-day public journalist, the muckrakers were concerned with the communities on which they reported” (p. 79). Many researchers, including Eksterowicz et al., note an evolution in some journalistic enterprises in the 1980s into more public forms of journalism, where reporters were less objective and sought to, not only inform the citizenry, but take an active role in the democratic process (Arant & Meyer, 1998) as another starting point (e.g., Nip, 2006,

2008).

Scott (2005) equates citizens acting as journalists with the idea of a “self-employed gatekeeper” (p. 92). This notion, he argues, came about because of the digital revolution of the 1990s. Although people who were not employed by news media outlets contributed to the professionals, many researchers agree that the current nature of an average citizen acting in a nonprofessional, news-distributing role took off in 2001 when the World Trade

Center was attacked in New York. Thus, the origin of a nonprofessional, citizen journalist in its present form can be traced to the public journalism movement of the 1980s together with the digital revolution of the 1990s.

User Generated Content

In late 2004 and 2005, professional journalism’s feelings toward citizen journalism took a dramatic turn. During that time, natural disasters hit all over the world. A massive 14 tsunami hit in the Indian Ocean in December of 2004. There was widespread flooding in

Europe, and Hurricane Katrina hit the southern United States in August, 2005. In addition, terrorists attacked London’s transportation system. Media companies began to accept citizen-produced imagery and writing graphically displaying the devastation as it happened (Becker, 2006; Marshall, 2005; Outing, 2011; Romano, 2005). They called it

“user-generated content.” The BBC received more than 1,000 photographs, 20 amateur videos, 4,000 text messages, and 20,000 e-mails within 6 hours of the terrorist attacks

(Sambrook, 2005). Richard Sambrook, then director of the BBC’s World Service and

Global News division, wrote, “We know now that when major events occur, the public can offer us as much new information as we are able to broadcast to them. From now on, news coverage is a partnership” (p. 14). Video from newly launched YouTube.com and first-hand experiences, lifted off of social media web sites, of people who witnessed the disasters began to pop up in evening newscasts. Media distributors began linking their traditional journalistic outlets to online outlets to reciprocally help each other (Blom,

2006). As time went on, distributors of professional journalism began to have “social media correspondents” whose job was specifically geared toward scanning for stories and video from people who were posting to blogs, video/image sites, and social media sites.

Social media correspondents accomplish two main purposes: First, they allow the media outlet to provide the information in a more organized fashion; second, they allow the media outlet to “gatekeep” against unauthorized postings or images that could land the outlet in court. Some authors have stated that this is the way of the future to ensure participatory journalism can be reigned in and work with its professional counterpart 15

(Safran, 2005).

Others have raised serious concerns over the use of unverified information when verified information is not available. For example, the 2009 Iranian presidential election was difficult for major news networks to report because of the lack of access professional journalists had to the country. Verified information was hard to retrieve because of large- scale restrictions in what journalists could do. Nonprofessional journalists, average citizens really, were the only source of any information at all. The major networks were forced to use unverified information, images, and videos provided by these citizens. This wild use of unverified information over no information at all has raised red flags.

However, most of the time user-generated content is vetted to ensure accuracy before it is used (Palser, 2009).

The biggest obstacle to user-generated content, especially in large-scale stories like natural disasters, is not unauthorized imagery/text or in the quality of content, but in the volume of content. Waldman (2005) recognizes the importance of on-site, first-person accounts through text and images, but he also states that this strength of nonprofessional journalism is also its weakness because the content produced does not provide a cohesive story that provides overall meaning. User-generated content requires the helping hand of professional journalists to report the big picture of what the text and images mean. He states, “It is in this fusion of old and new that the future of journalism most probably lies”

(p. 78).

One study, conducted in 2007, examined the level of citizen participation opportunities at various stages of the journalism process (Domingo et al., 2008). The 16 authors found that journalism outlets were unwilling to let go of the decision making power at any stage of the journalism process. Journalists simply did not want to have user-generated content appear without retaining the traditional gatekeeping role. The same desire was shared in the United Kingdom (Hermida & Thurman, 2008; Singer,

2010). Ornebring (2008) reported that much of user-generated content focused on pop- culture or lifestyle as opposed to news content. This could be possible because much of the information posted on social media sites is not news related, but is reflective of pop- culture and lifestyle. The decision rests on the journalist who is making the decisions as to what content is newsworthy.

Doyle (2010) calls professional journalists who cull through the internet, hunting for usable tweets, Facebook photos, YouTube videos, and social media web sites for the evening news, “curators.” These curators use their professional journalistic skills to find information, verify it, and present it in a usable and understandable format. Since nonprofessional journalists and professional journalists must work together in order to provide the story-consuming public a broad, cohesive picture using text and imagery provided by average citizens who experienced the story first-hand, use of nonprofessional journalism by professionals needed to organize this even further than simple curation.

User Contributions

Although accepting of user-generated content, journalists were still recalcitrant about fully embracing nonprofessional journalism. A study conducted in 2008 showed that newspaper journalists were unwilling to accept the internet when it would drastically 17 change the way they reported the news. They would adhere to practices that would ensure their status (O'Sullivan & Heinonen, 2008). As of 2009, many professional journalists did not believe that the role of citizen journalists was as important as their own (Nah &

Chung, 2009). “The strongest predictors leading to such perceptions and explaining the differences between the role perceptions show that traditional journalistic practices are linked to the cultivation of stringent perspectives ingrained in the resilient centralized view of information dissemination” (p. 81). Since 2009, however, many media outlets have attempted to change the role of professional journalists to be more inclusive of nonprofessional journalists.

User contributions combine the desire to accept user-generated content with the ability to keep professionals in the loop. The concept began with crowdsourcing

(Muthukumaraswamy, 2010). In crowdsourcing, a problem is turned over to a community of people who give their aid to solving the problem with each member taking a portion of the overall problem. Applied to journalism, a professional journalist elicits the help of a community of people who aid with newsgathering and analysis. “The time could not be riper for crowdsourced journalism. Crowds are willing to offer their services so long as news organizations can come up with workable methods to ‘ask’ them” (p. 58). Many media outlets are learning to ask for help. Rather than waiting for events to take place and scanning blogs, video, and social media sites, media companies are actually seeking out nonprofessional journalists before stories break. The News-Press in Fort Myers, Florida, put together a program that had retirees and reporters working directly together researching stories, providing expert advice, and removing some of the tedious work 18 from investigative reporters. There were a number of people interested in providing help and the amount of work necessary to manage such a large team was immense, but the

News-Press was devoted to ensuring the program’s success in order to foster a community-based approach (Wells, 2008).

Carpenter (2008a) found that nonprofessional journalists are able to break out of the “routine” that many professional journalists fall into. She concluded that professional journalists are more reliant on official, organization, and male sources. Nonprofessional journalists are more likely to “ ...offer a different perspective on community-level issues compared to online newspaper journalists because they are less likely influenced by routines” (p. 540). However, others have found that citizen journalists who lack direction and guidance provide little in the way of newsworthy stories (Niekamp, 2009).

Professional journalists felt that they must at least fill a gatekeeping role (vetting), or citizen contributions could not fill the traditional role of journalism.

In addition to the desire to promote citizen-oriented journalism, media outlets are feeling the effects of the financial crisis and looking for alternatives to having a staff of, not only highly trained, but also highly paid, professional journalists. Soft news stories or stories about surprise events are increasingly being handled by these “citizen correspondents.” Citizen correspondents give traditional media outlets the hyperlocal feel sought after by many consumers of news (Potts, 2007).

In 2008, MTV covered the Presidential election primaries using a team of 51 nonprofessional journalists, one for each state and the District of Columbia. The network 19 provided each team member with a camera and a computer and trained them during a 3- day journalism boot camp. The team members filed weekly reports and provided MTV with a level of coverage that would not have been possible without their reports (Nord,

2008). Many companies are offering payment for contributions and crash course training sessions in videography, photography, and writing (Cox, 2006; Romano, 2005). Many training courses available at these outlets are meant to address potential legal issues with regard to using untrained journalists. Using paid contributors opens the potential for law suits if defamatory statements are made in contributed articles (Rappaport & Leith,

2007). By offering training sessions and ensuring that all submissions are edited by a professional, offending statements can be caught ahead of time.

Bowman and Willis (2005) outline what the most successful citizen media outlets have learned. They list four specific requirements: first, although most citizens do not want to be journalists, they do want to contribute to subjects that traditional outlets ignore. Second, citizen journalism communities require constant attention, involved leadership, and nurturing. Third, organized citizen journalistic ventures could become small and viable businesses. Fourth, successful ventures seek to add greater levels of interactivity. With these ideas in mind, it is possible that traditional journalism outlets would seek ways to enhance their news product, without requiring huge increases in spending, by bringing on untrained journalists.

Attitudes toward citizen journalism are greatly varied, even in today’s digital savvy world (Lewis, Kaufhold, & Lasorsa, 2010). Brown (2007) believes that the only way that old media can hope to compete is by maintaining credibility and an authoritative 20 voice. Many media outlets do not feel that they can maintain credibility while allowing citizens to produce news stories. Others do not have a newsroom that is conducive to inclusion (Paulussen & Ugille, 2008). However, many writers agree that collaboration is the future of journalism. According to Bowman and Willis (2005), “Collaboration is the driving force behind the explosion of citizen media, with new forms being regularly blazed by passionate, motivated individuals” (p. 8). The organization of user contributions represents a new form that unites these passionate, motivated people to the benefit of the professional organization that does that uniting.

Some companies are organizing citizen journalism using tools that put into practice the suggestions of Bowman and Willis. Many have a “virtual workdesk” for participants. These online newsrooms allow citizen journalists to interact as if in an actual newsroom and organize their projects into a workflow. They work with their fellow journalists, both professional and citizen, and work with editors to pitch story ideas.

Many of the pitched stories are those that the citizen journalists care about and are hyperlocal. Finally, leadership is involved with constant nurturing and support. As discussed earlier, one example of this idea is happening in Salt Lake City, Utah, and is called “Deseret Connect.” Deseret Connect gives nonprofessional journalists the opportunity to submit stories to traditional news outlets ("About Deseret Connect," n.d.).

The story ideas for Deseret Connect usually consist of soft-news articles about local community events around the state of Utah. These articles, once submitted, are edited by “coaches” who are employed Deseret Connect staff and are professional 21 journalists. The newspaper itself benefits by filling the “news hole” that is not covered by staff written articles. Populations served by stories written by Deseret Connect contributors may be very small, local communities who may read an article about a high school rivalry sports game. Stories that are meant for the greater population continue to be written by employees of the newspapers. Thus, Deseret Connect and the newspapers served by its contributors do not benefit to a large extent by individual stories. However, by combining stories, the papers may benefit through the long tail. A mass of stories for small populations adds up to more readership for the papers, and more readership translates to more advertisers and revenue. So, Deseret Connect does benefit directly from contributors' volunteerism in a significant way.

The current notion of nonprofessional journalism is driven by the advent of the internet in the early 1990s. Indeed, technology has been one of the driving forces that has influenced the evolution of nonprofessional journalism. “The emergence of participatory forms is influenced by various external factors such as technology, economy, and the larger cultural and societal framework. Out of these internal and external factors, various development logics might emerge” (Domingo et al., 2008, p. 331). According to Lewis,

Kaufhold, and Lasorsa (2010), these development logics can fit into two categories: philosophical and practical. The philosophical viewpoint relates to the disparity between long standing journalistic values and changing societal notions toward news. The practical viewpoint relates to the changing economics of journalism. As layoffs continue in newsrooms across America (Beebe, 2010), editors must find alternatives to the historically expensive nature of news production. However, these alternatives may not be 22 the answers to economic woes as the need to ensure journalistic quality may cause economic repercussions that actually make the nonprofessional alternatives less appealing (Compton & Benedetti, 2010). The two frames are at odds with one another: editors must carefully balance the philosophical aspects and the practical aspects as they consider using nonprofessional journalism.

Thus, technology provides only half of the picture. Journalism is steeped in tradition. Professional journalists are taught fundamentally about bias, truthfulness in reporting, and telling the entire story. They are taught to never insert their own opinion.

Nonprofessional journalists receive no such guidance, except when their work is refused or edited after being submitted to professional organizations. Professionals must enculturate amateurs at least to the point of conformity.

Definition of “Journalist”

In seeking to define “journalism” and “journalist” researchers have travelled a number of different avenues. Indeed, defining “journalist” is problematic. Herrscher

(2002) articulates the problem beautifully:

Few activities pose so many questions as journalism when it comes to codes of ethics. Lawyers or physicians have no need of discussing what and who is a lawyer or a doctor. Journalists do. Teachers and professors can more easily separate what is public and what is private in their work and their lives. Journalists cannot. For public servants, most practices that are ethically wrong are also illegal. Not so in the world of mass media. (p. 277)

Defining the term “journalist” and the practice of journalism is difficult. Table 1 outlines some of the different terms and definitions that have appeared in the literature. 23

Table 1 Terms for journalism and their definitions

Do not include nonprofessionals Traditional Civic/Communitarian/Network Nonprofessionals do not play any role in Forms of change in traditional journalism to the production and dissemination of news cope with the ingress of nonprofessional (Deuze, 2005; Nip, 2006). forms of journalism into the professional sphere (Frolich, Quiring, & Engesser, 2012). Various levels of inclusion of nonprofessionals Interactive Citizen Add-On Allows nonprofessionals to interact with Citizens are invited to contribute specific news content after it is produced, but does feedback to specific questions (Outing, not allow for involvement before the news 2011). is published (Nip, 2006; Outing, 2011). Public Citizen Ombudsmen Allows nonprofessionals to offer story ideas Allows the professional organization to be and even write stories, but professional transparent in their reporting by having a journalists act as gatekeepers and editors readers panel (Outing, 2011). (Nip, 2006; Ocwich, 2010; Outing, 2011). Edited Contributions Unedited Contributions Nonprofessional journalists have a This model is exactly the same as Edited dedicated portion of a news site for Contributions, except that contributions are publishing contributed content (Outing, not edited in any way (Outing, 2011). 2011). Printed Citizen Participatory By taking the content from either the edited Content that is produced by news users or unedited models of contributed stories, independently of professional journalists the professional outlet publishes a printed who continue to produce their own content version of citizen news as part of its and then publish and market the finished regularly published news (Outing, 2011). news product in the professional-owned publication (Nip, 2006). Integrated Collaborative/Open-source/Peer-to-Peer Includes nonprofessionals and professionals Collaborative production of user-generated working “under one roof.” Professionally content on independent platforms or on produced stories appear alongside platforms offered by professional media nonprofessional stories with only a simple providers (Frolich, Quiring, and Engesser, label distinguishing the two (Outing 2011). 2012). No professionals involved Citizen Fully produced and maintained by nonprofessional journalists (Nip, 2006). 24

Definition by Defining “News”

Some definitions of journalism involve a process. Oreskes (2000) notes that journalism is the process of making news. It is “a way of watching the world, the events, the ideas, and the incidents that shape us” (p. 102). He then adds that the news gathering process must be done by one who upholds professional standards in order for the content to be accurate, fair-minded, balanced, and thorough. By defining “journalism” as the process of making news, this definition equates the two terms. It essentially says that

“journalism is the process of making journalism.” This type of definition is problematic.

Nerone (2012) differentiates between news and journalism. News becomes any system that relays information (including gossip, tabloid news, sensationalism, and partisanism).

Journalism, however, is a belief system “that defines the appropriate practices and values of news professionals, news media, and news systems” (p. 2). Both Oreskes and Nerone note that, in order to be termed a journalist, one must adhere to professional standards or practices. Some researchers have begun to outline what these standards represent, even going so far as to define what elements of a news story make it exactly what it purports to be: news. The subject matter must be topical and publicly significant. It must have evidentiary adequacy (conformance to accepted procedures of empirical verification). Its narrative style is normally linear exposition; it avoids polemics, resists financial pressures, avoids sweeping conclusions, and has standards of fairness in dealings with sources and in presenting fully the contours of controversies (Meyers, Wyatt, Borden, &

Wasserman, 2012). The researchers contend that anyone who produces content of this 25 nature is a journalist (at least in terms of the production of that particular content).

Whether or not the definition of journalism includes some process for gathering and distributing information, many researchers agree that professional journalists adhere to an ethical code.

Defining a Journalist Through Ethical Standards

The terms participatory journalism, citizen journalism, and the like are used in diverse ways in the literature, often to refer to the same phenomena (Deuze, Bruns, &

Neuberger, 2007). Singer (2006) proposes that this is because researchers have concentrated on the process of journalism as opposed to the main underlying factor: the definition of a journalist as one who acts ethically. “As the nature of the media environment changes, the definition and self-conceptualization of the journalist must shift from one rooted in procedure—the professional process of making information available

—to one rooted in ethics—the professional norms guiding determinations about which information has true societal value” (p. 15). Deuze (2005) also includes ethics in a definition of professional journalism.

Borden (2010) emphasizes characteristics that have become part of what she calls the “tradition” of journalism. These characteristics include “storytelling and authorship, truth and objectivity, professionalism and social responsibility, power of the press and the people’s right to know, participatory citizenship and the press” (“The Reporter’s

Inheritance”, para. 1). She then argues for the ideal of journalism as a practice. One of the paramount features of the practice of journalism, according to Borden, is the role of 26 ethics. She states that ethics have been a part of the tradition of journalism, its role as a moral community, and the role of ethics in the professionalization of journalism. She argues that the definition of journalism is, of necessity, a teleological definition based on the goal of the journalist, which is “to help citizens know well in the public sphere” (Chapter 4, para. 4). She then lays out how this can be accomplished, highlighting ethical standpoints.

The social role played by American journalism has at its heart the evolution of journalism ethics (Plaisance, 2003). “We must better grasp those philosophical foundations to fully understand that evolution, which includes views of concepts such as truth, impartiality, social good, equality and press autonomy—and all of which changed over time” (para. 5). These “philosophical foundations” are at the heart of the move of journalism from the days of yellow journalism to journalism as a profession. Yet,

Plaisance notes a separation of the evolution of normative journalism from that of the professionalization of the field. Casper Yost, the president of the American Society of

Newspaper Editors when the original ethical code was adopted in 1923, also noted that an ethical code must be established and adopted by common consent before journalism could be considered a “professional” industry. “The ethics of journalism must be somehow expressed in definite form, and somehow established as the rule of practice of an influential number of journalists, before it can have professional recognition” ("Problems of Journalism," 1923, p. 18). Thus, to Yost, the establishment of a code of ethics was a prerequisite to the professionalization of the industry, and 27 therefore, not the only thing that needed to be done. Cronin (1993) disagrees with

Plaisance and combines the establishment of ideals of normative behavior as the same thing as a movement toward professionalism.

Some researchers contrast definitions of journalism through other routes. Ugland and Henderson (2007) argue that the definition of journalist is generally a conflation between two unrelated arguments: those that use the law to define the role and those that use professional ethics to define it. They propose that the law cannot be used as a justification for an ethical definition and vice-versa. This distinction, however, may simply be another way of arguing that professionalism and normative definitions of journalism are also distinct. The law defines many who may be considered “professional”

(as in the examples given by Herrscher above). Ugland and Henderson combine professionalism and ethics using the term “professional ethics.” They outline federal and state laws that seek to define “Journalism” and “Journalist.” These laws are varied and disparate. Because of this, they propose a definition of journalist based on ethics that occurs on three levels: public communicators, second-level journalists, and top-level journalists.

“Public communicators are those who contribute something to the world of knowledge by disseminating ideas or information to others but who do so only occasionally or without a permanent media presence that subjects their work to the normal mechanisms of accountability” (Lee 2004). They give examples of those whose communications are essentially sporadic or that “... are not designed to report on 28 important events occurring in society” (p. 254). College professors giving public addresses, film critics, or a person who is posting a single video to YouTube on an important event are all examples of public communicators under this category.

“Second-level journalists, on the other hand, are engaged in a more regular, systematic, and conspicuous dissemination of news. Unlike other public communicators, their efforts are continuous and their contributions are made with some predictability and purpose; they are not simply incidental to some other goal” (Ugland & Henderson, 2007, p. 254). In terms of the definition of a professional journalist, this definition shows the gradated nature of professional journalism. The authors note that second-level journalists act in good faith to report the truth.

Top-level journalists are concerned with truth and ethics:

The second and perhaps more important distinction that might be made in the domain of professional ethics is between second-level journalists, who are principally focused on truthfully communicating news to others, and top-level journalists, who are not merely concerned with telling the truth but also with honoring the ethical canons of traditional American journalism, such as independence, proportionality, comprehensiveness, and accountability. (p. 256)

This level, then, becomes the level that requires all journalists to adhere to specific ethical standards that are provided by “professional” organizations such as the Society of

Professional Journalists.

The prescriptions afforded by ethical codes produced by various organizations make up the main way that professional journalists can be distinguished from their nonprofessional counterparts. Ugland and Henderson state, “what really matters—indeed the only things that matter—are the standards of practice that journalists follow in their 29 pursuit and dissemination of news” (p. 256).

Based on Singer’s differentiation, this study will use the term "professional journalist" to refer to a person who produces any form of content for a news outlet, who also is believed by the news outlet to live by an ethical code of journalism practice. This definition does not, of necessity, require that a professional journalist be one who has graduated from a journalism school, nor does it require that a potential professional journalist be one who has made a formal agreement to live by an ethical code of journalism. Journalists who are employed by news outlets prove their ability to act ethically through demonstration of their past news production (i.e., their portfolio).

Experience is not the only way that a professional can be believed to live by an ethical code, however. Training in a journalism school can also provide the news outlet with this knowledge. The definition does not rely on the need for the news outlet to be concerned with how a journalist was trained in journalism. It is simply a way to demarcate whether the news outlet believes that the journalist does what has been a marker for professionalism by the scholars cited above, adherence to a code. This, then, allows a definition of “nonprofessional journalist” to be a person who produces any form of content who is not known by the news outlet to live by an ethical code of journalism.

This definition does not mean that the nonprofessional journalist does not live by an ethical code. It requires that it not be known whether or not the content producer lives by a code. "Use" of nonprofessional journalism refers to any situation where professional news outlets utilize the services or content produced by nonprofessional journalists

(Kaufhold, Valenzuela, & Gil de Zúñiga, 2010). This may be in the form of story ideas, 30 feedback to previously written stories, the stories themselves, editing, or any other component involved in the process of producing news.

Journalism Ethics

With research showing that traditional journalists are concerned with the ability for nonprofessionals to produce ethical news, the notion of journalism ethics must be characterized. This section presents an overview of journalism ethics, its inception, evolution, and current definition.

The SPJ Code of Ethics

One of the most well-known and respected ethical codes in the journalism industry is the Society of Professional Journalists’ Code of Ethics (“SPJ Code of Ethics,” n.d.). It was originally adopted by the American Society of Newspaper Editors as the

Canons of Journalism (“Problems of Journalism: Proceedings of the First Annual

Meeting of the American Society of Newspaper Editors,” 1923).

Important aspects of the code as it has evolved include the notion of truth, deception, objectivity, and accountability. These notions have been redefined or expanded as the code has evolved. Researchers have stated that studying the evolution of ethical codes provides a window into the issues faced by the profession to which the code belongs. “Since codes of journalistic ethics serve as one marker for a profession, ‘the domain of the lived’ at a particular historic time, scholarly study of codes can provide insight into the specific stresses and strains on the profession” (Wilkins & Brennen, 2004, 31 p. 299). The remainder of this section will discuss the evolution of the code in each of these areas.

“Seek Truth and Report It”

The notion of truth has been an important aspect of the SPJ code since its inception. When the American Society of Newspaper Editors convened for the first time in 1923, Casper Yost noted in the President’s Address that the main ways that journalists from that era could combat the negative critiques brought on by those who were against the kind of journalism that was common in the early part of the 20th century were to “... show the untruth that lies in them, where they are in fact untruthful” and to “... establish definite standards of journalistic conduct which will serve to lessen occasion for truthful criticism” (Problems of Journalism: Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the

American Society of Newspaper Editors 1923, p. 18). Truth has always been at the forefront of American journalism. The original SPJ code stated, “By every consideration of good faith, a newspaper is constrained to be truthful” (“Sigma Delta Chi's New Code of Ethics,” 1926). The desire for truth in reporting has always been a part of the ethical code even through all of its revisions. The 1973 revision stated, “Truth is our ultimate goal” (“Sigma Delta Chi Code of Ethics,” 1973). The current code requires the admonition to “seek truth and report it” (“SPJ Code of Ethics,” 1996).

The term “truth” in the current code requires more discussion. The code does not state that a reporter should “tell” the truth. The reporter should “seek” truth and report it.

This distinction is subtle, but it does take the requirement away from the reporter to 32 ensure that he or she should be truthful him or herself. Researchers have analyzed the concept of lying as it applies to professional journalism (see, for example, Al-Fedaghi,

2005; Borden, 2002; Lee, 2004; Mahon, 2008; Ryan & Martinson, 1994).

Bok (1999) makes a distinction between telling the truth and being truthful. Being truthful, according to Bok, means sharing what is believed to be accurate information, while telling the truth requires that the information is known to be true, something that may be impossible to know with certainty. The current SPJ code uses the first of Bok’s definitions by constraining reporters to “seek” truth, rather than “tell” the truth. Some discussion has sought to understand whether reporting truth is an end that justifies untruthful behavior by those doing the reporting. The first section of the SPJ code, by itself, allows the reporter to take a utilitarian stance that justifies untruthful behavior as long as the end, that of finding truth, is the outcome. As will be discussed, many reporters have chosen to interpret the code in this way.

The SPJ Code supplies a number of ways a journalist may find truth. A commonality in each of the ways of finding truth rests in the fact that the journalist must not insert his or her own version of truth into the story, but he or she should allow the truth, according to sources, be the guiding factor. However, this is not to say that the journalist’s sources are not lying. Sources are constantly telling journalists stories that are intended to dodge the truth or keep a person out of trouble. A journalist’s responsibility is to dig for the truth. In some cases, the truth is easy to find, as long as a journalist does some checking. Over the past few years, one person has regularly lied to journalists. The person’s name is Ryan Holiday. His “experiment” consisted of responding to requests 33 from journalists who were looking for sources (Thier, 2012). He made up stories about

“barefoot running, investing, vinyl records, or insomnia” (para. 1). His stories have been published in Reuters, ABC News, CBS, MSNBC, and The New York Times. He says that the reason he has for lying is to expose the deficiencies in modern journalism. “‘A well made article and a poorly made article both do clicks the same way,’ says Holiday.

‘There’s no incentive to do good work’” (as quoted in Thier, 2012, para. 16).

Indeed, in the case of Ryan Holiday, he intentionally misled a multitude of journalists. The journalists were, in effect, middlemen for the lies. The SPJ Code’s first sub-admonition (under Seek Truth and Report It) is “Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid inadvertent error” (SPJ Code of Ethics, n.d, para. 2). So, the journalist is not the liar, but the Code would consider the journalist to be acting unethically because the journalist did not test the accuracy of the sources.

The ramifications of journalists who do not report the truth are widespread, especially among younger audiences who may be forming opinions based on what is being reported in the news. Furthermore, many public communicators and second-level journalists may be forming opinions based on what is being reported in the professional sphere and producing nonprofessional journalism based on the flawed stories. The most fundamental role of a journalist is to provide information for the proper functioning of democracy (Murphy, Ward, & Donovan, 2006). Murphy, Ward, and Donovan propose that, if the professional news media is not providing the required information, people will turn to nonprofessionals. However, if nonprofessionals do not have access to first hand 34 information, they may simply be reporting on what they have seen in the professional news media (Singer, 2008). They may be forming opinions and expressing those opinions based on second-hand accounts. Murphy, Ward, and Donovan stress that truth-telling is of paramount importance and that balance is required when the truth cannot be found. They claim that a diversity of opinions found on the internet helps provide this balance, but when the opinions are based on information reported by the professional media, it is not nonprofessional journalists providing the information. It is only citizen opinions of professional journalists’ stories. In the end, it remains the responsibility of the professional to provide the required information, at least in political matters.

While Murphy, Ward, and Donovan stress the importance of truth in journalism,

Spence and Quinn (2008) propose a newer way of looking at truth in journalism, particularly with how professional journalists use information obtained from nonprofessionals. They propose the idea of “justified belief” because “... something potentially less than knowledge is still publicly important, there must be justificatory criteria for publishing information based on whether it is worth believing. This objective can be achieved when the information is supported by reasonable, though incomplete, evidence. This evidence must be sufficient to give form [sic] a justified opinion that the information is probably true” (p. 273). This type of reasoning is important to justify the need for the best possible information when the stakes are low, but it can be devastating when the potential outcomes are of paramount importance. For example, the Sandy Hook

Elementary School shooting of 2012 was a massive tragedy reported with information that was “probably true.” However, the professional news media reported elements of the 35 story that were flat-out wrong (“Getting Sandy Hook So Wrong”, 2012). Professional media outlets reported that there may have been two gunmen, that the shooter’s name was

Ryan Lanza, that his mother was a kindergarten teacher at the school, and that both his father and brother had been found dead. All of these “facts” turned out to be untrue. The news media’s excuse for this misinformation was that the situation was fluid and that facts were still coming in. This example highlights the “probably true” mentality.

Professional news outlets reported information that was probably true and received heavy criticism. The public was not happy that they had been led astray with misinformation.

The idea that professional journalists can report information obtained from citizen reporters based on the “probably true” mentality spits in the face of Murphy, Ward, and

Donavon’s ideal of truth in journalism being of paramount importance for the proper functioning of society.

The notion of “probably true” is at the heart of everyday journalism, however.

The old adage that professional journalists should “check, recheck, and check again” is based on the argument that witnesses can corroborate facts if the witnesses are saying the same things happened. The greater the number of witnesses, the greater the probability that the things being spoken are, in fact, true. This idea was highlighted during the 2009

Iranian elections. The Iranian people protested what they considered to be an unfair election. The government responded with cruelty and violence, which they expected to keep hidden from the world. However, Tweets from the Iranian people showed the cruelty in text and visual form. The sheer number of Tweets of this nature verified and 36 corroborated the actuality of what was happening (Shepherd, 2009). “Probably true” became “true.”

Rodrigues (2010) takes the importance of truth a step further and argues for the value of opinion in nonprofessional journalism. She helped groups of villagers produce short films that highlighted local issues and uploaded the films to YouTube. The issues were not being reported by professional news outlets. This type of reporting fits the definition of true citizen journalism as provided by Nip (2006). However, this type of reporting highlights the “probably true” mentality if professional news organizations choose to run the stories without first checking the facts. It also highlights a main issue with nonprofessional journalism in general: How can viewers, who are not watching the stories on professional news sites, know that the information being conveyed is “true” or not? Murphy, Ward, and Donovan (2006) express the importance of truth in reporting, but real citizen journalism, without professionals involved in any way, does not have a vetting process in place for ensuring that facts are double-checked and are not simply

“probably true.”

The Protection of People—“Minimize Harm”

The SPJ Code’s second admonition is to “Minimize Harm” (SPJ Code of Ethics, n.d.). Harm can come in a multitude of ways. The most obvious way is through reporters acting deceptively in order to “get the story.” In speaking to the relationship between deceit in the search for truth and the harm caused by that deceit, Bok (1999) states that the most forgivable lies are those that “harm no one and yet save someone from physical 37 defilement” (p. 33). Bok’s desire to “harm no one” and the SPJ’s desire to “minimize harm” are related in that they speak to the need to do the least amount of damage to as many people as possible while providing the greatest level of benefit. This act-based utilitarian viewpoint means that the journalist has some leeway when determining the best course of action, including lying in order to get the truth (Fay, 2009; Kapler, 2012;

Konner, n.d.; Lee, 2004; Lisheron, 2007; Steele, 2007). However, the courts have determined that this freedom does not extend indefinitely (Goodman, 1997).

Immanuel Kant disagrees with Bok: “He takes the duty of truthfulness to be an

‘unconditional duty which holds in all circumstances’; a lie, even if it does not wrong any particular individual, always harms mankind generally, ‘for it vitiates the source of the law’” (as quoted in Bok, 1999, p. 38). Yet, to lie “annihilate[s] one’s human dignity; yet for these others [refusing to lie when your friend’s life is at stake], to reply honestly, and thereby betray one’s friend would in itself constitute a compromise of that dignity” (Bok,

1999, p. 40). Thus, Kant’s ideals regarding never telling lies cannot be fruitful in all cases. The journalist who decides to lie in order to go undercover is justified by Bok as well as any Utilitarian because the lie allows the journalist to find a greater level of truth.

However, the SPJ Code states that undercover journalism should only be used when

“traditional open methods will not yield information vital to the public” (SPJ Code of

Ethics, n.d, para. 2). The end justifies the means.

As has been shown, there are issues when people lie to journalists, but journalists also lie, and they do so on a regular basis. One journalist lied in order to publish a story 38 about Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant (Kapler, 2012). Another was told specifically not to lie when filling out an application for a chicken processing plant, but to covertly gather information and photographs from the plant that could later be used in a story (Paterno, 1997). Finally, there is the case of Ken Silverstein, Washington Editor for

Harper’s Magazine, who pretended to be a representative of a London-based energy company with business interests in Turkmenistan in order to expose a group of lobbyists

“who would eagerly sell their services for dubious reasons to questionable clients” (Steele, 2007, para. 4). There are numerous examples of journalists who lie and go undercover in order to “expose” some negative aspect of society (for other examples, see Manson, 2011; Schulman, 2010). Reporters masquerading in order to get a story have been both praised and criticized by their peers (Elliott & Culver, 1992).

Elliot and Culver (1992) define deceptive reporting practices among journalists in two ways. “A journalist has acted deceptively in the course of an investigation (a) if he or she has, through lying or nonverbal equivalent to lying, attempted to initiate or sustain a false belief; or (b) if the reporter, by withholding information that he or she is morally required to tell, has allowed another person to form or sustain a false belief” (p. 77). The authors define deception and offer examples of what would be considered deceptive practices. Whether undercover reporting practices fall under the umbrella of deception depends on whether the reporters’ deceptive practices are morally justified, however. Lee

(2004) interviewed 20 reporters and found that the decision to lie in order to perform journalistic duties was based on a good/bad continuum, with three rules: 1. Who is 39 deceived? If newsmakers are being deceived, the deception is more acceptable compared to when audiences are being deceived. 2. The perceived character of the person deceived.

Deception is more justified when the person being deceived appears to be a liar or bad person. 3. The nature of the act (omission or commission). Omitting information is morally justified compared to falsifying information or fabricating facts (Lee, 2004).

A second way that journalists can harm others is by reporting information that either directly or indirectly causes harm to others. “The naming of juvenile suspects in crimes, interviews with people inexperienced with the news media during times of great stress, and reporters who use their occupation as a license to be rude toward officials or news sources” are all examples of this type of harm (Tallent, 1997). The code is very specific with some aspects of this type of harm. For example, the code specifies that reporters should “be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes” ("Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics," 2009, Section 2). In other areas, it is more vague: “Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity” (Section 2).

Before 1996 the SPJ code did not include a section on the minimization of harm.

The 1973 version does include a section on “Fair Play,” which includes many admonitions that are in the current “Minimize Harm” section. Tallent (1997) notes that the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995 became the main impetus for rewriting the Fair Play section (and for calling it “Minimize

Harm”). She cites examples that include journalists attributing blame to Middle

Easterners early in the investigation and dressing up like firefighters and clergy in order 40 to gain access to areas that were off-limits to journalists.

The Objectivity Question — “Act Independently”

A classic work by Johnstone, Slawski, and Bowman (1972) articulates and defines two competing notions of the objectivity question. In one form, journalists are strictly neutral observers. They simply dispense information. Alternatively, journalists can be participants, actively playing a role in the dissemination of news. In the latter, journalists are not “objective” in the strict sense of the word. In fact, the authors note that participant journalists find that “the most significant news of the day will come to light only as the result of the imposition of [the journalist’s] point of view” (p. 523). The argument that objectivity should or should not be an important aspect of journalism comes just a few decades after the establishment of professional journalism schools and codes of ethics where notions of objectivity were at the heart of the debate. When establishing the first code of ethics for the American Society of Newspaper Editors, those involved were very concerned about the notion of partisanship. H.J. Wright, the primary author of the original “Canons of Journalism” stated that, although most papers in the country had departed from partisanship, establishing a canon that sought to prevent partisanship would make “a fixed condition that has developed among us” because “it may be that in parts of the country there is still an adherence to that sort of partisan comment” (“Problems of Journalism: Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the

American Society of Newspaper Editors,” 1923, p. 119).

The original code used strong words like “honest journalism,” “violence” 41

(referring to the use of partisan journalism that “knowingly departs from the truth”), and

“subversive” ("Sigma Delta Chi's New Code of Ethics," 1926). The original code’s framers cared strongly about objectivity, though they did not use the specific term.

Strekfuss (1990) argues that objectivity in the 1920s was more aligned with scientific naturalism than a lack of bias. Schudson (1973) also notes that early 20th century thinking was toward journalism as a science where supposed “facts” should be presented in their entirety by impartial journalists. Thus, objectivity was in the scientific sense where journalists were to seek out and measure truth and weigh the various aspects of truth to arrive at proper conclusions. But, as newspapers merged and finances necessitated, objectivity evolved into the presentation of all sides of the story equally by an impartial reporter. Johnstone, Slawski, and Bowman (1972) concur.

By 1973, the Society of Professional Journalists considered objectivity (in its evolved form) to be a requirement for professional journalists. The 1973 version of the code uses the term in both the preamble and in one of the sections. The preamble states, in part, “We believe those responsibilities [serving and seeking truth] carry obligations that require journalists to perform with intelligence, objectivity, accuracy, and fairness

("The Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi Code of Ethics," 1973, para.

4), and, under the heading “Accuracy and Objectivity”: “Objectivity in reporting the news is another goal which serves as the mark of an experienced professional. It is a standard of performance toward which we strive. We honor those who achieve it” (section 4). Within just a few years, however, the ideal of journalistic objectivity was coming under fire (Hage 1976; Pember 1974). 42

Tuchman (1972) had already noted by this time that objectivity was easily invoked by newspapermen to “… bulwark themselves against critics. Attacked for a controversial presentation of ‘facts,’ newspapermen invoke their objectivity almost the way a Mediterranean peasant might wear a clove of garlic around his neck to ward off evil spirits” (p. 660). She concludes, “It appears the word ‘objectivity’ is being used defensively as a strategic ritual” (p. 678). This conclusion does not serve the ideal of journalism as a profession (at least, not according to the early establishers of the ethical code), but it does allow professional journalists to steer clear of critics.

The current version of the SPJ code makes no mention of objectivity ("Society of

Professional Journalists Code of Ethics," 2009). This is fascinating, since less than 15 years ago, Schudson (2001) was calling the ideal “the chief occupational value of journalism” (p. 149). Indeed, it was a cornerstone of American journalism. However, as

Schudson (1973) clarifies, “While objectivity, by the 1930s, was an articulate professional value in journalism, it was one that seemed to disintegrate as soon as it was formulated. It became an ideal in journalism, after all, precisely when the possibility of overcoming subjectivity in presenting the news was widely accepted and, I have argued, precisely because subjectivity had come to be regarded as inevitable” (pp. 156-157).

Interestingly, the early version of the code contains no specific reference to the term, even though it was widespread thinking at the time that journalists should be objective; the

1973 version of the code makes strident mention of the term, just when the ideal was beginning to be rethought; and the 1996 version of the code again turns to using other, 43 more simplified, ideas rather than using the term. SPJ committees chose to break the concept into other (what may be termed) lower level concepts like accuracy, fairness, and balance. These concepts are, as Wien (2005) puts it, “equally problematic” (p. 8).

Westerståhl (1983) argues that the constituent parts of objectivity are truth, relevance, balance, and neutral presentation. Wien notes that breaking a difficult term, in terms of definition, into equally difficult to define terms simply increases the quagmire of illusive terms within journalism. Furthermore, Soffer (2009) notes that some researchers (e.g.,

Bennett, 1983) claim that objectivity in itself causes bias in the news because official sources bias the political perspective. The current version of the code emphasizes independence. “Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public's right to know” (“SPJ Code of Ethics,” 1996) and transparency, which Singer

(2007) equates to “accountability to the public” (p. 79).

Trust — “Be Accountable”

The SPJ code of ethics makes no mention of the word “trust.” However, trust is at the very heart of journalism codes, and even those journalists who do not specifically profess to subscribing to a specific code honor the principle of trust (Ugland &

Henderson, 2007). The SPJ code makes the blanket statement, “Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist’s credibility” ("Society of Professional Journalists Code of

Ethics," 2009, Preamble). Svensson (2006) analyzed the concept of professionalism in general (i.e.—not related to journalism specifically) and found that professionalism is interpreted on an individual level, not necessarily on an organizational level. 44

Furthermore, trust is not an easily apparent factor when people seek to identify professionals. Trust comes through demonstrated achievements. Because of this,

Svensson highlights the need for individual competence in any profession. Applied to journalism, individual journalists must demonstrate ethical competence in each story produced in order to gain the audience’s trust. When journalists or journalism outlets make mistakes, the public loses trust. This gets back to the example at the beginning of this study where a nonprofessional contributor used a pen name to write stories. Richard

Piatt, a professional journalist, wrote in response to this revelation, “As journalists, we work to write without bias and strive for balance and accuracy above all. This issue really is about trust, something media outlets—like KSL and the Deseret News—take very seriously and are accountable for” (Piatt, 2011). Trust is big in journalism. If the public does not trust journalists, the journalists find that they no longer have jobs.

Piatt (2011) stressed that journalists prize trust beyond all other things. When

Mayor Winder created a “false identity to write news articles about his city” (para. 1), professional journalists responded by defending their desire for the news reading public’s trust. Bok (1999) states, “There must be a minimal degree of trust in communication for language and action to be more than stabs in the dark” (p. 18). Journalists prize trust because it establishes credibility. According to Bok, this level of trust is required for a functioning society: “A society, then, whose members were unable to distinguish truthful messages from deceptive ones, would collapse” (p. 19). Journalists provide information in order for the public to make informed decisions. The information must be true in order 45 for the public to make a valid decision. If the information is inaccurate, proper decision making is impossible. However, Winder stated that all the articles he wrote “were 100 percent truthful, accurate, and verifiable” (Manson, 2011, para. 8). A Deseret Connect editor confirmed that this was true (with the exception of the byline) (Page, 2011b). So, the articles were accurate, but the byline was untruthful. The fact that the stories were, in actuality, written by a person other than the one stated in the byline turns public perception against Winder. The West Valley City Council reprimanded Winder (Page,

2011a); the man whose photo Winder used sought an apology (Reavy, 2011); and Winder faced a law suit from one man who claimed that the mayor defamed him in at least one story (Morgan, 2012; Page, 2011c). Bok (1999) states, “Those who have learned they have been lied to in an important matter ... are resentful, disappointed, and suspicious” (p.

20). Indeed, the Mayor lost a bid for the Salt Lake County Mayor’s office in 2012 at least in part because of the Burwash incident (Gorrell, 2012).

The SPJ Codes have evolved over the last century to include a great many things.

Indeed, objectivity is the most illusive in terms of the code and has evolved the most. In addition, the code itself can be interpreted in such a way as to make it impossible for the journalist to adhere to all elements at the same time. The first two standards—to seek truth and to minimize harm—and the second two standards—to act independently and to be accountable— are at odds with one another. The journalist is compelled to seek truth up to the point where it increases harm or vice versa. The same is true of the second pair.

This seeming contradiction has been addressed by noting that the journalist should balance the first standard with the second standard in each case, thus ensuring that neither 46 standard is neglected (Gratz, 2005; Tallent, 1997). This seemingly simple explanation is at the heart of the difficulty in working with ethical codes. Clearly, however, professional journalists have used the code, in some form, for a very long time. The code has transcended evolutions in media, like radio, television, and the internet, and it continues to be used by professional journalists today. Although, the SPJ Code is very well received, a recommendation has been made to professional journalists to adopt communitarian ideals in journalism. Since the ideals of nonprofessional journalism and communitarian ethics are so closely related, more information regarding communitarian journalism is required.

Communitarian Journalism

During the 1980s and 90s, a shift in journalism was proposed (Christians, Ferré,

& Fackler, 1993). Christians and his colleagues discussed the need for a fundamental shift in the ethical ideals of journalism. Their proposal included four main elements: a move from the autonomous self to the dialogic self, community commitment, civic transformation, and mutuality in organizational culture. Ultimately, each element contributes to a communitarian form of journalism where stories are reported in such a way that considers the political and community value of that story. If stories do not respect others in the community, they are not reported. Steiner (2010) terms the ideal of mutual respect as the underlying “proto-norm” (p. 110) of Christians and his colleagues’ thinking. This ideal represents a fundamental shift away from the notion of the journalist as a “detached observer” 47

(Hodges 1996, p. 133) and fully embraces the journalist as one who is involved in the news that he or she is reporting and makes decisions about what is covered based on the value the story has for the community. Hodges expands Christians and his colleagues’ issues with the Enlightenment Era’s focus on individualism and autonomy at the expense of community. He proposes four problems, in addition to a focus on individualism, that plague today’s world and contribute to the problems in journalism: people act on emotion, polarization, a concentration on rights at the expense of responsibilities to others, and extremism and zeolotry. During the mid-1990s, the question of whether communitarian ideals could become a part of journalism was unclear. Hodges (1996) states, “How the communitarian ideal will work itself out philosophically and in practice is not clear. What is clear is that we have before us a fresh way, potentially redemptive and potentially dangerous, to look at the human condition and the function of the press in the modern world” (p. 137). He concludes by stating, “We can establish a realistic ethic for journalism only if we explore the professional implications of human interdependence” (p. 139). The current study proposes that this exploration can now be accomplished because the participatory ethic brings to the forefront human interdependence.

This interdependence has been termed a “discursive-network model” (Plaisance

2005, p. 294) when applied to the press. In the discursive-network model, the press become a means for presenting a variety of news “frames” that highlight the multiplicity of views necessary for the democratic polity to make informed decisions. Plaisance 48 argues that the goal of the individual is “comprehensive self-realization—a significant part of which is socially constructed” (p. 299). This social construction occurs, in part, through the discursive-network model of journalism. The concept of the press as a network is not new in terms of broadcast networks or networks of correspondents located in disparate parts of the world. However, related to a network of varying ideas and discursive thought processes, this model can be applied to participatory journalism in that adding to the number of “frames” provided by news outlets serves to expand the network.

Plaisance criticizes Christians et al. by stating that implementation of communitarian journalism is difficult. He states, “Their call for a new mission remains a revolutionary ideal without a vehicle. Part of this difficulty lies in their conceptualization of the

‘community’ that such a communitarian press would serve” (p. 302). By instituting a forum for contributions to journalism by ‘community’ members, adoption of nonprofessional journalism by professional journalism outlets could be the vehicle that starts the revolution.

The idea of communitarian journalism has its critics. Barney (1996) denounces communitarian journalism stating that communitarian cultures throughout history have been obstinate toward change. Furthermore, by taking away individualism, people essentially lose agency. They no longer make decisions based on their own thinking but concentrate on the will of the community itself. Altschull (1996) takes this worry a step further by fearing that communities may become so like-minded that they wish to separate from the outside world. 49

Cali (2002) makes a connection between communitarian journalism and participatory journalism. He notes that journalism changed after the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. It became more inclusive and participatory. He argues that these changes continue today. If this is the case, one of the main factors that has been critiqued by multiple scholars is the notion of professional codes of ethics within journalism, specifically with regard to objectivity (Cali, 2002; Christians et al., 1993;

Rauch, 2003). This differentiation, then, can become the basis for separating professional journalists from nonprofessional journalists.

Journalists consider themselves “professionals” in large part because of ethical codes (Deuze, 2005). At the present time, journalists face a potential weakness to the wall they have built establishing themselves as professionals: that of digital technologies allowing for easy distribution of “news” by anyone, “professional” or not. Although willing to shepherd these “nonprofessionals” into the herd of the professional journalists, they are unwilling to give up the gatekeeping role. It is the professional journalist, who claims to live by a professional ethical code, who believes that he or she alone has the proper capacity to know what is in the public interest (Harrison 2010; Hayes, Singer, &

Ceppos, 2007; Hermida & Thurman, 2008; Hujanen 2012; Shaw 2012; Singer 2008). It is the code of ethics that sets the professional journalist apart from the nonprofessional (at least from the professional’s point-of-view).

50

Theoretical Perspective

Many mass communication theories relate to the idea of nonprofessional journalism and journalism ethics. This research will use diffusion of innovations theory as a framework because it relates well with quantitative research and presents a number of factors that can be further broken down to the important questions of this research.

Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Diffusion of innovations theory, posited by Everett Rogers (2003) a half century ago, was used extensively to study the spread (diffusion) of agricultural products. Since that time, it has been used to study the diffusion of numerous topics including those in health (e.g., Dearing, 2004; Farr & Ames, 2008; Southwell, 2011), technology (e.g.,

Akiyoshi & Ono, 2008; Golan & Stettner, 2006; Mirel & Johnson, 2006), and journalism

(e.g., Anderson, 2010; Singer, 2004; Westlund, 2008). There are many aspects of the theory, but this study will use a certain portion of the theory: the characteristics of an innovation that predict whether or not, and how quickly, it will diffuse. The theory posits five: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.

Relative Advantage

Relative advantage is “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes” (Rogers, 2003, p. 15). In this study, relative advantage is operationalized as a comparison of nonprofessional journalism to that of traditional journalism, where “journalists perform the entire news process, from story idea generation, news gathering, writing, editing, to publishing, exercising their professional 51 news values at every stage” (Nip, 2006). Relative advantage is purely perceptional from the point-of-view of the potential adopter and may be in terms of economic factors, social factors, convenience, or satisfaction (Rogers, 2003).

Relative advantage can be broken down into what Domingo et al. (2008) call development logics. Components of development logics may include professional singularities (i.e., a supervisor feels that adoption is advantageous), market characteristics

(i.e., adoption makes economic sense), social particularities (i.e., adoption is because the quantity/quality of news will be enhanced), or regulatory differences (i.e., laws do not allow adoption). The last of these development logics was useful to Domingo et al. where they compared newspapers from different countries, but is not useful in the present study since all newspapers are located within the United States. For this reason, it will not be considered. In addition, professional singularities can be answered with a simple question: “Were you required by a superior to adopt a program wherein nonprofessional journalists became a part of the news-making process?” However, market characteristics and social particularities are much more complex.

Market Characteristics

The current state of the economy has negatively affected journalism in the United

States. Many newsrooms are looking for cost-cutting measures simply to stay in business.

For example, a long running newspaper in Salt Lake City cut 43% of its newsroom staff

(Weaver, 2010). These cuts are causing noticeable holes in journalistic coverage that news editors want to fill. 52

Social Particularities

Community members have a desire for journalists to understand the community and care about the community (Heider, McCombs, & Poindexter, 2005). Use of nonprofessional journalists may be a means for providing an answer to that desire.

Nonprofessional journalists have been shown to report on subjects not reported by professionals (Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson, & Fleming, 2010). These “different voices” (Hermida & Thurman, 2008) allow professionals to include views and ideas that are different from the usual views.

Compatibility

Rogers (2003) defines compatibility as “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters” (p. 15). Professional journalists may have many reasons to think that use of nonprofessionals in the news-making process is incompatible with professional standards. Compton and Benedetti (2010) fervently declare that the two forms of journalism are completely incompatible:

This point goes beyond the now stale debates pitting professional journalists against proverbial ‘pajama-wearing’ amateurs. The labour of reporting costs money; it takes time and the knowledge acquired through sustained effort. Piece- work reporting and participant-observer video captured during moments of crisis cannot replace the former institutional news net, flawed as it may have been. (pp. 496–497)

The stance taken by professional journalists for journalistic rigor has a long standing tradition. Traditional journalism schools teach a number of journalistic values that professional journalists pride themselves in holding onto. These values, together with the 53 potential for legal trouble that the use of nonprofessional journalism may incite, have been found to negatively affect adoption of content produced by nontraditional journalists

(Lewis et al., 2010; Thurman, 2008).

Complexity

The more difficult the innovation is to use, the more likely that the innovation will not be adopted. Lewis and his associates (2010) found that newspaper editors’ practical reasons for choosing not to allow nonprofessional journalism included the need to fact check every story produced by nonprofessionals. Those editors who did experiment with nonprofessional journalism found the process too difficult because of legal concerns or getting more than a handful of nonprofessionals to participate. The process was simply too complex to warrant continued use. For purposes of this study, complexity is operationalized as the level of difficulty in the process that the potential adopter must go through in order to ensure that participatory journalism meets the news outlet’s standards.

Trialability

Trialability is a characteristic of an innovation that refers to whether or not the potential adopter has had an opportunity to try the innovation before deciding to adopt.

Trialability has been found to be a significant predictor of adoption of innovations such as HD televisions (Dupagne & Driscoll, 2010), microcomputers (Hurt & Hibbard, 1989), and employee adoption of a new computer system (Papa & Papa, 1990). However, no research has attempted to determine whether trialability is an important factor in the decision to adopt nonprofessional journalism. In the case of adoption of nonprofessional 54 journalism, the ability to try the process before adopting may be convoluted by many factors. For example, experimenting with use of nonprofessional journalism may simply demonstrate a greater sense of relative advantage or challenges in the form of complexity and lack of compatibility. Indeed, trialability may be less connected with the idea of nonprofessional journalism and more an element of interacting on the internet in general.

Because these issues are at odds with one another, simply the ability to try nonprofessional journalism in a professional arena may not be a strong predictor of adoption. However, previous research is void of a complete answer.

Observability

This characteristic is more than simply the ability for the potential adopter to observe the innovation in use. It also refers to the ability for the potential innovators’ peers to observe the innovation. The more peers that can see the innovation in use, the more influence they will have on the potential adopter. With regard to citizen journalism adoption, this relates to the news outlet’s observation of other outlets’ adoption of citizen journalism.

Conditional Process Model

The model used to test the hypotheses and research questions is shown in Figure

1. As shown, the model allows for testing various paths of influence of the independent variable (IV), observability, to the dependent variable (DV), willingness to adopt. The first path of influence is through the variable of perceived economic need and the second through perceived social need. Each of these mediating variables is moderated in the first 55

Figure 1. Conditional Process Model stage by Budget and Area Size and in the second stage by Perceived Ethical

Compatibility and Complexity.

Hypotheses and Research Questions

Based on previous research, the following hypotheses and research questions are proposed. Numerous studies have concluded that observability of an innovation leads more potential adopters into the decision to adopt a specific innovation. Therefore,

H1: Professional journalists will be more likely to adopt the more they observe

other professionals adopting. 56

Diffusion of Innovation Theory proposes, and current research confirms, that professionals who perceive an advantage in adopting nonprofessionals will be more likely to adopt. In the current study, relative advantage has been split into the variables perceived economic need and perceived social need. Thus,

H2: Holding observability constant, professionals who perceive an economic need

will be more likely to adopt.

H3: Holding observability constant, professionals who perceive a social need will

be more likely to adopt.

It stands to reason that professionals who perceive a greater economic need will more likely have a smaller budget, relatively speaking, compared to those who have a larger budget. Hence,

H4: Budget will significantly influence perceived economic need where

professional media outlets with smaller budgets will have greater perceived

economic need.

In the same way that budget influences economic need, larger geographic areas should reasonably influence perceived social need.

H5: The larger the geographic area served by a professional media outlet, the

more the professional journalist will have a perceived social need.

As elaborated earlier, Diffusion of Innovation Theory proposes two barriers to adoption: compatibility and complexity.

H6: Complexity will moderate the effect of perceived social need and perceived

economic need to a point where professionals who view adoption as too complex 57

will be less likely to adopt, even though they perceive an advantage in doing so.

For the current study, compatibility has been broken into two variables: ethical compatibility and legal compatibility. The influence of these two factors to adoption has not been quantitatively studied in previous research. Thus,

RQ1: Does ethical compatibility moderate the effect of perceived economic need?

RQ2: Does ethical compatibility moderate the effect of perceived social need? CHAPTER III

METHOD

Design

In order to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions, this study used a descriptive approach to research. The design of this study necessitates the establishment of cause-effect relationships amongst the variables. According to Hayes (2013), it is difficult to establish the cause-effect relationship of variables in the model when conducting purely descriptive research. He suggests that the proposed relationship must be shown logically, through past research, or through statistical control. Then, regression analysis can be used to make inferences about the proposed relationship. The model used in this research makes logical and theoretical sense. Indeed, it would be difficult for decision-makers at professional media outlets to make the decision to adopt if they were not able to first observe the use of nonprofessional journalism by other media outlets. As proposed by diffusion of innovations theory, however, the decision is not based on observability alone. Decision-makers must see the relative advantage of adoption over not adopting. Furthermore, they must believe that the innovation is compatible with their current way of life and not too complex to be unfeasible. As can be seen by examining the model, the pathways from independent variable to dependent variable through each 59 mediator and each moderator make logical sense. However, it is only through testing the model for fit in the real world that the logic of the model can be substantiated. It is the moderators along the second set of paths that are the most interesting in terms of the current study. RQ1 and RQ2 highlight the importance of the placement of the moderators, ethical compatibility and complexity, along these paths.

To test this descriptive model, journalists were recruited into a survey study that assessed their knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. The journalists were surveyed at a single-point in time; thus, the current data are cross-sectional.

Pretest

A pretest was carried out to test the reliability of the measures of many of the variables in the model. The sample for the pretest was 100 newspapers in the eastern

United States that have web sites written in English. The Newspaper Map of the World

(newspapermap.com) was used to find newspapers for the sample. The pretest was able to establish adequate reliability for some of the variables operationalized in the paragraphs that follow.

Participants

The survey was distributed to 2,950 newspapers with English web sites in the

United States. Chyi and Sylvie (2001) argue that newspapers provide the best means for confining news distribution to a specific geographical area. In addition, newspapers have been forced to evolve as they now must compete with ever-increasing numbers of news and information providers found all over the web and have been forced to think of new 60 business models (Casero-Ripollés & Izquierdo-Castillo, 2013). Names and addresses for the editors of the newspapers were provided by both the Newspaper Map of the World

(newspapermap.com) and the United States Newspaper List (usnpl.com).

The databases above only provided names of the newspapers, web addresses, and in about half of the cases, e-mail addresses and names of the managing editor (or similar title) of the newspaper. In order to ensure that as many journalists as possible were invited to participate, a web site (http://www.commandthemedia.com/newspapers) was created that allowed for the collection of names and e-mail addresses for any data that were missing. The web site presented the name of the paper and the city in which it was located. Using social media, people were recruited to aid in finding the missing data. This approach was used because of the underlying communitarian and participatory nature of the study being conducted. Using a participatory approach, more than 50 people were recruited to help in the gathering of data for this study. The use of social media to collect data was a very successful tool that can be used in future research no matter the topic being studied. Incentives for participation were provided for those who participated, and spot checks were completed to ensure the accuracy of the data collected. Using this method, 2,950 names and e-mail addresses were collected.

An invitation to participate in the survey was e-mailed to all addresses on the list.

The invitation provided informed consent information and a link to the survey. An incentive to participate was provided in the form of one of four Amazon.com gift cards valued at $50. Participants who completed the survey were entered into a random drawing, and four were chosen for the gift cards. The cards were then be e-mailed to the 61 winners of the drawing.

Predictor Variable

Diffusion of innovations theory posits that innovations must be observable in order to be adopted, and that the more observable the innovation is to potential adopters, the more likely it is to be adopted. As shown in Figure 1, observability is the predictor variable in the current study. Observability was chosen based on the logic that, in order for one to even consider whether or not a potential innovation possesses the other traits predicted by diffusion of innovations theory, one must know about the potential innovation. Thus, observability was the element of the theory chosen as the focal predictor in the current study. However, this, in and of itself, is not the focus of this study.

Indeed, it makes sense that professionals would need to observe the use of nonprofessional journalism before making the decision to adopt. Although observability is the focal predictor variable in this study, it is the indirect paths through the mediator variables that are moderated in both the first and second stages that are of primary interest in this study.

Observability was not a part of the pretest. Hurt and Hibbard (1989) developed a six-item measure of observability that demonstrated good reliability in their study (α = .

84). The six items were modified to address observability of nonprofessional journalism and exhibited strong reliability in the current study (α = .86, x̅ = 3.47, s = .89). The six items were “Our media outlet has had a great deal of opportunity to try and work with nonprofessional journalists,” “Our media outlet has had a great deal of experience using 62 nonprofessional journalists,” “Our media outlet has very little useful information about nonprofessional journalists,” “Our media outlet has seen what nonprofessional journalists can do for us,” “Our media outlet has seen a wide variety of things nonprofessional journalists can do for us,” and “Our media outlet has never seen what nonprofessional journalists can do for us.” The anchor points for the 5-point scale were Strongly Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Outcome Variable

The outcome variable of this study was willingness to adopt nonprofessional journalism content. Diffusion of innovations theory proposes that the antecedent, mediator, and moderator variables in this study will either lead to a decision to adopt, or not adopt the innovation under study. The direct path from observation to willingness to adopt, though an important factor, is not the main consideration of this study. The indirect paths, through the mediators, provide more enlightenment into the thought processes that motivate potential adopters, the professional journalists, to utilize the services of unpaid contributors. However, in order to test the paths, cause and effect relationships must be established. Thus, the outcome variable becomes the “effect” side of the path.

In the present study, the outcome variable was measured by asking three questions, measured using Likert scales: “Our media outlet is willing to allow nonprofessional journalists to publish content alongside professionally produced content,” “Our media outlet would allow an organized system to be put in place that allows submission of news created by nonprofessionals,” and “Our media outlet would 63 never allow nonprofessional journalism to be published on its web site.” The anchor points for the 5-point scale were Strongly Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Mediator Variables

Perceived Economic Need

A pretested 3-item scale was used to measure perceived economic need. The measure consisted of the items “Many newsrooms are looking to working with nonprofessionals as a cost-cutting measure,” “Budget cuts are causing noticeable holes in journalistic coverage that can be filled with stories written by nonprofessionals,” and

“Working with nonprofessionals does not help newspapers save money” (reverse-coded).

The anchor points for the 5-point scale were Strongly Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Respondents were provided with the definition for “nonprofessional” that was explicated earlier in this study: a person who produces any form of content who is not known by the news outlet to live by an ethical code of journalism.

Perceived Social Need

The professional’s perception of how working with nonprofessionals can help with the social nature of news was measured using a pretested 5-item scale. The items in this measure are “Nonprofessional journalists help fulfill the desire that community members have for journalists to understand the community and care about the community,” “Nonprofessionals report on subjects not reported by professionals,”

“Including nonprofessionals in the journalism process allows professionals to include 64 views and ideas that are different from the usual views,” “Working with nonprofessional journalists does not bring our paper closer to the community” (reverse coded), and

“Contributed stories from nonprofessional sources are no better at providing community information than professionally written stories” (reverse coded). The anchor points for the 5-point scale were Strongly Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Moderator Variables

Baron and Kenny (1986) define moderator variables as “a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion variable” (p. 1174). Edwards and Lambert (2007) classify moderators based on where their effect is measured in a mediation model: First stage moderators moderate the path from the antecedent to each of the mediators, and second stage moderators moderate the path from the mediators to the outcome variable. In addition to testing for first and second stage moderation, this study will examine moderation of the direct effect of observability on willingness to adopt.

First Stage Moderator Variables

Budget

A number of factors may contribute to an overall measure of the newsroom budget. First, it is supposed that the larger news organizations, specifically those that are publicly traded, will have the largest budgets with which to work. Following this logic, 65 newsrooms with high budgets may be less apt to consider adopting nonprofessional journalism into the news workflow simply because the budget is high enough to have professionals complete all necessary news tasks. However, it follows that those newsrooms with the largest budgets most likely have the highest advertising, either through printed circulation or through electronic user interaction. Thus, a “budget per user” measure was calculated that allowed for the budget to be tempered by the actual interactions of readers/viewers/users. This logic allowed for the inclusion of user interaction as a component of the budget measure. Those newsrooms with the larger budgets, but who serve larger numbers of people, may have a lower budget per user compared to those with smaller budgets, which serve smaller numbers of people. Staff in larger newsrooms may be stretched thinner compared to those in smaller newsrooms even though the actual dollar figures indicate larger budgets. The literature contains no such examples of this notion in previous studies, however. This may be possible simply because of the fact that newsroom budget is, in many cases, proportional to advertising revenue (Edmonds, 2004).

Using such a measure is fraught with difficulty. The difficulty arises in trying to form a valid calculation for budget per user. It may seem reasonable to include printed circulation as well as web site unique visitors in the calculation. However, these two measures are two very different representations of actual users. Whereas an individual printed newspaper may be viewed by more than one user, a unique visitor on a web site represents a single IP address, which comes closer to representing a single individual. To include both in the calculation allows for an increase in measurement error because of 66 this issue. Researchers have documented the decline in printed circulation in newspapers

(e.g., Raeymaeckers, Hauttekeete, & Deprez, 2007; Rouger, 2008). A recent Pew study found that more than half of Americans get their news in a digital format and only 23% had read a printed newspaper the day before (Beaujon, 2012). Because printed circulation is declining and because printed circulation is only a rough estimate of the actual number of people who read a particular news story, this study calculated budget per user by taking the reported monthly newsroom budget and dividing that dollar amount by the number of unique visitors who visited the news section of the media outlet’s web site in a given month.

Area Size

The users of a particular newspaper’s web site are geographically diverse, even falling outside of the newspapers typical coverage area. Chyi (2011) reports that newspapers based in areas of larger population or those with higher print circulations tend to have more geographically dispersed online readership. Chyi and Sylvie (2001) studied the role of geography in online newspaper markets. They concluded that content on a newspaper’s web site is centered on topics for the local market, but that the distribution platform (i.e., the internet) is a global platform. Furthermore, they found that the long- distance market constituted one-third of the online readership. Since 1999 when the data for the study were collected, newspapers may be taking a higher interest in the long distance market that represents a fair number of online readers. Using nonprofessional journalism in more rural or geographically diverse locales may moderate the perception 67 of social or economic need. In other words, professional journalists may feel that long- distance journalism is suited to people who live in areas far away from the newspapers’ geographic center, its newsroom.

However, measuring the geographic area poses a problem. Asking respondents to estimate the size in square miles of the coverage area of their newspaper may be difficult because of the difficulty people have in accurately estimating geographic size.

Furthermore, asking respondents to use normal English words to convey geographic size

(e.g., “Greater Chicago area” or “Central Florida”) may introduce error into the measure when the terms are converted into square mile equivalents. However, respondents should be able to accurately describe the fraction of a state or states covered by their newspaper.

In this study, geographic area was measured by asking respondents to report the names of the states covered by their paper. If the number of states was less than five, the respondent was then asked to report the amount of each state covered using “all” if all of the state was covered and the fractions 3/4, 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4 if it was not. The geographic area was than calculated based on the area of each state (less lakes and other bodies of water) multiplied by the fraction reported. The result from all reported states was then totaled for each respondent.

Second Stage and Direct Effect Moderator Variables

Perceived Ethical Compatibility

The perception of the ability for work produced by nonprofessionals to fit into the ethical constraints cherished by professional journalists was measured using a pretested 68

3-item scale. Scale items include “Nonprofessionals can learn the values that professional journalists pride themselves in holding onto,” “Systems and policies can be set up to prevent all potential ethical issues of working with nonprofessional journalists,” and “A journalism school is the only place a person can be trained in the art of ethical journalism” (reverse coded). The anchor points for the 5-point scale were Strongly

Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Perceived Complexity

A pretested 3-item measure with high reliability (α = .92) was used to gauge the perception of complexity of working with nonprofessional journalists. The items are “It is too difficult to work with nonprofessionals,” “The process of working with nonprofessionals is too complex to make it worthwhile,” and “Adding stories written by nonprofessionals to a newspaper is a logistical nightmare.” The anchor points for the 5- point scale were Strongly Disagree and Strongly Agree.

Covariates

Time in Business

Many newspapers in the United States have been publishing news for many years.

Indeed, some have been active for 100 years or more. However, newer outlets have sprung up with the advent of the internet and digital technology. Thus, time in business, measured in years, is a covariate in this study. 69

Number of Full Time Reporters

The size of the newsroom may contribute to the decision to adopt, but it is not a focal point for this study. However, all newsrooms in which respondents work were of different sizes. As such, this study asked how many full time reporters are employed by the media outlet in which the respondent works, and the result was allowed to covary in the analysis.

Circulation

The size of the newsroom is not the only contributing factor that can measure the size of the newspaper. Another variable that was allowed to covary is circulation, the number of paid subscribers to the newspaper. By removing the size of the media outlet using these two variables, size of newsroom and circulation, the study gained an accurate representation of the model no matter what the size of the outlet.

Measure

The survey was conducted using Qualtrics (qualtrics.com). The Qualtrics system allowed for the tracking of participants, which ensured that participants were chosen for the incentive. The survey consisted of questions designed to determine willingness to adopt along with questions regarding the reasons for adoption as based on the characteristics from diffusion research and the covariates. Those variables that are not already on a continuous level of measurement, such as number of years in business, were measured using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree 70 with a neutral value of “Neither Agree nor Disagree.” The measure was designed in this way to ensure that those who were of a “middle-of-the-road” mentality would be represented in the sample. Using the pretest and previous research, the measure has been designed to achieve a high level of validity and reliability.

Analysis

The hypotheses and research questions were tested using Conditional Process

Analysis (CPA; Hayes, 2013). This technique uses ordinary least squares regression in a way that tests for direct effects, indirect effects through mediation analysis, and interactions through moderation analysis, all in one program. Hayes (2009) proposes methods that differ from the method used to test for moderation instigated with Baron and Kenny (1986). He argues that the historic method is not sufficient because it requires significance in the direct path from the predictor variable to the outcome variable before testing for a significant indirect path from predictor to mediator to outcome. Hayes argues that indirect relationships between variables can (and do) exist without direct relationships being present. Other authors agree and suggest the use of the process proposed by Hayes (Zhao, John, & Chen, 2010). In addition, Hayes argues that because multiple indirect paths exist from independent variable to dependent variable, some indirect paths may positively influence the outcome while others may negatively influence the outcome. Thus, the total effect may be cancelled out. These distinctions are important to find, especially in the current research, because it may be true that the indirect paths from IV to DV through the mediators of perceived economic value and 71 perceived social need that are influenced by the moderators of complexity and ethical compatibility may negatively affect the outcome, while the direct effect (i.e., mediators that are not a part of the current study) are positively influencing the outcome, either to the point of eliciting adoption or at the very least, canceling out the positive influence to a point where the effect could not be noted through testing for a simple relationship between observability and intention alone.

Conditional Process Analysis

The principle of combining mediation and moderation analysis is not new. Judd and Kenny (1981) state, “With a process analysis one asks not whether a treatment produced the desired effects, but rather how it did so” (p. 603; emphasis in original).

They further state that interactions between the variables can also reveal important details about how the predictor variable produces its effect on the outcome variable. James and

Brett (1984) elaborate on this notion by further defining how a variable can serve as either a mediator, a moderator, or both in a given study by defining the role of the variable in that study. They argue that a mediator must transmit influence from an antecedent variable to a consequence in order to be termed a mediator, but that that same variable may also serve as a moderator by interacting with the causal chain. The notion of a causal chain is also explicated by James and Brett. They argue that a well-defined model of mediation requires that the proposed model demonstrate a causal path from antecedent through the mediator to the consequence variable.

Hayes (2013) outlines the steps used by the PROCESS macro to test for 72 moderation, mediation, and moderated mediation, along with the statistical tests used to determine whether results are significant, all of which he terms “Conditional Process

Analysis.” PROCESS calculates coefficients for moderation and mediation using common OLS regression techniques. Moderation is estimated using the linear equation

Ŷ = i1 + b1X + b2M + b3XM where

Ŷ is the value of the outcome variable,

i1 is the intercept,

X is the value of the antecedent variable,

M is the value of the moderator,

XM is the value of interaction,

and b1, b2, and b3 are the estimated coefficients of the regression model.

Note that, for simplicity, the error terms eM and eY are not shown in the equations. The equation above can be rewritten as

Ŷ = i1 + b1X + (b2 + b3X)M

“Expressed in this form, it is apparent that in the simple moderation model, M’s effect on

Y is dependent on X, with that dependency expressed as b2 + b3X” (Hayes, 2013, p. 216).

Coefficients for simple mediation are estimated using two linear equations:

M̂ = i1 + aX

Ŷ = i2 + c’X + bM where 73

M̂ is the value of the mediator,

i1 is the intercept of the first equation,

X is the value of the antecedent variable,

Ŷ is the value of the outcome variable,

i2 is the intercept of the second equation,

and a, b, and c’ are the estimated coefficients of the regression model.

The value of the indirect effect of X on Y through M is ab. “The indirect effect tells us that two cases that differ by one unit on X are estimated to differ by ab units on Y as a result of the effect of X on M which, in turn, affects Y” (Hayes, 2013, p. 92).

The combination of these simple moderation and mediation models allows for the estimation of coefficients for very complex models with multiple mediators being affected by multiple moderators, and the significance of multiple pathways from antecedent variable X to outcome variable Y. The equations for the model in Figure 1 are

M̂ 1 = i1 + a11X + a21W + a31Z + a41XW + a51XZ

M̂ 2 = i2 a12X + a22W + a32Z + a42XW + a52XZ

Ŷ = i3 + b11M1 + b12M2 + c1’X + c2’V + c3’Q + c4’XV +

c5’XQ + b21M1V + b31M1Q + b22M2V + b32M2Q where

M̂ 1 is the value of the mediator, Perceived Economic Need,

i1 is the intercept of the first equation,

X is the value of the antecedent variable, Exposure,

W is the value of the moderator, Budget, 74

Z is the value of the moderator, Area Size,

XW is the value of the interaction between Exposure and Budget,

XZ is the value of the interaction between Exposure and Area Size,

M̂ 2 is the value of the mediator, Perceived Social Need, i2 is the intercept of the second equation,

Ŷ is the value of the outcome variable, Willingness to Adopt, i3 is the intercept of the third equation,

V is the value of the moderator, Perceived Ethical Compatibility,

Q is the value of the moderator, Complexity,

XV is the value of the interaction between Exposure and Perceived Ethical

Compatibility,

XQ is the value of the interaction between Exposure and Complexity,

M1V is the value of the interaction between Perceived Economic Need and

Perceived Ethical Compatibility,

M1Q is the value of the interaction between Perceived Economic Need and

Complexity,

M2V is the value of the interaction between Perceived Social Need and Perceived

Ethical Compatibility,

M2Q is the value of the interaction between Perceived Social Need and

Complexity, and a11, a21, a31, a41, a51, a12, a22, a32, a42, a52, b11, b21, b31, b12, b22, b32, c1’, c2’, c3’, c4’, and c5’ are the estimated coefficients of the regression model. 75

Moderation and Mediation of the Direct and Indirect Effects

The model in this research tested for moderation of the direct effect from observability to willingness to adopt. The moderators are the same as those used to test for moderation in the second stage between each mediator and the outcome variable.

The indirect effect was tested through mediation analysis. When the effect of the antecedent on the outcome is through an intermediate variable that is located causally between the two, mediation is said to exist (Hayes, 2013). The indirect effect (i.e., through the mediator) was estimated by finding the product of the A path (from antecedent to mediator) and the B path (from mediator to outcome).

PROCESS outputs the values of each of the coefficients in the equations above.

The coefficients give the relative strength of the variables to which they are connected.

However, statistical tests of significance are required to determine whether the coefficients are truly different from zero. Statistical tests of significance for standard OLS regression are easy to perform using standard statistical software packages. However, significance tests of the indirect paths (i.e., through the mediators) are not as readily available. PROCESS computes bootstrap confidence intervals to test for significance of the indirect paths. According to Hayes (2005), “Modern and computationally intensive methods of data analysis, such as randomization tests and bootstrapping, are largely unknown to communication scientists but conceptually better suited to the way we conduct research” (p. ix). Bootstrapping allows for computation of a confidence interval when it is not known (or cannot be assumed) that the distribution of the sample is normal.

Bootstrap confidence intervals are computed by sampling from the sample a large 76 number of times and computing a confidence interval based on the level of significance chosen for the study. For example, by sampling the sample 10,000 times, taking the mean value of each sample, and ordering the mean values from lowest to highest, the researcher can find the 95% confidence interval by examining the upper and lower bound (the 25th and 976th values) to determine the “bootstrap confidence interval” (Hayes, 2005). Using this method, a test of significance for the paths of the model in Figure 1 was completed. CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Scale Construction and Correlation Matrix

The number of journalists who responded to the survey was 173. Of these responses, six had to be thrown out because they were unfinished. Reliability analysis was performed on the three items of the willingness to adopt measure. Alpha was sufficient to allow for the three items to be combined into one measure (α = .81, x̅ = 3.57, s = 1.02). In addition, factor analysis was performed using principle axis factoring and revealed that all three items loaded on a single factor. The skree plot showed an obvious elbow at factor 2. The eigenvalue for the first factor was 2.18, whereas the second factor had an eigenvalue of .52 (suggesting retention of a single factor). Principle axis factor analysis for the observability items revealed they loaded on a single factor. The skree plot revealed a clear elbow at factor 2, and the eigenvalue for factor 1 was 2.85 (factor 2 was .

59). Reliability analysis was consistent with the findings of the factor analysis with alpha sufficient for the four-item scale (α = .86, x̅ = 3.47, s = .89). Perceived economic need items did not fair as well in the reliability analysis (α = .70, x̅ = 3.33, s = .82). However, factor analysis revealed that the three items loaded on a single factor with an eigenvalue of 1.89 at factor 1 and a skree plot with an elbow at factor 2. Likewise, reliability analysis 78 for perceived social need was only moderate (α = .66, x̅ = 3.01, s = .71). However, factor analysis grouped all four items into one factor (eigenvalue for factor 1 = 2.00) and a clear elbow at factor 2 in the skree plot.

When analyzing reliability for perceived ethical compatibility, alpha was not high enough when considering all three items (α = .51, x̅ = 3.91, s = .63). By removing the third item, “a journalism school is the only place a person can be trained in the art of ethical journalism,” alpha increased to .62. However, factor analysis for all three items had a clear elbow for one factor. Therefore, all three items were included in the final measure. Reliability analysis for the measure of perceived complexity was quite high (α =

.92, x̅ = 2.51, s = .94). Likewise factor analysis showed a clear elbow above factor 2 in the skree plot and had a high eigenvalue for factor 1 (eigenvalue = 2.60). Based on reliability analysis and factor analysis, all items were included in the final measures.

As shown in Table 2, all variables, except Years in Business, were skewed. Those that were skewed were negatively skewed, except for Complexity, Coverage Area,

Number of Reporters, and Circulation. Thus, most of the newspapers in the sample were small in terms of geographic coverage area, number of full-time reporters, and circulation. In addition, most respondents were favorable toward the variables being measured.

As shown in Table 3, Years in Business was positively correlated with Number of

Reporters and negatively correlated with Coverage Area. Number of Reporters was positively correlated with Circulation. Willingness to Adopt was positively correlated with Observability, Perceived Economic Need, Perceived Social Need, Ethical 79 80 81

Compatibility, and Circulation but negatively correlated with Complexity. Observability was positively correlated with Perceived Economic Need, Perceived Social Need, and

Ethical Compatibility but negatively correlated with Complexity. Perceived Economic

Need was positively correlated with Perceived Social Need and Ethical Compatibility but negatively correlated with Complexity. Perceived Social Need was positively correlated with Ethical Compatibility and Complexity but negatively correlated with Circulation.

Ethical Compatibility was negatively correlated with Complexity. Finally, Circulation was positively correlated with Coverage Area.

Conditional Process Modeling

According to H1, professional journalists will be more likely to adopt the more they observe other professionals adopting. The model shown in Figure 2 shows a significant direct path from Observability to Willingness to Adopt. Thus, H1 is substantiated. Although this seems simplistic, it allows for the validation of the model.

The effect size for the direct path was 39% above that of the covariates (R2 = .413).

H2 predicted that if observability is held constant, professionals who perceive an economic need will be more likely to adopt. H3 predicted that while holding observability constant, professionals who perceive a social need will be more likely to adopt. Both of these hypotheses were tested by examining the indirect paths from observability to willingness through each of the mediating variables, economic need and social need. As shown in Figure 2, the indirect paths through each of these variables was significant. Thus, both H2 and H3 are substantiated. 82

Figure 2. Conditional Process Model Results *p < .05 **p < .01

H4 stated that budget will significantly influence perceived economic need where

professional media outlets with smaller budgets will have greater perceived economic

need. This hypothesis could not be tested with the dataset provided by respondents

because there were not enough responses to the items of newsroom budget and number of

web site users.

According to H5, the larger the geographic area served by a professional media

outlet, the more the professional journalist will have a perceived social need. Upon

probing, the path between observability and social need with coverage area as the 83 moderating variable revealed that geographic area did affect the perceived social need of nonprofessional journalism on the part of the professional journalist. However, this effect was such that the smaller the geographic area, the more respondents felt there was a social need. Since H5 was stated as a directional hypothesis and since the data do not justify the hypothesis as written, H5 cannot be substantiated.

H6 states that complexity will moderate the effect of perceived social need and perceived economic need to a point where professionals who view adoption as too complex will be less likely to adopt, even though they perceive an advantage in doing so.

Upon probing the interaction between each mediating variable with complexity as a moderator, results reveal that professional journalists are willing to adopt nonprofessional journalism no matter how complex it is to do so as long as they feel there is a social need in doing so. If there is an economic advantage in doing so, they will adopt if the process is not too complex. Therefore, H6 is partially substantiated. Complexity does moderate the effect of economic need, but it does not moderate the effect of social need.

RQ1 asked, “Does ethical compatibility moderate the effect of perceived economic need?” Upon probing the interaction between the moderating variable, ethical compatibility, and the mediating variable, perceived economic need, results reveal that professional journalists are willing to adopt nonprofessional journalism so long as there is an economic need and that they feel that nonprofessional journalism is neither too ethically compatible nor too ethically incompatible. In other words, those who were at the mean in terms of ethical compatibility were willing to adopt (Bootstrap Lower/Upper

Confidence Interval > 0), but those who were one standard deviation above or below the 84 mean were not willing to adopt (Bootstrap Lower Confidence Interval < 0 < Upper

Confidence Interval).

RQ2 asked, “Does ethical compatibility moderate the effect of perceived social need?” Probing revealed that it made no difference whether or not professional journalists felt that nonprofessional journalism was ethically compatible with professional journalism or not. They were willing to adopt as long as there was a perceived social need

(Bootstrap Lower/Upper Confidence Interval > 0). CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The model tested in this study highlights three paths of decision-making that a professional journalist can use to progress from observing others using nonprofessional journalism to deciding to adopt themselves. One path was because of an economic advantage in so doing. This path highlights the capitalistic or profit-driven reasons for using nonprofessionals and would make the most sense if news outlets were concerned with the bottom line. Given the nature of the economic climate in which this study was conducted, this path would surely be at the forefront of administrators’ thinking.

However, this was not the only reason for adopting. A second path also showed a significant reason for choosing to adopt. This path was based on the social need for newspapers to be involved with the community. Both paths were significant, and given that the economic reasons were accounted for already, the significance of the social need is enlightening. Newspapers are not only concerned with the bottom line. They are also concerned about the communitarian desires of journalism to be an aid to the citizenry.

Given that both factors are important to news outlets, it would seem that those in charge are not simply taking advantage of a free source of labor. They are adopting a budget friendly way to increase the reporting of news within the community. The argument 86 cannot be made that news managers are simply trying to increase the bottom line. They do feel a need to increase their role as purveyors of information.

The digital age has brought technologies that allow for tremendous numbers of people to participate in the journalism process. Like rubberneckers who cannot help but look at a traffic accident on the side of the road, people seek to understand why some things happen and tell others what they saw and how they made sense of it. They feel compelled to provide information that helps the collective to better understand the events of their lives. Journalism is returning to the days when it was simply a form of gossip, where participants provide tidbits of information that provide small increases to the collective understanding of what is happening around them (Hermida, 2010).

Professional journalists clearly see what is on the horizon: They see a world in which they must cooperate with the masses or be left behind. This cooperation, however, may be at the expense of the contributors who freely contribute to the collective understanding. Fuchs (2014) notes that social media exploit contributors. The same can be said of journalism outlets. As Fuchs notes, this is because, at the heart of journalism, a money-generating machine operates. Wikipedia is the only example Fuchs gives that approaches his determination of an ideal social media outlet because it is not driven by profits, does not contain commercial advertising, and (nearly) does not exploit those who contribute to its articles. Based on Fuchs’ reasoning, the only way journalism can correctly use nonprofessional contributions is by being led by a nonprofit entity that serves only to distribute accurate information and does not simply exploit the free labor of contributors. One element of this study was to determine whether the profit motive 87 was present in the decision, and results show that it is not the sole reason for adoption.

The two ideals of the drive for profit and the desire to be involved in the community are at odds with one another because the contributors themselves are a part of the community. If professional journalists are truly attempting to better serve the community in which they produce news, they will not be taking advantage of the nonprofessional contributors who are generating the content. So, if there are economic reasons and community reasons for generating the content, the journalism outlets themselves are simply another form of social media that exploits the contributors (in exactly the same way that Fuchs says Facebook, Twitter, and other social media sites are exploitative). This would definitely be true for the editors of news outlets who reason that the economics of news production necessitate adoption. This desire for economic viability has a long history in journalism and is based on the failure of the longtime model of economic sustainability within professional journalism. As the economics of journalism moved from advertising revenue generation from commercial ads placed in printed newspapers to banner ads placed on digital web sites, news outlets have struggled to meet the bottom line. At the same time, new internet technologies make the distribution of content so easy that journalism outlets have struggled to keep up with the emerging ability of consumers to generate content of their own. Clearly, this study shows that journalists’ decisions involve both of these factors. As has been discussed earlier, however, these ideals are at odds with one another and serve to only confirm what past researchers (Lewis, 2012; Mitchelstein, & Boczkowski, 2009) have noted: that journalism is truly struggling to determine how content generated by nonprofessionals 88 fits into the long standing revenue model and, to an even greater extent, the power model of traditional journalism.

The current study sought to understand more fully how economics played a role in the decision-making process by examining the outlets’ budgets. Although the effect of budget on the decision-making process could not be tested with the dataset acquired, an exploratory analysis was performed to test whether the variable Budget Per User would affect the outcome of the analysis. Results showed that the indirect effect of

Observability through Social Necessity to the dependent variable, Willingness to Adopt was affected by Budget Per User (holding other variables constant), such that those newspapers that had a Budget Per User that was at the mean or lesser were willing to adopt nonprofessional journalism, but those with a budget greater than the mean were not willing to work with nonprofessionals. Although additional research with reliable data is necessary to confirm this, this would mean that newspapers with larger budgets relative to the number of users on their web sites would be less inclined to bring on additional contributors if those contributors were not professional journalists. This makes sense given that those newspapers with larger budgets can afford to have more professional staff and would have no need for outside contributions. However, it could also mean that those newspapers who are unwilling to work with nonprofessionals are able to command a larger budget because consumers are willing to pay a premium for professional content.

In either case, there is a clear budgetary influence on the decision to adopt. The bottom line is a clear factor, and editors are basing their decisions on economic factors.

The effect of geographic area in this study could not be substantiated based on the 89 hypotheses as written, but based on the analysis of the dataset, it may be true that newspapers that serve smaller geographic areas feel there is a greater social need for adoption. This is interesting because it would make more sense that larger geographic areas could be covered by nonprofessional “correspondents” in order to bring news from the fringes of the coverage area. The results show that this is not, necessarily, the case. It may be true that smaller newspapers in smaller areas have a “small town mentality” that would make management feel that a greater number of voices should be heard. Christians and colleagues (1993) note that, in order for communitarian ethics to be adopted by professional journalists, the organizational culture of the individual journalism enterprise must change. Based on the preliminary findings of this research, it may be true that these changes can happen when the organization involved is small in nature.

Given the economic factors involved in making the decision to adopt and the desire to be a part of the community, the model also accounts for the effect of complexity on the adoption decision. This study has shown that, for those journalists who feel that adoption helps their social need to be involved in the community and help the community, it did not matter if the process to implement or use a system that allowed for nonprofessionals to contribute was complex. Those journalists who felt a social need felt that the process was too important, even if it was difficult to use. However, those journalists who felt that there was an economic value in adoption were unwilling to adopt if the process was too complex. From a communitarian standpoint, this makes sense given that those journalists who were community-minded would not be as concerned about the difficulty in implementing or using a system if it meant their newspaper could 90 be better involved in the community. On the other hand, those journalists who were more concerned with the bottom line would not be as interested in a system that meant they may have to spend more money dealing with a system that was perceived as being more taxing to their normal routine.

Testing for the moderating effect of ethical compatibility revealed very interesting results. Those journalists who felt that there was an economic need in adopting who also felt that adopting was incompatible with journalism ethics would not adopt. Interestingly, however, those who felt that adoption was very compatible were also unwilling to adopt.

It was only for those journalists who were average in their thinking regarding ethical compatibility who were willing to adopt. This seeming contradiction reveals why conditional process modeling is so important in the analysis of the data in this study. The moderating effect of ethical compatibility is not linear in terms of affecting the relationship between the antecedent variable, economic need, and the outcome variable, willingness to adopt. Those journalists who were essentially indifferent toward ethical compatibility were willing to adopt, while those who were at the extremes were not willing to do so. Given that the effect is nonlinear, it makes interpretation difficult.

Indeed, it does not make sense that journalists who feel that there is an economic motivation to adopt and high ethical compatibility should not adopt. One possible explanation is that journalists who feel that adopting those who have the same ethical ideals for economic reasons may not make economic sense because the outsiders may seek compensation for their “real” journalism. More research in this area is required.

For those journalists who felt that there was a social need for adopting, ethical 91 compatibility was not an issue. Even those journalists who felt that nonprofessional journalism was incompatible with the ethics of professional journalism were willing to adopt if there was a social need in doing so. This idea that adoption can help the community trumps the need for professional ethics. The reasons behind this way of thinking relate to both participatory ethics and communitarian ethics. In participatory journalism, as in other participatory systems, the relationship between actors in the participatory network relate to one another in a horizontal way. In professional journalism, the relationship is hierarchical. Furthermore, communitarian journalism is related to a community-first approach, where news must be of value to the community in order to be reported. If professional journalists are looking for ways to increase their ability to be of help and value to the community, they may be less concerned with the hierarchical, even hegemonic, system of journalism and its professional system of ethics.

Journalists are no strangers to the participatory ethic. Most of them post to blogs, Twitter feeds, and Facebook pages. They may see the value in crowdsourced content generation.

Indeed, as shown in this study, those who observe crowdsourced journalism content are more willing to adopt. It may be possible that journalists are posting as crowdsourced content generators and, therefore, feel more inclined to include other forms of crowdsourced content.

As technological innovation has allowed for professional journalists to make more use of nonprofessional contributions, the role of journalism ethics may play a pivotal role. However, this study has shown that journalism ethics only plays a role in the decision-making process if potential adopters perceive an economic need. Those who felt 92 that there was a social need to adopt did not consider whether adopting would lead to an incompatibility between the ethics of traditional journalism and those of the nonprofessional contributions. Professional journalism has a history of ethical codes that spans nearly 100 years. The codes changed over time, but have remained true to many of the same ideals over that century. However, as shown in this study, professional journalists may be willing to be more lackadaisical with the need for all journalism to adhere to these codes. Indeed, the inclusion of nonprofessionals out of social necessity trumped the desire for professional journalists to ensure that the adopted journalism was compatible with professional codes. In the 1920s, a number of influential journalists gathered to craft a code of ethics that set them apart from those who should not be termed

“professionals.” Now, less than 100 years later, many journalists are turning away from these stringent codes, or, at the very least, allowing journalism to be published without adherence to the codes. If journalists of the time thought that establishing codes of ethics and journalism schools contributed to professionalization, disregarding these necessities would contribute to deprofessionalization. However, journalists in the 1920s did not have technological advances like the internet that allowed for simple contribution.

The joining together of professional and nonprofessional journalism, without regard to the professional ethical codes of journalism, may have an interesting side effect:

As Fuchs (2010) argues, citizen journalism—one form of nonprofessional journalism—is more critical in nature and is associated with “protest movement practices” (p. 178).

Furthermore, it is oppositional in nature. The adoption of this type of journalism brings a greater array of topics, especially minority viewpoints, that are discussed in a forum that 93 has historically had a wide audience. Thus, by allowing these viewpoints to be published, professional journalists can inadvertently make their publications more critical in nature.

The distinction between traditional journalism, with its elitism—at least according to

Fuchs—and citizen media, which Fuchs argues is more critical, is a distinction that is a contrast that fits newspapers and emerging media, such as YouTube, Facebook, and

Twitter.

This study focused on the decision-makers in the professional arena, those with title such as “Editor” or “Editor in Chief.” These management level journalists are those who are generally regarded as the ones “pulling the strings.” Traditional professional journalists take direction from these people. Their work is edited and vetted by these people. It is these people who are making the decisions, and, as shown in this study, it is these people who are willing to work with nonprofessionals. More than 20 years ago,

Christians, Ferré, and Fackler (1993) called for a journalism built on communitarian ethics. They told a story of a town built in a valley. The road over the mountains to the town was quite treacherous, and many died coming and going. An engineer found that the dangerous road could be bypassed by building a tunnel through the mountain. Members of the town thought this was a great idea until some felt it would hurt the economics of the town; others rejected the idea as too visionary. The results of the present study show that professional journalists are willing to include nonprofessionals based on a social need. This is true even if they feel the process of inclusion is complex. The tunnel, it seems, may be under construction. 94

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

The measure for this study was distributed to professional journalists via e-mail, and the measure itself was taken using internet-based software. Clearly, professional journalists who are more digitally inclined will be more likely to participate in the survey.

This could cause bias in the results in that those journalists who are digitally inclined may be more willing to work with nonprofessionals when the work can take place using technology-mediated forms, such as web-based work desks. In addition, the subject line in the e-mail used to distribute the measure simply said, “Non-Professional Journalism.”

The purpose of this subject line was an attempt to get the recipients to read the message as opposed to glossing over it. However, the subject line could also have biased the response to the survey since it was not, necessarily, clear regarding the purpose of the message. The incentive used may also have contributed to low response rate. Clearly, a limitation to this study was the low response rate. By giving a larger incentive, response rate would surely have increased.

The definition of journalism used in this research includes technology based forums for discussion, such as comments posted to a story’s web page. This means for eliciting comments is much more difficult in traditional forms of journalism. However, the study only examined newspapers that had web sites. Thus, future research should include newspapers that do not currently have web sites to see if there are any changes to the results. Another definitional issue relates to the notion of “nonprofessional” journalism itself. Research published after data for the current study were collected notes a definition that relates to journalists who work “inside a newsroom” (Singer, 2014, p. 95

55). Although this definition would exclude those considered “professional” who freelance outside of a newsroom, it does inform the current study in that the definition of of “nonprofessional” may need further examination. The term “nonprofessional” was used in this study based on previous research that uses a number of terms to define various types of what was considered by those researchers to be something other than

“professional” (or perhaps, traditional) journalism. As discussed earlier, there are quite a few terms being used. This study sought to use the term in a way that included journalism ethics (or a lack thereof). However, using “nonprofessional” in a way that meant

“unknown ethical constraints” may have presented challenges. Indeed, news managers may not have the same considerations regarding the level of professionalism in journalism and how that level relates to ethics.

The variable of use of nonprofessional journalism in this study was measured using a Likert scale that included questions related to desirability of use of nonprofessional journalism from the respondent’s point-of-view. It may be more enlightening to measure the actual use of nonprofessional content at the respondent’s outlet. Future research should develop a measure of nonprofessional journalism on a continuous level of measurement. As has been discussed earlier, some research has sought to quantify the level of use, but a measure that utilizes a continuous level of measurement has not been studied. With a measure such as the one proposed, the actual use can be measured and tested against other variables. The proposed measure also does not rely on the thought processes involved but on the actual outcomes of the decisions.

This research used only newspapers in the United States. Other journalism outlets, 96 such as broadcast television and radio stations, may feel differently regarding their reasons to adopt or not adopt nonprofessional journalism. In addition, news outlets in other parts of the world, specifically those that are more geared toward communitarian thinking already, may respond differently.

This study found that the effect size for the direct path, apart from the two moderators of Social Need and Economic Need, was 39%. Most assuredly, this means there are additional paths of thought in the decision to adopt nonprofessional journalism.

Future research should examine and test other factors that may be motivations, or relative advantages in diffusion research, toward adoption. This study concentrated on the role of ethics in the decision-making process. Other factors may be informative. Qualitative research in this area is needed to determine what other factors are involved. Furthermore, qualitative research can be used to determine the audience perception of content generated by professionals and nonprofessionals.

At its very core, journalism is a commercial business that must make money to survive. This motivation toward profit informs the decision-making process for owners who must balance between the (supposed) objectivity of news and the bias introduced when that objectivity conflicts with the ability to generate income. As has been stated earlier, the notion of objectivity is being pushed to the wayside in favor of transparency.

Yet, professional journalists produce content that fits a standard definition of news. In many ways, thus, it is superior to content produced by nonprofessionals. Still, content generated by users is making its way into the news outlets’ products. It is an interesting conundrum that requires further research to clarify. Indeed, an argument can be made that 97 the self-righting principle will iron out this discrepancy wherein news consumers desire content that fits the traditional definitions of news and to which they can rely but are willing to satisfy their curiosity toward news content that does not fit the traditional model. A future study may examine the trend in the last 10 years to see if content produced by nonprofessionals is more or less prevalent than that produced by traditional journalists and the effect the market has had on this trend.

Conclusion

Less than 100 years ago, journalists sought to implement codes of ethics and journalism schools in order to promote and maintain a level of professionalism within the industry. Journalists today seem willing to publish content whether or not that content is compatible with their own ideals of what professional journalism ethics should be. In a survey of 167 professional journalists, this study has shown that the tide may be changing from professional ethical ideals to those that are more participatory and communitarian in nature. While 90 years ago, journalists were working hard to establish a profession built on training and codes of ethics, technology has intervened in today’s world to allow for

“anyone” to be a journalist, both in terms of training and in adherence to a more communitarian code. The repercussions of the world’s adoption of the internet is truly influencing commerce in many fields. Businesses have had to redefine their strategies, many of which necessitate inclusion of what once were termed “outsiders.” Journalism, it seems, is no exception. The coming years will produce a continued change. Many journalism startups are managed by those who have never attended a journalism school 98 and care very little for “professional” codes. They give voice to a great many people and report on events that would not be given the time in traditional publications. They compete with the professionals and take more and more market share each day.

Professional journalism sees this, and the response shows a desire to meet their competition halfway. This study has shown that the professional codes of journalism ethics are on the cusp of being more inclusive, of being more communitarian in their approach to the publication of news.

Journalism 10 years from now will certainly have evolved to account for these changes. Based on the results of this study, professionals are willing to adopt for both economic and social reasons. Professional journalists will still be covering important news stories, but nonprofessionals will be used more and more to cover the more mundane and everyday sorts of stories. Journalism will become like the restaurant industry where chefs are professionally trained and produce fine cuisine, but fast food workers, who require little training, produce simple dishes for the masses. Journalism will be no different. The quality of the food and the price the consumer is willing to pay for it sets the standard. Journalism is no different. Fine journalism will be produced by trained professionals, but everyday, mundane news will be reported by untrained (or semitrained) nonprofessionals. The consumer sets the price to be paid. Journalism will thrive with a large quantity of low quality journalism based on the occurrences of the day, but supplemented by the important stories that keep it viable for the citizenry. APPENDIX A

MEASURE OF JOURNALISTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD

NONPROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM

1. Our media outlet has had a great deal of opportunity to try and work with non-

professional journalists.

2. Our media outlet has had a great deal of experience using non-professional

journalists.

3. Our media outlet has very little useful information about non-professional journalists.

4. Our media outlet has seen what non-professional journalists can do for us.

5. Our media outlet has seen a wide variety of things non-professional journalists can do

for us.

6. Our media outlet has never seen what non-professional journalists can do for us.

7. Many newsrooms are looking to working with non-professionals as a cost-cutting

measure.

8. Budget cuts are causing noticeable holes in journalistic coverage that can be filled

with stories written by non-professionals.

9. Working with non-professionals does not help newspapers save money.

10. Non-professional journalists help fulfill the desire that community members have for 100

journalists to understand the community and care about the community.

11. Non-professionals report on subjects not reported by professionals.

12. Including non-professionals in the journalism process allows professionals to include

views and ideas that are different from the usual views.

13. Working with non-professional journalists does not bring our paper closer to the

community.

14. Contributed stories from non-professional sources are no better at providing

community information than professionally written stories.

15. What is the current newsroom budget?

16. How many unique visitors does your web site receive on an average month?

17. How many states are included in your coverage area?

18. [For each of the states provided in Question 18, the survey will ask] What is the name

of the [first, second, third, etc.] state in your coverage area?

19. Approximately how much of the state of “state name” is included in your coverage

area? [Respondents will choose from All, 3/4, 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]

20. Non-professionals can learn the values that professional journalists pride themselves

in holding onto.

21. Systems and policies can be set up to prevent all potential ethical issues of working

with non-professional journalists.

22. A journalism school is the only place a person can be trained in the art of ethical

journalism.

23. It is too difficult to work with non-professionals. 101

24. The process of working with non-professionals is too complex to make it worthwhile.

25. Adding stories written by non-professionals to a newspaper is a logistical nightmare.

26. For approximately how many years has your media outlet been in business?

27. Approximately how many full time reporters are employed by your newsroom?

28. What is the approximate circulation of your printed newspaper?

29. Our media outlet is willing to allow non-professional journalists to publish content

alongside professionally-produced content.

30. Our media outlet would allow an organized system to be put in place that allows

submission of news created by non-professionals.

31. Our media outlet would never allow non-professional journalism to be published on

its web site. APPENDIX B

mPLUS CODE USED IN POWER ANALYSIS

TITLE: MONTE CARLO POWER ANALYSIS OF HAYES MODEL 50

MONTECARLO: names are x m1 m2 y w z v q xw xz mv mq xv xq; nobs = 400; !This is the sample size. nreps = 10000; seed = 2222;

MODEL POPULATION: [x @ 0]; x @ .25;

[m1 @ 0]; m1 @ .98;

[m2 @ 0]; m2 @ .98;

[y @ 0]; y @ .78;

[w @ 0]; w @ .98;

[z @ 0]; z @ .98;

[v @ 0]; v @ .98;

[q @ 0]; q @ .98; 103

[xw @ 0]; xw @ .98;

[xz @ 0]; xz @ .98;

[mv @ 0]; mv @ .98;

[mq @ 0]; mq @ .98;

[xv @ 0]; xv @ .98;

[xq @ 0]; xq @ .98;

y on m1 @ .14 m2 @ .14 x @ .283 v @ .283 q @ .283 xv @ .283 xq @ .283 mv @ .283 mq @ .283;

m1 on x @ .283 w @ .283 z @ .283 xw @ .283 xz @ .283; m2 on x @ .283 w @ .283 z @ .283 xw @ .283 xz @ .283;

MODEL: y on m1 * .14 (medB1) m2 * .14 (medB2) x * .283 (cP1) 104

v * .283 (cP2) q * .283 (cP3) xv * .283 (cP4) xq * .283 (cP5) mv * .283 (b2) mq * .283 (b3);

m1 on x * .283 (aa1) w * .283 (aa2) z * .283 (aa3) xw * .283 (aa4) xz * .283 (aa5); m2 on x * .283 w * .283 (ba2) z * .283 (ba3) xw * .283 (ba4) xz * .283 (ba5);

MODEL INDIRECT: y IND x;

OUTPUT: APPENDIX C

NEWSPAPERS INCLUDED IN THE SURVEY

27east.com, Southampton, NY Aberdeen American News, Aberdeen, SD Aberdeen Times, Aberdeen, ID Abingdon Argus, Abingdon, IL Abington Journal, Clarks Summit, PA Abington Mariner, Marshfield, MA Ackley World Journal, Ackley, IA Acorn, Agoura Hills, CA Acton Beacon, Acton, MA Ada Evening News, Ada, OK Ada Herald, Ada, OH Adair Progress, Columbia, KY Adams County Record, Council, ID Addison Press, Downers Grove, IL Adobe Press, Santa Maria, CA Advance Monticellonian, Monticello, AR Advertiser Democrat, Norway, ME Advertiser-Gleam, Guntersville, AL Advertiser-Tribune, Tiffin, OH Advisor & Source, Clinton Township, MI Advocate, Baton Rouge, LA Advocate, Newark, OH Advocate Messenger, Danville, KY Advocate Weekly, North Adams, MA Advocate-Tribune, Granite Falls, MN Aegis, Bel Air, MD AgJournalOnline, La Junta, CO Ahwatukee Foothills News, Phoenix, AZ Aiken Standard, Aiken, SC Air Force Times, Springfield, VA Aitkin Independent Age, Aitkin, MN Ajo Copper News, Ajo, AZ 106

Akron Beacon Journal, Akron, OH Akron Legal News, Akron, OH Akron.com, Akron, OH Alabama Messenger, Birmingham, AL Alachua Today, Alachua, FL Alameda Sun, Alameda, CA Alamogordo Daily News, Alamogordo, NM Alaska Journal of Commerce, Anchorage, AK Albany Enterprise, Albany, MN Albany Herald, Albany, GA Albert Lea Tribune, Albert Lea, MN Albia Union-Republican, Albia, IA Albuquerque Journal, Albuquerque, NM Alexander City Outlook, Alexander City, AL Alexandria Daily Town Talk, Alexandria, LA Alexandria Gazette Packet, Alexandria, VA Alexandria Times, Alexandria, VA Alexandria Times-Tribune, Alexandria, IN Algona Upper Des Moines, Algona, IA Alice Echo-News, Alice, TX Allegan County News, Allegan, MI Alleghany News, Sparta, NC Allen American, Plano, TX Alliance Times-Herald, Alliance, NE Allston-Brighton TAB, Needham, MA Alma Journal, Van Buren, AR Alma Times, Alma, GA Alpena News, Alpena, MI Alpine Avalanche, Alpine, TX Alpine Sun, Alpine, CA Altus Times, Altus, OK Alva Review Courier, Alva, OK Amador Ledger Dispatch, Jackson, CA Amarillo Globe-News, Amarillo, TX Amboy News, Amboy, IL American Bazaar, Washington, DC American Press, Lake Charles, LA American River Messenger, Citrus Heights, CA Amesbury News, Danvers, MA Amherst Bee, Buffalo, NY Amigo Newspaper, Hope, AR Amityville Record, Amityville, NY Anchorage Daily News, Anchorage, AK 107

Anchorage Press, Anchorage, AK Andalusia Star-News, Andalusia, AL Anderson Herald Bulletin, Anderson, IN Anderson News, Lawrenceburg, KY Andover Townsman, Andover, MA Andrews County News, Andrews, TX Andrews Journal, Andrews, NC Anna Maria Island Sun, Anna Maria, FL Annandale Advocate, Annandale, MN AnnArbor.com, Ann Arbor, MI Anniston Star, Anniston, AL Anoka County Union, Coon Rapids, MN Anson Record, Wadesboro, NC Antelope Valley Press, Palmdale, CA Antioch Press, Brentwood, CA Antlers American, Antlers, OK Anton Community Newspapers, Mineola, NY Antrim Review, Bellaire, MI Apalachicola Times, Apalachicola, FL Apopka Chief, Apopka, FL Appalachian News Express, Pikeville, KY Appeal Tribune, Silverton, OR Appeal-Democrat, Marysville, CA Appen Newspapers, Alpharetta, GA Arab Today, Arab, AL Arab Tribune, Arab, AL Arcata Eye, Arcata, CA Archbold Buckeye, Archbold, OH Arctic Sounder, Anchorage, AK Area Wide News, Salem, AR Arenac County Independent, Standish, MI Argonaut, Marina Del Rey, CA Argus Observer, Ontario, OR Argus Online, Fremont, CA Argus-Press Daily, Owosso, MI Argus-Sentinel, Macomb, IL Arizona Business Gazette, Phoenix, AZ Arizona Capitol Times, Phoenix, AZ Arizona City Independent, Arizona City, AZ Arizona Daily Star, Tucson, AZ Arizona Daily Sun, Flagstaff, AZ Arizona Range News, Willcox, AZ Arizona Republic, Phoenix, AZ 108

Arizona Silver Belt, Globe, AZ Ark, Belvedere Tiburon, CA Ark Valley News, Valley Center, KS Arkansas Business, Little Rock, AR Arkansas City Traveler, Arkansas City, KS Arkansas Times, Little Rock, AR Arlington Advocate, Lexington, MA Arlington Connection, Alexandria, VA Army Times, Springfield, VA Around Osceola, Kissimmee, FL Artvoice, Buffalo, NY Arvada Press, Golden, CO Asbury Park Press, Neptune, NJ Asheville Citizen-Times, Asheville, NC Ashland City Times, Ashland City, TN Ashland Daily Tidings, Medford, OR Ashland Gazette, Wahoo, NE Ashland Tab, Framingham, MA Ashland Times Gazette, Ashland, OH Ashley County Ledger, Hamburg, AR Ashley News Observer, Crossett, AR Ashley Tribune, Ashley, ND Ashtabula Star Beacon, Ashtabula, OH Asian American Today, Indianapolis, IN Asian Reporter, Portland, OR Aspen Daily News, Aspen, CO Aspen Times, Aspen, CO Atascadero News, Atascadero, CA Atchison Daily Globe, Atchison, KS Athens Banner-Herald, Athens, GA Athens Daily Review, Athens, TX Athens News, Athens, OH Athens News Courier, Athens, AL Athol Daily News, Athol, MA Atkins Chronicle, Atkins, AR Atlanta Daily World, Atlanta, GA Atlanticville, Freehold, NJ Atmore Advance, Atmore, AL Auburn Journal, Auburn, CA Auburn Plainsman, Auburn, AL Auburn Today, Rocklin, CA Augusta Daily Gazette, Augusta, KS Augusta Free Press, Waynesboro, VA 109

Aurora Advocate, Kent, OH Austin Daily Herald, Austin, MN Austin Weekly News, Oak Park, IL Avilla Nooz, Avilla, IN Avon Messenger, Raynham, MA AZCentral, Phoenix, AZ Babylon Beacon, Babylon, NY Bainbridge Post-Searchlight, Bainbridge, GA Baker City Herald, Baker City, OR Baker County Press, Macclenny, FL Bakersfield Californian, Bakersfield, CA Baldwin Bulletin, Milledgeville, GA Ballard News-Tribune, Burien, WA Baltimore Chronicle, Baltimore, MD Baltimore City Paper, Baltimore, MD Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, MD Baltimore Times, Baltimore, MD Bandera Bulletin, Bandera, TX Bangor Daily News, Bangor, ME Banner Press, Brenham, TX Banner-Graphic, Greencastle, IN Baraboo News Republic, Baraboo, WI Barberton Herald, Barberton, OH Barnesville Herald Gazette, Barnesville, GA Barron News-Shield, Barron, WI Barrow County News, Winder, GA Barrow Journal, Winder, GA Bartlett Press, Downers Grove, IL Bastrop Daily Enterprise, Bastrop, LA Batesville Guard, Batesville, AR Baxley News-Banner, Baxley, GA Baxter Bulletin, Mountain Home, AR Bay City Times, Bay City, MI Bay City Tribune, Bay City, TX Bay Mills News, Brimley, MI Bay News, San Luis Obispo, CA Bay Weekly, Annapolis, MD Baylor County Banner, Seymour, TX Baytown Sun, Baytown, TX Beaches Leader, Jacksonville Beach, FL Beacon, Port Clinton, OH Beacon News, Chicago, IL Beacon-News, Paris, IL 110

Beacon-Villager, Concord, MA Beaufort Gazette, Hilton Head Island, SC Beaumont Enterprise, Beaumont, TX Beauregard Daily News, Deridder, LA Beaver County Times, Beaver, PA Beaverton Valley Times, Portland, OR Bedford Bulletin, Bedford, VA Bedford Minuteman, Concord, MA Bedford Times-Mail, Bedford, IN Bee Newspapers, Williamsville, NY Beebe News, Beebe, AR Belgrade News, Belgrade, MT Bellefontaine Examiner, Bellefontaine, OH Bellevue Business Journal, Bellevue, WA Bellevue Gazette, Bellevue, OH BellevueLeader.com, Bellevue, NE Belmont Citizen-Herald, Lexington, MA Beloit Daily News, Beloit, WI Belzoni Banner, Belzoni, MS Bensenville Press, Downers Grove, IL Bent County Democrat, Las Animas, CO Berkeley Daily Planet, Berkeley, CA Berkeley Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Berkeley Times, Lakehurst, NJ Berlin Citizen, Meriden, CT Bernardsville News, Bernardsville, NJ Bershire Eagle, Pittsfield, MA Berwyn Life, Downers Grove, IL Bethesda Gazette, Gaithersburg, MD Beulah Beacon, Beulah, ND Beverly Citizen, Danvers, MA Beverly Hills Weekly, Beverly Hills, CA Big Bear Grizzly, Big Bear Lake, CA Big Bend Sentinel, Marfa, TX Big Bug News, Prescott Valley, AZ Big Sandy News, Louisa, KY Big Spring Herald, Big Spring, TX Bigfork Eagle, Bigfork, MT Billerica Minuteman, Concord, MA Bird City Times, Bird City, KS Birmingham News, Birmingham, AL Bismarck Tribune, Bismarck, ND Bitterroot Star, Stevensville, MT 111

Bixby Bulletin, Bixby, OK Black and White, Birmingham, AL Black Hills Pioneer, Spearfish, SD Black Mountain News, Black Mountain, NC Blackshear Times, Blackshear, GA Blade-Empire, Concordia, KS Blanco County News, Blanco, TX Bland County Messenger, Wytheville, VA Bloomer Advance, Bloomer, WI Bloomfield Democrat, Bloomfield, IA Bloomingdale Press, Downers Grove, IL Blount Countian, Oneonta, AL Blue Mountain Eagle, John Day, OR Bluefield Daily Telegraph, Bluefield, WV BlueRidgeNow.com, Hendersonville, NC Bluffton News Banner, Bluffton, IN Bluffton Today, Bluffton, SC Blytheville Courier News, Blytheville, AR Boerne Star, Boerne, TX Boise Weekly, Boise, ID Bolingbrook Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Bolivar Commercial, Cleveland, MS Bolivar Herald-Free Press, Bolivar, MO Bolton Common, Concord, MA Bonanza, Incline Village, NV Bonner County Daily Bee, Sandpoint, ID Bonners Ferry Herald, Bonners Ferry, ID Boone News-Republican, Boone, IA Booneville Democrat, Booneville, AR Boothbay Register, Boothbay Harbor, ME Borger News-Herald, Borger, TX Boston Globe, Boston, MA Boston Herald, Boston, MA Boston.com Neighborhoods, Boston, MA Boulder Co Business Report, Boulder, CO Boulder Weekly, Boulder, CO Bourne Courier, Yarmouth Port, MA Bowie News, Bowie, TX Box Elder News Journal, Brigham City, UT Boxborough Beacon, Boxborough, MA Boyne City Gazette, Boyne City, MI Bradenton.com, Bradenton, FL Bradford County Telegraph, Starke, FL 112

Bradford Era, Bradford, PA Bradley Hoops, Peoria, IL Brady Standard-Herald, Brady, TX Brainerd Daily Dispatch, Brainerd, MN Braintree Forum, Weymouth, MA BrandonInfo.com, Brandon, SD Branson Tri-Lakes News, Branson, MO Brattleboro Reformer, Brattleboro, VT Braxton Citizens' News, Sutton, WV Brazil Times, Brazil, IN Breckenridge American, Breckenridge, TX Breeze Courier, Taylorville, IL Brewton Standard, Brewton, AL Brick Times, Lakehurst, NJ Bridgewater Independent, Raynham, MA Bristol Bay Times, Anchorage, AK Bristol Herald Courier, Bristol, VA Bristol Observer, Southington, CT Bristol Press, Bristol, CT Broadview Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Broken Arrow Daily Ledger, Broken Arrow, OK Brookfield Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Brookings Register, Brookings, SD Brookline TAB, Needham, MA Broomfield Enterprise, Broomfield, CO Brown City Banner, Brown City, MI Brownfield News, Brownfield, TX Brownsville Herald, Brownsville, TX Brownwood Bulletin, Brownwood, TX Brunswick News, Brunswick, GA Brush News Tribune, Brush, CO Bryan Times, Bryan, OH Bryant Daily, Bryant, AR Buckeye Lake Beacon, Buckeye Lake, OH Bucks County Courier Times, Levittown, PA Bucks County Herald, Lahaska, PA Buffalo Beast, Buffalo, NY Buffalo Bulletin, Buffalo, WY Buffalo Grove Countryside, Glenview, IL Buffalo News, Buffalo, NY Buffalo Reflex, Buffalo, MO Buffalo River Review, Linden, TN Bulgaria Sega, Arlington Heights, IL 113

Bullard Banner News, Whitehouse, TX Bulletin, Bend, OR Bullhead City Bee, Bullhead City, AZ Burbank Leader, Los Angeles, CA Bureau County Republican, Princeton, IL Burke Connection, Alexandria, VA Burleson County Tribune, Caldwell, TX Burleson-Crowley Connection, Cleburne, TX Burlington County Times, Willingboro, NJ Burlington Free Press, Burlington, VT Burlington Record, Burlington, CO Burlington Union, Concord, MA Burnet Bulletin, Burnet, TX Burnett County Sentinel, Grantsburg, WI Burns Times Herald, Burns, OR Burr Ridge Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Business Journal, Birmingham, AL Business Journal, Colorado Springs, CO Business Journal, Fort Lauderdale, FL Business Journal, Grand Rapids, MI Business Journal, Greensboro, NC Business Journal, Indianapolis, IN Business Journal, Jacksonville, FL Business Journal, Kansas City, MO Business Journal, Milwaukee, WI Business Journal, Philadelphia, PA Business Journal, Rancho Cucamonga, CA Business Journal, Rochester, NY Business Journal, Sacramento, CA Business Journal, Springfield, MO Business Journal, Youngstown, OH Business Journal Of Tri-Cities, Johnson City, TN Business Report, Baton Rouge, LA Business Review, Latham, NY Business Times, Santa Barbara, CA Business Update, Byron Center, MI Butler Eagle, Butler, PA Butner-Creedmoor News, Creedmoor, NC Butte County Post, Belle Fourche, SD Cabot Star-Herald, Cabot, AR Cadiz Record, Cadiz, KY Calaveras Enterprise, San Andreas, CA Caldwell County News, Hamilton, MO 114

Caledonia Argus, Caledonia, MN Caledonian Record, Saint Johnsbury, VT Calhoun Chronicle, Grantsville, WV Calhoun Community Press, Anniston, AL Calhoun Times, Calhoun, GA California Democrat, California, MO Californian, Salinas, CA Call News, Citronelle, AL Call-Leader, Elwood, IN Camarillo Acorn, Camarillo, CA Camas-Washougal Post-Record, Camas, WA Cambrian, Cambria, CA Cambridge Chronicle, Cambridge, IL Cambridge Chronicle, Somerville, MA Cameron County Endeavor News, Emporium, PA Cameron Herald, Cameron, TX Camp Verde Bugle, Camp Verde, AZ Camp Verde Journal, Camp Verde, AZ Campbell County Observer, Gillette, WY Canarsie Courier, Brooklyn, NY Canby Herald, Canby, OR Cannon Beach Gazette, Cannon Beach, OR Cannon Falls Beacon, Cannon Falls, MN Canton Journal, Raynham, MA Canton Repository, Canton, OH Canyon News, Canyon, TX Cape Ann Beacon, Danvers, MA Cape Cod Chronicle, Chatham, MA Cape Cod Day, Orleans, MA Cape Cod Times, Hyannis, MA Cape Codder, Orleans, MA Cape Coral Daily Breeze, Cape Coral, FL Cape Courier, Cape Elizabeth, ME Cape Gazette, Lewes, DE Cape May County Herald, Rio Grande, NJ Cape May Star and Wave, Cape May, NJ Cape News, Falmouth, MA Capital City Weekly, Juneau, AK Capital Gazette, Annapolis, MD Capital Press Agriculture Weekly, Salem, OR Captiva Current, Sanibel Island, FL Carbon County News Online, Red Lodge, MT Carlisle Independent, Carlisle, AR 115

Carlyle Daily, Tuscola, IL Carmel Pine Cone, Pacific Grove, CA Carmi Times, Carmi, IL Carmichael Times, Carmichael, CA Carol Stream Press, Downers Grove, IL Carolina Coast Online, Morehead City, NC Carriage Town News Online, Kingston, NH Carroll County Comet, Flora, IN Carroll County Mirror-Democrat, Mt. Carroll, IL Carroll County Newspapers, Berryville, AR Carroll County Times, Westminster, MD Carthage Courier, Carthage, TN Carthage Press, Carthage, MO Carthaginian, Carthage, MS Carver Reporter, Plymouth, MA Cary Citizen, Cary, NC Cary News, Raleigh, NC Casa Grande Dispatch, Casa Grande, AZ Cascade Business News, Bend, OR Cash-Book Journal, Jackson, MO Cashmere Valley Record, Cashmere, WA Casper Journal, Casper, WY Casper Star Tribune, Casper, WY Caswell Messenger, Yanceyville, NC Catoosa County News, nggold, GA Cecil Whig, Elkton, MD Cedar Grove Observer, Caldwell, NJ Cedar Key Beacon, Chiefland, FL Cedar Rapids Gazette, Cedar Rapids, IA Cedar Springs Post, Cedar Springs, MI Cedartown Standard, Cedartown, GA Centennial Citizen, Highlands Ranch, CO Center Post Dispatch, Monte Vista, CO Centerville Daily Iowegian, Centerville, IA Centerville-Bellbrook Times, Xenia, OH Central Ky News-Journal, Campbellsville, KY Central Oregonian, Prineville, OR Central Virginian, Louisa, VA Centre Daily Times, State College, PA Centre View, Alexandria, VA Century City News, Los Angeles, CA Ceres Courier, Turlock, CA Chagrin Valley Times, Chagrin Falls, OH 116

Challis Messenger, Challis, ID Champion Online, Decatur, GA Chanhassen Villager, Chaska, MN Chanute Tribune, Chanute, KS Chapel Hill News, Chapel Hill, NC Char-Koosta News, Pablo, MT Chariho Times, Wakefield, RI Charles City Press, Charles City, IA Charleston City Paper, Charleston, SC Charleston Gazette, Charleston, WV Charleston Times-Courier, Mattoon, IL Charlevoix Courier, Charlevoix, MI Charlotte Observer, Charlotte, NC Charlotte Post, Charlotte, NC Charlotte Sun Herald, Port Charlotte, FL Charlotte Weekly, Charlotte, NC Charlton County Herald, Folkston, GA Chaska Herald, Chaska, MN Chatham Courier, Madison, NJ Chatham News, Siler City, NC Chattanooga Times, Chattanooga, TN Chattanoogan, Chattanooga, TN Cheboygan Daily Tribune, Cheboygan, MI Chelmsford Independent, Concord, MA Cherokee County Herald, Centre, AL Cherokee Ledger News, Woodstock, GA Cherokeean Herald, Rusk, TX Cheshire Herald, Cheshire, CT Chester News and Reporter, Chester, SC Chesterfield Observer, Midlothian, VA Chetek Alert, Chetek, WI Chicago Journal, Oak Park, IL Chicago Reader, Chicago, IL Chicago Tribune, Chicago, IL Chickasaw Journal, Houston, MS Chico Enterprise-Record, Chico, CA Chief Leader, New York, NY Chiefland Citizen, Chiefland, FL Chilkat Valley News, Haines, AK Chillicothe Independent, Chillicothe, IL Chillicothe Times-Bulletin, Peoria, IL Chincoteague Beacon, Salisbury, MD Chinese American News, St. Louis, MO 117

Chino Champion, Chino, CA Chino Valley Review, Chino Valley, AZ Chinook Observer, Long Beach, WA Chippewa Herald, Chippewa Falls, WI Choctaw Plaindealer, Ackerman, MS Choctaw Sun, Gilbertown, AL Choteau Acantha, Choteau, MT Christian County Headliner, Ozark, MO Christian Science Monitor, Boston, MA Chronicle, Barton, VT Chronicle, Centralia, WA Chronicle, San Francisco, CA Chronicle, Willimantic, CT Chronicle, Winston Salem, NC Chronicle News, Trinidad, CO Chronicle Times, Cherokee, IA Chronicle-Herald, Macon, MO Chronicle-Independent, Camden, SC Chronicle-Telegram, Elyria, OH Chronicle/News, Raymondville, TX Cibola County Beacon, Grants, NM Cincinnati Call and Post, Cleveland, OH Cincinnati City Beat, Cincinnati, OH Cincinnati Enquirer, Cincinnati, OH Cincinnati Herald, Cincinnati, OH Circleville Herald, Circleville, OH Citizen, Auburn, NY Citizen, Chester, NJ Citizen, Fayetteville, GA Citizen, Greer, SC Citizen Telegram, Rifle, CO Citrus County Chronicle, Crystal River, FL Citrus Heights Messenger, Citrus Heights, CA City Business, Minneapolis, MN City Paper, Nashville, TN City Paper, Philadelphia, PA CityBeat, San Diego, CA CityBusiness, Metairie, LA CITYSunTimes, Phoenix, AZ Clanton Advertiser, Clanton, AL Claremont Courier, Claremont, CA Claremore Daily Progress, Claremore, OK Clarendon Citizen, Manning, SC 118

Clarendon Enterprise, Clarendon, TX Clarendon Hills Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Clarion, Cambridge, NE Clarion News, Clarion, PA Clarion-Ledger, Jackson, MS Clarke County Democrat, Grove Hill, AL Clatskanie Chief, Clatskanie, OR Claxton Enterprise, Claxton, GA Clay Center Dispatch, Clay Center, KS Clay County Advocate-Press, Flora, IL Clay County Times Democrat, Piggott, AR Clay Today, Orange Park, FL Clayton News Daily, Jonesboro, GA Clayton Tribune, Clayton, GA Clear Lake Mirror Reporter, Clear Lake, IA Clearwater Tribune, Orofino, ID Cleburne News, Heflin, AL Cleburne Times-Review, Cleburne, TX Cleveland Advocate, Cleveland, TX Cleveland Daily Banner, Cleveland, TN Cleveland Scene, Cleveland, OH Clifton Record, Clifton, TX Clinch County News, Homerville, GA Clinton Daily News, Clinton, OK Clinton Journal, Clinton, IL Clinton News, Clinton, MS Cloquet Pine Journal, Cloquet, MN Clover Herald, York, SC Cloverdale Reveille, Cloverdale, CA Clyde Enterprise, Clyde, OH CNY Vision, Rochester, NY Coal City Courant, Wilmington, IL Coal Valley News, Madison, WV Coalfield Progress, Norton, VA Coast News, Encinitas, CA Coast News, San Luis Obispo, CA Coast Star, Manasquan, NJ Coastal Courier, Hinesville, GA Coastline Pilot, Costa Mesa, CA Cobb Online, Marietta, GA Cody Enterprise, Cody, WY Coeur d'Alene Press, Coeur d'Alene, ID Cohasset Mariner, Hingham, MA 119

Colebrook Chronicle, Colebrook, NH ColemanNews.com, Coleman, TX Colorado City Record, Colorado City, TX Colorado County Citizen, Columbus, TX Colorado Daily, Boulder, CO Colorado Hometown Weekly, Broomfield, CO Colorado Hometown Weekly, Longmont, CO Colorado News Agency, Denver, CO Coloradoan, Fort Collins, CO Columbia Basin Herald, Moses Lake, WA Columbia Co. News Times, Evans, GA Columbia Daily Tribune, Columbia, MO Columbia Missourian, Columbia, MO Columbia Star, Columbia, SC Columbia Today, Modus, CT Columbian, Vancouver, WA Columbian Progress, Columbia, MS Columbus Alive, Columbus, OH Columbus Ledger-Enquirer, Columbus, GA Columbus Post, Columbus, OH Columbus Telegram, Columbus, NE Commercial Dispatch, Columbus, MS Commercial Record, Boston, MA Commercial Review, Portland, IN Commercial-News, Three Rivers, MI Commonwealth Journal, Somerset, KY Community Advocate, Westborough, MA Community Free Press, Springfield, MO Community News, Middletown, DE Community News Group, San Diego, CA Community Newspapers, Stroudsburg, PA Community Times, Westminster, MD Compton Bulletin, Compton, CA Concord Journal, Concord, MA Concord Monitor, Concord, NH Concrete Herald, Concrete, WA Connect Statesboro, Statesboro, GA Connecticut Post, Bridgeport, CT Constitution-Tribune, Chillicothe, MO Contra Costa Times, Walnut Creek, CA Conway Daily Sun, North Conway, NH Cook County News Herald, Grand Marais, MN Coolidge Examiner, Coolidge, AZ 120

Coon Rapids Herald, Coon Rapids, MN Copiah County Courier, Hazlehurst, MS Coppell Gazette, Dallas, TX Corbin News Journal, Corbin, KY Corbin Times Tribune, Corbin, KY Cordele Dispatch, Cordele, GA Cordova Times, Cordova, AK Coronado Eagle & Journal, Coronado, CA Corsicana Daily Sun, Corsicana, TX Cortez Journal, Cortez, CO Corvallis Gazette Times, Corvallis, OR Corydon Democrat, Corydon, IN Coshocton Tribune, Coshocton, OH Cottage Grove Sentinel, Cottage Grove, OR Cottonwood County Citizen, Windom, MN Cottonwood Journal, Riverton, UT Country Gazette, Milford, MA Country Times, Gunnison, CO Country World News, Sulphur Springs, TX Countryside Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL County Courier, Enosburg, VT County Press, Lapeer, MI Courier, Findlay, OH Courier, Houma, LA Courier, Russellville, AR Courier Herald, Dublin, GA Courier Journal, Florence, AL Courier Life News, West Salem, WI Courier News, Clinton, TN Courier Times, Jersey City, NJ Courier Times, New Castle, IN Courier Times, Roxboro, NC Courier-Gazette, Plano, TX Courier-Journal, Louisville, KY Courier-News, Somerville, NJ Courier-Post, Cherry Hill, NJ Courier-Review, Chicago, IL Coventry Courier, Wakefield, RI Coventry Today, Modus, CT Covington Leader, Covington, TN Covington News, Covington, GA Coweta American, Coweta, OK Craig Daily Press, Craig, CO 121

Crain's Chicago Business, Chicago, IL Crain's Cleveland Business, Cleveland, OH Crain's Detroit Business, Detroit, MI Crain's New York Business, New York, NY Cranberry Journal Star, Pittsburgh, PA Cranbury Press, Princeton, NJ Crawford County Avalanche, Grayling, MI Creative Loafing, Charlotte, NC Creative Loafing Atlanta, Atlanta, GA Creighton News, Creighton, NE Crescent-News, Defiance, OH Creston News Advertiser, Creston, IA Crittenden Press, Marion, KY Cronicas, Rutherford, CA Crossville Chronicle, Crossville, TN Crozet Gazette, Crozet, VA Cullman Times, Cullman, AL CullmanSense, Cullman, AL Culpeper Star Exponent, Culpeper, VA Culturadoor, Turlock, CA Cumberland Advocate, Cumberland, WI Cumberland County News, Burkesville, KY Cumberland County Reminder, Millville, NJ Cumberland Times-News, Cumberland, MD Cumberland View, Monteagle, TN CummingHome.com, Cumming, GA Cupertino Courier, San Jose, CA Current-Argus, Carlsbad, NM Curry Coastal Pilot, Brookings, OR Curry County Reporter, Gold Beach, OR Custer County Chief, Broken Bow, NE Cut Bank Pioneer Press, Cut Bank, MT Cynthiana Democrat, Cynthiana, KY Dade County Sentinel, Trenton, GA Dahlonega Nugget, Dahlonega, GA Daily Advance, Elizabeth City, NC Daily Advocate, Greenville, OH Daily American, Somerset, PA Daily American Republic, Poplar Bluff, MO Daily Ardmoreite, Ardmore, OK Daily Astorian, Astoria, OR Daily Breeze, Torrance, CA Daily Camera, Boulder, CO 122

Daily Chief-Union, Upper Sandusky, OH Daily Chronicle, Dekalb, IL Daily Citizen, Beaver Dam, WI Daily Citizen, Searcy, AR Daily Comet, Thibodaux, LA Daily Commercial, Leesburg, FL Daily Corinthian, Corinth, MS Daily Courier, Grants Pass, OR Daily Courier, Pittsburgh, PA Daily Courier, Prescott, AZ Daily Democrat, Fort Madison, IA Daily Democrat, Woodland, CA Daily Dispatch, Henderson, NC Daily Dispatch, Oneida, NY Daily Dunklin Democrat, Kennett, MO Daily Evening Item, Lynn, MA Daily Express, Kirksville, MO Daily Freeman, Kingston, NY Daily Freeman-Journal, Webster City, IA Daily Gate City, Keokuk, IA Daily Globe, Worthington, MN Daily Guide, St. Robert, MO Daily Hampshire Gazette, Northampton, MA Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, IL Daily Herald, Provo, UT Daily Herald, Roanoke Rapids, NC Daily Home, Talladega, AL Daily Iberian, New Iberia, LA Daily Independent, Ashland, KY Daily Independent, Grand Island, NE Daily Independent, Ridgecrest, CA Daily Inter Lake, Kalispell, MT Daily Item, Sunbury, PA Daily Jefferson Co Union, Fort Atkinson, WI Daily Jeffersonian, Cambridge, OH Daily Journal, Fergus Falls, MN Daily Journal, International Falls, MN Daily Journal, Kankakee, IL Daily Journal, Park Hills, MO Daily Journal of Commerce, Seattle, WA Daily Leader, Brookhaven, MS Daily Leader, Leesville, LA Daily Leader, Pontiac, IL 123

Daily Leader, Stuttgart, AR Daily Ledger, Canton, IL Daily Legal News, Cleveland, OH Daily Local News, West Chester, PA Daily Mining Gazette, Houghton, MI Daily Mountain Eagle, Jasper, AL Daily News, Bogalusa, LA Daily News, Boonville, MO Daily News, Bowling Green, KY Daily News, Fort Walton Beach, FL Daily News, Greenville, MI Daily News, Iron Mountain, MI Daily News, Lebanon, PA Daily News, Menlo Park, CA Daily News, Middlesborough, KY Daily News, Newburyport, MA Daily News, Niles, MI Daily News, Paso Robles, CA Daily News, Washington, NC Daily News Leader, Staunton, VA Daily News-Tribune, Keyser, WV Daily Nonpareil, Council Bluffs, IA Daily Pilot, Costa Mesa, CA Daily Post Athenian, Athens, TN Daily Press, Ashland, WI Daily Press, Escanaba, MI Daily Press, Newport News, VA Daily Press, Santa Monica, CA Daily Press & Argus, Howell, MI Daily Progress, Charlottesville, VA Daily Record, Baltimore, MD Daily Record, Canon City, CO Daily Record, Dunn, NC Daily Record, Ellensburg, WA Daily Record, Lawrenceville, IL Daily Record, Little Rock, AR Daily Record, Parsippany, NJ Daily Record, Wooster, OH Daily Reflector, Greenville, NC Daily Register, Harrisburg, IL Daily Register, Portage, WI Daily Reporter, Coldwater, MI Daily Reporter, Columbus, OH 124

Daily Reporter, Greenfield, IN Daily Reporter, Spencer, IA Daily Reporter-Herald, Loveland, CO Daily Republic, Fairfield, CA Daily Republican, Marion, IL Daily Republican Register, Mount Carmel, IL Daily Review, Towanda, PA Daily Sentinel, Grand Junction, CO Daily Sentinel, Le Mars, IA Daily Sentinel, Scottsboro, AL Daily Siftings Herald, Arkadelphia, AR Daily Sitka Sentinel, Sitka, AK Daily Standard, Celina, OH Daily Star, Grenada, MS Daily Star, Hammond, LA Daily Star, Niles, MI Daily Star, Oneonta, NY Daily Star-Journal, Warrensburg, MO Daily Statesman, Dexter, MO Daily Sun, Lady Lake, FL Daily Sun News, Sun City, AZ Daily Telegram, Adrian, MI Daily Telegram, Superior, WI Daily Times, Crookston, MN Daily Times, Farmington, NM Daily Times, Maryville, TN Daily Times, Ottawa, IL Daily Times, Salisbury, MD Daily Times Chronicle, Woburn, MA Daily Times Leader, West Point, MS Daily Times-Call, Longmont, CO Daily Tribune, Ames, IA Daily Tribune, Cartersville, GA Daily Tribune, Clinton Township, MI Daily Tribune, Hibbing, MN Daily Tribune, Mount Pleasant, TX Daily Tribune, Wisconsin Rapids, WI Daily Triplicate, Crescent City, CA Daily World, Aberdeen, WA Daily World, Helena, AR Daily World, Linton, IN Dakota County Star, South Sioux City, NE Dalhart Texan, Dalhart, TX 125

Dallas Business Journal, Dallas, TX Dallas County News, Adel, IA Dallas Post, Wilkes-Barre, PA Dalles Chronicle, The Dalles, OR Danbury News-Times, Danbury, CT Danvers Herald, Danvers, MA Danville Commercial-News, Danville, IL Danville Register & Bee, Danville, VA Darien News-Review, Bridgeport, CT Darien Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Dassel Cokato Enterprise Dispatch, Cokato, MN Davis Enterprise, Davis, CA Davison Index, Davison, MI Dawson Community News, Dawsonville, GA Dawson News & Advertiser, Dawsonville, GA Dayton Daily News, Dayton, OH Daytona Times, Tampa, FL DC Spotlight, Silver Spring, MD De Leon Free Press, De Leon, TX Decatur Daily, Decatur, AL Decatur Daily Democrat, Decatur, IN Decatur Tribune, Decatur, IL Decorah Newspapers, Decorah, IA Dedham Transcript, Needham, MA Deer Park Tribune, Deer Park, WA Deerfield Review, Chicago, IL Deerfield Valley News, West Dover, VT DeKalb Star, Auburn, IN Del Mar Times, Del Mar, CA Delaware Co Daily Times, Primos, PA Delaware County Daily Times, Primos, PA Delaware State News, Dover, DE Delta County Independent, Delta, CO Delta Democrat Times, Greenville, MS Delta News Web, Delta Junction, AK Delta Wind, Delta Junction, AK Deming Headlight, Deming, NM Democrat, Senatobia, MS Democrat & Chronicle, Rochester, NY Democrat News, Fredericktown, MO Democrat Reporter, Linden, AL Democrat Tribune, Trumann, AR Democrat-Herald, Albany, OR 126

Democrat-Missourian, Harrisonville, MO Demopolis Times, Demopolis, AL Dennis Register, Yarmouth Port, MA Denton Orator, Denton, NC Denton Record-Chronicle, Denton, TX Denver Business Journal, Denver, CO Denver Post, Denver, CO Derby Informer, Derby, KS Des Moines Register, Des Moines, IA Des Plaines Journal, Des Plaines, IL Deseret News, Salt Lake City, UT Desert Dispatch, Barstow, CA Desert Sun, Palm Springs, CA Desert Trail, Twentynine Palms, CA DeSoto Times, Hernando, MS DeSoto Times Tribune, Hernando, MS Destin Log, Destin, FL Detroit Free Press, Detroit, MI Detroit News, Detroit, MI Devils Lake Journal, Devils Lake, ND DeWitt Era-Enterprise, De Witt, AR Diboll Free Press, Diboll, TX Dickenson Star, Clintwood, VA Dickson Herald, Dickson, TN Digital Courier, Forest City, NC digitalBURG.com, Warrensburg, MO Dillon Herald, Dillon, SC Dispatch, Capistrano Beach, CA Dispatch, Eatonville, WA Dispatch, Lexington, NC Dispatch, Moline, IL Dispatch, Pittston, PA Dispatch Record, Lampasas, TX Dodge City Daily Globe, Dodge City, KS Doings, Chicago, IL Dominion Post, Morgantown, WV Donaldsonville Chief, Donaldsonville, LA Door County Advocate, Sturgeon Bay, WI Dorchester Reporter, Dorchester, MA Dothan Eagle, Dothan, AL Douglas Budget, Douglas, WY Douglas Co News Press, Highlands Ranch, CO Douglas County Sentinel, Douglasville, GA 127

Douglas Dispatch, Douglas, AZ Douglas Enterprise, Douglas, GA Dover Post, Dover, DE Dover Times, Dover, AR Dover-Sherborn Press, Needham, MA Downers Grove Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Downey Patriot, Downey, CA Downtown Journal, Minneapolis, MN Dresden Enterprise, Dresden, TN Du Quoin Evening Call, Du Quoin, IL Dublin Citizen, Dublin, TX Duluth Shipping News, Duluth, MN Duncan Banner, Duncan, OK Dunn County News, Menomonie, WI Dunwoody Crier, Dunwoody, GA Durango Herald, Durango, CO Durango Telegraph, Durango, CO Durant Daily Democrat, Durant, OK Dutch Harbor Fisherman, Anchorage, AK Duxbury Clipper, Duxbury, MA Duxbury Reporter, Plymouth, MA Duxbury Times, Duxbury, MA Eagle, Napa, CA Eagle and Times, Imperial Beach, CA Eagle Gazette, Lancaster, OH Eagle Grove Eagle, Eagle Grove, IA Eagle Herald, Marinette, WI Eagle Newspapers, Syracuse, NY Eagle Valley Enterprise, Eagle, CO Eagle-Tribune, North Andover, MA Eagleville Times, Eagleville, TN Early County News, Blakely, GA East Baltimore Guide, Baltimore, MD East Hampton Star, East Hampton, NY East Oregonian, Pendleton, OR East Peoria Times-Courier, Peoria, IL East Valley Tribune, Tempe, AZ Eastern Arizona Courier, Safford, AZ Eastern Shore News, Accomac, VA Eastern Wake News, Zebulon, NC Easton Journal, Raynham, MA Eatonton Messenger, Eatonton, GA Eccentric Observer, Louisville, KY 128

Echo Pilot, Greencastle, PA Echoes Sentinel, Stirling, NJ ECM Post Review, Cambridge, MN Eden Prairie News, Eden Prairie, MN Edmond Evening Sun, Edmond, OK Edmonds Beacon, Mukilteo, WA Edwardsville Intelligencer, Edwardsville, IL Effingham Daily News, Effingham, IL El Conquistador, Milwaukee, WI El Defensor Chieftain, Socorro, NM El Dorado Springs Sun, El Dorado Springs, MO El Dorado Times, El Dorado, KS El Heraldo News, Dallas, TX El Hispano News, Dallas, TX El Observador, San Jose, CA El Paso Times, El Paso, TX El Puente, Goshen, IN El Reno Tribune, El Reno, OK El Semanario, Albuquerque, NM El Tiempo Hispano, Bear, DE Elberton Star, Elberton, GA Elburn Herald, Elburn, IL Eldon Advertiser, Eldon, MO Eldorado Success, Eldorado, TX Elgin Courier Online, Elgin, TX Elgin Echo, West Union, IA Elizabethton Star, Elizabethton, TN Elk Citian, Elk City, OK Elk City Daily News, Elk City, OK Elk Grove Citizen, Elk Grove, CA Elk Grove Journal, Des Plaines, IL Elko Daily Free Press, Elko, NV Ellicottville News, East Aurora, NY Ellis County Press, Ferris, TX Ellsworth American, Ellsworth, ME Ellwood City Ledger, Ellwood City, PA Elm Leaves, Chicago, IL Elmhurst Press, Downers Grove, IL Eloy Enterprise, Eloy, AZ Elsberry Democrat, Elsberry, MO Ely Daily Times, Ely, NV Ely Echo, Ely, MN Emery County Progress, Castle Dale, UT 129

Emporia Gazette, Emporia, KS Englewood Independent, Vandalia, OH Enid News and Eagle, Enid, OK Ennis Daily News, Ennis, TX Enon Eagle, New Carlisle, OH Enquirer-Herald, York, SC Enquirer-Journal, Monroe, NC Enterprise, Blair, NE Enterprise, Brockton, MA Enterprise, Wytheville, VA Enterprise Ledger, Enterprise, AL Erwin Record, Erwin, TN Escalon Times, Oakdale, CA Ester Republic, Ester, AK Estes Park Trail-Gazette, Estes Park, CO Eufaula Tribune, Eufaula, AL Eugene Weekly, Eugene, OR Evanston Review, Chicago, IL Evanston RoundTable, Evanston, IL Evansville Courier, Evansville, IN Evening News, Sault Sainte Marie, MI Evening Sun, Hanover, PA Evening Telegram, Herkimer, NY Examiner, Independence, MO Explore Clarion, Clarion, PA Explorer Newspapers, Tucson, AZ Exponent, Brooklyn, MI Exponent Telegram, Clarksburg, WV Express News, San Antonio, TX Express Newspaper, Wadesboro, NC Express-Star, Chickasha, OK Extra Bilingual Newspaper, Chicago, IL Facts, Clute, TX Fairborn Daily Herald, Xenia, OH Fairborn Paper, Springfield, OH Fairfax Co Times, Reston, VA Fairfax Connection, Alexandria, VA Fairfield Bay News, Fairfield Bay, AR Fairfield Citizen-News, Westport, CT Fairfield County Weekly, Stamford, CT Fairfield Daily Ledger, Fairfield, IA Fairfield Minuteman, New Haven, CT Fairfield Recorder, Fairfield, TX 130

Fairview Heights Tribune, Mascoutah, IL Fairview Observer, Fairview, TN Falls Church News-Press, Falls Church, VA Falmouth Bulletin, Yarmouth Port, MA Faribault Daily News, Faribault, MN Farm & Ranch Guide, Mandan, ND Farmer's Exchange, New Paris, IN Farmersville Times, Farmersville, TX Farmville Herald, Farmville, VA Fayette County Record, La Grange, TX Fayette Front Page, Fayette, GA Fayetteville Free Weekly, Fayetteville, AR Fayetteville Observer, Fayetteville, NC Feather River Bulletin, Quincy, CA Federal Way News, Federal Way, WA Fenceviewer, Ellsworth, ME Fillmore County Journal, Preston, MN Fillmore Gazette, Fillmore, CA Finance and Commerce, Minneapolis, MN Fincastle Herald, Fincastle, VA Finger Lakes Times, Geneva, NY Firelands Farmer, New London, OH Flagpole, Athens, GA Flanders NJ News, Flanders, NJ Flathead Beacon, Kalispell, MT Flint Journal, Flint, MI Florence Mining News, Florence, WI Florham Park Eagle, Madison, NJ Florida Alligator, Gainesville, FL Florida Keys Keynoter, Marathon, FL Florida Star, Jacksonville, FL Florida Times-Union, Jacksonville, FL Florida Today, Melbourne, FL Florida Weekly, Fort Myers, FL Florida Weekly, Punta Gorda, FL Floyd County Times, Prestonsburg, KY Floyd Press, Floyd, VA Fluvanna Review, Palmyra, VA Focus, Hickory, NC Folio Weekly, Jacksonville, FL Folsom Telegraph, Folsom, CA Fond Du Lac Reporter, Fond Du Lac, WI Fontana Herald News, Fontana, CA 131

Foothills Paper, Tujunga, CA Foothills Sun Gazette, Exeter, CA Forecaster, Falmouth, ME Forest Park Review, Oak Park, IL Forest-Blade, Swainsboro, GA Forestview Life, Downers Grove, IL Forks Forum, Forks, WA Forsyth County News, Cumming, GA Fort Bend Herald, Rosenberg, TX Fort Bragg Advocate-News, Fort Bragg, CA Fort Leavenworth Lamp, Fort Leavenworth, KS Fort Meade Leader, Fort Meade, FL Fort Mill Times, Fort Mill, SC Fort Payne Times-Journal, Fort Payne, AL Fort Scott Tribune, Fort Scott, KS Fort Stockton Pioneer, Fort Stockton, TX Fort Wayne Reader, Fort Wayne, IN Fort Worth Business Press, Fort Worth, TX Fort Worth Weekly, Fort Worth, TX Fostoria Focus, Fostoria, OH Fountain Hills Times, Fountain Hills, AZ Fowler Tribune, Fowler, CO Fox Valley News Shopper, Woodridge, IL Foxboro Reporter, Foxborough, MA Framingham TAB, Framingham, MA Franklin Banner-Tribune, Franklin, LA Franklin County Citizen, Lavonia, GA Franklin County Times, Russellville, AL Franklin Favorite, Franklin, KY Franklin News-Post, Rocky Mount, VA Franklin Press, Franklin, NC Franklin Times, Louisburg, NC Frankston Citizen, Frankston, TX Frazee Forum, Frazee, MN Frederick News-Post, Frederick, MD Free Lance-Star, Fredericksburg, VA Free Press, Mankato, MN Free Press, Rockland, ME Free Press Advocate, Wilmington, IL Free Press Houston, Houston, TX Free Press Standard, Carrollton, OH Free Times, Columbia, SC Freeman Courier, Freeman, SD 132

Freeman's Journal, Cooperstown, NY Freeport Journal-Standard, Freeport, IL Freestone County Times, Fairfield, TX Fremont News-Messenger, Fremont, OH Friendswood Journal, Houston, TX Friona Star, Friona, TX Frontdoors News, Phoenix, AZ Frontiersman, Wasilla, AK Fulton County Daily Report, Atlanta, GA Fulton County News, McConnellsburg, PA Fulton Democrat, Canton, IL Fulton Sun, Fulton, MO Fuquay-Varina Independent, Fuquay Varina, NC Gadsden County Times, Quincy, FL Gadsden Times, Gadsden, AL Gainesville Daily Register, Gainesville, TX Gainesville Sun, Gainesville, FL Galena Gazette, Galena, IL Galion Inquirer, Galion, OH Gallatin North Missourian, Gallatin, MO Gallipolis Daily Tribune, Gallipolis, OH Gallup Independent, Gallup, NM Galt Herald, Galt, CA Galva News, Galva, IL Galveston Co. Daily News, Galveston, TX Gant Daily, Clearfield, PA Garden City News, Garden City, NY Garden City Telegram, Garden City, KS Garden Island, Lihue, HI Gaston Gazette, Gastonia, NC Gatesville Messenger, Gatesville, TX Gaylord Herald Times, Gaylord, MI Gazebo Gazette, Pass Christian, MS Gazette, Colorado Springs, CO Gazette Newspapers, Gaithersburg, MD Gazette-Enterprise, Seguin, TX Gazette-Record, St. Maries, ID Gazette-Virginian, South Boston, VA Geneseo Republic, Geneseo, IL Georgetown Advocate, Jarrell, TX Georgetown Times, Georgetown, SC Georgia Star, Jacksonville, FL Gettysburg Times, Gettysburg, PA 133

Gibson City Daily, Tuscola, IL Gilmer Mirror, Gilmer, TX Gilroy Dispatch, Gilroy, CA Glacier Reporter, Browning, MT Gladwin County Record, Gladwin, MI Glasgow Daily Times, Glasgow, KY Glastonbury Citizen, Glastonbury, CT Glencoe News, Chicago, IL Glendale Heights Press, Downers Grove, IL Glendale News Press, Los Angeles, CA Glendale Star, Glendale, AZ Glennville Sentinel, Glennville, GA Glenrock Independent, Glenrock, WY Glenview Announcements, Chicago, IL Globe-Gazette, Mason City, IA Gloucester County Times, Woodbury, NJ Gloucester Daily Times, Gloucester, MA GoLaurens.com, Laurens, SC Gold Country Times, Sutter Creek, CA Goldthwaite Eagle, Goldthwaite, TX Goodland Star-News, Goodland, KS Gorham Times, Gorham, ME Goshen News, Goshen, IN Goskagit.com, Mount Vernon, WA Gotham Gazette, New York, NY GP News, Grosse Pointe Farms, MI Graham Leader Online, Graham, TX Grand Blanc View, Davison, MI Grand Canyon News, Williams, AZ Grand Canyon Tour Guide, Williams, AZ Grand Haven Tribune, Grand Haven, MI Grand Prairie Herald, Hazen, AR Grand Rapids Press, Grand Rapids, MI Grand Traverse Herald, Traverse City, MI Grand Traverse Insider, Traverse City, MI Grandview Herald, Grandview, WA Granite State News, Meredith, NH Grant County Herald, Elbow Lake, MN Grant County News, Dry Ridge, KY Grant County Press, Petersburg, WV Great Bend Tribune, Great Bend, KS Great Falls Connection, Alexandria, VA Greeley Gazette, Greeley, CO 134

Greeley Tribune, Greeley, CO Green Bay Press Gazette, Green Bay, WI Green Fire Times, Santa Fe, NM Greene County Messenger, Waynesburg, PA Greene County Record, Stanardsville, VA Greeneville Sun, Greeneville, TN Greensburg Record-Herald, Greensburg, KY Greenville Advocate, Greenville, AL Greenville Daily Post, Tuscola, IL Greenville Herald Banner, Greenville, TX Greenwich Citizen, Greenwich, CT Greenwich Time, Old Greenwich, CT Greenwood Commonwealth, Greenwood, MS Groesbeck Journal, Groesbeck, TX Groton Independent, Groton, SD Grundy County Herald, Tracy City, TN Grundy Register, Grundy Center, IA Grunion Gazette, Long Beach, CA GSA Business Journal, Greenville, SC GTR Newspapers, Tulsa, OK Guernsey Gazette, Guernsey, WY Gulf Breeze News, Gulf Breeze, FL Gulf Coast News, Biloxi, MS Guymon Daily Herald, Guymon, OK Gwinnett Daily Post, Lawrenceville, GA Half Moon Bay Review, Half Moon Bay, CA Halifax-Plympton Reporter, Plymouth, MA Hamburg Reporter, Hamburg, IA Hamden Journal, Hamden, CT Hamilton-Wenham Chronicle, Danvers, MA Hammonton Gazette, Hammonton, NJ Hampshire Review, Romney, WV Hampton Chronicle, Hampton, IA Hampton Roads Messenger, Norfolk, VA Hancock County Journal-Pilot, Carthage, IL Hannibal Courier-Post, Hannibal, MO Hanover Eagle, Madison, NJ Hanover Mariner, Marshfield, MA Hanover Park Press, Downers Grove, IL Hanson Enterprise, Hanson, MA Harbor News, Madison, CT Hardin County News, Lumberton, TX Harlan Tribune, Harlan, IA 135

Harrison Daily Times, Harrison, AR Hartford Advocate, Hartford, CT Hartford Business Journal, Hartford, CT Hartford City News-Times, Hartford City, IN Hartford Courant, Hartford, CT Hartselle Enquirer, Hartselle, AL Hartwell Sun, Hartwell, GA Harwich Oracle, Orleans, MA Havelock News, Havelock, NC Haverhill Gazette, North Andover, MA Havre Daily News, Havre, MT Hawaii Reporter.com, Honolulu, HI Hawaii Tribune-Herald, Hilo, HI HawaiiStar.com, Honolulu, HI Hawk Eye, Burlington, IA Haxtun-Fleming Herald, Haxtun, CO Hays Daily News, Hays, KS Headlight Herald, Tracy, MN Helena Independent, Helena, MT Henderson Daily News, Henderson, TX Hendricks County Flyer, Avon, IN Henry County Local, Eminence, KY Henry Daily Herald, McDonough, GA Herald & Review, Decatur, IL Herald & Tribune, Jonesborough, TN Herald and News, Klamath Falls, OR Herald and Ruralite, Sylva, NC Herald Banner, Greenville, TX Herald Country Market, Bourbonnais, IL Herald Dispatch, Sleepy Eye, MN Herald Independent, Winnsboro, SC Herald Journal, Logan, UT Herald Journal, Winsted, MN Herald Ledger, Eddyville, KY Herald of Randolph, Randolph, VT Herald Press, Huntington, IN Herald Review, Grand Rapids, MN Herald Tribune, Batesville, IN Herald-Chronicle, Osage City, KS Herald-Citizen, Cookeville, TN Herald-Dispatch, Huntington, WV Herald-Guide, Boutte, LA Herald-Journal, Spartanburg, SC 136

Herald-Leader, Fitzgerald, GA Herald-News, Dayton, TN Herald-Palladium, Saint Joseph, MI Herald-Progress, Ashland, VA Herald-Spectator, Chicago, IL Herald-Standard, Uniontown, PA Herald-Star, Steubenville, OH Herald-Sun, Durham, NC Herald-Times, Bloomington, IN Herald-Zeitung, New Braunfels, TX Hermann Advertiser Courier, Hermann, MO Hernando Today, Tampa, FL Herndon Connection, Alexandria, VA Hesperian-Beacon, Floydada, TX Hi-Desert Star, Yucca Valley, CA Hiawatha Advocate, Cedar Rapids, IA High Plains Daily Leader, Liberal, KS High Plains Journal, Dodge City, KS High Point Enterprise, High Point, NC Highland Park News, Chicago, IL Highlander, Marble Falls, TX Hill Country Herald, Leakey, TX Hillsboro Star Journal, Hillsboro, KS Hillsborough Beacon, Princeton, NJ Hillsdale Daily News, Hillsdale, MI Hillside Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Hingham Journal, Hingham, MA Hinsdale Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Hodgkins Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Hola! Arkansas, Little Rock, AR Holbrook Sun, Randolph, MA Holland Sentinel, Holland, MI Holliston TAB, Framingham, MA Holly Express, Holly, MI Holmes County Times Advertiser, Bonifay, FL Holton Recorder, Holton, KS Home News & Tribune, Somerville, NJ Home Town Journal, Macclenny, FL Homer News, Homer, AK Hometown Focus, Virginia, MN Hondo Anvil Herald, Hondo, TX Honolulu Civil Beat, Honolulu, HI Honolulu Star Advertiser, Honolulu, HI 137

Honolulu Weekly, Honolulu, HI Hood County News, Granbury, TX Hoosier Topics, Cloverdale, IN Hope Star, Hope, AR Hopewell News, Hopewell, VA Hopewell Valley News, Princeton, NJ Hopkinton Crier, Framingham, MA Hornell Evening Tribune, Hornell, NY Houghton Lake Resorter, Houghton Lake, MI Housatonic Times, Torrington, CT Houston County Courier, Crockett, TX Houston County News, La Crosse, WI Houston Herald, Houston, MO Houston Home Journal, Perry, GA Howell Times, Lakehurst, NJ Hub, Freehold, NJ Hudson Star Observer, Hudson, WI Hudson Sun, Framingham, MA Hugo Daily News, Hugo, OK Humboldt Independent, Humboldt, IA Hungry Horse News, Columbia Falls, MT Hunterdon Co Democrat, Flemington, NJ Hunterdon Review, Bernardsville, NJ Huntley Farmside, Downers Grove, IL Huntsville Item, Huntsville, TX Hur Herald, Mt. Zion, WV Huron Co. Morning Journal, Lorain, OH Huron Daily Tribune, Bad Axe, MI Hutchinson Leader, Hutchinson, MN Hutchinson News, Hutchinson, KS Hyde Park Herald, Chicago, IL Ida County Courier, Ida Grove, IA Idaho Business Review, Boise, ID Idaho Enterprise, Malad City, ID Idaho Press-Tribune, Nampa, ID Idaho State Journal, Pocatello, ID Idaho Statesman, Boise, ID Idaho World, Boise, ID Identidad Latina, Hartford, CT Idyllwild Town Crier, Idyllwild, CA Imperial Valley Press Online, El Centro, CA Independent, Colorado Springs, CO Independent, Costa Mesa, CA 138

Independent, Parkers Prairie, MN Independent, Santa Barbara, CA Independent Appeal, Selmer, TN Independent Florida Sun, Pensacola, FL Independent News Herald, Clarissa, MN Independent Register, Brodhead, WI Independent Review, Litchfield, MN Independent Tribune, Concord, NC Independent Voice, Dixon, CA Independent-Observer, Conrad, MT Index-Journal, Greenwood, SC Indian Head Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Indiana Gazette, Indiana, PA Indianapolis Recorder, Indianapolis, IN Indianapolis Star, Indianapolis, IN INForum, Fargo, ND Ink Newspaper, Fort Wayne, IN Inland Valley Daily Bulletin, Ontario, CA Inquirer and Mirror, Nantucket, MA Inside Business, Norfolk, VA Inside Northern Nevada, Winnemucca, NV Insidenova.com, Manassas, VA Intelligencer, Levittown, PA Inter-County Leader, Frederic, WI Inter-Mountain, Elkins, WV Intermountain News, Burney, CA Intertown Record, North Sutton, NH Inyo Register, Bishop, CA Iola Register, Iola, KS IonMesquite, Mesquite, TX Iosco County News-Herald, East Tawas, MI Ipswich Chronicle, Danvers, MA Iron County Reporter, Iron River, MI Isanti County News, Cambridge, MN Island Gazette, Carolina Beach, NC Island Reporter, Sanibel, FL Island Sand Paper, Ft. Myers Beach, FL Islander, Holmes Beach, FL Islander News, Key Biscayne, FL Issaquah Press, Issaquah, WA Italy Neotribune, Italy, TX Itasca Press, Downers Grove, IL Ithaca Journal, Ithaca, NY 139

Ithaca Times, Ithaca, NY Jack County Herald, Jacksboro, TX Jackson Co. Chronicle, Black River Falls, WI Jackson County Banner, Brownstown, IN Jackson County Floridan, Marianna, FL Jackson County Legal News, Troy, MI Jackson County Pilot, Jackson, MN Jackson County Times, Marianna, FL Jackson Herald, Ripley, WV Jackson Hole News & Guide, Jackson, WY Jackson Sun, Jackson, TN Jackson Times, Lakehurst, NJ Jacksonville Daily News, Jacksonville, NC Jacksonville Daily Record, Jacksonville, FL Jacksonville News, Anniston, AL Jacksonville Patriot, Little Rock, AR Jamestown News, Jamestown, NC Jeff Davis County Ledger, Hazlehurst, GA Jefferson Co. Leader, Port Townsend, WA Jefferson Post, West Jefferson, NC Jefferson Star, Rigby, ID Jeffersonian Democrat, Brookville, PA Jessamine Journal, Nicholasville, KY Jesup Citizen Herald Online, Jesup, IA Jewish Community Voice, Cherry Hill, NJ Jewish News of Grtr Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ Jewish Observer, Encino, CA Jewish Press Group, Clearwater, FL Jewish Press of Tampa, Clearwater, FL Jewish Times of Southern NJ, Pleasantville, NJ Johnson City Press, Johnson City, TN Johnson City Record Courier, Johnson City, TX Johnson County Graphic, Clarksville, AR Johnstown Breeze, Johnstown, CO Joliet Herald News, Chicago, IL Jones County News, Gray, GA Jonesboro Sun, Jonesboro, AR Joplin Business Journal, Joplin, MO Joplin Globe, Joplin, MO Joplin Independent, Joplin, MO Jordan Independent, Jordan, MN Journal, Des Plaines, IL Journal & Courier, Lafayette, IN 140

Journal & Topics, Des Plaines, IL Journal Express Online, Knoxville, IA Journal Gazette, Fort Wayne, IN Journal Inquirer, Manchester, CT Journal Messenger, Manassas, VA Journal Online, Williamston, SC Journal Opinion, Bradford, VT Journal Record, Oklahoma City, OK Journal Reporter, Zebulon, GA Journal Review, Crawfordsville, IN Journal Times, Racine, WI Journal Tribune, Blackwell, OK Journal World, Lawrence, KS Journal-Gazette, Mattoon, IL Journal-News, Hillsboro, IL Journal-Spectator, Wharton, TX Journal-Times, Grayson, KY Junction Eagle, Junction, TX Kalamazoo Gazette, Kalamazoo, MI Kanabec Times, Mora, MN Kane County Chronicle, St. Charles, IL Kane Republican, Kane, PA Kansas City Kansan, Olathe, KS Kansas City Star, Kansas City, MO Katy Times, Katy, TX Kaufman Herald, Kaufman, TX Kaukauna Times-Villager, Kaukauna, WI Kearney Daily Hub, Kearney, NE Keene Sentinel, Keene, NH Keizertimes, Keizer, OR Keller Citizen, Keller, TX Kennebec Journal, Augusta, ME Kenosha News, Kenosha, WI Kent County Times, West Warwick, RI Kentucky New Era, Hopkinsville, KY Keowee Courier, Walhalla, SC Kern Valley Sun, Lake Isabella, CA Kerrville Daily Times, Kerrville, TX Ketchikan Daily News, Ketchikan, AK Killeen Daily Herald, Killeen, TX Kingman Daily Miner, Kingman, AZ Kingsburg Recorder, Kingsburg, CA Kingsport Daily News, Kingsport, TN 141

Kingsport Times-News, Kingsport, TN Kingsville Record & Bishop News, Kingsville, TX Kiowa County Press, Eads, CO Kiowa County Signal, Greensburg, KS Kiowa News, Kiowa, KS Knoxville Journal, Knoxville, TN Kodiak Daily Mirror, Kodiak, AK Kokomo Herald, Kokomo, IN Kokomo Tribune, Kokomo, IN Kuna Melba News, Kuna, ID L'Anse Sentinel, L' Anse, MI L'Observateur, La Place, LA La Campana, Franklin, TN La Crosse Tribune, La Crosse, WI LA Downtown News, Los Angeles, CA La Grange Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL La Jolla Today, San Diego, CA La Mesa Courier, San Diego, CA La Prensa, Saline, OH La Prensa Newspaper, San Antonio, TX La Voz, Phoenix, AZ La Voz de Austin, Austin, TX La Voz de Brazoria County, Angleton, TX La Voz Rochester, Rochester, NY Laconia Citizen, Laconia, NH Ladysmith News, Ladysmith, WI Lafayette County Press, Stamps, AR LaGrange Daily News, Lagrange, GA Lake City Reporter, Lake City, FL Lake Country Sun, Graford, TX Lake County Banner, Tiptonville, TN Lake County Examiner, Lakeview, OR Lake County Leader, Polson, MT Lake County News, Lakeport, CA Lake County Record-Bee, Lakeport, CA Lake Forester, Chicago, IL Lake Geneva News, Lake Geneva, WI Lake News Online, Camdenton, MO Lake Powell Chronicle, Page, AZ Lake Stevens Journal, Lake Stevens, WA Lake Travis View, Lakeway, TX Lake Wylie Pilot, Lake Wylie, SC Lake Zurich Courier, Chicago, IL 142

Lakecaster, Beaumont, TX Lakeland Times, Minocqua, WI Lakeshore Times, Plano, TX Lakewood Observer, Lakewood, OH Lamar Democrat, Lamar, MO Lamesa Press Reporter, Lamesa, TX Lamorinda Weekly, Moraga, CA Lancaster Online, Lancaster, PA Landmark, Oak Park, IL Landmark Newspaper, Platte City, MO Lansing Current, Tonganoxie, KS Lansing State Journal, Lansing, MI Lapeer Area View, Lapeer, MI Laramie Boomerang, Laramie, WY Laredo Morning Times, Laredo, TX Las Cruces Bulletin, Las Cruces, NM Las Vegas Business Press, Las Vegas, NV Las Vegas Review Journal, Las Vegas, NV Las Vegas Tribune, Las Vegas, NV Laughlin Nevada Times, Laughlin, NV Laurel Leader, Baltimore, MD Laurel Mountain Post, Ligonier, PA Laurel Outlook, Laurel, MT Laurel Star, Seaford, DE Laurinburg Exchange, Laurinburg, NC Lawrence Ledger, Princeton, NJ Lawton Constitution, Lawton, OK Leader, Corning, NY Leader, Jacksonville, AR Leader and Kalkaskian, Kalkaska, MI Leader Telegram, Eau Claire, WI Leader Times, Kittanning, PA Leader Vindicator, New Bethlehem, PA Leader-Herald, Gloversville, NY Leakey Star, Rio Frio, TX Leavenworth Times, Leavenworth, KS Lebanon Daily Record, Lebanon, MO Ledger, Lakeland, FL Ledger-Independent, Maysville, KY Ledger-Sentinel, Oswego, IL Lee's Summit Journal, Lees Summit, MO Lee's Summit Tribune, Lees Summit, MO Leelanau Enterprise, Lake Leelanau, MI 143

Leesburg Today, Leesburg, VA Legal & Business News, Corpus Christi, TX Lehigh Acres Citizen, Lehigh Acres, FL Lehigh Acres Gazette, Lehigh Acres, FL Lehigh Acres News Press, Fort Myers, FL Lemont Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Lennox Independent, Lennox, SD Leominster Champion, Leominster, MA LeRoy Pennysaver, Le Roy, NY Levy County Journal, Bronson, FL Lewis County Herald, Vanceburg, KY Lewisboro Ledger, Ridgefield, CT Lewiston Morning Tribune, Lewiston, ID Lewistown News-Argus, Lewistown, MT Lewisville Leader, Dallas, TX Lexington Clipper-Herald, Lexington, NE Lexington Leader, Lexington, TX Light of New Mexico, Santa Fe, NM LikeTheDew, Atlanta, GA Lima News, Lima, OH Lincoln County Register, Caliente, NV Lincoln Courier, Lincoln, IL Lincoln Daily News, Lincoln, IL Lincoln Herald, Lincolnton, NC Lincoln Journal, Lincolnton, GA Lincoln Journal Star, Lincoln, NE Lincoln News Messenger, Lincoln, CA Lincoln Times-News, Lincolnton, NC Lindale News & Times, Lindale, TX Lindenwald Ledger, Hamilton, OH Linn County Leader, Brookfield, MO Lisle Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Littleton Independent, Concord, MA Livestock Weekly, San Angelo, TX Livingston Parish News, Denham Springs, LA Llano News, Llano, TX Local iQ, Albuquerque, NM Local Paper, Ketchikan, AK Local Town Pages, Medway, MA Lodi News-Sentinel, Lodi, CA Log Cabin Democrat, Conway, AR Logan Banner, Logan, WV Logan Daily News, Logan, OH 144

Lombard Spectator, Downers Grove, IL Londonderry Times, Londonderry, NH Lone Star Iconoclast, Clifton, TX Lonesome Valley Newspaper, Prescott Valley, AZ Long Beach Business Journal, Signal Hill, CA Long Prairie Leader, Long Prairie, MN Longview News-Journal, Longview, TX Lonoke Democrat, Lonoke, AR Loomis News, Loomis, CA Los Angeles Daily, Woodland Hills, CA Los Gatos Weekly-Times, San Jose, CA Lost Creek Guide News, Keenesburg, CO Loudoun Times Mirror, Leesburg, VA Louisburg Herald, Louisburg, KS Louisiana Press Journal, Louisiana, MO Lovell Chronicle, Lovell, WY Lovely County Citizen, Eureka Spring, AR Lovington Leader, Lovington, NM Lubbock Avalanche Journal, Lubbock, TX Ludington Daily News, Ludington, MI Lufkin Daily News, Lufkin, TX Lumina News, Wrightsville Beach, NC Lusk Herald, Lusk, WY Luverne Journal, Luverne, AL Lyons Recorder, Lyons, CO Macomb Eagle, Macomb, IL Macon County News, Franklin, NC Macon Telegraph, Macon, GA Macoupin County Enquirer-Democrat, Carlinville, IL Madera Tribune, Madera, CA Madison County Eagle, Madison, VA Madison County Herald, Ridgeland, MS Madison County Journal, Ridgeland, MS Madison County Record, Huntsville, AR Madison Courier Online, Madison, IN Madison Eagle, Madison, NJ Madison Park Times, Seattle, WA Madison Press, London, OH Madras Pioneer, Madras, OR Magic City Morning Star, Millinocket, ME Mail Tribune, Medford, OR Main Line Media News, Ardmore, PA Main Line Times, Ardmore, PA 145

Maine Insights, Solon, ME Malden Observer, Somerville, MA Malibu Times, Malibu, CA Malvern Daily Record, Malvern, AR Mammoth Times, Mammoth Lakes, CA Manchester Jrnl, Manchester Center, VT Manchester Times, Lakehurst, NJ Manchester Times, Manchester, TN Mansfield News, Raynham, MA Mansfield News Mirror, Mansfield, TX Manteca Bulletin, Manteca, CA Manville News, Princeton, NJ Maple Heights Press, Ravenna, OH Marblehead Reporter, Marblehead, MA Marco Island Sun-Times, Marco Island, FL Marengo Farmside, Downers Grove, IL Marietta Daily Journal, Marietta, GA Marietta Times, Marietta, OH Marin Independent Journal, San Rafael, CA Marine Corps Times, Springfield, VA Mariner and Express, Marshfield, MA Marion County Record, Marion, KS Marion Star, Marion, OH Mariposa Gazette, Mariposa, CA Marlboro Herald-Advocate, Bennettsville, SC Marlborough Enterprise, Framingham, MA Marlette Leader, Marlette, MI Marlin Democrat, Marlin, TX Marquette County Tribune, Montello, WI Marshall County Tribune, Lewisburg, TN Marshall Independent, Marshall, MN Marshfield Mariner, Marshfield, MA Marshfield News-Herald, Marshfield, WI Maryland Coast Dispatch, Berlin, MD Marysville Advocate, Marysville, KS Marysville Journal-Tribune, Marysville, OH Maryville Daily Forum, Maryville, MO Mason County Democrat, Havana, IL Mason County News, Mason, TX Mass High Tech, Boston, MA Massapequa Post, Amityville, NY Maui News, Wailuku, HI Maumelle Monitor, Little Rock, AR 146

Mayo Free Press, Live Oak, FL McAlester News, Mcalester, OK McCook Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL McDowell News, Marion, NC McGregor Mirror, McGregor, TX McKenzie County Farmer, Watford City, ND McKinleyville Press, McKinleyville, CA McLean Connection, Alexandria, VA McLeod County Chronicle, Glencoe, MN McPherson Sentinel, Mcpherson, KS Meade County Messenger, Brandenburg, KY Meadville Tribune, Meadville, PA Mebane Enterprise, Mebane, NC Mecklenburg Times, Charlotte, NC Mecury, San Marcos, TX Medfield Press, Needham, MA Medford Transcript, Danvers, MA Medina Gazette, Medina, OH Melrose Beacon, Melrose, MN Melrose Free Press, Danvers, MA Memphis Daily News, Memphis, TN Memphis Democrat, Memphis, MO Memphis Flyer, Memphis, TN Mena Star, Mena, AR Mendocino Beacon, Fort Bragg, CA Mendota Reporter, Mendota, IL Merced Sun-Star, Merced, CA Merchant's Marketer, Lehigh Acres, FL Mercury, Pottstown, PA Mesabi Daily News, Virginia, MN Messenger, Fort Dodge, IA Messenger, Salem, VA Messenger Index, Emmett, ID Messenger Journal, Perrysburg, OH Messenger-Inquirer, Owensboro, KY Methow Valley News, Twisp, WA Metro Chinese Weekly, Philadelphia, PA Metro Monthly, Youngstown, OH Metro Pulse, Knoxville, TN Metro Spirit, Augusta, GA MetroWest Daily News, Framingham, MA Metter Advertiser, Metter, GA Mexico Ledger, Mexico, MO 147

Miami County Republic, Paola, KS Miami Herald, Miami, FL Miami Times, Miami, FL Miami Today, Miami, FL Miami.com, Miami, FL Michigan Citizen, Detroit, MI Mid County Chronicle, Beaumont, TX Mid-County Memo, Portland, OR Middletown Transcript, Middletown, DE MidHudsonNews.com, Middletown, NY Midland Daily News, Midland, MI Midland Reporter Telegram, Midland, TX MidWeek, Honolulu, HI Midwest Messenger, Tekamah, NE Milan News-Leader, Milan, MI Milford Cabinet & Wilton Journal, Milford, NH Milford Daily News, Milford, MA Millbury-Sutton Chronicle, Millbury, MA Mille Lacs County Times, Milaca, MN Millen News, Millen, GA Miller Co Autogram-Sentinel, Eldon, MO Miller Press, Miller, SD Milpitas Post, Milpitas, CA Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, Milwaukee, WI Mineral County Miner, Monte Vista, CO Mining Journal, Marquette, MI Minneota Mascot, Minneota, MN Minnesota Sun Publications, Eden Prairie, MN Minot Daily News, Minot, ND Mirror, Altoona, PA Mirror, Tonganoxie, KS Mirror-Exchange, Milan, TN Mission Valley News, San Diego, CA Mississippi Business Journal, Jackson, MS Missoulian, Missoula, MT Moab Times-Independent, Moab, UT Modoc County Record, Alturas, CA Mohave Daily News, Bullhead City, AZ Molalla Pioneer, Molalla, OR Molokai Advertiser-News, Kaunakakai, HI Monadnock Ledger, Peterborough, NH Monett Times, Monett, MO Monmouth Daily Review Atlas, Monmouth, IL 148

Monroe County Advocate, Sweetwater, TN Monroe County Appeal, Paris, MO Monroe County Reporter, Forsyth, GA Monroe Evening News, Monroe, MI Monroe Guardian, Southgate, MI Monroe Journal, Amory, MS Monroe Journal, Monroeville, AL Monroe Monitor, Monroe, WA Monroe Times, Monroe, WI Montecito Journal, Montecito, CA Monterey County Herald, Monterey, CA Monterey County Weekly, Seaside, CA Montevideo American News, Montevideo, MN Montgomery Advertiser, Montgomery, AL Montgomery Herald, Troy, NC Montgomery News, Belle Mead, NJ Monticello Daily, Tuscola, IL Monticello Express, Monticello, IA Monticello News, Monticello, GA Montmorency County Tribune, Atlanta, MI Montrose Daily Press, Montrose, CO Moorefield Examiner, Moorefield, WV Mooresville Times, Martinsville, IN Mooresville Tribune, Mooresville, NC Moorpark Acorn, Camarillo, CA Morehead News, Morehead, KY Morgan County Press, Versailles, MO Morgan Hill Times, Morgan Hill, CA Morning Call, Allentown, PA Morning Journal, Lisbon, OH Morning News, Blackfoot, ID Morning News, Savannah, GA Morning Sun, Mount Pleasant, MI Morning Sun, Pittsburg, KS Morning Times, Sayre, PA Morris Newsbee, Madison, NJ Morris Sun Tribune, Morris, MN Morrison County Record, Little Falls, MN Morton Times-News, Peoria, IL Moscow-Pullman Daily News, Moscow, ID Moulton Advertiser, Moulton, AL Moultrie Observer, Moultrie, GA Mount Airy News, Mount Airy, NC 149

Mount Olive Chronicle, Chester, NJ Mount Olive Tribune, Mount Olive, NC Mount Prospect Journal, Des Plaines, IL Mount Shasta Herald, Mount Shasta, CA Mount Vernon Gazette, Alexandria, VA Mount Vernon News, Mount Vernon, OH Mountain Advocate, Barbourville, KY Mountain Democrat, Placerville, CA Mountain Eagle, Whitesburg, KY Mountain Home News, Mountain Home, ID Mountain Jackpot, Woodland Park, CO Mountain Messenger, Lewisburg, WV Mountain Monthly, Cloudcroft, NM Mountain News, Lake Arrowhead, CA Mountain Peaks, Mountain Top, PA Mountain Valley News, Cedaredge, CO Mountain View Telegraph, Moriarty, NM Mountain View Voice, Palo Alto, CA Mountain Xpress, Asheville, NC Mountaineer Progress, Wrightwood, CA Mt Juliet Chronicle, Mount Juliet, TN Mt. Pleasant News, Mount Pleasant, IA Mt. Vernon-Lisbon Sun, Mount Vernon, IA Mukilteo Beacon, Mukilteo, WA Muleshoe Journal, Muleshoe, TX Muncie Voice, Muncie, IN Mundo Hispano, Knoxville, TN Murfreesboro Post, Murfreesboro, TN Murphy Monitor, Murphy, TX Murphysboro American, Murphysboro, IL Murray Journal, Riverton, UT Murray Ledger & Times, Murray, KY Muscatine Journal, Muscatine, IA Muskegon Chronicle, Muskegon, MI Muskogee Daily Phoenix, Muskogee, OK My Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL MySA, San Antonio, TX N Brunswick Sentinel, Manalapan, NJ Nadig Newspapers, Chicago, IL Nantucket Independent, Nantucket, MA Napa Valley Register, Napa, CA Naperville Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Naperville Sun, Chicago, IL 150

Narragansett Times, Wakefield, RI Nashoba Publications Newspapers, Devens, MA Nashville Business Journal, Nashville, TN Nashville Leader, Nashville, AR Nassau County Record, Callahan, FL Natchez Democrat, Natchez, MS Natchitoches Times, Natchitoches, LA Natick Bulletin & Tab, Framingham, MA Navajo Hopi Observer, Flagstaff, AZ Navajo Times, Window Rock, AZ Navasota Examiner, Navasota, TX Needham Times, Needham, MA Neosho Daily News, Neosho, MO Neshoba Democrat, Philadelphia, MS Nevada Appeal, Carson City, NV Nevada County Picayune, Prescott, AR New Age Examiner, Tunkhannock, PA New Era, Sweet Home, OR New Hampshire Gazette, Portsmouth, NH New Haven Register, New Haven, CT New Jersey Herald, Newton, NJ New London Record, New London, OH New Pittsburgh Courier, Pittsburgh, PA New Prague Times, New Prague, MN New Times Broward, Hollywood, FL New Times Weekly, San Luis Obispo, CA New York Observer, New York, NY New York Post, New York, NY New York Press, New York, NY New York Sun, New York, NY Newberg Graphic, Newberg, OR Newberry Observer, Newberry, SC Newburyport Current, Danvers, MA Newnan Times-Herald, Newnan, GA Newport Daily News, Newport, RI Newport Plain Talk, Newport, TN News, Kingstree, SC News & Citizen, Morrisville, VT News & Sun, Green Valley, AZ News and Farmer, Louisville, GA News and Leader, Neligh, NE News and Record, Greensboro, NC News and Record, South Boston, VA 151

News and Sentinel, Colebrook, NH News and Sentinel, Parkersburg, WV News and Tribune, Jeffersonville, IN News Democrat & Leader, Russellville, KY News Eagle, Hawley, PA News Examiner, Connersville, IN News Guard, Lincoln City, OR News Messenger, Marshall, TX News Observer, Blue Ridge, GA News of Orange County, Hillsborough, NC News Press, Nebraska City, NE News Progress, Sullivan, IL News Reporter, Washington, GA News Reporter, Whiteville, NC News Sun, Chicago, IL News Telegram, Sulphur Springs, TX News Times, Newport, OR News Times, York, NE News Transcript, Manalapan, NJ News Tribune, Tacoma, WA News-Argus, Goldsboro, NC News-Enterprise, Elizabethtown, KY News-Graphic, Georgetown, KY News-Herald, Willoughby, OH News-Item, Shamokin, PA News-Journal, Emmitsburg, MD News-Journal, Spruce Pine, NC News-Leader, Fernandina Beach, FL News-Leader, Springfield, MO News-Register, McMinnville, OR News-Review, Roseburg, OR News-Sun, Sebring, FL News-Times, Danbury, CT News-Virginian, Waynesboro, VA News@Norman, Denver, NC Newscaster, Dunnellon, FL Newsday, Melville, NY Newton Citizen, Covington, GA Newton Daily News, Newton, IA Newton Press-Mentor, Newton, IL Newton TAB and Daily, Needham, MA Newtown Bee, Newtown, CT Newtown Hamlet Hub, Ridgefield, CT 152

Niagara Gazette, Niagara Falls, NY Niles Journal, Des Plaines, IL Nisqually Valley News, Yelm, WA Nodaway News Leader, Maryville, MO Nogales International, Nogales, AZ Nome Nugget, Nome, AK NOOZHAWK, Santa Barbara, CA Normalite, Normal, IL Norman Transcript, Norman, OK North Andover Citizen, Danvers, MA North Coast Citizen, Manzanita, OR North County Times, San Diego, CA North East Independent, North Kingstown, RI North Forty News, Wellington, CO North Kitsap Herald, Poulsbo, WA North Liberty Leader, North Liberty, IA North Little Rock Times, North Little Rock, AR North Mississippi Herald, Water Valley, MS North Platte Telegraph, North Platte, NE North Port Sun, North Port, FL North Shore News, Haleiwa, HI Northbrook Star, Chicago, IL Northeast Arkansas Town Crier, Manila, AR Northeast Georgian Online, Cornelia, GA Northeast Mississippi Journal, Tupelo, MS Northern CO Bus. Report, Fort Collins, CO Northern Express, Traverse City, MI Northern Kittitas County Tribune, Cle Elum, WA Northern Light, Blaine, WA Northern Virginia Daily, Strasburg, VA Northern Wyoming Daily News, Worland, WY Northwest Asian Weekly, Seattle, WA Northwest Herald, Crystal Lake, IL Northwest Signal, Napoleon, OH Northwoods River News, Rhinelander, WI Norton Mirror, Raynham, MA Norwalk Citizen-News, Bridgeport, CT Norwalk Reflector, Norwalk, OH Norwell Mariner, Marshfield, MA Norwich Bulletin, Norwich, CT Norwood Post, Telluride, CO Novato Advance, Novato, CA Novi News, Detroit, MI 153

NSBNews.net, New Smyrna Beach, FL Nuevo Siglo, Chicago, IL Nugget Newspaper, Sisters, OR Nutfield News, Londonderry, NH Nyack Villager, Nyack, NY Oak Brook Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Oakdale Leader, Oakdale, CA Oakland Press, Pontiac, MI Oakley Press, Brentwood, CA Observer, Rio Rancho, NM Observer Tribune, Chester, NJ Observer-Dispatch, Utica, NY Observer-Reporter, Washington, PA OC Business Journal, Irvine, CA Oceana's Herald-Journal, Hart, MI Oconee Enterprise, Watkinsville, GA Odessa American, Odessa, TX Ogden Reporter, Ogden, IA Ogemaw County Herald, West Branch, MI Ojai Valley News, Ojai, CA Oklahoma Constitution, Oklahoma City, OK Olathe Daily News, Olathe, KS Old Colony Memorial, Plymouth, MA Olney Daily Mail, Olney, IL Olney Enterprise, Olney, TX Olympian, Olympia, WA Omaha Reader, Omaha, NE Omaha-World Herald, Omaha, NE Onion, Madison, WI Opelousas Daily World, Opelousas, LA Orange County News, Beaumont, TX Orange County Register, Santa Ana, CA Orange County Review, Orange, VA Orangevale Sun, Citrus Heights, CA Orchard Park Bee, Williamsville, NY Ord Quiz, Ord, NE Oregon Observer, Oregon, WI Orland Press Register, Willows, CA Orlando Times, Orlando, FL Orlando Weekly, Orlando, FL Oroville Mercury-Register, Oroville, CA Ortonville Independent, Ortonville, MN Osawatomie Graphic, Osawatomie, KS 154

Osceola Times, Osceola, AR Oscoda County Herald, Mio, MI Oscoda Press, Oscoda, MI Osgood Journal, Versailles, IN Oskaloosa Herald, Oskaloosa, IA Oswego County Today, Fulton, NY Othello Outlook, Othello, WA Ottawa Herald, Ottawa, KS Ouray Plaindealer, Ouray, CO Outer Banks Sentinel, Nags Head, NC Outlook, Portland, OR Outlook, Springfield, OH Owatonna People's Press, Owatonna, MN Owyhee Avalanche, Homedale, ID Oxford Eagle, Oxford, MS Oxford Press, Oxford, OH Ozark County Times, Gainesville, MO Pacific Business News, Honolulu, HI Pacific City Sun, Pacific City, OR Pacific Publishing Newspapers, Seattle, WA Pacific Sun, San Rafael, CA Pacifica Tribune, Pacifica, CA Paducah Sun, Paducah, KY Pagosa Springs Sun, Pagosa Springs, CO Pahrump Valley Times, Pahrump, NV Palacios Beacon, Palacios, TX Palatka Daily News, Palatka, FL Palm Beach Post, West Palm Beach, FL Palo Alto Online, Palo Alto, CA Pampa News, Pampa, TX Panolian, Batesville, MS Pantagraph, Bloomington, IL Paper of Montgomery Co., Crawfordsville, IN Paradise Post, Paradise, CA Paragould Daily Press, Paragould, AR Paris News, Paris, TX Paris Post-Intelligencer, Paris, TN Park Cities People, Dallas, TX Park Falls Herald, Phillips, WI Park Record, Park City, UT Park Ridge Herald-Advocate, Chicago, IL Park Ridge Journal, Des Plaines, IL Parkston Advance, Parkston, SD 155

Parsons Sun, Parsons, KS Pasadena Citizen, Houston, TX Pasadena Star-News, Pasadena, CA Pasadena Weekly, Pasadena, CA Paso Robles Press, Paso Robles, CA Patriot Ledger, Quincy, MA Paulding County Progress, Paulding, OH Pauls Valley Daily Democrat, Pauls Valley, OK Paynesville Press, Paynesville, MN Payson Roundup, Payson, AZ Peabody Gazette-Bulletin, Peabody, KS Pearland Journal, Houston, TX Pekin Daily Times, Pekin, IL Pelham Weekly, Pelham, NY Pelham-Windham News, Hudson, NH Penasee Globe, Wayland, MI Pender Post, Burgaw, NC Pendulum, Wakefield, RI Peninsula Clarion, Kenai, AK Peninsula Daily News, Port Angeles, WA Peninsula News, Rolling Hills Estates, CA Peninusula Gateway, Gig Harbor, WA People's Press, Yalesville, CT People's Tribune, Bowling Green, MO People-Sentinel, Barnwell, SC Perham Focus, Perham, MN Perry County Times, New Bloomfield, PA Peshtigo Times, Peshtigo, WI Petoskey News-Review, Petoskey, MI Petroleum News, Anchorage, AK Pharos-Tribune, Logansport, IN Philadelphia Asian News, Philadelphia, PA Philadelphia Weekly, Philadelphia, PA Philipstown.info, Cold Spring, NY Picayune Item, Picayune, MS Pickens Sentinel, Pickens, SC Pickerington Times Sun, Lewis Center, OH Piedmont Journal, Anniston, AL Pierre Capital Journal, Pierre, SD Pike County News Watchman, Waverly, OH Pilot, Southern Pines, NC Pilot News, Plymouth, IN Pilot Point Post-Signal, Pilot Point, TX 156

Pilot-Independent, Walker, MN Pine Bluff Commercial, Pine Bluff, AR Pine City Pioneer, Pine City, MN Pine Island Eagle, Bokeelia, FL Pine River Times, Bayfield, CO Pioneer, Bemidji, MN Pioneer News, Shepherdsville, KY Pipestone County Star, Pipestone, MN Piqua Daily Call, Piqua, OH Pittsburgh Business Times, Pittsburgh, PA Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Pittsburgh, PA Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Pittsburgh, PA Pittsfield Gazette, Pittsfield, MA Placer Herald, Rocklin, CA Plain Dealer, Cleveland, OH Plain Dealer & Sun, North Vernon, IN Plainsman, Huron, SD Plainview Daily Herald, Plainview, TX Plainville Citizen, Meriden, CT Planet Jackson Hole, Jackson, WY Platte County Citizen, Platte City, MO Pleasanton Express, Pleasanton, TX Plumas County News, Portola, CA Pocahontas Times, Marlinton, WV Pocono Record, Stroudsburg, PA Point & Shoreland Journal, Toledo, OH Point Pleasant Register, Point Pleasant, WV Point Reyes Light, Point Reyes Station, CA PojoaqueNews.com, Santa Fe, NM Polish American Journal, Buffalo, NY Polk County Democrat, Bartow, FL Pomerado Newspaper, Poway, CA Pomeroy Daily Sentinel, Pomeroy, OH Ponca City News, Ponca City, OK Pope County Tribune, Glenwood, MN Port Aransas South Jetty, Port Aransas, TX Port Arthur News, Port Arthur, TX Port Lavaca Wave, Port Lavaca, TX Port Orchard Independent, Port Orchard, WA Portage County Gazette, Stevens Point, WI Porterville Recorder, Porterville, CA Portland Observer, Portland, OR Portland Tribune, Portland, OR 157

Portuguese Times, New Bedford, MA Posey County News, New Harmony, IN Post & Mail, Columbia City, IN Post and Courier, Charleston, SC Post Independent, Glenwood Springs, CO Post Online, Centre, AL Post Register, Idaho Falls, ID Post-Bulletin, Rochester, MN Post-Crescent, Appleton, WI Post-Star, Glens Falls, NY Potomac Almanac, Alexandria, VA Poughkeepsie Journal, Poughkeepsie, NY Powell Tribune, Powell, WY Pratt Tribune, Pratt, KS Prensa Hispana, Phoenix, AZ Prescott eNews, Prescott, AZ Presque Isle County Advance, Rogers City, MI Press, Millbury, OH Press & Dakotan, Yankton, SD Press & News, Osseo, MN Press and Guide, Southgate, MI Press Argus-Courier, Van Buren, AR Press Banner, Scotts Valley, CA Press Democrat, Santa Rosa, CA Press Enterprise, Bloomsburg, PA Press of Atlantic City, Pleasantville, NJ Press Telegram, Long Beach, CA Press Tribune, Roseville, CA Press-Enterprise, Riverside, CA Press-Republican, Plattsburgh, NY Press-Sentinel, Jesup, GA Press-Tribune, Bossier City, LA Preston Citizen, Preston, ID Priest River Times, Priest River, ID Princeton Daily Clarion, Princeton, IN Princeton Herald, Princeton, TX Princeton Packet, Princeton, NJ Princeton Union-Eagle, Princeton, MN Prior Lake American, Prior Lake, MN Prishtina Press, New York, NY Progress, Aransas Pass, TX Progress, Caldwell, NJ Progress, Clearfield, PA 158

Progress Index, Petersburg, VA Progress News, Emlenton, PA Progress Times, Mission, TX Progressive Journal, Pageland, SC Progressor Times, Carey, OH Prosser Record-Bulletin, Prosser, WA Providence Business News, Providence, RI Providence Phoenix, Providence, RI Provincetown Banner, Provincetown, MA Pt Chester Westmore News, Port Chester, NY Public Opinion Online, Chambersburg, PA Pulaski County Mirror, St. Robert, MO Pullman Daily News, Moscow, ID Pulse, Chattanooga, TN Punxsutawney Spirit, Punxsutawney, PA Purcell Register, Purcell, OK Puyallup Herald, Puyallup, WA QSaltLake, Salt Lake City, UT Que Pasa, Charlotte, NC Que Pasa, Winston-Salem, NC Queen Anne & Magnolia News, Seattle, WA Queens Courier, Bayside, NY Queens Gazette, Long Island City, NY Quincy Herald-Whig, Quincy, IL Quoddy Tides, Eastport, ME Rains County Leader, Emory, TX Raleigh Telegram, Research Triangle Park, NC Ramona Journal, Ramona, CA Randolph County Herald Tribune, Chester, IL Randolph Leader, Roanoke, AL Randolph Reporter, Chester, NJ Ranger Review, Glendive, MT Rantoul Daily, Tuscola, IL Rapid City Journal, Rapid City, SD Rappahannock Record, Kilmarnock, VA Raton Range, Raton, NM Ravalli Republic, Hamilton, MT RC Catalyst, Rutherfordton, NC Reading Eagle/Reading Times, Reading, PA Record, Stockton, CA Record & Landmark, Statesville, NC Record Courier, Kent, OH Record Gazette, Banning, CA 159

Record Herald, Washington C. H., OH Record Review, Abbotsford, WI Record-Courier, Kent, OH Record-Eagle, Traverse City, MI Record-Journal, Meriden, CT Recorder, Greenfield, MA Recorder, Monterey, VA Recorder, Ponte Vedra Beach, FL Recorder Online, Amsterdam, NY Red Bluff Daily News, Red Bluff, CA Redding Hamlet Hub, Ridgefield, CT Redlands Daily Facts, Redlands, CA Redwood Times, Garberville, CA Reedley Exponent, Reedley, CA Reflector, Battle Ground, WA Reflector-Chronicle, Abilene, KS Regional Bus. Journal, Mount Pleasant, SC Regional News, Palos Heights, IL Register, Yarmouth Port, MA Register Citizen, Torrington, CT Register-Herald, Beckley, WV Register-News, Mount Vernon, IL Reminder, East Longmeadow, MA Reminder and Blade-Tribune, Florence, AZ Reno Gazette-Journal, Reno, NV Reporter, Lebanon, IN Reporter, Palos Heights, IL Reporter Online, Lansdale, PA Reporter Times, Martinsville, IN Reporter-Statesman, Spearman, TX Republic, Columbus, IN Republic Monitor, Republic, MO Republic-Monitor, Perryville, MO Republic-Times, Waterloo, IL Republican Newspaper, Oakland, MD Republican Newspaper, Rensselaer, IN Republican Times, Trenton, MO Republican-Clipper, Bethany, MO Republican-Herald, Pottsville, PA Reston Connection, Alexandria, VA Retrospect, Collingswood, NJ Review, East Liverpool, OH Review, Plymouth, WI 160

Review Appeal, Franklin, TN Review Newspapers, Niles, OH Review of Jones County, Laurel, MS Rhino Times, Greensboro, NC Rhinoceros Times, Greensboro, NC Rice Lake Chronotype, Rice Lake, WI Richfield Reaper, Richfield, UT Richmond Co. Daily Journal, Rockingham, NC Richmond Daily News, Richmond, MO Richmond Register, Richmond, KY Richmond Times-Dispatch, Richmond, VA Richmond.com, Richmond, VA Ridgefield Hamlet Hub, Ridgefield, CT Ridger, Oak Ridge, TN Ridgway Record, Ridgway, PA Rio Blanco Herald Times, Meeker, CO Ripon Record, Ripon, CA River Cities Reader, Davenport, IA River Reflections, McKenzie Bridge, OR River Reporter, Narrowsburg, NY Riverhead News Review, Mattituck, NY Riverside Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Riverton Daily Ranger, Riverton, WY Roane County News, Kingston, TN Roanoke-Chowan News Herald, Ahoskie, NC Robinson Daily News, Robinson, IL Rochelle News-Leader, Rochelle, IL Rochester Sentinel, Rochester, IN Rock County Star Herald, Luverne, MN Rock Island Argus, Moline, IL Rockdale Citizen, Conyers, GA Rockdale Reporter, Rockdale, TX Rocket-Courier, Wyalusing, PA Rockford Register Star, Rockford, IL Rockingham Now, Reidsville, NC Rockmart Journal, Rockmart, GA Rockport Pilot, Rockport, TX Rocky Mount Telegram, Rocky Mount, NC Rogersville Review, Rogersville, TN Rogue River Press, Rogue River, OR Roll Call, Washington, DC Rolling Thunder Express, Newport, ME Rome News-Tribune, Rome, GA 161

Rome Observer, Rome, NY Romeo Observer, Romeo, MI Romeoville Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Roselle Reporter, Downers Grove, IL Rossford Record Journal, Rossford, OH Roxbury Register, Chester, NJ Ruidoso Free Press, Ruidoso, NM Ruidoso News, Ruidoso, NM Rumford Falls Times, Rumford, ME Rushville Republican, Rushville, IN Ruston Daily Leader, Ruston, LA Rye Brook Westmore News, Port Chester, NY Sachse News, Wylie, TX Sag Harbor Express, Sag Harbor, NY Saint Helena Star, Saint Helena, CA Saint Joseph Telegraph, St. Joseph, MO Sakonnet Times, Bristol, RI Salem Evening News, Beverly, MA Salem Leader, Salem, IN Salem News, Salem, OH Saline Courier, Benton, AR Saline Reporter, Saline, MI Salisbury Post, Salisbury, NC Salt Lake City Weekly, Salt Lake City, UT Saluda Standard Sentinel, Saluda, SC Sampson Independent, Clinton, NC San Antonio Current, San Antonio, TX San Benito County Today, Hollister, CA San Bernardino Sun, San Bernardino, CA San Diego Daily Transcript, San Diego, CA San Diego Union-Tribune, San Diego, CA San Jose Mercury News, San Jose, CA San Juan Islander, Friday Harbor, WA San Marcos Daily Record, San Marcos, TX San Mateo Daily Journal, San Mateo, CA San Pedro Valley News-Sun, Benson, AZ San Saba News & Star, San Saba, TX Sand Springs Leader, Sand Springs, OK Sanders County Ledger, Thompson Falls, MT SanDiego.com, San Diego, CA Sandusky Register, Sandusky, OH Sandy Journal, Riverton, UT Sanford Herald, Sanford, NC 162

Sangre de Cristo Chronicle, Angel Fire, NM Sanibel-Captiva Islander, Sanibel, FL Sanilac County News, Sandusky, MI Santa Barbara News Press, Santa Barbara, CA Santa Cruz Sentinel, Scotts Valley, CA Santa Maria Sun, Santa Maria, CA Santa Maria Times, Santa Maria, CA Santa Monica Mirror, Santa Monica, CA Santa Ynez Valley News, Solvang, CA Sapulpa Daily Herald, Sapulpa, OK Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, FL Saratoga News, San Jose, CA Saratogian, Saratoga Springs, NY Sauk Centre Herald, Sauk Centre, MN Sauk Prairie Eagle, Sauk City, WI Sauk Valley Newspapers, Dixon, IL Savanna Times-Journal, Mt. Carroll, IL Savannah Daily News, Savannah, GA Sawyer County Record, Hayward, WI Scarborough Current, Westbrook, ME ScoopSanDiego.com, San Diego, CA Scott AFB Flyer, Mascoutah, IL Scott County Times, Forest, MS Scottsbluff Star-Herald, Scottsbluff, NE Scranton Times, Scranton, PA SCSunTimes.com, Smyrna, DE Sea Coast Echo, Bay Saint Louis, MS Seaford Star, Seaford, DE Sealy News, Sealy, TX Seattle Post Intelligencer, Seattle, WA Seattle Weekly, Seattle, WA Sedalia Democrat, Sedalia, MO Selma Enterprise, Selma, CA Selma Times-Journal, Selma, AL Seminole Chronicle, Orlando, FL Seminole Producer, Seminole, OK Seminole Sentinel, Seminole, TX Sentinel News, Farr West, UT Sentinel-Echo, London, KY Sentinel-Edison, Manalapan, NJ Sentinel-News, Shelbyville, KY Sequim Gazette, Sequim, WA Sequoyah County Times, Sallisaw, OK 163

Serve Daily, Springville, UT Seven Days, Burlington, VT Seward County Independent, Seward, NE Seward Phoenix Log, Seward, AK Seymour Tribune, Seymour, IN SGVTribune, West Covina, CA Shakopee Valley News, Shakopee, MN Shannon County Current Wave, Eminence, MO Shawangunk Journal, Ellenville, NY Shawano Leader, Shawano, WI Shawnee News-Star, Shawnee, OK Shelburne News, Shelburne, VT Shelby County Reporter, Columbiana, AL Shelby Promoter, Shelby, MT Shelbyville News, Shelbyville, IN Shelbyville Times-Gazette, Shelbyville, TN Shelley Pioneer, Shelley, ID Shepherd Express, Milwaukee, WI Sheridan Headlight, Sheridan, AR Sheridan Press, Sheridan, WY Sherwood Voice, Little Rock, AR Shopper News Now, Knoxville, TN Shore Line Times, New Haven, CT Shore News, Egg Harbor Township, NJ Shoshone News Press, Kellogg, ID Sidney Daily News, Sidney, OH Sidney Herald-Leader, Sidney, MT Sierra Star, Oakhurst, CA Sierra Sun, Truckee, CA Sierra Vista Herald, Sierra Vista, AZ Signal, Valencia, CA Signal American, Weiser, ID Silver Spring Voice, Takoma Park, MD Simi Valley Acorn, Agoura Hills, CA Sisseton Courier, Sisseton, SD Sitnews, Ketchikan, AK Skagit Valley Herald, Mount Vernon, WA Skagway News, Skagway, AK Skanner, Portland, OR Sky-Hi News, Granby, CO Sleepy Eye Online, Sleepy Eye, MN SLO City News, San Luis Obispo, CA Small Business Times, Milwaukee, WI 164

Smithfield Herald, Smithfield, NC Smoky Mountain Times, Bryson City, NC Smyth County News & Messenger, Marion, VA Snyder Daily News, Snyder, TX So. Arizona News-Examiner, Tucson, AZ Soledad Bee, King City, CA Somerset Herald, Salisbury, MD Somerville Journal, Somerville, MA Somerville News, Somerville, MA Sonoma Index-Tribune, Sonoma, CA Sonoma Valley Sun, Sonoma, CA Sonoran News, Cave Creek, AZ Sounder, Random Lake, WI South Alabamian, Jackson, AL South Bay News, Farmingdale, NY South Belt-Ellington Leader, Houston, TX South Boston Online, Boston, MA South Coast Today, New Bedford, MA South County Independent, North Kingstown, RI South County Spotlight, Scappoose, OR South Hill Enterprise, South Hill, VA South Portland Sentry, Biddeford, ME South Reporter, Holly Springs, MS South Valley Journal, Riverton, UT Southeast Alaska's Island News, Thorne Bay, AK Southeast Missourian, Cape Girardeau, MO Southeast Sun, Enterprise, AL Southern Illinoisan, Carbondale, IL Southern Ocean, Neptune, NJ Southern Standard, McMinnville, TN Southington Citizen, Meriden, CT Southington Observer, Southington, CT Southside Messenger, Keysville, VA Southside Sentinel, Urbanna, VA Southside Times, Indianapolis, IN Southwest Daily News, Sulphur, LA Southwest Journal, Minneapolis, MN Southwest Times, Pulaski, VA Spencer Evening World, Spencer, IN Spinal Column Newsweekly, Highland, MI Spokane Journal of Business, Spokane, WA Spokesman Review, Coeur d'Alene, ID Spokesman-Review, Spokane, WA 165

Spooner Advocate, Spooner, WI Springboro Sun, Xenia, OH Springfield Connection, Alexandria, VA Springfield Paper, Springfield, OH Springfield Sun, Springfield, KY St. Albans Messenger, St. Albans, VT St. Clair Times, Pell City, AL St. Cloud Times, St. Cloud, MN St. Helens Chronicle, Saint Helens, OR St. James Plaindealer, St. James, MN St. Louis American, St. Louis, MO St. Louis Post-Dispatch, St. Louis, MO St. Marys Evening Leader, St. Marys, OH St. Paul Pioneer Press, St. Paul, MN Stamford Times, Norwalk, CT Standard Banner, Jefferson City, TN Standard Democrat, Sikeston, MO Standard Journal, Milton, PA Standard Radio Post, Fredericksburg, TX Stanwood Camano News, Stanwood, WA Staples World, Staples, MN Star, Port Saint Joe, FL Star Courier, Kewanee, IL Star Gazette, Hastings, MN Star News, Medford, WI Star Press Union, Belle Plaine, IA Star Valley Independent, Afton, WY Star-Gazette, Elmira, NY Star-News Online, Wilmington, NC Starkville Daily News, Starkville, MS State, Columbia, SC State Gazette, Dyersburg, TN State Journal, Frankfort, KY State Journal-Register, Springfield, IL State Port Pilot, Southport, NC Statesboro Herald, Statesboro, GA Statesman, Chandler, TX Statesman Journal, Salem, OR Statesman-Examiner, Colville, WA Staunton Daily, Tuscola, IL Staunton Star-Times, Staunton, IL Stayton Mail, Stayton, OR Stephenville Empire-Tribune, Stephenville, TX 166

Sterling Daily Gazette, Sterling, IL Sterling Journal-Advocate, Sterling, CO Stevens Point Journal, Stevens Point, WI Stickney Life, Downers Grove, IL Stigler News Sentinel, Stigler, OK Stillwater News-Press, Stillwater, OK Stokes News, Walnut Cove, NC Stone County Enterprise, Wiggins, MS Stoneham Independent, Woburn, MA Storm Lake Pilot Tribune, Storm Lake, IA Storm Lake Times, Storm Lake, IA Stow Sentry, Kent, OH Stowe Reporter, Stowe, VT Straitsland Resorter, Indian River, MI Streamwood Press, Downers Grove, IL Sturgis Journal, Sturgis, MI Style Weekly, Richmond, VA Suburban Journals, Town and Country, MO Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Suffolk Times, Mattituck, NY Sullivan County Democrat, Callicoon, NY Sullivan Journal, Sullivan, MO Sulphur Times-Democrat, Sulphur, OK Summit Daily News, Frisco, CO Sumner Press, Sumner, IL Sumter Co. Record-Journal, Livingston, AL Sun Journal, New Bern, NC Sun News, Silver City, NM Sun-Gazette, Williamsport, PA Sun-Journal, Lewiston, ME Sun-Sentinel, Fort Lauderdale, FL Sun-Times, Heber Springs, AR Sunbury News, Delaware, OH Sunday Record Herald, Troy, OH Sunnyvale Sun, San Jose, CA Sunshine Express, Norwood, CO Superior Express, Superior, NE Surprise Today, Sun City, AZ Sussex Countian, Georgetown, DE Suwannee Democrat, Live Oak, FL SW Iowa News Source, Atlantic, IA Sweetwater Reporter, Sweetwater, TX Syracuse Newspapers, Syracuse, NY 167

Tahlequah Daily Press, Tahlequah, OK Tahoe Daily Tribune, South Lake Tahoe, CA Takoma Voice, Takoma Park, MD Tallahassee Democrat, Tallahassee, FL Tallahassee News, Tallahassee, FL Tampa Bay Times, St. Petersburg, FL Tampa Tribune, Tampa, FL Taos News, Taos, NM Taylor Daily Press, Taylor, TX Taylorsville Journal, Riverton, UT Taylorsville Times, Taylorsville, NC TC Chronicle, Vero Beach, FL Tecumseh Herald, Tecumseh, MI Tehachapi News, Tehachapi, CA Telegram, Torrington, WY Telegram & Gazette, Worcester, MA Telegraph Forum, Mansfield, OH Telegraph Herald, Dubuque, IA Telluride Watch, Telluride, CO Temple Daily Telegram, Temple, TX Tennessean, Nashville, TN Tennessee Tribune, Nashville, TN Terrell County News Leader, Sanderson, TX Terrell Tribune, Terrell, TX Teton Valley News, Driggs, ID Texas Tribune, Austin, TX The Business Examiner, Tacoma, WA The Carrboro Citizen, Carrboro, NC The Daily Southerner, Tarboro, NC The Day, New London, CT The Hill, Washington, DC The Leavenworth Echo, Leavenworth, WA The Mountaineer, Waynesville, NC The Ozarks Sentinel, Kimberling City, MO The Police News, Galveston, TX The Power County Press, American Falls, ID The Register-Guard, Eugene, OR The Sound, Madison, CT The Stranger, Seattle, WA TheDigitel, Charleston, SC thepress.net, Brentwood, CA Thief River Falls Times, Thief River Falls, MN This Week, Lewis Center, OH 168

This Week Newspapers, Apple Valley, MN Thomaston Times, Thomaston, GA Thomasville Times, High Point, NC Thomasville Times, Thomasville, AL Thousand Oaks Acorn, Agoura Hills, CA Tideland News, Swansboro, NC Tidewater News, Franklin, VA Tifton Gazette, Tifton, GA Timberjay, Tower, MN Times & Courier, Clinton, MA Times & Democrat, Orangeburg, SC Times and News, Sebastopol, CA Times Beacon Record, East Setauket, NY Times Daily, Florence, AL Times Dispatch, Walnut Ridge, AR Times Georgian, Carrollton, GA Times Herald, Olean, NY Times Indicator, Fremont, MI Times Leader, Martins Ferry, OH Times Leader, Princeton, KY Times Newspapers, St. Louis, MO Times Press Recorder, Santa Maria, CA Times Publications, Scottsdale, AZ Times Record News, Wichita Falls, TX Times Recorder, Zanesville, OH Times Register, Salem, VA Times Sentinel, Zionsville, IN Times West Virginian, Fairmont, WV Times-Argus, Barre, VT Times-Citizen, Iowa Falls, IA Times-Courier, Ellijay, GA Times-Enterprise, Thomasville, GA Times-Herald, Forrest City, AR Times-Journal, Jackson, OH Times-Leader, Mount Vernon, IL Times-News, Twin Falls, ID Times-Picayune, New Orleans, LA Times-Press, Ottawa, IL Times-Republican, Marshalltown, IA Times-Union, Albany, NY Times-Union, Warsaw, IN Tipton Conservative, Tipton, IA Tipton County Tribune, Tipton, IN 169

Tipton Times, Tipton, MO Titusville Herald, Titusville, PA Tobacco Valley News, Eureka, MT Toccoa Record, Toccoa, GA Today's News-Herald, Lake Havasu City, AZ Toledo Blade, Toledo, OH Toledo City Paper, Toledo, OH Toledo Free Press, Toledo, OH Tomah Journal, Tomah, WI Tomahawk, Mountain City, TN Tombstone News, Tombstone, AZ Toms River Times, Lakehurst, NJ Tonawanda News, North Tonawanda, NY Tooele Transcript, Tooele, UT Topeka Cap. Journal, Topeka, KS Topsail Voice, Hampstead, NC Town Topics, Princeton, NJ Townsend Star, Townsend, MT Transcript and Bulletin, Needham, MA Trentonian, Trenton, NJ Tri County Citizen, Chesaning, MI Tri County Leader, Whitehouse, TX Tri-City Herald, Kennewick, WA Tri-County Sun Times, Lady Lake, FL Tri-County Times, Fenton, MI Tri-County Weekly, Jamesport, MO Tri-Town News, Freehold, NJ Tri-Town Times, Londonderry, NH Tri-Town Transcript, Danvers, MA Tribuna, Danbury, CT Tribune and Georgian, St. Marys, GA Tribune Chronicle, Warren, OH Tribune Courier, Benton, KY Tribune Times, Greenville, SC Tribune-Phonograph, Abbotsford, WI Tribune-Star, Terre Haute, IN TriCities.com, Bristol, VA Trinidad Times Independent, Trinidad, CO Trinity Journal, Weaverville, CA Troy Messenger, Troy, AL True Citizen, Waynesboro, GA Tryon Daily Bulletin, Tryon, NC Tucson Weekly, Tucson, AZ 170

Tulsa World, Tulsa, OK Turlock Journal, Turlock, CA Turnagain Times, Girdwood, AK Tuscaloosa News, Tuscaloosa, AL Tuskegee News, Tuskegee, AL Tyler Morning Telegraph, Tyler, TX Tyler Tribute, Tyler, MN U.S. 1, Princeton, NJ Ukiah Daily Journal, Ukiah, CA Underwood News, Underwood, ND Union, Grass Valley, CA Union County Advocate, Morganfield, KY Union Daily Times, Union, SC Union Democrat, Sonora, CA Union Leader, Manchester, NH Union-Recorder, Milledgeville, GA Upper Dauphin Sentinel, Millersburg, PA Urban Tulsa, Tulsa, OK Urbana Daily Citizen, Urbana, OH Vail Daily, Avon, CO Valdosta Daily Times, Valdosta, GA Valencia County News, Belen, NM Vallejo Times-Herald, Vallejo, CA Valley Advocate, Northampton, MA Valley Breeze, Lincoln, RI Valley Chronicle, Hemet, CA Valley Courier, Alamosa, CO Valley Independent, Monessen, PA Valley Journal, Santa Ynez, CA Valley Journals, Riverton, UT Valley Morning Star, Harlingen, TX Valley News, Fallbrook, CA Valley Newspaper Inc., Casa Grande, AZ Valley Reporter, Waitsfield, VT Valley Roadrunner, Valley Center, CA Valley Springs News, Valley Springs, CA Valley Sun, Los Angeles, CA Valley Times-News, Lanett, AL Valleyplanet.com, Huntsville, AL Van Buren County Democrat, Clinton, AR Van Wert Independent, Van Wert, OH Van Zandt News, Wills Point, TX Vandalia Daily, Tuscola, IL 171

Vandalia Drummer News, Vandalia, OH Vandalia Leader, Vandalia, MO Vandalia Leader-Union, Vandalia, IL Variety Daily, Los Angeles, CA Ventura County Reporter, Ventura, CA Verde Independent, Cottonwood, AZ Vernon Hills Review, Chicago, IL Vernon Publishing Newspapers, Eldon, MO Versailles Leader-Statesman, Versailles, MO Versailles Republican, Versailles, IN Vidette, Montesano, WA Vienna Connection, Alexandria, VA View Newspapers, Las Vegas, NV Vilas County News-Review, Eagle River, WI Villa Park Argus, Downers Grove, IL Village Voice, Hot Springs Village, AR Vincennes Sun-Commercial, Vincennes, IN Vindicator Online, Youngstown, OH Vineyard Gazette, Edgartown, MA Virginia Gazette, Williamsburg, VA Virginia Star, Gate City, VA Virginian Pilot, Norfolk, VA Voice, New Baltimore, MI Voice of Kapolei, Kapolei, HI VoicesNews.com, Southbury, CT W. Yellowstone News, West Yellowstone, MT Wabash Plain Dealer, Wabash, IN Waco Tribune-Herald, Waco, TX Waconia Patriot, Waconia, MN Wagoner Tribune, Wagoner, OK Wahoo Newspaper, Wahoo, NE Wahpeton Daily News, Wahpeton, ND Waitsburg Times, Waitsburg, WA Wake Weekly, Wake Forest, NC Waldron News, Waldron, AR Walker County Messenger, La Fayette, GA Walla Walla Union-Bulletin, Walla Walla, WA Wallowa County Chieftain, Enterprise, OR Waltham News Tribune, Needham, MA Walton Sun, Santa Rosa Beach, FL Walton Tribune, Monroe, GA Wanderer, Mattapoisett, MA Wapakoneta Daily News, Wapakoneta, OH 172

Warren Record, Warrenton, NC Warren Times Observer, Warren, PA Warren Times-Gazette, Bristol, RI Warrenville Press, Downers Grove, IL Warrick News, Boonville, IN Warwick Beacon, Warwick, RI Wasatch Wave, Heber, UT Washburn County Register, Shell Lake, WI Washington City Paper, Washington, DC Washington Evening Journal, Washington, IA Washington Missourian, Washington, MO Washington Post, Washington, DC Washington Times, Washington, DC Washington Times-Reporter, Peoria, IL Watauga Democrat, Boone, NC Waterboro Reporter, Westbrook, ME Waterbury Observer, Waterbury, CT Waterfront Times, Fort Lauderdale, FL Waterloo-Cedar Falls Courier, Waterloo, IA Watertown Daily Times, Watertown, WI Watertown Public Opinion, Watertown, SD Waukesha Freeman, Waukesha, WI Waunakee Tribune, Waunakee, WI Wausau Daily Herald, Wausau, WI Waushara Argus, Wautoma, WI Wave, Salisbury, MD Wave of Long Island, Rockaway, NY Waxahachie Daily Light, Waxahachie, TX Waycross Journal-Herald, Waycross, GA Wayne Co. News, Waynesboro, MS Wayne County Journal-Banner, Piedmont, MO Wayne Post, Newark, NY Wayne Republican, Downers Grove, IL Wayne Wilson News Leader, Fremont, NC Weatherford Democrat, Weatherford, TX Webster Progress Times, Eupora, MS Wednesday Journal, Oak Park, IL Weekender, Wilkes-Barre, PA Weekly Calistogan, Calistoga, CA Weekly Choice, Gaylord, MI Weekly Citizen, Gonzales, LA Weekly Herald, Everett, WA Weekly Observer, Westbrook, ME 173

Weekly Post, Locust, NC Weirs Times, Laconia, NH Weirton Daily Times, Weirton, WV Wellesley Townsman, Needham Heights, MA Wellington Daily News, Wellington, KS Wellsboro Gazette, Wellsboro, PA Wellsville Daily Reporter, Wellsville, NY West Bend News, Antwerp, OH West Branch Times, West Branch, IA West Central Tribune, Willmar, MN West Chicago Press, Downers Grove, IL West Fargo Pioneer, West Fargo, ND West Jordan Journal, Riverton, UT West Linn Tidings, Portland, OR West Point News, West Point, NE West Seattle Herald, Burien, WA West Seneca Bee, Williamsville, NY West Valley Journal, Riverton, UT Westchester Co Bus Jrnl, White Plains, NY Westchester Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Westerly Sun, Westerly, RI Western Nebraska Observer, Kimball, NE Western News, Libby, MT Westfield Leader, Westfield, NJ Westlife, Avon Lake, OH Westmont Progress, Downers Grove, IL Weston Democrat, Weston, WV Westport Hamlet Hub, Ridgefield, CT Westport Minuteman, New Haven, CT Westport News, Stamford, CT WestportNow.com, Westport, CT Westside Connect, Newman, CA Westwood Pine Press, Susanville, CA Wetumpka Herald, Wetumpka, AL Wheaton Leader, Downers Grove, IL Wheeling News-Register, Wheeling, WV White Hall Journal, White Hall, AR White Mountain Independent, Show Low, AZ White River Current, Calico Rock, AR Whitefish Pilot, Whitefish, MT Whittier Daily News, Whittier, CA Wichita Business Journal, Wichita, KS Wichita Eagle, Wichita, KS 174

Wicked Local Chatham, Orleans, MA Wicked Local Dighton, Dighton, MA Wicked Local Eastham, Orleans, MA Wicked Local Hopedale, Milford, MA Wicked Local Kingston, Plymouth, MA Wicked Local Manchester, Danvers, MA Wicked Local Mattapoisett, Plymouth, MA Wicked Local Medway, Milford, MA Wilkes Journal-Patriot, North Wilkesboro, NC Willamette Live, Salem, OR Willamette Week, Portland, OR Williams News, Williams, AZ Williamson Daily News, Williamson, WV Williston Daily Herald, Williston, ND Williston Pioneer Sun News, Williston, FL Willits News, Willits, CA Willow Springs Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Willowbrook Suburban Life, Downers Grove, IL Willows Journal, Willows, CA Wills Point Chronicle, Wills Point, TX Wilmette Life, Chicago, IL Wilson County News, Floresville, TX Wilson Daily Times, Wilson, NC Wilsonville Spokesman, Canby, OR Wilton Bulletin, Ridgefield, CT Wilton Hamlet Hub, Ridgefield, CT Wilton Villager, Norwalk, CT Wimberley Valley News & Views, Austin, TX Winchester Star, Winchester, VA Winchester Sun, Winchester, KY Window on the Clearwater, Orofino, ID Windsor Now, Windsor, CO Winfield American, Winfield, IN Winfield Daily Courier, Winfield, KS Winfield Press, Downers Grove, IL Winnetka Talk, Chicago, IL Winona Daily News, Winona, MN Winona Post, Winona, MN Winston County Journal, Louisville, MS Winters Express, Winters, CA Wiscasset Newspaper, Wiscasset, ME Wisconsin Dells Events, Portage, WI Wisconsin State Journal, Madison, WI 175

Wood Dale Press, Downers Grove, IL Woodburn Independent, Woodburn, OR Woodbury Bulletin, Woodbury, MN Woodinville Weekly, Woodinville, WA Woodmen Edition, Colorado Springs, CO Woodward News, Woodward, OK Worcester Business Jrnl, Worcester, MA Worcester Co Times, Salisbury, MD Worrall Community Newspapers, Union, NJ Wright Co Journal Press, Buffalo, MN Wright County Monitor, Clarion, IA Wright-Patterson Skywrighter, WPAFB, OH WV Observer, Shepherdstown, WV Xenia Gazette, Xenia, OH Yankton County Observer, Yankton, SD Yes! Weekly, Greensboro, NC York Daily Record, York, PA York Dispatch, York, PA York Weekly, York, ME Ypsilanti Courier, Saline, MI Yucaipa News Mirror, Yucaipa, CA Zebra, Alexandria, VA Zerkalo, Minneapolis, MN REFERENCES

About Deseret Connect. (n.d.). About Deseret Connect. [Web page]. Retrieved from http://www.deseretconnect.com/index/aboutus

Al-Fedaghi, S. S. (2005). Lying about private information: An ethical justification. Communications of the IIMA, 5(3), 47–56.

Allen, N. (2011, November 13). Utah mayor admits writing stories about his city under pseudonym. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ worldnews/northamerica/usa/8887551/Utah-mayor-admits-writing-stories-about- his-city-under-pseudonym.html

Altschull, J. H. (1996). A crisis of conscience: Is community journalism the answer? Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 11(3), 166.

Anderson, J. C., & Narus, J. A. (1990). A model of distributor firm and manufacturer firm working partnerships. Journal of Marketing, 54(January), 42–58.

Arant, M. D., & Meyer, P. (1998). Public journalism and traditional journalism: A shift in values? Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 13(4), 205.

Banks, J., & Deuze, M. (2009). Co-creative labour. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 12(5), 419–431. doi:10.1177/1367877909337862

Banks, J., & Humphreys, S. (2008). The labour of user co-creators. Convergence: The Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 14(4), 401–418. doi: 10.1177/1354856508094660

Barney, R. D. (1996). Community journalism: Good intentions, questionable practice. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 11(3), 140.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 177

Beaujon, A. (2012). Pew: Half of Americans get news digitally, topping newspapers, radio. Poynter. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/mediawire/ 189819/pew-tv-viewing-habit-grays-as-digital-news-consumption-tops-print- radio/

Becker, A. (2006). Networks cool on viewer news video. Broadcasting & Cable, 136(27), 14–33.

Become a ksl.com Contributor. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/? nid=165&sid=15384385

Beebe, P. (2010). Days of 'disruption' coming to Deseret News. Salt Lake Tribune [Web page]. Retrieved from http://archive.sltrib.com/article.php? id=10688838&itype=storyID&keyword=&qtype=

Blah, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Blom, E. (2006). When the web feeds the newspaper. Nieman Reports, 60(4), 78–79.

Bok, S. (1999). Lying: Moral choice in public and private life. New York: Vintage Books. (Original work published 1978)

Borden, S. L. (2002). Janet Cooke in hindsight: Reconsideration of a paradigmatic case in journalism ethics. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 26(2), 155.

Borden, S. L. (2010). Journalism as practice: MacIntyre, virtue ethics and the press (Kindle ed.). New York: Routledge.

Bowman, S., & Willis, C. (2003). How audiences are shaping the future of news and information. In We media: How audiences are shaping the future of news and information. The Media Center at the American Press Institute. Retrieved from http://www.hypergene.net/wemedia/download/we_media.pdf

Bowman, S., & Willis, C. (2005). The future is here, but do news media companies see it? Nieman Reports, 59(4), 6–10.

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241–258). New York: Greenwood. Retrieved from www.marxists.org.

Bowman, S., & Willis, C. (2003). How audiences are shaping the future of news and information. In We media: How audiences are shaping the future of news and information. The Media Center at the American Press Institute. Retrieved from 178

http://www.hypergene.net/wemedia/download/we_media.pdf

Brown, F. (2005). 'Citizen' journalism is not professional journalism. Quill, 93(6), 42–42.

Brown, F. (2007). When the audience does the reporting. Quill, 95(2), 35–35.

Bruns, A. (2005). Gatewatching. Collaborative online news production. New York: Lang.

Bruns, A. (2008). Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and beyond: From production to produsage. New York: Peter Lang. doi:9780820488660

Burwash, R. (2010a). Utah-based telecoms applaud UTOPIA expansion in West Valley. The Oquirrh Times Online Newspaper. Retrieved from http:// www.oquirrhtimes.com/?p=1082

Burwash, R. (2010b). Utah taxpayers association does not oppose West Valley City prop. 3. The Oquirrh Times Online Newspaper. Retrieved from http:// www.oquirrhtimes.com/?p=316

Cali, D. D. (2002). Journalism after September 11: Unity as moral imperative. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 17(4), 290–303.

Carpenter, S. (2008). How online citizen journalism publications and online newspapers utilize the objectivity standard and rely on external sources. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 85(3), 531–548. doi:10.1177/107769900808500304

Casero-Ripollés, A., & Izquierdo-Castillo, J. (2013). Between decline and a new online business model: The case of the Spanish newspaper industry. Journal of Media Business Studies, 10(1), 63–78.

Christians, C. G., Ferré, J. P., & Fackler, M. (1993). Good news : Social ethics and the press. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chung, D. S., & Nah, S. (2009). The effects of interactive news presentation on perceived user satisfaction of online community newspapers. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication, 14(4), 855–874.

Chyi, H. I. (2011). Online readers geographically more dispersed than print readers. Newspaper Research Journal, 32(3), 97–111.

Chyi, H. I., & Sylvie, G. (2001). The medium is global, the content is not: The role of geography in online newspaper markets. Journal of Media Economics, 14(4), 231–248. 179

Cleary, J. (2008). A contract for success? Attitudes about professional development among news directors and producers. Electronic News, 2(4), 198–217. doi: 10.1080/19312430802418063

Cohen, J. (1988). Set correlation and contingency tables. Applied Psychological Measurement, 12(4), 425–434.

Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology, 94(Supplement: Organizations and Institutions: Sociological and Economic Approaches to the Analysis of Social Structure), S95– S120.

Compton, J. R., & Benedetti, P. (2010). Labour, new media and the institutional restructuring of journalism. Journalism Studies, 11(4), 487–499. doi: 10.1080/14616701003638350

Contributors. (n.d.). Contributors. [Web page]. Retrieved from www.deseretconnect.com: http://www.deseretconnect.com/index/contributors

Cox, C. (2006). Finding new people to tell the stories. Nieman Reports, 60(4), 76–78.

Cronin, M. M. (1993). Trade press roles in promoting journalistic professionalism, 1884– 1917. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 8(4), 227.

Deseret Connect. (n.d.). Welcome! [Web page]. Retrieved from https:// www.deseretconnect.com/user/validate/send/1/

Deuze, M. (2001). Online journalism: Modelling the first generation of news media on the world wide web. First Monday, 6(10). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/893/802

Deuze, M. (2005). What is journalism? Professional identity and ideology of journalists reconsidered. Journalism, 6(4), 442–464. doi:10.1177/1464884905056815

Deuze, M., Bruns, A., & Neuberger, C. (2007). Preparing for an age of participatory news. Journalism Practice, 1(3), 322–338.

Domingo, D., Quandt, T., Heinonen, A., Paulussen, S., Singer, J. B., & Vujnovic, M. (2008). Participatory journalism practices in the media and beyond. Journalism Practice, 2(3), 326–342. doi:10.1080/17512780802281065

Doyle, S. (2010). Seeking curators. Media, 14(4), 40–41. 180

Deuze, M. (2005). What is journalism? Professional identity and ideology of journalists reconsidered. Journalism, 6(4), 442–464. doi:10.1177/1464884905056815

Edmonds, R. (2004). News staffing, news budgets and news capacity. Newspaper Research Journal, 25(1), 98–109.

Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12(1), 1–22.

Eksterowicz, A. J., Roberts, R., & Clark, A. (1998). Public journalism and public knowledge. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 3(2), 74–95. doi: 10.1177/1081180X98003002006

Emerson, R. M. (1962a). Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review, 27(1), 31–41.

Engesser, S. (2008). Partizipativer journalismus: Eine begriffsanalyse [participative journalism: An analysis of the term]. In A. Zerfaß, M. Welker, & J. Schmidt (Eds.), Kommunikation, partizipation und wirkungen im social web. Band 2: Strategien und anwendungsfelder: Perspektiven für wirtschaft, politik, publizistik [Communication, participation and effects in the social web. Vol. 2: Strategies and fields of application: Prospects of business, politics, media] (pp. 47–71). Köln: Halem.

Elliott, D., & Culver, C. (1992). Defining and analyzing journalistic deception. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 7(2), 69.

Fay, S. (2009). Lying to get the truth. King's Journalism Review. Retrieved from http:// kjr.kingsjournalism.com/?p=769

Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Vintage Books.

Foy, P. (2011). Utah mayor used alias to write upbeat news stories. Deseret News. Retrieved from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/print/700197005/Utah- mayor-used-alias-to-write-upbeat-news-stories.html

Frohlich, R., Quiring, O., & Engesser, S. (2012). Between idiosyncratic self-interests and professional standards: A contribution to the understanding of participatory journalism in web 2.0. Results from an online survey in Germany. Journalism, 13(8), 1041–1063. doi: 10.1177/1464884912442282 181

Fuchs, C. (2010). Alternative media as critical media. European Journal of Social Theory, 13(2), 173–192. doi:10.1177/1368431010362294

Gans, H. J. (2003). Democracy and the news. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Getting Sandy Hook So Wrong. (n.d.). Getting Sandy Hook so wrong. [Web page]. Retrieved from http://www.buzzfeed.com/nowthisnews/getting-sandy-hook-all- wrong-749g

Glasser, T. J. (1984). Objectivity precludes responsibility. The Quill, 72(2), 13–16.

Goodman, W. (1997, March 9). Beyond ABC v. Food Lion. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/arts/beyond-abc-v-food- lion.html

Gorrell, M. (2012). Crockett downs Winder in GOP Salt Lake County mayor race. The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/politics/ 54463473-90/crockett-county-winder-mayor.html.csp

Gillmor, D. (2006). We the media. Grassroots journalism by the people, for the people. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.

Gratz, I. (2005, April). Ethical questions are often answered by SPJ's code. Quill, 93(3), 4.

Gundlach, G. T., Achrol, R. S., & Mentzer, J. T. (1995). The structure of commitment in exchange. Journal of Marketing, 59(1), 78. de Haan, Y., & Bardoel, J. (2011). From trust to accountability: Negotiating media performance in the Netherlands, 1987–2007. European Journal of Communication, 26(3), 230–246. doi:10.1177/0267323111413113

Hage, G. S. (1976). New strategies for public affairs reporting: Investigation, interpretation, and research. Minnesota: Prentice-Hall.

Harrison, J. (2010). User-generated content and gatekeeping at the BBC Hub. Journalism Studies, 11(2), 243–256. doi:10.1080/14616700903290593

Hayes, A. F. (2005). Statistical methods for communication science (Kindle ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420. doi: 182

10.1080/03637750903310360

Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: The Guilford Press.

Hayes, A. S., Singer, J. B., & Ceppos, J. (2007). Shifting roles, enduring values: The credible journalist in a digital age. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 22(4), 262–279. doi:10.1080/08900520701583545

Hermida, A., & Thurman, N. (2008). A clash of cultures: The integration of user- generated content within professional journalistic frameworks at British newspaper websites. Journalism Practice, 2(3), 343–356. doi: 10.1080/17512780802054538

Herrscher, R. (2002). A universal code of journalism ethics: Problems, limitations, and proposals. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 17(4), 277–289.

Hodges, L. W. (1996). Ruminations about the communitarian debate. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 11(3), 133.

Hou, J., & Oyedeji, T. (2011). News credibility and user-generated content: Young readers' perceived credibility of local newspaper's user-generated content. Conference Papers—International Communication Association, 1–28.

Hujanen, J. (2012). At the crossroads of participation and objectivity: Reinventing citizen engagement in the SBS newsroom. New Media & Society. doi: 10.1177/1461444812460721

Hurt, H. T., & Hibbard, R. (1989). The systematic measurement of the perceived characteristics of information technologies I: Microcomputers as innovations. Communication Quarterly, 37(3), 214–222.

James, L. R., & Brett, J. M. (1984). Mediators, moderators, and tests for mediation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(2), 307. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.307

Jenkins, H., Clinton, K., Purushotma, R., Robison, A. J., & Weigel, M. (2006). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. MacArthur Foundation. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED536086.pdf

Johnstone, J. W. C., Slawski, E. J., & Bowman, W. W. (1972). The professional values of American newsmen. Public Opinion Quarterly, 522. 183

Jönsson, A. M., & Örnebring, H. (2011). User-Generated content and the news. Journalism Practice, 5(2), 127–144. doi:10.1080/17512786.2010.501155

Judd, C. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1981). Process analysis: Estimating mediation in treatment evaluations. Evaluation Review, 5(5), 602–619. doi: 10.1177/0193841X8100500502

Kapler, R. (2012). Lying for the story. . . Or things they don't teach in journalism school. Journalism Ethics Cases Online. Retrieved from http://journalism.indiana.edu/ resources/ethics/getting-the-story/lying-for-the-story/

Kaufhold, K., Valenzuela, S., & De Züniga, H. G. (2010). Citizen journalism and democracy: How user-generated news use relates to political knowledge and participation. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 87(3–4), 515–529.

Kiousis, S. (2001). Public trust or mistrust? Perceptions of media credibility in the information age. Mass Communication & Society, 4(4), 381–403. doi:10.1207/ S15327825MCS0404_4

Kohring, M., & Matthes, J. (2007). Trust in news media. Communication Research, 34(2), 231–252. doi:10.1177/0093650206298071

Konner, J. (n.d.). The truth about lying. Columbia Journalism Review, 6.

Kovach, B., & Rosenstiel, T. (2007). The elements of journalism: What newspeople should know and the public should expect. New York: Three Rivers Press.

Kperogi, F. A. (2011). Cooperation with the corporation? CNN and the hegemonic cooptation of citizen journalism through iReport.com. New Media & Society, 13(2), 314–329. doi:10.1177/1461444810373530

Lacy, S., Duffy, M., Riffe, D., Thorson, E., & Fleming, K. (2010). Citizen journalism web sites complement newspapers. Newspaper Research Journal, 31(2), 34–46.

Lambe, C. J., Wittmann, C. M., & Spekman, R. E. (2001). Social exchange theory and research on business-to-business relational exchange. Journal of Business-to- Business Marketing, 8(3), 1.

Lasica, J. D. (2003). What is participatory journalism? USC Online Journalism Review. Retrieved from http://www.ojr.org/ojr/workplace/1060217106.php

Lee, S. T. (2004). Lying to tell the truth: Journalists and the social context of deception. Mass Communication & Society, 7(1), 97–120. 184

Lee, T. -T. (2010). Why they don’t trust the media: An examination of factors predicting trust. American Behavioral Scientist, 54(1), 8–21. doi: 10.1177/0002764210376308

Leonard, A. (1999). Open-Source journalism. Salon.com. Retrieved from http:// www.salon.com/1999/10/08/geek_journalism/

Lessig, L. (2006). Code: Version 2.0. New York: Basic Books.

Lewis, S. C. (2011). Journalism innovation and participation: An analysis of the knight news challenge. International Journal of Communication, 5(2011), 1623–1648.

Lewis, S. C. (2012). The tensions between professional control and open participation. Information, Communication & Society, 15(6), 836–866. doi:10.1080/1369118X. 2012.674150

Lewis, S. C., Kaufhold, K., & Lasorsa, D. L. (2010). Thinking about citizen journalism. Journalism Practice, 4(2), 163–179. doi:10.1080/14616700903156919

Lisheron, M. (2007). Lying to get the truth. American Journalism Review. Retrieved from http://www.ajr.org/article.asp?id=4403

Mahon, J. E. (2008). Two definitions of lying. International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 22(2), 211–230.

Manson, P. (2011). West Valley mayor admits writing articles using false name. The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved from www.sltrib.com: http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/ politics/52893782-90/winder-deseret-news-articles.html.csp

Margolis, M., & Resnick, D. (2000). Politics as usual: The cyberspace “revolution.” Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Marshall, J. (2005). Citizen journalism continues to surge. Quill, 93(8), 14–16.

McChesney, R. W. (2003). The problem of journalism: A political economic contribution to an explanation of the crisis in contemporary US journalism. Journalism Studies, 4(3), 299–329.

Meyers, C., Wyatt, W. N., Borden, S. L., & Wasserman, E. (2012). Professionalism, not professionals. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 27(3), 189–205. doi: 10.1080/08900523.2012.700212

Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 185

Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Mitchelstein, E., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2009). Between tradition and change. Journalism, 10(5), 562–586. doi:10.1177/1464884909106533

Morgan, E. (2012, January 26). Ex-UTOPIA exec sues company, West Valley mayor. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/?nid=960&sid=19014898

Morrison, J. (2010). A power primer: The insignificance of significance in communication research. Florida Communication Journal, 38(2), 59–76.

Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 20.

Muhlmann, G. (2008). A political history of journalism. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Murdock, G. (2007). Digital technologies and moral economies. In V. Nightingale & T. Dwyer (Eds.), New media worlds : Challenges for convergence. South Melbourne, Vic.: Oxford University Press.

Murphy, J. B., Ward, S. J. A., & Donovan, A. (2006). Ethical ideals in journalism: Civic uplift or telling the truth? Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(4), 322–337.

Muthukumaraswamy, K. (2010). When the media meet crowds of wisdom. Journalism Practice, 4(1), 48–65. doi:10.1080/17512780903068874

Nah, S., & Chung, D. (2009). Rating citizen journalists versus pros: Editors views. Newspaper Research Journal, 30(2), 71–83. Retrieved from Google Scholar.

Nerone, J. (2012). The historical roots of the normative model of journalism. Journalism, 14(4), 446–458. doi:10.1177/1464884912464177

Neuberger, C. (2011). Professional, participatory and technical communication on the internet. Conference Papers—International Communication Association, 1–24.

Neuberger, C., & Nuernbergk, C. (2010). Competition, complimentary or integration? Journalism Practice, 4(3), 319–332.

Niekamp, R. (2009). Community correspondent: One broadcaster's attempt at citizen journalism. Southwestern Mass Communication Journal, 24(2), 45–53.

Nip, J. Y. M. (2006). Exploring the second phase of public journalism. Journalism Studies, 7(2), 212–236. doi:10.1080/14616700500533528 186

Nip, J. Y. M. (2008). The last days of civic journalism. Journalism Practice, 2(2), 179– 196.

Nord, L. (2008). Young reporters, new tools, and political reporting. Nieman Reports, 62(2), 12–15.

Ocwich, D. (2010). Public journalism in Africa: Trends, opportunities and rationale. Journal of African Media Studies, 2(2), 241–254. doi:10.1386/jams.2.2.241_1

O'Laughlin, M. J. (2000). Democratic social science: An exploration of participatory research. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.

Oreskes, M. (2000). News: A bit hard to define. Harvard International Journal of Press/ Politics, 5(3), 102.

O'Sullivan, J., & Heinonen, A. (2008). Old values, new media. Journalism Practice, 2(3), 357–371. doi:10.1080/17512780802281081

Ots, M., & Karlsson, M. (2012). Out of control? How online papers are both shaping and being shaped by user generated content. Romanian Journal of Journalism & Communication / Revista Română de Jurnalism şi Comunicare-RRJC, 7(1), 51– 58.

Outing, S. (2011). The 11 layers of citizen journalism. Poynter. Retrieved from http:// www.poynter.org/uncategorized/69328/the-11-layers-of-citizen- journalism/

Örnebring, H. (2008). The consumer as producer—of what? Journalism Studies, 9(5), 771–785. doi:10.1080/14616700802207789

Page, J. (2011, December 5). City council will reprimand Mayor Winder. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/?nid=960&sid=18370807

Page, J. (2011, November 18). West Valley mayor faces lawsuit over news story. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=18138162

Page, J. (2011, November 10). West Valley mayor used fake name to write news stories. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/?nid=960&sid=18037656

Palser, B. (2007). Mining the web. American Journalism Review, 29(5), 70.

Palser, B. (2009). Amateur content's star turn. American Journalism Review, 31(4), 42. 187

Paterno, S. (1997). The lying game. American Journalism Review. Retrieved from http:// www.ajr.org/article.asp?id=598

Paulussen, S., & Ugille, P. (2008). User generated content in the newsroom: Professional and organisational constraints on participatory journalism. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 5(2), 24–41.

Pember, D. R. (1974). Mass media in America. Chicago: Science Research Associates.

Piatt, R. (2011, November 11). Legal, ethical questions raised after WVC mayor exposes pseudonym. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/? nid=148&sid=18048829

Pisani, F. (2005). Transforming the gathering, editing and distribution of news. Nieman Reports, 59(3), 53–55.

Plaisance, P. L. (2005). A gang of pecksniffs grows up: The evolution of journalism ethics discourse in The Journalist and Editor and Publisher. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 479–491.

Plaisance, P. L. (2005). The mass media as discursive network: Building on the implications of libertarian and communitarian claims for news media ethics theory. Communication Theory, 15(3), 292–313.

Potts, M. (2007). Journalism: Its intersection with hyperlocal web sites. Nieman Reports. Retrieved from http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/article/ 100130/ Journalism-Its-Intersection-With-Hyperlocal-Web-Sites.aspx

Problems of Journalism: Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the American Society of Newspaper Editors. (1923). Problems of journalism: Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the American society of newspaper editors. Washington D.C.: American Society of Newspaper Editors.

Qing, Q., & Hollifield, C. A. (2011). Adopting the news prosumer: User-Generated content as a strategic resource for local news media. Conference Papers— International Communication Association, 1–29.

Quandt, T., Löffelholz, M., Weaver, D. H., Hanitzsch, T., & Altmeppen, K. D. (2006). American and German online journalists at the beginning of the 21st century. Journalism Studies, 7(2), 171–186. doi:10.1080/14616700500533486

Raeymaeckers, K., Hauttekeete, L., & Deprez, A. (2007). To read or not to read. European Journal of Communication, 22(1), 89–107. 188

Rappaport, A. J., & Leith, A. M. (2007). Brave new world? Legal issues raised by citizen journalism. Communications Lawyer, 25(2), 1–38.

Rauch, J. (2003). Clinging to tradition, welcoming civic solutions: A survey of college students' attitudes toward civic journalism. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 58(2), 175–186.

Reavy, P. (2011, November 12). Man in photo Mayor Winder used wants apology. ksl.com. Retrieved from http://www.ksl.com/?nid=960&sid=18049992

Rodrigues, U. M. (2010). The promise of a new media and development agenda. Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy, 2010(137), 36.

Roloff, M. E. (1981). Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage Publications.

Romano, A. (2005). ABC news now seeks stations' help. Broadcasting & Cable, 135(15), 26.

Rotter, J. B. (1967). A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust. Journal of Personality, 35(4), 651–665.

Ryan, M., & Martinson, D. L. (1994). Public relations practitioners, journalists view lying similarly. Journalism Quarterly, 71(1), 199–211.

Safran, S. (2005). How participatory journalism works. Nieman Reports, 59(4), 22–24.

Sambrook, R. (2005). Citizen journalism and the BBC. Nieman Reports, 59(4), 13–16.

Schudson, M. (1973). Discovering the news: A social history of American newspapers. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Schudson, M. (2001). The objectivity norm in american journalism. Journalism, 2(2), 149–170. doi:10.1177/146488490100200201

Scott, B. (2005). A contemporary history of digital journalism. Television & New Media, 6(1), 89–126. doi:10.1177/1527476403255824

Schudson, M. (2001). The objectivity norm in American journalism. Journalism, 2(2), 149–170. doi:10.1177/146488490100200201

Schulman, M. (2010). Truth and consequences. The Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/iie/v10n1/truth.html 189

Shaw, A. (2012). Centralized and decentralized gatekeeping in an open online collective. Politics & Society, 40(3), 349–388. doi:10.1177/0032329212449009

Shepherd, T. (2009). Twittering in the OECDs participative web: Microblogging and new media policy. Global Media Journal, 2(1), 149–165. Retrieved from Google Scholar.

Sigma Delta Chi Code of Ethics (1973). [Web page]. Retrieved from http://ethics.iit.edu/ ecodes/node/3702

Sigma Delta Chi's New Code of Ethics. (1926). Retrieved from http://www.spjvideo.org/ quill/codedcontroversey/ethics-code-1926.pdf

Singer, J. B. (2003). Campaign contributions: Online newspaper coverage of election 2000. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(1), 39–56.

Singer, J. B. (2005). The political j-blogger 'normalizing' a new media form to fit old norms and practices. Journalism, 6(2), 173–198. doi:10.1177/1464884905051009

Singer, J. B. (2006). Stepping back from the gate: Online newspaper editors and the co- production of content in campaign 2004. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(2), 265–280.

Singer, J. B. (2007). Contested autonomy. Journalism Studies, 8(1), 79–95. doi: 10.1080/14616700601056866

Singer, J. B. (2008). The journalist in the network: A shifting rationale for the gatekeeping role and the objectivity norm. Trípodos, (23), 61–76.

Singer, J. B. (2010). Quality control: Perceived effects of user-generated content on newsroom norms, values and routines. Journalism Practice, 4(2), 127–142. doi: 10.1080/17512780903391979

Singer, J. B. (2014). User-generated visibility: Secondary gatekeeping in a shared media space. New Media & Society, 16(1), 55–73. doi:10.1177/146144481347783

Singer, J. B., & Ashman, I. (2009). “Comment is free, but facts are sacred”: User- generated content and ethical constructs at the guardian. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 24(1), 3–21. doi:10.1080/08900520802644345

Singer, J. B., Hermida, A., Domingo, D., Heinonen, A., Paulussen, S., Quandt, T., . . . Vujnovic, M. (2011). Participatory journalism: Guarding open gates at online newspapers. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. 190

Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi Code of Ethics. (1973). Retrieved from http://www.spjvideo.org/quill/codedcontroversey/ethics-code-1973.pdf

Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics. (2009). Retrieved from http:// www.spjvideo.org/quill/codedcontroversey/ethics-code-2009.pdf

Soffer, O. (2009). The competing ideals of objectivity and dialogue in American journalism. Journalism, 10(4), 473–491. doi:10.1177/1464884909104950

Spence, E. H., & Quinn, A. (2008). Information ethics as a guide for new media. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 23(4), 264–279. doi:10.1080/08900520802490889

SPJ Code of Ethics. [Web page]. Retrieved from http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp? mobile=no

Steele, B. (2007). Lying in the name of truth: When is it justified for journalists? Poynter. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/everyday-ethics/83268/lying- in-the-name-of-truthwhen-is-it-justified-for-journalists/

Steiner, L. (2010). The value of (universal) values in the work of Clifford Christians. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 25(2), 110–120. doi:10.1080/08900521003640603

St. John, B. (2007). Newspapers' struggles with civic engagement: The U.S. press and the rejection of public journalism as propagandistic. Communication Review, 10(3), 249–270.

Streckfuss, R. (1990). Objectivity in journalism: A search and a reassessment. Journalism Quarterly, 67(4), 973–983.

Svensson, L. G. (2006). New professionalism, trust and competence. Current Sociology, 54(4), 579–593. doi:10.1177/0011392106065089

Tallent, R. (1997). New ethics code not to restrain, but minimize harm. Quill, 85(11).

Teel, L. R. (2006). The public press, 1900–1945: The history of american journalism. Westport, CT.: Praeger Publishers.

Thibaut, J. W., & Kelly, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.

Thier, D. (2012). How this guy lied his way into MSNBC, ABC News, the New York Times and more. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidthier/ 2012/07/18/how-this-guy-lied-his-way-into-msnbc-abc-news-the-new-york-times- and-more/ 191

Thoemmes, F., MacKinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power analysis for complex mediational designs using monte carlo methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(3), 510–534. doi:10.1080/10705511.2010.489379

Thurman, N. J. (2008). Forums for citizen journalists? Adoption of user generated content initiatives by online news media. New Media & Society, 10(1), 139–157. Retrieved from Google Scholar.

Tsfati, Y., & Cappella, J. N. (2003). Do people watch what they do not trust? Communication Research, 30(5), 504–529.

Tuchman, G. (1972). Objectivity as strategic ritual: An examination of newsmen's notions of objectivity. American Journal of Sociology, 77(4), 660–679. doi: 10.2307/2776752

Ugland, E., & Henderson, J. (2007). Who is a journalist and why does it matter? Disentangling the legal and ethical arguments. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 22(4), 241–261. doi:10.1080/08900520701583511 van Dijck, J. (2009). Users like you? Theorizing agency in user-generated content. Media, Culture, & Society, 31(1), 41–58. doi:10.1177/0163443708098245

Vujnovic, M., Singer, J. B., Paulussen, S., Heinonen, A., Reich, Z., Quandt, T., . . . Domingo, D. (2010). Exploring the political-economic factors of participatory journalism. Journalism Practice, 4(3), 285–296. doi: 10.1080/17512781003640588

Waldman, S. (2005). Arriving at the digital news age. Nieman Reports, 59(1), 78–79.

Westerståhl, J. (1983). Objective news reporting: General premises. Communication Research, 10(3), 403.

Wells, B. (2008). Using expertise from outside the newsroom. Nieman Reports, 62(1), 65–67.

West, R. L., & Turner, L. H. (2007). Introducing communication theory: Analysis and application. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Wien, C. (2005). Defining objectivity within journalism. NORDICOM Review, 26(2), 3– 15.

Wieselquist, J., Rusbult, C. E., Foster, C. A., & Agnew, C. R. (1999). Commitment, pro- relationship behavior, and trust in close relationships. Journal of Personality and 192

Social Psychology, 77(5), 942–966. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.942

Wilkins, L., & Brennen, B. (2004). Conflicted interests, contested terrain: Journalism ethics codes then and now. Journalism Studies, 5(3), 297–309. doi: 10.1080/1461670042000246061

Williams, A., Wardle, C., & Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2011). "Have they got news for us?": Audience revolution or business as usual at the BBC? Journalism Practice, 5(1), 85–99. doi: 10.1080/17512781003670031

Winfield, B.H. (2008). Introduction. In Winfield, B.H. [Ed.], Journalism, 1908: Birth of a profession. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.

Wright, S. (2012). Politics as usual? Revolution, normalization and a new agenda for online deliberation. New Media & Society, 14(2), 244–261. doi: 10.1177/1461444811410679

Zhao, X., John, G. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206.