High-Elevation Prehistoric Land Use in the Central Sierra Nevada, Yosemite National Park, California

Suzanna Theresa Montague B.A., Colorado College, Colorado Springs, 1982

THESIS

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

ANTHROPOLOGY

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO

SPRING 2010

High-Elevation Prehistoric Land Use in the Central Sierra Nevada, Yosemite National Park, California

A Thesis

Suzanna Theresa Montague

Approved by:

______, Committee Chair Mark E. Basgall, Ph.D.

______, Second Reader David W. Zeanah, Ph.D.

______Date

Student: Suzanna Theresa Montague

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.

______, ______Michael Delacorte, Ph.D, Graduate Coordinator Date

Department of Anthropology

iii

Abstract

High-Elevation Prehistoric Land Use in the Central Sierra Nevada, Yosemite National Park, California

Suzanna Theresa Montague

The study investigated pre-contact land use on the western slope of California’s central Sierra Nevada, within the subalpine and alpine zones of the Tuolumne River watershed, Yosemite National Park. Relying on existing data for 373 archaeological sites and minimal surface materials collected for this project, examination of site constituents and their presumed functions in light of geography and chronology indicated two distinctive archaeological patterns. First, limited-use sites—lithic scatters thought to represent hunting, travel, or obsidian procurement activities—were most prevalent in pre-

1500 B.P. contexts. Second, intensive-use sites, containing features and artifacts believed

to represent a broader range of activities, were most prevalent in post-1500 B.P. contexts

and were confined to two of the trans-Sierra corridors. These findings are consistent with

high-elevation archaeological patterns previously identified in the region, and with lower-

elevation cultural developments of increased population, territorial circumscription, and

subsistence intensification in the late period.

______, Committee Chair Mark E. Basgall, Ph.D.

______Date iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I count myself lucky to have been a student of Yosemite and California State

University, Sacramento, at the same time, a happy circumstance where the intellectual and emotional support of many people broadened my understanding of California archaeology and deepened my sense of place. At Sacramento, professors Mark Basgall,

David Zeanah, and Michael Delacorte provided critical guidance on this project and reviewed various versions of the draft. Basgall, in particular, took the time on numerous

occasions to discuss the project, comment on early stages of the draft, and generally

encourage a broader consideration of regional archaeological issues.

At Yosemite, the project could not have been undertaken without the support of

National Park Service managers, notably Laura Kirn, Branch Chief of Anthropology and

Archeology, and Dr. Niki Nicholas, Chief of Resources Management and Science. I am

most grateful for Laura’s involvement and her continuing patience with this project,

which certainly went longer than anticipated. The larger part of the project involved compilation of data from previous investigations, and as such, it relied on the hard work of many current and former Yosemite archaeologists, to name a few: Scott R. Jackson,

Paul DePascale, Laura Kirn, Kathleen Hull, Joe Mundy, Peter Gavette, David Curtis, and

Bruce Kahl. Tony Brochini, chairman of the American Indian Council of Mariposa

County, also discussed his view of Native American use of the Yosemite high country with me.

Several other people engaged in this endeavor in various important ways. Craig

Skinner, of the Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory, generously carried out v

obsidian studies at a student price. Dr. Kathleen Hull, professor of anthropology at

University of California, Merced, and James B. Snyder, former Yosemite

Historian/Archivist, provided much appreciated input on the project. At school, fellow student Jennifer Thomas kept me clued in to the thesis process, a thing that is sometimes difficult to track, much less accomplish, from afar.

Finally, my husband Peter Devine was, as he always is, the most important person involved in this project. He waited up for me on too many occasions to count, he let me work weekends without guilt, and he carried the heavy stuff.

Although many people helped me with this effort, the mistakes are all mine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments...... v

List of Tables ...... xi

List of Figures ...... xiii

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Thesis Organization ...... 4

2. NATURAL AND CULTURAL SETTING ...... 5

Natural Setting ...... 5

Geology and Topography ...... 5

Vegetation and Fauna ...... 8

Climate and Hydrology ...... 11

Ethnography ...... 14

Prehistory ...... 21

Eastern Sierra Nevada ...... 23

Western Sierra Nevada ...... 26

Summary ...... 31

3. ELABORATION OF THE PROBLEM ...... 34

Regional High-Elevation Studies ...... 34

Great Basin ...... 34

Southern Sierra Nevada ...... 40

Yosemite Studies ...... 43 vii

Summary ...... 45

Study Problem and Theory ...... 47

4. METHODS ...... 51

Description of Existing Data Sets ...... 51

Surveyed Areas ...... 52

Site and Isolate Data ...... 55

Excavations ...... 56

Chronological Data ...... 56

Sampling and Field Methods ...... 58

Laboratory Methods ...... 61

Analytical Studies ...... 63

Conversion of Obsidian Hydration Data ...... 69

Limitations and Assumptions ...... 74

5. DESCRIPTION OF CULTURAL MATERIAL ...... 76

Thesis Collections ...... 76

Projectile Points ...... 76

Desert Series ...... 78

Rosegate Series ...... 79

Elko Series ...... 80

Contracting Stem Series ...... 80

Concave Base Series ...... 81

Pinto Series ...... 82 viii

Unclassifiable Fragments ...... 85

Edge-modified Pieces ...... 85

Debitage ...... 86

Thesis Observations ...... 86

Summary and Distribution of Study Area Materials...... 88

Flaked Stone ...... 88

Flaked Stone Tool Caches ...... 93

Bedrock Mortars and Pestles ...... 95

Portable Ground Stone and Battered Stone ...... 103

Structural Remains ...... 103

Uncommon Features ...... 109

Uncommon Artifacts ...... 110

Faunal Remains ...... 110

Summary ...... 110

6. INTENSIVE- AND LIMITED-USE SITES ANALYSIS ...... 112

Chronology and Function ...... 112

Spatial Patterns ...... 120

Summary ...... 130

7. SITE VARIABILITY AND CRITICAL ASSESSMENT ...... 131

Variability and Model Assessment ...... 131

Chronological Assessment of Bedrock Mortars ...... 137

Summary ...... 139 ix

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 141

Project Summary ...... 141

Conclusions ...... 146

Directions for Further Research ...... 150

Appendix A: Data Sources...... 152

A-1. Major Archaeological Projects within the Study Area...... 153

A-2. Summary of Site Attributes...... 155

A-3. Summary of Chronological Data by Site...... 168

A-4. Calibrated Dates for Obsidian Hydration Data...... 182

A-5. Summary of Bedrock Mortar Data...... 191

Appendix B: Obsidian Studies Report ...... 193

Appendix C: Artifact Catalog ...... 220

References Cited ...... 226

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Attributes of Passes Leading into the Study Area...... 8

Table 2. Prehistoric Cultural Chronology and Temporal Markers...... 22

Table 3. Survey Data by Geographic Area...... 54

Table 4. Survey and Site Data by Elevation Zone...... 54

Table 5. Summary of Fieldwork and Collected Material...... 59

Table 6. Summary of Obsidian Studies by Site...... 64

Table 7. Results of Obsidian Visual Reliability Assessment...... 67

Table 8. Chronological Data Sample by Geographic Area and Use Type...... 68

Table 9. Effective Hydration Temperature Data for

Study Area Sites (after Mundy 1993)...... 70

Table 10. Selected Projectile Point Obsidian Hydration Ranges by Obsidian Source. .... 73

Table 11. Metric Attributes and Obsidian Studies Data for

Classifiable Projectile Points...... 77

Table 12. Previously Unrecorded Cultural Material Observed at Thesis Sites...... 87

Table 13. Frequency of Sites by Cultural Material Class, Geography, and Elevation. .... 89

Table 14. Frequency of Sites by Debitage Density, Geography, and Elevation...... 91

Table 15. Flaked Stone Tool Cache Data (after Montague 2008)...... 94

Table 16. Bedrock Mortar and Pestle Data by Geography and Elevation...... 96

Table 17. Mortar Data for Selected Yosemite Areas within

the Western Mono Model...... 100

Table 18. Temporal Data for Structural Features and Proximal

Surface Collection Units...... 107

Table 19. Obsidian Hydration Results Converted to Calendrical

Dates for Thesis Sites...... 114

Table 20. Frequency of Pre- and Post-1500 B.P. Dates for

Intensive- and Limited-Use Sites ...... 115

Table 21. Chronological Data for Study Area Sites...... 117

Table 22. Frequencies of Limited-and Intensive-Use Sites for

Pre- and Post-1500 B.P. Materials ...... 118

Table 23. Selected Temporally Sensitive Projectile Points

at Intensive- and Limited-Use Sites within the Study Area ...... 119

Table 24. Survey, Site Density, and Isolate Data by Geographic Location...... 122

Table 25. Site and Isolate Frequencies by Geographic Location and Time Period...... 126

Table 26. Co-occurrence of Site Attributes and Chronological Data...... 132

Table 27. Site Types by Debitage Density, Bifacial Tool

Occurrence, and Chronology...... 136

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of study area within Yosemite National Park...... 3

Figure 2. Elevation zones and surveyed areas within the study area...... 6

Figure 3. Effective hydration temperature plotted against elevation ...... 71

Figure 4. Scanned images of projectile points: a-c, Cottonwood Triangular; d-k, Desert

Side-notched; l, small arrow point, Desert Side-notched or Rose Spring...... 83

Figure 5. Scanned images of projectile points: a, Rose Spring; b, Rose Spring Corner-

notched; c-e, Elko Corner-notched; f, Elko Eared; g, Sierra Contracting Stem; h,

Pinto series...... 84

Figure 6. Scanned images of projectile points: a, Humboldt Concave Base; b, Sierra

Concave Base; c-d, small, unidentifiable arrow point fragments...... 85

Figure 7. Map showing bedrock milling surface distributions by site...... 97

Figure 8. Histogram of number of milling surfaces per site...... 98

Figure 9. Histogram of mortar depths...... 100

Figure 10. Sketch map of Feature 6, rock ring, CA-TUO-3783...... 105

Figure 11. Converted obsidian hydration values for sampled rock ring features...... 107

Figure 12. Photograph of talus pit at P-55-5164, Virginia Canyon (DC-07M-68)...... 109

Figure 13. Frequency of calendrical dates for intensive- and limited-use sites...... 115

Figure 14. Map showing distribution of intensive- and limited-use sites...... 123

Figure 15. Distribution of sites with post-1500 B.P. and pre-1500 B.P. materials...... 127

xiii 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The Sierra Nevada mountain range comprises a relatively unbroken, 400-mile- long physiographic feature, attaining elevations over 14,000 ft and dominating the landscape of east-central California. The north-south trending range forms a distinct climatic and biological boundary between the Great Basin and California. It is also considered a boundary, albeit a porous and dynamic one, between two culture areas. In the central Sierra Nevada, Paiute groups occupied lowland areas to the east at the time of

Euroamerican contact, while Miwok people lived in lowlands to the west.

The higher elevations of the central Sierra—the subalpine and alpine zones—have traditionally received little attention in past ethnographic and archaeological studies.

Ethnographic records (e.g., Barrett and Gifford 1933; Steward 1933, 1938) for eastern and western groups rarely mention high-elevation land use. Archaeological conceptions have been rather synchronic in nature, viewing higher elevations through time as marginal use zones, traversed seasonally by prehistoric peoples for the purposes of hunting, travel, and trade, which may, in fact, be the case, but it remains to be adequately demonstrated with empirical data.

In the past few decades, hunter-gatherer archaeological studies in the

Intermountain West have increasingly focused on prehistoric land use in upland environments and how it relates to conditions in adjacent lowland contexts. In the western Great Basin and southern Sierra Nevada, substantial changes in land use through time are apparent. Research in the White Mountains (Bettinger 1991) of eastern

California has revealed striking changes in alpine land use strategies at about 1350 B.P.,

2 reflecting the large-scale changes thought to characterize the late prehistoric western

Great Basin (Bettinger 1999a). Bettinger (1991) observed that high-altitude villages, indications of longer-term residential occupation and subsistence intensification, replaced a less intensive previllage pattern primarily related to hunting. These changes, he argued, likely reflect responses to population growth and may be linked with the spread of

Numic-speaking peoples. Thomas (1982, 1994) documented a similar shift in subsistence-settlement in the Toquima Range of central Nevada, but he argued that the transition occurred earlier than in the White Mountains and that it is not a consequence of the Numic migration. The archaeological record of Taboose Pass in the southern Sierra

Nevada demonstrates this same pattern (Stevens 2002), although the shifts are not as profound as in the other mountain ranges.

Given the emerging picture of land use changes in the larger region, the current study investigated high-elevation land use on the western slope of the central Sierra

Nevada, in the high country of Yosemite National Park (Figure 1). Data generated primarily through surface surveys conducted over the past 50 years, supplemented by surface collections and chronological studies undertaken as part of the thesis, allowed for a preliminary, broad assessment of subalpine and alpine land use and possible changes through time. The study area comprised approximately 105,000 acres of the upper watershed of the Tuolumne River, in which 9800 acres had been surveyed and 373 prehistoric archaeological sites had been documented. Since the current study relied mainly on data gathered within the historic preservation compliance framework, a second objective was to assess whether further study along these lines is warranted and to provide recommendations for how that would be accomplished at Yosemite.

Figure 1. Location of study area within Yosemite National Park.

THESIS ORGANIZATION

The body of the thesis includes eight chapters, following a general framework of context, methods, results, discussion, and recommendations. Chapter 2 describes the study background, summarizing the natural setting of the study area, ethnography, and prehistory. Chapter 3 presents additional detail on regional high-elevation archaeological studies and elaborates the problem. The study methodology, including the field, laboratory, and analytical methods used to address the problem, is outlined in Chapter 4.

Chapter 5 describes the artifacts recovered as part of the current study and summarizes the nature and distributions of cultural material documented for the project area as a whole. The results of data analysis are presented in Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 provides a critical assessment of the study model and a key chronological assumption of the project.

Finally, Chapter 8 entails a discussion of the findings and recommendations for further work. The appendices contain data tables providing the bases for analysis (Appendix A), the results of specialized obsidian studies conducted by a consulting laboratory

(Appendix B), and the catalog of collected artifacts (Appendix C).

Chapter 2

NATURAL AND CULTURAL SETTING

This chapter provides a framework for the present study, summarizing relevant information about the natural setting, ethnography, and prehistory. The study area encompasses about 42,500 ha (105,000 acres) of land, between approximately 8500 ft elevation on the west and 12,000 ft near the crest of the Sierra (Figure 2). Nearly all of the study area is located within the upper Tuolumne River watershed. The general area was selected because it is the most comprehensively studied location within Yosemite’s higher elevations. It also represents an east-west cultural transition zone between Sierra

Miwok and Paiute groups in the contact era, a north-south transition between Southern and Central Sierra Miwok, and a north-south boundary between predominant distributions of Casa Diablo and Bodie Hill obsidians in the archaeological record. By virtue of its location in the central Sierra, it is a distinctive biological, geological, and climatic border between the well-watered, obsidian-poor west and the relatively arid, obsidian-rich east.

NATURAL SETTING

Geology and Topography

Granitic formations of the Sierra batholith dominate the regional geology, although metamorphic rocks are present in the western foothills and along the crest

(Huber 1987). Volcanic rocks of late Cenozoic age occur near the project area (e.g., Little

Devil’s Postpile), but these were apparently not utilized prehistorically. Instead, obsidian from the eastern Sierra comprised the primary source material for flaked stone tools. In contrast to the absence of flaked stone source material, granitic outcrops, boulders, and

Figure 2. Elevation zones and surveyed areas within the study area.

7 cobbles for the manufacture of milling equipment are locally abundant throughout the study area.

The modern landscape is one of rugged and steep mountain peaks, characterized in some areas by deep, forested river canyons and in others by low gradient streams and expansive, open meadow systems. Unlike climatic and biotic factors, the topography of the high country is an unchanging variable, one that has always influenced human activity. The overall structure of the landscape reflects the uplift and tilting of the Sierran batholith to the southwest; a long and gradual incline to the crest characterizes the western slope, while the eastern escarpment is short and steep. To the east, a distance of about 15 km in a straight line separates Tioga Pass at 10,000 ft and Mono Lake at 6400 ft elevation. To the west, a distance of about 50 km is required to reach the same elevation.

Stream erosion and at least three episodes of glaciation, the last receding from the crest by 12,500 B.P., have further sculpted the terrain, creating the linear, U-shaped canyons, lake basins, and glacial till deposits of the study area.

The major drainage in the study area is the Tuolumne River, formed by its main tributaries, the Lyell and Dana forks, and many perennial streams and lakes. Several of these streams arise at the crest, creating natural corridors for travel in both prehistoric and modern times. From north to south, and ranging in elevation from 10,000 to just over

11,000 ft, the passes in the study area lead from the canyons of the western slope into

Bridgeport Valley, Mono Basin, and Long Valley on the eastern slope (Table 1). This portion of the eastern Sierra escarpment lies between 6500 and 7500 ft in elevation.

Donohue Pass to the south also affords relatively easy access to the Middle Fork of the

San Joaquin River, a major drainage of the western slope. With the exception of

Matterhorn Canyon, all of the routes provide direct access to the east side. Rafferty

Creek, as well as several smaller drainages and most of the lakes in the study area, do not provide direct access to trans-Sierra passes.

Table 1. Attributes of Passes Leading into the Study Area.

Pass Elev Orientation Western Approach Eastern Approach Eastern Geographic (ft) Area Mule* 10,450 E/W Slide Canyon Robinson Creek Bridgeport Valley Unnamed 10,000 N/S Slide Canyon Little Slide Bridgeport Valley pass* Canyon Burro 10,650 N/S Matterhorn upper end of Slide Bridgeport Valley Canyon Canyon (west side) Unnamed 10,700 N/S Spiller Canyon Horse Creek Bridgeport Valley pass Virginia 10,500 N/S Virginia Canyon Glines Canyon to Bridgeport Valley W. Fork Green Creek Summit 10,200 E/W Virginia Canyon W. Fork Green Bridgeport Valley or Creek or Virginia Mono Basin Creek Tioga 9,950 N/S Dana Fork Lee Vining Creek Mono Basin or Lundy Canyon Mono 10,600 E/W Parker Pass Creek Bloody Canyon Mono Basin Parker 11,100 E/W Parker Pass Creek Parker Creek Mono Basin Donohue 11,050 E/W Lyell Canyon Rush Creek or Mono Basin or Long Middle Fork San Valley or San Joaquin River Joaquin River *Provide routes into Matterhorn Canyon via Slide Canyon.

Vegetation and Fauna

Subalpine forests, montane meadows, alpine vegetation communities, and vast amounts of bare rock characterize the study area. Between 8000 and 10,600 ft, the subalpine zone commonly includes lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), whitebark pine

(Pinus albicaulis), and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), with locally important associations of western white pine (Pinus monticola) and Sierra juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) (Whitney 1979). Extensive meadows of grasses and sedges (Carex sp.) occur in glacially scoured canyons and basins in the subalpine zone. Tuolumne Meadows

9 is the largest of these, while Dana Meadows and Lyell Canyon contain extensive meadow systems as well. In these meadows ringed by subalpine forests, low glacial moraines or bedrock outcrops on slightly higher and drier ground are often the locations of archaeological sites. Above timberline at about 10,600 ft, sod-forming sedges and grasses in meadows, along with bunchgrasses and cushions plants in alpine rock communities, characterize the alpine vegetation (Whitney 1979:442).

Animals in these zones most often mentioned of economic importance to pre- contact peoples are mule deer and bighorn sheep, although black bear, marmot, and a variety of small rodents reside there. Though not known as a mammal of economic importance, it is worth mentioning that grizzly bears roamed the High Sierra as well.

Grinnell and Storer (1924:70) recounted anecdotes of grizzlies ranging up to 8500 ft in the southern part of the park, while Bridgeport Tom told the story of Chief Towa, a Mono

Lake Paiute Indian killed by a grizzly bear en route to Yosemite Valley, in the vicinity of

Tuolumne Meadows and Tenaya Lake (Hulse 1935a).

In general, subsistence and resource procurement are not well understood in the subalpine and alpine zones due to poor preservation of floral and faunal remains in archaeological contexts and lack of detail in ethnographic accounts. Some researchers

(Rosenthal 2008; Todt and Hannon 1998) have addressed subsistence on the scale of settlement systems through the integration of current biogeographic data sets and ethnographic information. These approaches identify the most highly ranked resources in the ethnographic record that may have influenced food procurement strategies, and look to environmental data to define abundance and seasonality. An underlying premise is based in optimal foraging theory; that is, people make decisions about food procurement

10 with the objective of maximizing their caloric energetic return (Rosenthal 2008:112).

Most relevant to this work is the model created by Rosenthal (2008) for the western slope of the Sierra between the Tuolumne River on the south and the Mokelumne River on the north. The author considers the different subsistence pursuits of men and women, in terms of animal and plant resources, respectively, relying on Barrett and Gifford (1933) for the identification of plant foods.

In Rosenthal’s analysis, the pattern of plant food productivity suggests that the

Lower Montane forest (3000-7000 ft) may have been the preferred place to live in the summer because it is the most productive for fruits and seeds at that time. The Upper

Montane Forest and Alpine areas would have been most productive for animal foods from late spring to autumn because of the presence of deer, bighorn sheep, jackrabbits, and marmots. On the western slope, resident deer herds remain in the western foothills, while migratory herds move to the higher elevations each summer. Migratory deer reach elevations above about 6000 ft by mid to late May and return to lower elevations by mid-

October (Woolfenden 1988). At the same time, bighorn sheep migrate from their winter range along the eastern escarpment to the crest. The migratory patterns of these two large-bodied mammals suggest the high country was an exceptional draw for hunting compared to the animal resources available in the lower elevations during that season.

The two species prefer different summer habitats; meadows are important deer forage and fawning territories (Woolfenden 1988), while the open, steep, craggy areas provide important escape routes for bighorn sheep.

The Subalpine Forest contains the fewest plant foods (Rosenthal 2008:114), an area also thought to be little used for plant gathering ethnographically (Anderson

1988:77–78). The abundance of limited-use sites in the study area supports these assertions, but the presence of late-period bedrock mortars and domestic dwellings with milling stones in the study area suggests that plant resource use should be further considered in archaeological studies.

Climate and Hydrology

Climate varies substantially between the eastern and western slopes due to the orographic precipitation pattern caused by the Sierra Nevada. A moist Mediterranean climate characterizes the lower elevations of the western slope, while a more xeric

Continental climate prevails in the eastern Sierra. The subalpine zone has a boreal climate of short, cool, and moist summers and long, cold, wet winters. Snowfall is abundant in winter months, accumulating 1–3 m on the ground between November and June (Botti and Sydoriak 2001:xx). Annual precipitation varies between 75 and 120 cm. The average minimum and maximum temperatures for Tuolumne Meadows at 8600 ft elevation in

July are 2.6° and 21.7°C, while those in January are -13° and 5.2°C.

These snowfall and temperature data, along with ethnographic accounts, emphasize the seasonal availability of the higher elevations. Seasonality imposes a distinct limitation on settlement in the Sierra, constraining winter occupation to below about 4000 ft in elevation in the west due to heavy winter snows and to the basins along the eastern escarpment. The higher elevations would have been accessible for about four to six months of the year, generally between June and October, depending on weather.

Past climate and vegetation regimes in Yosemite and the surrounding region have been documented through various pollen-stratigraphic and tree-ring studies, summarized most recently by Spaulding (1999). The early Holocene witnessed drier and colder

12 conditions than present, with aridity persisting into the middle Holocene. At Tioga Pass

Pond in the study area, the pollen of sagebrush, grasses, sedges, and other herbaceous plants are most abundant at this time. The onset of cooler and wetter conditions at higher elevations began after 6000 B.P., resulting in an increase in conifers and rising lake levels and water tables. Between ca. 4500 and 2500 B.P., forest stands failed and meadows developed at many locations in valley bottoms. Modern subalpine forests developed after

2500 B.P. with the onset of cooler conditions.

Although the overall trend in the past 5000 years has been toward cooler and wetter conditions, studies indicate a few relatively recent and notable fluctuations in the paleoenvironmental record. First, two periods of persistent drought, known as the

Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA), prevailed from A.D. 892–1112 and from A.D.

1209–1350 (Stine 1994). Remnant tree stumps well below the present water level in

Tenaya Lake, just east of the project area, are a testament to these episodes of drought in

Yosemite (Stine 1994). A second important fluctuation is the Little Ice Age, between

A.D. 1450 and 1850, when temperatures were ca. 0.5°C below present levels and modern glaciers reached their maxima. Finally, volcanic activity in the eastern Sierra during the middle and late Holocene has resulted in the deposition of several tephras along the western slope.

Researchers have examined the effects of environmental conditions on human settlement in the region (e.g., Hall 1983; Jones et al. 1999; Moratto 1999; Spaulding

1999), but what the key subsistence resources were and how they may have been affected by environmental change remains uncertain. It is clear that treelines rose and fell in elevation during these periods, but determining the composition and extent of past biotic

13 communities, and the distribution of culturally important resources, is difficult (Morgan

2006:42). In a synthesis of Sierran paleoenvironmental and modeling data mainly focused on the low and middle elevations of the southern Sierra, Morgan (2006) proposed that water would have been a limiting resource during the MCA, but the expansion of culturally important resources such as black oak and sugar pine would have favored human exploitation. In contrast, the Little Ice Age would have seen a contraction of black oak range and density, an expansion of subalpine and alpine vegetation communities, and an increase in water availability that no longer limited human settlement.

Hydrology would almost certainly have been a limiting factor in human settlement of the high elevations during the MCA, just as Morgan (2006) indicated for the lower elevations. Even under present conditions, thought to be relatively warm and wet (Stine 2006), seasonal changes in stream flow are evident within the study area.

During the thesis fieldwork in September 2007, some of the tributary streams, including

Gaylor, Delaney, Rafferty, and Cold Canyon, were dry, although stagnant pools persisted in some locations. In September 2006, both Budd Creek and Unicorn Creek were dry

(Cooper et al. 2006:33). The major drainages associated with high archaeological site density— Return Creek (Virginia Canyon), Tuolumne River, Dana Fork, Lyell Fork, and

Parker Pass Creek—were still flowing. In addition, the lakes in the study area, as well as the drainages in Spiller and Matterhorn canyons contained water, but the low site densities in these areas indicate they were not a focus of intensive prehistoric activity.

Interestingly, Cooper et al. (2006:39) noted that about 30 to 40 percent of the Dana Fork is underlain by metamorphic rock, which has led to the formation of thicker soils than those of granitic origin since the last glaciation. Metamorphic soils retain water in

14 subsurface reservoirs that drain slowly and provide flow throughout the late summer and fall. The Dana Fork also contains several rock glaciers, which may provide late-season discharge (Millar and Westfall, cited in Cooper et al. [2006]). Thus, the Dana Fork discharge in the late season is greater than that of any other subbasin feeding into

Tuolumne Meadows (Cooper et al. 2006). Metamorphic rocks also underlie the head of

Virginia Canyon, suggesting late season discharge for that drainage as well.

If procurement of pinyon and acorn became increasingly important after about

1500 years ago during the fall season, and surface water was even less available during the MCA, it may not be surprising that the Mono Trail, the route over Mono Pass via the

Dana Fork and its tributaries, became a major travel corridor. It is unclear how prolonged drought would have affected stream flows in the other major tributaries. In general, drier climates would result in earlier snowmelt, which would cause earlier declines in tributaries and meadow ground water tables (Cooper et al. 2006:3). Declines in lake levels during the MCA would also be expected given the substantially lowered level of

Tenaya Lake (see Stine 1994), one of the largest lakes in the park.

ETHNOGRAPHY

The ethnographic records for the eastern and western Sierra are briefly reviewed here as important considerations of how the higher elevations were used at the time of sustained Euroamerican contact, ca. 1850 in Yosemite, and during the historical period.

People inhabiting the larger region in the contact era were the Penutian-speaking Central

Sierra Miwok and Southern Sierra Miwok; the Bridgeport Valley Paiute and Mono Lake

Paiute, speakers of the Northern Paiute language; and the Mono-speaking Owens Valley

Paiute. Detailed ethnographic information about these groups can be found in numerous

15 primary documents (Barrett and Gifford 1933; Clark 1904; Davis 1965; Kroeber 1925;

Powers 1976; Steward 1933, 1938), ethnographic syntheses (Fowler and Liljeblad 1986;

Levy 1978) and various historical accounts (e.g., Bunnell 1990; Colby 1949; Whitney

1868). Two recent studies, an ethnohistory of the Yosemite high country in the vicinity of the Tuolumne River (Bates and Lee 1994) and an ethnogeography of Yosemite National

Park (Bibby 2002), have particular relevance for this thesis.

The ethnographic record must be considered in light of data collection methodologies and the dramatic changes in native lifeways, populations, and territorial ranges brought about by Euroamerican contact. Most documentation of Sierra Miwok lifeways was conducted between 1900 and 1920, well after the Miwok people’s culture had already changed dramatically due to introduced diseases, an estimated population reduction of 90 percent by the 1910 census, relocated populations from elsewhere in the state, and the great influx of miners into the foothills during the Gold Rush (Bates 1993;

Bates and Lee 1990). Thus, the existing record may represent a fragmentary view of an already disrupted system (Bibby 2002:59). Furthermore, the primary published works on

Miwok life may hold some biases. For example, Edward Gifford focused mainly on ceremonial life, while Samuel Barrett’s fieldwork was limited to a short time period between August and October of 1906 (Bates 1993:11–12). Barrett also remained in close proximity to stage lines that ran along today’s Highway 49 (Bates 1993:12), well away from the higher elevations of interest in this study. Similarly, fieldwork conducted by

Julian Steward and Emma Lou Davis among Paiute groups did not take place until the

1920s and late 1950s, respectively. In contrast to the population status of the Miwok,

Steward (1933:237) reported relatively little decrease in population levels for the Owens

Valley Paiute between the 1850s and 1930, around 1000 persons. Some potential biases in Steward’s ethnographic work include an overemphasis on the Western Shoshone and

Owens Valley Paiute, to the near exclusion of the Northern Paiute (Thomas 1979). Given these factors, it seems prudent to consider the ethnographic record as a starting point, or as a model, for the investigation of high-elevation land use.

A few important points emerge from the body of ethnographic, historical, and ethnohistoric literature, primarily in terms of how the high country was incorporated into regional settlement patterns and by whom. First, fixed tribal territories may not have been well defined, particularly in the high-elevation, seasonal use areas, and they potentially shifted through time, depending on social relationships (Bibby 2002:59; Kroeber

1925:443). Early ethnographers (Barrett 1908; Kroeber 1925) documented Central and

Southern Sierra Miwok lands on the western slope of the Sierra in the vicinity of

Yosemite, ranging from the crest in the east to the lower foothills on the west. The

“boundary” between these groups was the watershed divide between the Tuolumne and

Merced rivers. Merriam (1907), however, indicated that the higher elevations above

Yosemite Valley on the Merced River and Hetch Hetchy on the Tuolumne River were unclaimed by the Miwok, and that the Tuolumne River itself rather than the watershed divide formed the boundary between the Central and Southern Sierra Miwok. In explaining the distinctions made by Barrett and Merriam regarding the eastern extent of

Miwok territory, Kroeber (1908: 376) noted that Merriam included only the permanently inhabited areas, while Barrett included both permanent and summer use areas in his consideration of Miwok territory. Galen Clark (1904:21–22), an early Euroamerican settler and long-time resident of Yosemite, described distinctions between upper and

17 lower elevations in terms of Miwok territories, supporting the notion of the high country as a joint use area:

In their original tribal settlements, at the time the first pioneer whites came among them, the Indians had well defined or understood boundary lines, between the territories claimed by each tribe for their exclusive use in hunting game and gathering means of support; and any trespassing on the domain of others was likely to cause trouble. This arrangement, however, did not apply to the higher ranges of the Sierra, which were considered common hunting ground.

The Paiute occupied lands to the east of the crest, the Northern Paiute to the north of the watershed divide between Mono Lake and the Owens River, and the Owens Valley

Paiute to the south (Steward 1933). Historical and ethnographic accounts of Paiute people in Yosemite are abundant, most frequently in regard to acorn gathering (see Bibby

2002:31−34). Whether this situation also applied to earlier times remains to be resolved.

Bennyhoff (1956a:13), in particular, questioned whether Paiute exploitation of the middle elevations (e.g., Yosemite Valley, Hetch Hetchy) could have occurred prior to

Euroamerican colonization. A suggestion of spatial distinctions in high country use, however, is indicated by John Muir, writing in 1879. Muir (1879:644) stated that what is now called Summit Pass, at the head of Virginia Canyon, was “used chiefly by roaming bands of the Pah Ute Indians and ‘sheepmen.’” This single reference aside, it seems clear that, in general, the higher elevations of Yosemite were not solely the province of one ethnic group and that archaeological sites in the study area may represent use by western and/or eastern groups.

Second, there is little detailed information in ethnographic and historical accounts of high country use, and the few references rarely indicate the specific reason for that use.

Nonetheless, Bates and Lee (1994) were able to ascertain that hunting, traveling to attend

18 festivals, traveling for warfare, and escaping enemies or drought were activities that took place in the high country. In addition, trade between eastern and western groups was known to be a significant pursuit (Barrett and Gifford 1933; Davis 1961; Davis 1965;

Sample 1950; Steward 1933).

An important factor influencing high country use was its seasonal availability; heavy winter snows generally limited use above 4000 ft elevation on the western slope to summer and early fall. Barrett and Gifford (1933:134) envisioned the structure of Sierra

Miwok settlement in terms of three north-south parallel bands, cross-cutting the dialectic areas. Groups of people lived in the Lower Sonoran (below 1000 ft), Upper Sonoran

(1000−3000 ft), and Transition (3000−6000 ft) zones, but they made excursions into adjacent areas or traded to obtain products available elsewhere. The people residing in the

Transition zone might visit the Canadian and Hudsonian zones (6000−10,000 ft) now and then, but only summer camps were established there. Presumably, people never used the

Arctic-Alpine zone above 10,500 ft (Barrett and Gifford 1933:134), though current archaeological evidence contradicts this statement.

The tribelet, containing between 100 and 300 residents and controlling a definite territory, was the foremost political unit (Levy 1978:398, 410). Lineages within the tribelet included approximately 25 people in a specific geographic locality, usually the permanent settlements. Bennyhoff (1956a:6) noted that hunting and gathering forays by the Miwok into the higher elevations were frequent, and that women accompanied men on large trips. The “food quest” was the most important factor connecting people to their environment, with shifts in altitude increasing the availability of foods (Barrett and

Gifford 1933:136). The most highly regarded foods were the acorn and deer, followed by

19 the Western Gray Squirrel (Sciurus griseus) and the seeds of Clarkia sp., although a wide range of animals and plants were included in the diet.

To the east, Steward (1938) echoed the importance of the food quest in the lives of the Paiute people. A seasonal pattern of summer fission and winter fusion, organized around subsistence needs, characterized the annual cycle. Egalitarian family-bands were mobile during the summer months, coalescing into loose, larger settlements, with little or no suprafamilial organization, during the winter months. Plant foods gathered by women, particularly pinyon pine nuts and a variety of hard seeds, were of utmost importance, while men hunted to supplement the diet. In the Mono Lake area, the larvae of the brine fly (Ephydra hians) was a local staple, as well as a trade item, and the people there were thus known as the Kuzedika, or Fly-Larva-Eaters (Davis 1965:5). Here, summer base camps along the meadows at the western edges of Mono Lake were established. Trans-

Sierra trade and travel commenced from these sites, and deer and sheep were pursued in their summer high country ranges (Davis 1965:29−30). Steward (1933:Map 1) reported a

Mono Lake Paiute summer encampment as far west as Little Yosemite Valley, located at about 6000 ft elevation on the Merced River and just a few kilometers east of Yosemite

Valley. In alternate summers, families moved to the Jeffrey pine forests about 30 km south of the lake to gather and store the caterpillar larvae of the Pandora moth (Coloradia pandora). In the fall of good pinyon nut years, people moved to the areas east of the lake to the pinyon groves and spent the winter near their nut caches. When the pinyon nut crop was poor, Paiute people migrated to other areas, often wintering in Yosemite and frequently marrying Miwok (Steward 1933:257). In the spring, people traveled from their winter camps back to the eastern foot of the Sierra.

To the south, more stable social groups living at semi-permanent settlements characterized the Owens Valley Paiute, who specialized in lowland plants in close proximity to the settlements. Population levels were higher, among the highest in the

Great Basin, and the sociopolitical structure was more complex. The nuclear family was an important social unit in the village system, but it was to some degree superseded by district organizations of a single village or multiple, politically allied villages with hereditary chieftains. Recent research, however, suggests this district level organization may be a historic-era phenomenon, related to families consolidating around ranches where wage labor was available (Basgall et al. 2003; Delacorte 1999). Although the territory of the Owens Valley Paiute generally lies mainly to the south of the study area,

Steward (1933:235) reported that they traded and intermarried with their Miwok neighbors.

Subsistence pursuits in the high country are poorly defined, but hunting is mentioned most frequently in ethnographic and historical accounts. John Muir

(1916:205) encountered Paiutes hunting deer in the Tuolumne Meadows area, while bighorn sheep, bear, and marmots were also pursued in the high country (Bates and Lee

1994; Davis 1965:26). Davis (1965:25) stated that the subalpine and alpine areas were apparently used very little by the Mono Lake Paiute, except by travelers, hunters, and women collecting a medicinal herb of the parsley family. Men hunted in the high Sierra, drying the meat and carrying it home in the hide (Davis 1965:32−33).

Trade and travel through the high country were important pursuits, with accounts of easterners and westerners traveling both ways. Based on his observations at Yosemite in the second half of the nineteenth century, Muir (1977:80) wrote that,

The Indians of the western slope venture cautiously over the passes in settled weather to attend dances, and obtain loads of pine-nuts and the larvae of a small fly that breeds in Mono and Owen’s lakes, which, when dried, forms an important article of food; while the Pah Utes cross over from the east to hunt the deer and obtain supplies of acorns…

The locations of archaeological sites in the study area (see Chapter 6) also support historical records of travel across trans-Sierra passes for the purposes of exchange.

Mentioned most frequently in the Yosemite literature, the Mono Trail followed Bloody

Canyon from Walker Lake to Sardine Lakes, reaching the summit at Mono Pass. The trail led down the gradual western slope to Tuolumne Meadows, splitting there into two branches, one heading to the west and the other to the south. Items traded to the west included salt, finished points, sinew backed bows, pinyon nuts, brine fly larvae, Pandora moth caterpillars, rabbitskin blankets, buffalo robes, red and white pigments, obsidian, baskets, and basketry materials (Davis 1961:20). Goods traded to the east included acorns, baskets, arrows, manzanita berries, sour berries, elderberries, paint fungus, and shell beads (Davis 1961:17, 38). Muir (1977:80) mentioned that Indian women carried supplies in immense loads on their backs over the mountain passes, often for a distance of up to 60−70 miles.

PREHISTORY

Archaeological investigations in the region have revealed at least 10,000 years of human occupation (Table 2), a broad span of time encompassing changing environments, technologies, mobility patterns, population dynamics, and exchange relationships. The foothills of the western Sierra, below the snow line at 4000 ft elevation, and the eastern

Sierra escarpment formed the core lowland areas of regional settlement systems. Any changes or perturbations within these areas likely influenced use of the uplands as well.

Table 2. Prehistoric Cultural Chronology and Temporal Markers.

Eastern Sierra Western Sierra Years Period Temporal Markers Years Period Temporal Markers B.P. B.P. 650– Marana Desert Side-notched; 600– Late Prehistoric 3 Desert Side-notched, contact Cottonwood contact and Protohistoric Cottonwood Triangular, ceramics (Mariposa Triangular, bedrock Complex) mortar

1350– Haiwee Rose Spring, Eastgate 1300– Late Prehistoric 2 Rose Spring, 650 600 (Tamarack Eastgate, bedrock Complex) mortar?

3500– Newberry Elko, Humboldt, 3200– Late Prehistoric 1 Elko, Concave Base, 1350 Gypsum 1300 (Crane Flat Contracting Stem Complex)

7500– Little Pinto, Gatecliff Split- 8000– Intermediate Pinto, Humboldt? 3500 Lake stem; thick Elko; Fish 3200 Prehistoric Slough Side-notched

10,000– Lake Great Basin Concave 11,500– Early Prehistoric Largely undefined 7500 Mohave and Stemmed 8000

Binford’s (1980) continuum between foragers and collectors has consistently provided a model for subsistence-settlement mobility in western and eastern Sierra regional studies and, as such, is referenced in the summary below. In brief, Binford

(1980) characterized foragers as small, mobile populations, who move residentially to resolve variation in the distribution of food resources over time and space. In this strategy, consumers move to resources and “map on” to the key resources of a locale. By contrast, the collector strategy moves resources to people. Collector populations are greater in density, more sedentary, and socially stratified, moving to key locations and acquiring critical resources by logistical forays. Group mobility strategies are linked to the distributions of resources in the environment; homogeneous environments favor a

23 residentially mobile strategy, while patchy and seasonal resource distributions contribute to logistical work organization.

Eastern Sierra Nevada

In the eastern Sierra Nevada, researchers have identified broad changes in subsistence and settlement through the Holocene. Despite a great deal of archaeological work in that region, few and scattered sites are known from the early and middle

Holocene and the lifeways of early peoples remain poorly understood. Diverse raw material profiles indicate that groups covered enormous distances in the annual round, and an apparent absence of milling equipment suggests little reliance on seed resources in the early Holocene (Basgall 1989; Basgall et al. 2003; Basgall and McGuire 1988).

Western Stemmed (Lake Mohave and Silver Lake) and Great Basin Concave Base projectile points are temporal markers of this time period.

Limited data for middle Holocene sites indicate that a highly mobile settlement system remained in place, though the presence of ground stone artifacts point to increasing intensity of plant exploitation (Basgall et al. 2003). A diverse set of dart points dating to this period—Pinto, Gatecliff Split-stem, Fish Slough Side-notched, and “thick

Elko” forms— suggest a complex culture history, one that has yet to be fully explored

(Basgall and Giambastiani 1995; Basgall and Hall 2000; Gilreath and Hildebrandt 1997;

Thomas 1981).

Logistically organized settlement systems, allowing for the simultaneous exploitation of resources in diverse settings and featuring larger population aggregates, arose after 3500 B.P., in the late Holocene during the Newberry period. A more regularized and spatially limited annual round, thought to occur along a north-south axis

24 in valley corridors, characterizes the later portion (ca post-2200 B.P.) of this period

(Basgall 1989; Delacorte 1999), while the early Newberry period remains poorly understood. Highly varied and functionally distinct sites point to a continued emphasis on hunting but increased exploitation of plant resources and logistical exploitation of resources from seasonally occupied base camps. Dart points of the Elko, Humboldt, and

Gypsum series characterize this period.

A point of contention revolves around the nature of the settlement system during this period, with some researchers (e.g., Basgall 1989; Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982) proposing the continuation of high residential mobility but more regularized and spatially limited annual rounds, and others (McGuire and Hildebrandt 2005) suggesting at least semi-sedentary occupation. The latter conception posits gender differentiation in subsistence and settlement organization, the logistical mobility related to wide-ranging male prestige hunters and residential stability to women, children, and older males

(McGuire and Hildebrandt 2005:705−706; Hildebrandt and McGuire 2002). Recent studies incorporating obsidian source diversity and flake technological studies, however, support the notion of a highly mobile system for the Newberry period and its replacement by a more sedentary strategy later in time (Basgall et al. 2003; Eerkens et al. 2008).

The two arguments have divergent implications for the issue of obsidian procurement, a topic of some importance in both western and eastern Sierra research. If

Newberry populations were highly mobile and therefore did not control access to the quarries, then people living along the western slope may have accessed obsidian sources directly (Bouey and Basgall 1984; Stevens 2002). The alternative, in which east-side populations were residentially stable enough to control quarry access, sees exchange and

25 long-distance toolstone re-supply by hunters as key modes of procurement and distribution rather than direct access by people from the west. Rosenthal (2008:208) argued that the exchange of obsidian to the west was linked to a high-altitude settlement system geared toward the hunting of bighorn sheep, where obsidian exchange is seen as a

“value-added” activity to hunting. Further building on this argument, he proposed that east-side hunters in pursuit of bighorn sheep regularly made their way to the upper elevations of the western slope of the central Sierra (to roughly between 7000 and 9000 ft elevation), based on the predominance of obsidian over cryptocrystalline flaked stone materials at higher-elevation western slope sites and, vice versa, the higher frequencies of cryptocrystalline materials at middle and lower elevation sites. This pattern has yet to be substantiated at Yosemite, where obsidian material is predominant in flaked stone collections at most excavated sites regardless of elevation. Although researchers disagree about the mechanisms of obsidian procurement and distribution for that time period, and research on both sides of the crest is hampered by the difficulty in distinguishing direct access vs. exchange in the archaeological record, there is consensus that eastern Sierra obsidian production increased at the inception of the Newberry period (3500 B.P.) and sharply declined at the end of that period, ca. 1350 B.P. (Bouey and Basgall 1984;

Gilreath and Hildebrandt 1997; Ramos 2000; Singer and Ericson 1977).

Late prehistoric subsistence-settlement, particularly after 1350 B.P. (Haiwee and

Marana periods), is characterized by a widening of diet breadth to include greater exploitation of high-cost resources such as seeds and small game, a rise in technological complexity, ever-increasing residential tethering brought about by greater reliance on stored resources, and greater population densities (Basgall et al. 2003; Basgall and

McGuire 1988; Bettinger 1999a). The intensive procurement of pinyon nuts, small seeds, and wetland resources, along with the development of alpine villages after ca. 1350 B.P., best exemplifies late period subsistence intensification in the eastern Sierra by (Basgall and Giambastiani 1995; Bettinger 1976, 1991, 1999a; Delacorte 1990, 1999). At about the same time, the bow and arrow replaced the atlatl and dart in the region, a technological innovation thought to represent greater hunting efficiency and one that required less toolstone for the smaller arrow projectiles. Rose Spring and Eastgate projectile points are markers of the Haiwee period, while the Desert Side-notched and

Cottonwood Triangular forms characterize the Marana period. The use of Owens Valley

Brown Ware pottery also became widespread after 500 B.P. (Delacorte 1999).

Although still a highly contested hypothesis, some researchers have proposed a population replacement during late prehistoric times to account for linguistic patterns (cf.

Lamb 1958). Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982; see also Bettinger 1999a) proposed that

Numic speakers replaced Prenumic peoples in the Great Basin at about 1000 B.P. based on changes in basketry and rock art styles (Bettinger and Baumhoff 1982). The diminutive Desert Side-notched projectile point may also be a marker of Numic ethnicity in the eastern Sierra (Delacorte 2008).

Western Sierra Nevada

Bennyhoff (1956a) developed the region’s first culture historical sequence, based on intuitive surveys from a variety of Yosemite locales and minimal excavation data from four sites. In the past 50 years, large-scale studies in the nearby foothills and continuing work in Yosemite have allowed for further elaboration of the region’s culture history

(Hull and Moratto 1999; Moratto 1972; Moratto et al. 1988; Rosenthal 2008). Following

27 a synthesis of Yosemite studies and considering data from the surrounding region,

Moratto (1999) proposed revisions to the original sequence, while emphasizing the need for further testing of the model. The discussion to follow relies largely on Moratto’s

(1999) revised construct for Yosemite, but it also incorporates data from important foothill studies.

Evidence of human activity in the early Holocene is scant and limited to the El

Portal area, situated at 2000 ft elevation on the lower Merced River. No early Holocene components have been documented, although Moratto (1999) pointed out some compelling pieces of evidence, including a handful of thick obsidian hydration rims (8.0–

14.3 microns) on artifacts derived from several sites, sediment strata resembling anthrosols from early-period sites in the lower Sierra foothills, and large, broad-stemmed projectile point forms found elsewhere in the region in early contexts. Numerous stemmed projectile points resembling Lake Mojave points have been recovered from early Holocene sites at Clarks Flat on the Stanislaus River (Peak and Crew 1990) and the

Skyrocket site near Copperopolis (see Moratto 1999). Based on data from these sites in the surrounding regions, Moratto (1999) posited an early settlement pattern of highly mobile and sparse populations.

In the middle Holocene, ca. 8000 to 3200 B.P., a few sites in the lower elevations may have sustained resident populations based on the presence of obsidian hydration values larger than those of Elko points, several radiocarbon dates, and numerous dart points, particularly of the Pinto and Humboldt series. According to Moratto (1999:185), two sites with middle Holocene assemblages, not originally recognized as such, occur in

Yosemite. Among the recognized attributes are Pinto series points, an array of cores,

28 choppers, and flake tools, bifaces, abundant handstones and grinding slabs, and a preference for non-obsidian toolstone. Moratto (1999:184) posited a pattern of “extensive rather than intensive land use” during this period, but the archaeological manifestations continue to be very poorly understood.

The Late Prehistoric 1 period (Crane Flat Complex; ca. 3200–1300 B.P.) shares strong similarities with the Chowchilla Phase at Buchanan Reservoir and the Sierra Phase at New Melones Reservoir on the Stanislaus River (Moratto 1972; Moratto et al. 1988).

Projectile point forms of Elko, Sierra Concave Base, and Triangular Contracting Stem are characteristic of this period, indicating hunting with the atlatl and dart, while abundant obsidian in flaked stone collections shows a strong affinity with the eastern Sierra.

Handstones, milling slabs, and portable mortars for processing seeds are evident at

Buchanan Reservoir and New Melones, while the latter are rare at Yosemite. Cemeteries with tightly- to loosely-flexed burials, some beneath stone cairns, are accompanied by a range of artifacts, including shell beads and ornaments, bone artifacts, red ochre, quartz crystals, steatite objects, and obsidian points and bifaces (cf. Fitzwater 1962). The nonrandom distribution of artifacts with burials at El Portal and along the Chowchilla River implies non-egalitarian social organization (Moratto 1999:187). More sedentary and intensive land use by larger populations generally characterizes this period. Residential bases were adjacent to permanent streams, with seasonal use of the uplands, probably within a logistically organized subsistence-settlement system. Moratto (1999:188) opined that the similar cultural inventories at El Portal, Buchanan Reservoir, and New Melones show a stronger affinity with peoples of the San Joaquin Valley during this period compared to a later shift in focus in Yosemite to the east.

The Late Prehistoric 2 period (1300–600 B.P.; Tamarack Complex) at Yosemite is poorly understood archaeologically, and one researcher (Fitzwater 1962, 1968) rejected it as a distinct cultural entity. Rose Spring and Eastgate projectile points are thought to be temporal markers of this period, reflecting the emergence of the bow and arrow as the preferred weapon system over the atlatl and dart combination. The bedrock mortar may have first appeared in Yosemite at this time (Bennyhoff 1956a), although the initial use and spread of that technology remains to be substantiated. In general, researchers believe the transition from portable milling equipment to the bedrock mortar occurred sometime between 1400–450 B.P. in the foothills (Moratto 1999:166, 2002) and ca. 1000 B.P. in the southern Sierra Nevada (Jackson 1991; Jackson and Dietz 1984). Large-scale studies in the foothills at New Melones and around the town of Sonora indicate that bedrock mortars were in use in the foothills by about 600 years ago (Moratto 2002; Rosenthal

2008). Looking at obsidian hydration data from 40 bedrock mortar sites in the southern

Sierra Nevada, Stevens (2003) found that sites above 5000 ft elevation depict an increase in occupational intensity after ca. 1000 B.P. In contrast, sites below 5000 ft elevation show an increase in the percentage of dates at 2500 B.P., with a peak between 1500 and

1000 B.P. Though it is tempting, as Stevens (2003) noted, to assume that these dates reflect the appearance and spread of bedrock mortars, caution is warranted for numerous reasons, particularly if sites were occupied long before the bedrock mortars were used.

Components of this interval have been difficult to distinguish archaeologically, possibly due to shifting settlement patterns; that is, sites tend to be ephemeral and located away from well-watered areas (Hull 1989a). Comparing data from various environmental settings, Hull et al. (1995:147–148) proposed that ephemeral use of mid-elevation

30 settings may be related to western-slope peoples practicing a forager subsistence- settlement strategy, while the Tamarack assemblages in high-elevation settings may reflect special-use sites related to east-side collectors. Moratto (1999:119) further suggested that Tamarack assemblages in Yosemite’s high country, marked by Rose

Spring and Eastgate projectile points, may represent the expansion of the Numic due, in part, to unfavorable environmental conditions in the Great Basin. Also during this period, the Sierra Miwok may have first entered the region from the north (Hull 1990).

The Raymond Phase (1400–450 B.P.) at Buchanan Reservoir and the Redbud

Phase (1450–650 B.P.) at New Melones Reservoir reflect a similar period of apparent cultural change. Villages were abandoned, trade from the eastern Sierra and coast was minimal, and populations were small and dispersed (Moratto 1972; Moratto et al. 1988).

An absence of substantial material dating to about this period in the Sonora foothills locality also suggests a change in settlement and land use (Rosenthal 2008:74). Moratto

(1999:119, 190) attributed this time of change to environmental stress induced by the shift to a more xeric climate, suggesting that populations may have moved upslope to higher-elevation zones such as Yosemite Valley and Wawona. A demographic study specific to Yosemite Valley, however, showed a substantial decrease in population during the 1500–600 B.P. interval (Hull 2002a), arguing against this scenario.

The Late Prehistoric 3 period (Mariposa Complex), dating from ca. 600 B.P. to

Euroamerican contact in Yosemite, shares similarities with the Madera Phase on the

Chowchilla River and the Horseshoe Bend Phase in the New Melones Reservoir area. A hunting, gathering, and fishing economy featured an intensive reliance on the staple food acorn. Hallmarks of this period include the bedrock mortar and pestle, in widespread use

31 for processing acorns and other foods, and Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood

Triangular projectile points, used for hunting with the bow and arrow. Large, dense populations occupied villages in streamside settings at lower elevations, while special-use sites facilitated resource procurement in higher-elevation settings, suggesting a collector strategy of subsistence-settlement. At the Sonora locality, late prehistoric deposits are more spatially confined compared to earlier deposits, possibly due to the use of bedrock mortars, which tend to focus activity (Rosenthal 2008:75). It is widely accepted that the late prehistoric period reflects occupation by the ancestors of the Central and Southern

Sierra Miwok populations along the western slope, with contributions by neighboring peoples such as the Paiute and Western Mono (Moratto 1999, 2002).

SUMMARY

The archaeological records of the eastern and western Sierra show some broad parallels and a few key differences. Though the early and middle Holocene records are not well known, researchers believe the general trend over time in both regions to be one of high mobility and pursuit of high-return resources early in time and reduced mobility, increasing territoriality, and subsistence intensification later in time. One key difference between eastern and western cultural sequences lies in the earlier development of large settlements in the Sierra foothills between ca. 3000 and 1500 B.P. In Yosemite, the Crane

Flat Complex is said to evince substantial populations and sedentism, while a mobile but regularized annual round characterized the Newberry period in the eastern Sierra. Both of these subsistence-settlement systems, however, were likely logistically organized. In addition, groups in both regions utilized the dart and atlatl combination, a toolstone- intensive technology focusing on procurement of obsidian from eastern Sierra sources.

A subsequent period of cultural change in both regions occurred after about 1500

B.P. The bow and arrow replaced the atlatl and dart, while the florescence and subsequent decline in use of obsidian at the eastern Sierra quarries is mirrored by changes in obsidian debitage densities in the west. Intensive exploitation of acorn to the west and pinyon to the east transpired ca. 1500−1000 B.P., although it is clear that these resources were also used by people earlier in time (Basgall et al. 2003; Rosenthal 2008). A period of hypothesized settlement shift, low population density, violence, and reduced trade, possibly a result of the two extreme periods of drought of the Medieval Climatic

Anomaly, is thought to characterize the western Sierra foothills between ca. 1500 and

650 B.P (Moratto 1972, 1999). The impacts of drought on human settlement have yet to be clarified in the western Sierra, but data from the eastern Sierra show no evident disruptions in human occupation during this period (Basgall 2008).

In the contact and post-contact era, Miwok-speaking people occupied the lowland areas of the western Sierra, while Paiute-speaking people lived in the eastern Sierra. The high country is believed to have been a joint use area, traversed seasonally for hunting, travel and trade, escaping drought and enemies, and attending festivals. Very little is known of plant resource exploitation in the subalpine and alpine zones, while reference to hunting is made mainly in regard to deer or bighorn sheep. Based on a few anecdotes in the historical record, groups of men apparently hunted using a logistical strategy. In the project area, easterners and westerners traversed the Mono Trail (via Mono Pass, Dana

Meadows, and Tuolumne Meadows), mentioned most often in the literature as an important corridor facilitating the extensive trade network and social contacts between groups of people.

Although gaps are evident in the regional culture history sequences, this summary provides an interpretive framework for the current study, in which the higher elevations are viewed as an articulating part of the larger subsistence-settlement systems on the east and west. Similar to what is known in the regional records, the signature of early and middle Holocene use is expected to be minimal or difficult to detect. Logistical use of the uplands should be prevalent during the 3500–1500 B.P. interval, with hunting and obsidian procurement related to the toolstone-consumptive biface industry in evidence.

Late prehistoric subsistence intensification, decreased group mobility, and increased territorial circumscription in the lowlands should be reflected by increased, and perhaps spatially constricted, residential use in the uplands. While trade between eastern and western groups apparently has great time depth, it may be that the emphasis shifted from obsidian prior to 1350 B.P. to other materials, such as foods, after that time.

Chapter 3

ELABORATION OF THE PROBLEM

This chapter begins with an exploration of how researchers view subsistence- settlement in mountain environments in the western Great Basin and southern Sierra

Nevada. Building on this work and what is known about regional prehistory, the second part of the chapter outlines the current study problem, its theoretical underpinnings, and study expectations.

REGIONAL HIGH-ELEVATION STUDIES

In the past few decades, hunter-gatherer archaeological studies in the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada have increasingly focused on prehistoric land use in upland environments and how it relates to conditions in the adjacent lowlands, taking a regional perspective in settlement patterning. Alpine environments have drawn the most attention because they have been considered resource-poor areas where patterns of land use might be more evident in the archaeological record. Areas with high resource potential were likely occupied repeatedly throughout prehistory, making shifts in subsistence-settlement difficult to recognize archaeologically. In contrast, environments considered to be lower in resource potential might have been less intensively used or used for specialized purposes, suggesting that shifts in exploitation might be more clearly visible archaeologically (Basgall and Giambastiani 1995:5).

Great Basin

The most prominent high-elevation studies have been conducted in the Toquima

Range of central Nevada and the White Mountains of eastern California. Surveys in the alpine zones (above 10,000 ft) and excavations at selected sites indicate a significant shift

35 in the way high elevations were used by pre-contact peoples (Bettinger 1991; Thomas

1982). Although only preliminary reports have been published to date, the studies are of particular interest because of the substantial nature of the fieldwork, including both extensive surveys and intensive excavations, and the documentation of similar shifts in land use at two different mountain ranges in the Great Basin. Researchers generally agree on the nature of the land use, but the explanation and timing of the change in land use is the subject of dispute.

In central Nevada, Thomas (1982) defined two major settlement strategies, based on the results of excavation of 18 of the 31 rock structures at Alta Toquima Village

(11,000 ft elevation) and a 3500-acre survey of Mount Jefferson. The early period, dating to pre-950 B.P., included a spatially extensive pattern characterized by logistical hunting of bighorn sheep by groups of men. Over 50 hunting blinds were recorded during the survey, in association with projectile points almost exclusively of Rosegate series and older forms. After 950 B.P., settlement was restricted to the Alta Toquima Village, which shifted in function from a logistical hunting camp to a residential base camp used by family-based social units for hunting and extensive plant processing. Most of the structures, along with over 200 projectile points of Desert Side-notched and Cottonwood

Triangular forms, ceramics, over 50 grinding stones, and a variety of beads, drill, and shaft straighteners were attributed to this post-950 B.P. occupation. Radiocarbon dates for the village features range from 1840 ± 80 B.P. to 220 ± 70 B.P., with a median date of

940 B.P. (Thomas 1994:59–60).

Surveys and excavation samples from 12 alpine villages in the White Mountains revealed a similar shift in land use. The early component is defined by sparse lithic

36 scatters and hunting blinds, with diagnostic projectile points of the Elko and Gatecliff series. Designated the “previllage” pattern, sites are thought to represent a logistical hunting strategy where groups of men occupied areas for short periods of time, primarily in pursuit of bighorn sheep (Bettinger 1991). The later pattern includes sites composed of multiple-course, circular stone footings (house foundations), storage facilities, midden accumulation, ground and battered stone, ceramics, and a variety of flaked stone tools and manufacturing debris (Bettinger 1991). This “village” pattern is temporally and functionally distinct from the earlier one, representing an intensive and longer-term residential occupation, perhaps of one to two months, by nuclear families or multiple family social units. Use centered on a broader array of resources, both plants and animals, compared to the singular hunting focus of the earlier occupation. Bettinger (1991) placed use of the White Mountains villages at post-1350 B.P. based on lichen measurements, radiocarbon dates, and temporally diagnostic projectile points of Rose Spring,

Cottonwood, and Desert Side-notched types. These late prehistoric arrow points are more common in village contexts, while dart points, such as the Elko, Gatecliff, and Humboldt series, predominate in hunting contexts.

Prompted by the work of Bettinger and Thomas, Canaday (1997) carried out surface investigations in five mountain ranges in central and western Nevada, including the Toiyabe Range, Ruby Mountains, Snake Range, Jarbridge Mountains, and Deep

Creek Mountains. Within the 7,500 acres of land inspected above 10,000 ft elevation,

Canaday (1997) documented 31 sites, the majority of which clustered in a small area of the Toiyabe Range. Most of these sites contained stacked rock features associated with hunting, although three isolated rock ring dwellings were also recorded. Similar to the

Toquima sites, the rock rings are associated with late-period projectile points. Canaday

(1997:239) suggested that longer-term residential use occurred at least occasionally, but probably as a base for hunting parties rather than family-based groups. The artifact assemblage—the lack of ceramic artifacts, fewer artifacts in general, and the presence of only one minimally worked piece of ground stone utilized as part of the wall—contrasts sharply with the far richer assemblage at Alta Toquima.

A point of contention is not that a change in land use occurred, but the explanation for it. Bettinger asserted that the village pattern represents Numic occupation, part and parcel of the traveler-processor model first proposed by Bettinger and Baumhoff

(1982; see also Bettinger 1994, 1999b) to explain the fan-like distribution of the Numic languages across the Great Basin about 1000 years ago (cf. Lamb 1958). The model articulates a link between adaptations and population distributions and density, and centers on how groups use time, space, and energy. Briefly, travelers (i.e., the Prenumic) are residentially mobile foragers relying on high-quality resources for their subsistence needs. These groups spend relatively more time traveling between resource patches than in handling these resources (e.g., procurement and processing). Population levels and thus competition must be fairly low to accommodate the needs of travelers. As competition for resources increases, however, distant patches may already be occupied and they become less attractive. In this scenario, the processor strategy displaces that of the traveler. Processors (i.e., the Numic) spend less time traveling between resource patches and more time acquiring resources within them. They are logistically oriented, use a wider range of resources, including lower-quality resources, and spend more time in handling than searching.

In contrast to this replacement model, Grayson (1991) proposed that the development of alpine villages represents intensification of the previllage pattern as a result of in situ population growth. Thomas (1994) rebutted the replacement model, as well, based on the unclear timing of the Numic spread and the earlier median radiocarbon date for the Alta Toquima rock constructs compared to those for the White Mountains.

Canaday’s findings of rock ring dwellings overlying previllage components in the

Toiyabe Range, combined with a dearth of alpine sites in the other four ranges he examined, can be taken as support for Grayson’s argument. Zeanah and Simms

(1999:129) pointed out, however, that population pressure fails as a prime mover because alpine villages do not consistently occur in mountain ranges adjacent to heavily populated valleys. For example, Canaday did not find alpine villages in the Ruby Mountains, bordered by the densely populated Lamoille, Huntington, and Ruby valleys. Emphasizing the variability in alpine exploitation between ranges, Zeanah and Simms (1999:130) noted that understanding the previllage-village transition will require a theoretical perspective that takes this variability into account.

While the development of alpine villages remains a source of debate, the nature of the previllage pattern is also arguable. The previllage pattern could represent a logistical hunting strategy, related solely to large game procurement by men, or residential encampment. Basgall and Giambastiani (1995:266) argued that the occurrence of abundant milling tools and battered cobbles in pre-1350 B.P. contexts indicates at least some level of plant exploitation and thus the presence of inclusive social groups composed of men, women, and children. In this interpretation, the previllage component

39 resembles that of other residential encampments found throughout the region for that time period.

Toward further elucidation of previllage land use, Zeanah (2000) developed an economic model incorporating diet breadth, transport costs, and central-place foraging theory. Although the model specifically addresses the previllage components of the

White Mountains and resource distributions in the Owens Valley region, its principles are useful for consideration in other alpine environments across the western United States.

The model assumes a link between subsistence and mobility, specifically that diet breadth and local resource distributions impose transport costs, which in turn, determine the mobility strategy that hunter-gatherers choose to exploit alpine environments (Zeanah

2000:2). The model suggests that logistical use of the White Mountains would relate to broad diets and the need to exploit simultaneously lowland seeds and upland large game.

The storage of seeds also implies more intensive seed procurement, likely in the lowlands, thereby increasing the probability of the lowland residential and highland logistical use pattern (Bettinger 2000:122). In contrast, the residentially mobile strategy would be employed when return rates are high and groups could move to the most productive resource patches. The White Mountain alpine villages, however, represent a distinctive pattern from both of these strategies, primarily because of the longer duration of residential occupation. The alpine village pattern is interpreted as a consequence of regional population growth and the selection of a poor central-place location because more profitable areas were unavailable (Zeanah 2000:13).

Southern Sierra Nevada

Studies of prehistoric land use in the alpine zone of the southern Sierra Nevada are perhaps most relevant to the current study. Conducting surface inventory and limited collections in selected locations between the San Joaquin and Kern River drainages in

Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks, Roper Wickstrom (1992, 1993) identified long- term, extensive use of the higher elevations and geographical distinctions in the distributions of Casa Diablo, Fish Springs, and Coso obsidians. Finding more intensive use of restricted localities during the late period, her conclusions also supported the high- elevation settlement pattern noted by Thomas and Bettinger. That is, the few village localities represented late period deposits, and Desert series projectile points were rarely seen in contexts outside of those villages.

Also in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks, Stevens (2002, 2005) first investigated six sites in the alpine environment of Taboose Pass, and subsequently compiled data for sites above 8000 ft elevation, between the San Joaquin River to the north and the East Fork of the Kaweah River to the south. Sites were classed as having limited or intensive use based on artifact diversity, debitage density, and the presence of features such as midden soil, rock rings, and bedrock mortars that point to longer-term habitation. Limited use, most evident during the ca. 3500–1350 B.P. interval, was characterized by dense lithic scatters related to obsidian procurement and logistical hunting, presumably by small groups of men. Obsidian procurement was indicated in the vicinity of Taboose Pass, a major east-west travel route, while logistical hunting camps were represented in areas away from the pass. The intensive-use pattern, indicated by a

41 wider range of artifacts and features, generally occurred after ca. 1350 B.P. This later pattern reflected extended periods of occupation, possibly by family-based social units.

The transition from limited to intensive use is consistent with regional cultural developments. First, the timing of the shift away from obsidian procurement at Taboose

Pass sites parallels the decline in obsidian use documented at several eastern Sierra

Nevada quarries (Gilreath and Hildebrandt 1997; Hall and Basgall 1994; Ramos 2000;

Singer and Ericson 1977). Second, Stevens’ (2002, 2005) findings are broadly similar to the previllage and village patterns in the White Mountains and Toquima Range (Bettinger

1991; Thomas 1982) and to developments in western Great Basin prehistory in general

(Bettinger 1999a; McGuire and Hildebrandt 2005). While Stevens interpreted the southern Sierra data in support of late prehistoric resource intensification (cf. Basgall and

Giambastiani 1995; Bettinger 1991, 1999a), he highlighted some important distinctions between the archaeological records of the Sierra and western Great Basin. The artifact and feature inventories at intensive-use sites (Mundy 1988; Roper Wickstrom 1992;

Stevens 2002) are clearly less rich than those retrieved from village deposits in the Great

Basin, which Stevens (2002) attributed to geography and differences in eastern and western slope subsistence-settlement systems. Bettinger (1991) tied the rise of alpine villages to regional population growth and intensification of pinyon procurement, the latter at least partially allowing for the longer-duration occupation of alpine villages. The major pinyon procurement areas, however, are in the White-Inyo Range, suggesting that

Sierra alpine zones would be less important if pinyon stores were needed to support their use. Stevens (2005:200–201) emphasized the need to consider travel and trade in the residential occupation of high-elevation Sierra passes, and how that might have

42 influenced prolonged stays. Since intensive-use sites of the alpine southern Sierra appear to be concentrated along major travel corridors, it may be that such use was only worthwhile under conditions of relatively easy access and if interactions between eastern and western groups could result in economic or social gains (Stevens 2002:174).

As a borderland between Great Basin and California cultures at the time of

Euroamerican contact, identifying the cultural affiliation of groups using the higher elevations of the Sierra is an important one. The Taboose Pass data, though preliminary in nature, suggest that cultural affiliation may have varied through time (Stevens

2002:162–163). Based on the higher debitage densities, greater amounts of cortical debitage, and frequencies of obsidian hydration readings, the limited-use sites at Taboose

Pass are thought to be related to obsidian procurement. Taking into account patterns at the Fish Springs obsidian source and settlement systems for easterners and westerners, early use of sites at the crest may be related to direct access of the Fish Springs source by western groups. The other limited-use sites away from the pass, however, may indicate logistical hunting forays by both west- and east-side people. The later intensive-use pattern suggests an eastern cultural affinity based on shared ground stone characteristics and obsidian source diversity for tools.

While Stevens examined change over time in a spatially limited area, Morgan’s

(2006, 2009) study of hunter-gatherer mobility and climate change encompassed a broad elevational swath of the western slope in the San Joaquin River watershed over a limited temporal period. Morgan focused on the settlement system of the Western Mono, believed to have arrived in the area from the eastern Sierra Nevada around 600 B.P. The study synthesized survey data from a large area of the Sierra National Forest, totaling 551

43 km2 of the 1626 km2 study area. The relatively even distribution of survey coverage

across ecotones was thought to accurately reflect bedrock mortar distribution, the primary object of analysis.

Morgan recognized different site types and mobility strategies (following Binford

[1980]) based on bedrock mortar counts, where sites containing ≥14 mortars are residential indicators and sites with <14 mortars are logistical stations. The data analysis demonstrated a mixed mobility strategy, with logistical exploitation of lower montane settings (<1000–1400 m) by larger population aggregates during the winter and

residential mobility in the montane forest (1400–2100 m) by dispersed populations

during the spring, summer, and fall (Morgan 2009:391). The clustering of sites in the

narrow corridors of the subalpine zone (>2100 m) was considered a function of trans-

Sierran travel, and the greater distances between processing sites relative to the lower

elevations points out the high degree of residential mobility also associated with travel.

Morgan interpreted this mixed mobility pattern as an effective means of coping with mountain environments and the uncertainty engendered by the climatic conditions of the

Little Ice Age. Here, climate change and its effects on resource distributions are key factors in conditioning hunter-gatherer mobility.

Yosemite Studies

Two general classes of Yosemite studies are germane to the thesis: park-wide settlement studies, which include the high country as an aspect of the settlement system, and specific projects conducted in the high country itself, generally following the mandates of historic preservation law. Settlement studies in the Park initially focused on correlating site location and attributes with various environmental variables. The results

44 of early investigations recognized some important distinctions in site distribution, including the prevalence of sites with bedrock mortars below about 5000–6000 ft elevation and the higher frequency of lithic scatters above that elevation (Bennyhoff

1956a; Moratto 1981). Others have identified patterns in site location with respect to geographic features or vegetation communities (Carpenter 2004; Hull and Mundy 1985;

Mundy 1992). For example, sites are more prevalent in the Yellow Pine Forest and high- elevation meadow/Lodgepole Pine Forest ecotone than in Red Fir Forest or Giant

Sequoia vegetation communities. Slope and distance to water are important settlement determinants, with most sites present on slopes measuring less than 20–30 percent and within about 200 m of water. A common element of all of these studies is their synchronic approach, leaving potential changes in settlement patterning over time to be explored in the future.

Following Hull et al. (1995), more recent excavations in the study area have addressed site function and settlement patterns within Binford’s forager-collector continuum, based on assemblage diversity and abundance, and technological features of artifacts. However, the focus at a relatively small number of sites, some with very small sample sizes and mixed components, made settlement patterns a difficult issue to address.

In the nine sites tested at Dana Meadows, Montague (1996a) noted a pattern where early- period components, characterized by higher debitage densities and little or no milling equipment, were more prevalent within the site sample. In contrast, fewer late-period components were evident and these tended to contain milling features and lower quantities of debitage. Montague speculated that the intensification of acorn exploitation in the lower elevations may have contributed to shifting high-elevation land use patterns.

In a more detailed assessment of three Tuolumne Meadows sites, Hull et al. (1995:147) detected a more ephemeral use pattern related to Tamarack phase components, distinct from those of the Crane Flat and Mariposa phases, which were viewed as forager residential bases. Specifically, low tool diversity and abundance, coupled with abundant debitage, suggested a task-specific function related to lithic reduction; that is, a special- use site within a collector strategy. Comparing this finding to patterns observed in the

Owens Valley and the western lowlands, Hull et al. (1995:147–148) suggested that

Tamarack phase use of the uplands might be related to eastern logistical collectors, while

Tamarack use of the lowlands might be related to western groups.

While settlement patterns have been addressed to a point, studies have focused on issues of chronology and obsidian procurement. In general, sites tend to be multi- component deposits, containing higher frequencies of debitage, low tool diversity and abundance, and lower frequencies of milling equipment in comparison to lowland sites

(Hull et al. 1995; Montague 1996a). Based on obsidian hydration measurements, earliest use of the high country may have transpired at around 6000 B.P., with widespread use by

3000–4000 B.P. Casa Diablo obsidian predominates in Tuolumne and Dana meadows during all time periods, while Bodie Hills is prevalent to the north and in the lower portion of the canyon. Obsidians of minor occurrence include Mt. Hicks, Mono Craters,

Mono Glass Mountain, and Truman/Queen, with a few specimens of Fish Springs and

Sutro Springs.

Summary

Studies in the western Great Basin and southern Sierra Nevada demonstrate a pattern of change in alpine land use ca. 1350 B.P. across a relatively large geographic

46 area. Researchers propose that a spatially limited occupation related to longer-term residential use for hunting and plant processing replaced a spatially extensive occupation related to logistical hunting. While this pattern appears to be relatively consistent in the

White Mountains, Alta Toquima, and the southern Sierra Nevada, some variability is present in the archaeological records, explanations for the change differ, and support for the arguments varies.

The archaeological evidence for a shift in land use seems strongly supported by studies in the White Mountains and Toquima Range (Bettinger 1991; Thomas 1982); however, the detailed reports that would allow for independent assessment of the data remain to be completed. Nonetheless, the combination of extensive surveys and intensive excavations at both locales, followed by a suite of analytical studies, allows for the examination of broad spatial patterns and, at the same time, the more comprehensive inventory of cultural material and secure definition of components derived through excavation. In contrast, minimal excavations and patchy survey coverage in the southern

Sierra Nevada provide for less rigorous archaeological evidence. Still, researchers in that region (Roper Wickstrom 1992; Stevens 2002) have demonstrated reasonable support for a similar trend in land use, one that is influenced by local environmental and cultural factors.

In a larger regional context, alpine studies in the western Great Basin are also more strongly supported by studies in the lower elevations, which have provided subsistence-settlement models against which the high-elevation data can be compared.

Although some aspects of the model are debated, and the early prehistory remains to be clarified (see Chapter 2), settlement models hinge on substantial studies by a group of

47 researchers with a continuing interest in the region. In the western Sierra and in Yosemite in particular, regional research designs point out multiple avenues for research, but the understanding of prehistory has been hampered by various factors, including an overabundance of compliance- as opposed to research-driven projects, mixed components in subsurface deposits, and what is understood to be generally poor preservation of organic remains.

Despite the similarities in the archaeological records, there are some discrepancies that should be highlighted. First, Canaday (1997) found few archaeological sites in the alpine zones of four of the five mountain ranges he investigated in Nevada, even in those ranges adjacent to densely populated valleys where the population pressure model would predict archaeological sites. In the Toiyabe Range, the single mountain range with abundant archaeological sites, including a few sites with rock ring dwellings, hunting was thought to have persisted over time as the primary function. In the southern Sierra, the less rich artifact inventories at Taboose Pass and concentrations of sites along travel corridors suggested that residential use in the marginal alpine zone was only worthwhile if access was relatively easy and economic or social gains could be made (Stevens 2002).

In Yosemite, studies have not yet been undertaken in which change over time is examined across a broad geographic spectrum. The present work aimed to at least partially address this gap and thereby contribute to the understanding of high-elevation land use in the Sierra Nevada.

STUDY PROBLEM AND THEORY

The underlying theoretical orientation of this study leans toward evolutionary ecology, as opposed to approaches that view power, agency, and history as the primary

48 means of culture change, although it is recognized that the latter can influence cultural change. Evolutionary ecology applies the framework of evolutionary biology to the study of adaptive design in behavior, life history, and morphology (Bird and O’Connell 2006;

Winterhalder and Smith 2000). Behavioral ecology—a subset of evolutionary ecology— examines behavior in terms of Darwinian fitness, looking to the socio-ecological context to explain observed patterns. The approach was originally developed in the 1960s and

1970s in the biological sciences and later applied in anthropological inquiry as human behavioral ecology. Archaeological research carried out under the umbrella of human behavioral ecology commonly focuses on such topics as changes in diet breadth and resource intensification, the links between technology and foraging, the relationships between central place foraging and resource transport, competition and colonization among foragers, and the origins of agriculture (Bird and O’Connell 2006). These studies typically employ the diet breadth and patch choice models of optimal foraging theory, which assume that maximizing the rate of caloric intake, or reaching some threshold more quickly, enhances fitness (Bird and O’Connell 2006). In essence, the models are cost-benefit analyses, entailing a consideration of goals, decision-making variables, trade- offs, currencies, and constraints.

Within this perspective, prehistoric use of the study area is viewed as a consequence of economic decisions associated with the resource potential of the area, the productivity of the core lowland areas, scheduling conflicts with other subsistence activities, and the cost of traveling to the upper elevations (cf. Stevens 2002). The study also assumes that prehistoric use of the uplands was influenced by cultural developments in the lowlands on either side of the crest, largely in terms of mobility strategies, resource

49 acquisition, and population dynamics. Finally, changes in the demand for obsidian from eastern Sierra Nevada sources and exchange between eastern and western groups, in general, are assumed to have influenced use of the high elevations.

The current study first examines Yosemite’s high-elevation archaeological record for subsistence-settlement change over time, and second explores any observed changes as a consequence of intensification in the core lowlands to the east and west. Evidence of a shift in subsistence-settlement might include changes in site locations or site constituents after about 1350 B.P. (Roper Wickstrom 1993; Stevens 2002). Given the similarities in natural environment, cultural background, and cultural material between the central and southern Sierra Nevada, this study follows Stevens’ (2002:125, 128) broad grouping of archaeological sites as indicative of either limited or intensive use to investigate potential changes in land use over time. Archaeological expectations for sites exhibiting limited use are low tool diversity, high frequencies of obsidian debitage, limited diversity in raw material, and an absence of ground stone and structural features.

Sites with these attributes are thought to represent short-term occupation, perhaps related to travel, hunting, or obsidian procurement activities. Residential sites or more intensive- use sites may exhibit rock rings, structural depressions, bedrock mortars, ground stone artifacts, midden, rock art, and higher diversity in artifact forms. These sites are thought to represent extended habitation by social groups including men, women, and children, exploitation of a variety of plant and animal resources, tool manufacture and maintenance, and perhaps exchange with other groups.

Changes in site constituents over time would be indicated by two possible outcomes. First, a higher frequency of sites indicating a residential focus or intensive

50 use—those with dwellings and milling equipment—should be late period sites (post-1350

B.P.), as indicated by arrow points and thin hydration rims. Second, a higher frequency of sites indicating limited use—those with a less diverse array of lithic material and a lack of plant processing implements—should be early period sites (pre-1350 B.P.), as indicated by dart points and thicker hydration rims. If such temporal patterns are present, and trade and travel were primary determinants in structuring residential use, the density of sites should be higher along drainage corridors leading from trans-Sierra passes, and residential sites should occur more commonly in those locations. In addition, early period sites indicating a logistical hunting focus should occur in higher frequencies over a more extensive area.

Chapter 4

METHODS

This chapter describes the existing Yosemite data sets, methods used in field, laboratory, and analytical work, and limitations and assumptions of the study. To address the research issues, the study consolidated a sample of Yosemite’s previously collected high-elevation data to identify the range of site constituents and their implied functions through time, and conducted minimal surface collections from selected sites to increase chronological information for sites and features within the study area. The study area encompasses about 42,500 ha (105,000 acres) of land, between approximately 8500 ft elevation on the west and 12,000 ft near the crest of the Sierra (see Figure 2 in Chapter

2), nearly all of which is located in the upper Tuolumne River watershed. The primary advantage of the investigation lies in its regional approach, in which a large number of sites and isolates representing diverse spatial, temporal, and functional conditions are compared and contrasted. This geographically expansive approach serves to mediate the drawbacks inherent in a surface study somewhat and, as noted above, such studies have not been recently undertaken in Yosemite’s higher elevations.

DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING DATA SETS

A major component of the study entailed examination and compilation of

Yosemite project, site, isolate, and artifact data sets to address the research issues. The

Park’s Geographic Information System (GIS) provided the framework for the project, with its numerous natural and cultural resource data layers. Three of the archaeological data layers—surveyed areas, site locations, and isolate locations—provided spatial data

52 and the requisite information for linking to the more detailed site records, project reports, artifact catalogs, and analytical data.

Surveyed Areas

Archaeological work in the study area dates to the early 1950s, when James

Bennyhoff of the University of California Archaeological Survey conducted the first systematic investigation in the park. Through a park-wide survey sample and limited test excavations at four sites, Bennyhoff (1956a) prepared the region’s first archaeological synthesis, in addition to very brief site records. It wasn’t until the 1970s that the next major archaeological investigation, a survey of the park’s developed areas, took place

(Napton and Greathouse 1976). Beginning in the early 1980s, archaeological work has been undertaken in a fairly consistent manner, guided by the park-wide research designs

(Hull and Moratto 1999; Moratto 1981) and driven largely by compliance with historic preservation law.

Much of the recent archaeological work in Yosemite’s high country has entailed small- to medium-scale surveys of areas sustaining heavy visitor use, focusing on canyon bottoms, lake basins, trail corridors, and developed zones. Table A-1 (Appendix A) lists the specific projects of interest to the thesis and their respective references. Site records and short, descriptive reports summarize each project. In general, this work has also attempted to resolve data gaps in the earlier archaeological surveys through re-survey, rerecording sites, or updating site records to current standards. Diagnostic or at-risk artifacts were collected during most survey efforts, but only two of the larger projects within the study area—the Tioga Road and Virginia Canyon surveys—involved further

53 geochemical and obsidian hydration analyses of the recovered material (Laird 1988;

Mundy 1992).

The GIS layer depicts the boundaries of surveys conducted since the mid-1970s, those projects considered of sufficient reliability for identification and documentation of prehistoric sites. Taken together, this body of work encompasses approximately 9800 acres, providing a nonrandom sample of the high-elevation zone between 8500 and nearly 12,000 ft west of the crest of the Sierra. The survey sample is biased geographically and by elevation zone. In terms of geography, approximately 71 percent of the sample (n=6988 acres) is represented by locations leading to trans-Sierra passes

(Table 3). Virginia Canyon, Tuolumne Meadows, and Lyell Canyon have received the most extensive survey coverage within this group, totaling about 5360 acres or 55 percent of the overall surveyed area. Conversely, locations outside of direct trans-Sierra routes, though numerous, include only about 2816 surveyed acres, or 29 percent of the sample.

In regard to elevation, the subalpine zone, encompassing the lower elevations of the study area, is over-represented in the survey sample (Table 4). Over 8100 acres of surveyed terrain, or 83 percent of the sample, is below 10,000 ft in elevation. In contrast, only 1700 acres (17%) have been surveyed in areas over 10,000 ft in elevation. This uneven survey coverage implies that site distributions by geographic and elevational zones should be examined as a percentage of survey acreage (e.g., site density) rather than as simple frequency measures. Accordingly, patterns of site distribution are considered in Chapter 6 as number of sites per 100 acres surveyed.

Table 3. Survey Data by Geographic Area.

Geographic Location Elevation Range of Acres Percent (North to South) Surveyed Area (ft) Surveyed of Total Expected Trans-Sierra Corridors Matterhorn Canyon 8400-9600 390 4% Spiller Canyon 8800-9500 279 3% Virginia Canyon, Summit and Virginia passes 8300-10300 1728 18% Tuolumne Meadows 8400-8900 2635 27% Dana Fork, Dana Meadows, Tioga Pass 8800-9950 456 5% Parker Pass, Mono Pass, Parker Pass Creek 9600-11,100 500 5% Lyell Canyon 8700-11,100 1000 10%

Subtotal 6988 71%

Expected Non-Corridor Contexts Northern Lakes* 9300-10,700 379 4% Cold Canyon, Conness Creek 8000-9100 470 5% Tuolumne to Young Lakes trail corridors 8700-9900 200 2% Dog Lake 9200 30 <0.5% Gaylor Lake, Granite Lake, Gaylor Creek 9300-10,400 400 4% Mt. Dana slope 9600-11,900 613 6% Elizabeth Lake and trails 8800-9500 110 4% Rafferty Creek 8800-10,000 314 3% Vogelsang and Ireland Lake area 9800-10,700 300 3%

Subtotal 2816 29%

Study Area Total 9804 100% *Miller, Spiller, Soldier, Return, Onion, McCabe, and Young lakes.

Table 4. Survey and Site Data by Elevation Zone.

Elevation Acres Surveyed Percent of Total # Sites # Sites per Range (ft) Within Study Area Surveyed Area 100 Acres 8000-9000 5,172 53% 188 3.64 9000-10,000 2,957 30% 135 4.57 10,000-11,000 1,509 15% 49 3.25 11,000-12,000 192 2% 1 0.52 >12,000 - - - -

Total 9830 100% 373

Site and Isolate Data

Two GIS layers contain the site and isolate data. The isolate layer includes a brief description of the cultural material and accession information for collected artifacts. In total, 172 prehistoric isolates have been documented in the study area, including debitage scatters of less than five pieces and isolated flaked stone tools. A review of the GIS layer and accompanying project reports confirmed that 29 projectile points were temporally diagnostic, and these were included within the overall chronological data set for the current study.

The archaeological sites GIS layer depicts site boundaries and designation

(trinomial, primary number, or temporary number) for each of the 373 prehistoric sites within the study area. The paper site records at the Yosemite Archeology Office, along with the individual project reports and notes, provided detailed site information. Site attributes were compiled in Excel spreadsheets, as follows: site designation, elevation, feature types and counts, artifact types and counts, estimated amount of debitage for the site as a whole (when available), maximum flake density per square meter (when available), and flaked stone material types. Bedrock mortar features were further detailed by numbers of features, mortars, and slicks, and measurements of individual milling surfaces. Appendix A provides summary tables for site and bedrock mortar attributes.

The Yosemite data sets have been generated through relatively consistent survey and site documentation procedures over the past three decades. For example, survey transects have measured 15–20 m in width, while sites have been defined as five or more items within a 500-m2 area or a cultural feature such as a bedrock mortar or rock construct. Materials not meeting the criteria for sites have been documented as isolates. A

56 gap of 30 m between materials has been considered sufficient for the identification of site boundaries. However, some of the records, particularly those created in the 1950s, contain very little information by today’s standards. Twenty-eight sites within the study area have not been re-documented since that era. As such, their utility relates mainly to their presence within a particular geographic area or elevational zone.

Excavations

Limited excavations have been previously conducted at seven sites in Tuolumne

Meadows and nine sites at Dana Meadows (Table A-1; Bennyhoff 1956b; Hull et al.

1995; Montague 1996a, 1996b; Vittands 1994), mainly in support of various construction undertakings. At a minimum, all of these projects included obsidian hydration and geochemical and/or visual sourcing studies, while radiocarbon dates are relatively few in number. In addition to the excavations, obsidian studies data are available for five flaked stone tool caches in the study vicinity, three recovered from Tuolumne Meadows, one from Parker Pass Creek, and one near Glen Aulin. The latter is located several miles downstream of Tuolumne Meadows and just outside of the study area. Final reports remain to be completed for several of these projects, although the analytical data are incorporated into the present study.

Chronological Data

Chronological information was derived from temporally diagnostic materials, obsidian hydration measurements, and radiocarbon dates reported in site records, project reports, artifact catalog databases, and the park’s obsidian studies database (Appendix A).

Obsidian hydration and source data are limited to survey collections from Virginia

Canyon, Tuolumne Meadows, and Dana Meadows, a few flaked stone tool caches, and

57 the excavated sites in Tuolumne and Dana meadows. Thus, the primary chronological information for the study area as a whole relied on temporally diagnostic projectile points and the obsidian studies conducted as part of the thesis.

Classification of Yosemite’s projectile points has been most comprehensively outlined by Hull (1989b, 1991), following work in the Great Basin (e.g., Baumhoff and

Byrne 1959; Bettinger and Taylor 1974; Lanning 1963; Thomas 1981) and the lower

Sierran foothills (Moratto 1972). Projectile points of the Desert, Rose Spring, and Elko series are most abundant, with fewer specimens of Concave Base (Humboldt and Sierra),

Contracting Stem (Sierra and Triangular), Pinto, and Western Great Basin Stemmed.

Untypable, fragmented, or reworked pieces were classified as arrow or dart forms in the interest of obtaining a general period of use, dating before or after ca. 1500 B.P.

A timeframe for the introduction and spread of the bedrock mortar has been suggested for the foothills and the southern Sierra Nevada, but dates have not yet been derived independently for Yosemite. It remains possible that bedrock mortar production in the higher elevations could be distinct from the pattern observed in the lower elevations (cf. Stevens 2002, 2003). Recent work at a site in Yosemite Valley, where numerous pestles, handstones, and millingstones were documented in subsurface context, suggests an earlier inception for the bedrock mortar, but the analysis is still preliminary in nature and has not yet been fully reported (Jackson and Buettner 2009). The present study relies on data from the larger region, where researchers posit a transition from portable groundstone to the bedrock mortar within the past 1500 years and widespread use by about 650 B.P. (Jackson 1991; Jackson and Dietz 1984; Moratto 1999, 2002; Rosenthal

2008).

SAMPLING AND FIELD METHODS

The thesis fieldwork, designated Yosemite project YOSE 2007 M, was carried out between July 28 and September 30, 2007. A small sample of obsidian debitage and artifacts from surface contexts of 45 sites, representing 12 percent of the sites in the study area, was recovered to supplement the existing chronological data. Site selection was based on geographic setting and site constituents, the goal to achieve a 10 percent sample of intensive and limited use sites in diverse geographic locations. New findings in the field, however, resulted in reclassification of several sites and, thus, changes in the sample. Several sites originally documented as lithic scatters were found to contain materials such as bedrock mortars and pestles, portable groundstone, or a rock ring, thereby increasing the intensive-use sample. Two features previously recorded as pictographs in Lyell Canyon were identified as natural phenomena. CA-TUO-3846, documented as a single pictograph panel, was removed from the study, reducing the total number of sites to 373.

As an objective of the study was to increase the number of sites with chronological data, locations with diagnostic materials or obsidian data were generally not included. In addition, sites containing less than approximately 20 flakes were avoided during sampling in order to preserve surface manifestations of these resources. Table 5 summarizes the fieldwork conducted and the materials collected; in all, surface collections were made at 36 limited-use and nine intensive-use sites.

As key indicators of longer-term or residential use in high country settings, rock ring features and depressions interpreted as dwellings were one focus of sampling among the intensive-use sites. Sites with depressions, rock rings, or unidentified rock alignments

Table 5. Summary of Fieldwork and Collected Material.

Site Location Type # # FEA # DEB # EMPs # PP SCUs Sampled Collected Collected Collected TUO-0046/H Lyell Canyon L 3 - 15 - - TUO-0113 Tuolumne L 3 - 15 - - TUO-0128/ Tuolumne I 6 - 29 1 - 129/130/504 TUO-0131 Tuolumne L 3 - 16 - - TUO-0159 Upper Evelyn L 3 - 15 - 1 TUO--164 Elizabeth L 2 - 14 - - TUO-0172 Delaney Ck L 3 - 15 - - TUO-0187 Parker Pass I 3 - 15 - 2 TUO-0245 Ireland Lake L 2 - 15 - 1 TUO-0494 Tuolumne L 2 - 14 - - TUO-0751 Virginia I 2 1 19 1 3 TUO-0755 Gaylor Lakes L 2 - 15 - 1 TUO-3765 Virginia I 1 2 24 - - TUO-3769 Virginia L 1 - 10 - - TUO-3777 Virginia L 3 - 14 - - TUO-3783 Virginia I 1 3 30 - 3 TUO-3789 Virginia L 3 - 15 - - TUO-3793 Virginia L 2 - 8 - - TUO-3803 Virginia L 3 - 15 - - TUO-3805 Virginia L 2 - 13 - - TUO-3811 Virginia I 2 1 20 - 4 TUO-3834 Lyell Canyon L 1 - 15 - - TUO-3841 Lyell Canyon L 5 - 13 1 - TUO-3850 Lyell Canyon L 3 - 15 - - TUO-3943 Tuolumne L 3 - 15 - - TUO-4230 Evelyn Lake L 3 - 15 - - TUO-4440 Tuolumne L 1 - 8 - - TUO-4490 Lyell Canyon L 3 - 15 - - TUO-4635 Spiller I 3 - 13 - 1 TUO-4637 Lyell Canyon L 2 - 14 1 - TUO-4639 Lyell Canyon I 5 - 13 2 3 TUO-4641 Cold Canyon L 2 - 15 - - TUO-4660 Rafferty Ck L 1 - 10 - - TUO-4665 Lyell Canyon I 1 2 14 1 3 TUO-4851 Lyell Canyon L 2 - 14 - - TUO-4857 Lyell Canyon L 3 - 15 - - TUO-4859 Lyell Canyon L 3 - 15 1 - TUO-4907 Tuolumne L 3 - 15 - - TUO-4972 Virginia L 3 - 15 - - P-55-6558 Parker Pass L 3 - 15 - - P-55-6561 Parker Pass L 2 - 15 - 1 P-55-6564 Parker Pass L 1 - 15 - 1 P-55-6775 Spiller L 3 - 15 - 1

Site Location Type # # FEA # DEB # EMPs # PP SCUs Sampled Collected Collected Collected P-55-6776 Spiller L 1 - 7 - - P-55-6782 Gaylor Lakes L 3 - 14 1 -

Total 112 9 676 9 25 Key: SCU=surface collection unit; FEA=feature; DEB=debitage; EMP=edge-modified piece; PP=projectile point; I=intensive-use site; L=limited-use site.

were visited to confirm the identification of the features and determine whether sufficient material was available in surface contexts for dating. At Yosemite sites, rock rings may have functioned variously as hunting blinds, dwellings, storage caches, or in ceremonial contexts, and these are differentiated mainly by size, association with other cultural material, and environmental context. Five sites were selected for sampling.

Surface collections included temporally diagnostic artifacts judged to be at risk of illegal collection and a sample of debitage from the 45 sites. A maximum of between 15 and 30 pieces of debitage was recovered from sites, depending on whether rock ring features were present or not. At the five sites containing rock rings, samples were recovered from areas within or immediately adjacent to the features in order to increase the probability of association. An additional sample of flakes was recovered from surface collection units (SCUs) established in other areas of these sites to identify whether multiple occupations were present.

At sites lacking rock rings, SCUs measuring 5-x-5-m in size were established according to the debitage distributions at each site. Due to the tendency of materials to move upward in sediment columns (Jackson 1990), debitage concentrations were assumed to represent the greatest temporal span at any given site and were thus the focus of collection. The size of SCUs was increased from the original proposal to account for

61 generally sparse distributions of debitage and the relatively high frequencies of materials with patina, the latter thought to adversely affect hydration rims. In the southern study area, where Casa Diablo obsidian predominates, efforts were made to select pieces with the visual characteristics of that source. Similarly, Bodie Hills obsidian was selected from sites in the northern study area. Depending on the surface distributions of material and the size of the site, between one and six SCUs were established per location. These were oriented to true north, and plotted on the existing site maps by distance and bearing from the site datum to the southwestern unit corner.

A project-specific site record update, detailing sampling procedures, collected material, museum accession and catalog numbers, and photographic information, was completed for each site. Materials observed but not collected in the field were recorded in the site record update and subsequently added to the tallies of artifacts and features present at individual locations. The locations of SCUs, collected projectile points, and additional observed artifacts and features were plotted on existing site or feature maps, and all collected materials were assigned temporary field specimen numbers in the field.

Digital photographs, designated “roll” DC-07M, were taken of previously unrecorded features and diagnostic artifacts left in place, and tracked on a photographic log. The update form, maps, and photographs are filed in the site record forms at the Yosemite

Archeology Office and included in the archive for the project.

LABORATORY METHODS

All recovered artifacts were processed following the laboratory standards outlined in the Yosemite Survey Manual for cataloging and analysis. Debitage and artifacts were generally cleaned by dry brushing and, in some cases, washing. Debitage was also

62 examined to determine if tools were inadvertently included in debitage collections in the field. Nine flakes with edge modification and one very small projectile point midsection, were removed and cataloged separately. The Yosemite Museum Registrar issued a permanent catalog number for each lot (e.g., debitage from an SCU) and individual artifact, and a single accession number (YOSE-6945) for the project archive. These numbers track the artifacts upon arrival from the field through reporting and transfer of materials to the Yosemite Museum. All materials were cataloged using the Yosemite catalog, an Excel spreadsheet documenting catalog and accession numbers, artifact type, description, material, dimensions, site, provenience, recorder, and date. Artifact tags with a subset of these data fields were printed on archival paper and placed in plastic bags with the artifacts for museum storage.

As depicted in Table 5 above, a total of 676 pieces of debitage, nine edge- modified pieces and 25 projectile points were collected. All pieces of debitage were counted and weighed by SCU lot. Pieces submitted for obsidian hydration analysis were further described by size class (3-6 mm, 6-12 mm, 12-20 mm, and >20 mm), general reduction technique (biface or core), presence of cortex (primary, secondary, or absent), and presence of platform (denoted as flake or flake fragment). Flakes submitted for obsidian studies are indicated by a letter designation following the catalog number. These pieces are maintained separately within their SCU lots so that sourcing and hydration results can be linked to individual pieces.

Edge-modified pieces were measured and cataloged individually, and described morphologically following Yosemite standards. For each artifact, the number of modified edges was identified macroscopically, and each edge was characterized in terms of flake

63 surface (ventral or dorsal), location of modification (proximal end, lateral edges, distal end, or a combination thereof), extent of modification along the edge (partial [<50 percent, or continuous [>50%]), extent of modification from the edge (marginal, subinvasive, or invasive), and outline (straight, irregular, cusped, concave, or a combination thereof).

Projectile points were classified following Yosemite, Sierra Nevada foothill, and

Great Basin classifications (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959; Bettinger and Taylor 1974; Hull

1989b, 1991; Lanning 1963; Moratto 1972; Thomas 1981). Each piece was measured and weighed, and described in terms of type, condition, and flaking patterns. Diagnostic artifacts were scanned to scale on both faces, and metric attributes following Thomas

(1981) were recorded and added to the park’s projectile point database, along with the obsidian studies results.

All written documentation, artifacts, photographs, and selected digital data were transferred to the Yosemite Collections under Accession No. YOSE-6945. Copies of site record updates, digital files, and the final thesis document are maintained at the Yosemite

Archeology Office.

ANALYTICAL STUDIES

Of the 45 sites sampled in the field, 38 sites were selected for further obsidian studies based on confidence level in visual sourcing, sample size, and condition of the debitage (i.e., relative absence of patina). Table 6 summarizes the obsidian studies for the present study by site and context of collection. The goal was to maximize the obsidian hydration sample to add to the pool of chronological information. Written approval for the partially destructive analysis (e.g., obsidian hydration) was obtained prior to the

Table 6. Summary of Obsidian Studies by Site.

Site Feature Debitage Points SCU Debitage* Total XRF, OH OH XRF, OH OH CA-TUO-0046/H - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-0113 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-0128/129/130/504 - - - 20 20 CA-TUO-0131 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-0159 - - 1 10 11 CA-TUO-0172 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-0187 - - 2 10 12 CA-TUO-0245 - - 1 10 11 CA-TUO-0494 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-0751 3 - 2 10 15 CA-TUO-0755 - - 1 10 11 CA-TUO-3765 5 6 - 5 16 CA-TUO-3769 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-3777 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-3783 4 7 1 5 17 CA-TUO-3789 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-3803 - - - 9 9 CA-TUO-3805 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-3811 3 1 4 8 16 CA-TUO-3841 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4230 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4490 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4635 - - 1 10 11 CA-TUO-4637 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4639 - - 3 10 13 CA-TUO-4641 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4660 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4665 4 3 3 3 13 CA-TUO-4851 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4857 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4859 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4907 - - - 10 10 CA-TUO-4972 - - - 10 10 P-55-006561 - - 1 10 11 P-55-006564 - - 1 10 11 P-55-006775 - - - 10 10 P-55-006776 - - - 7 7 P-55-006782 - - - 10 10 Total 19 17 21 367 424 Key: SCU=surface collection unit; XRF=x-ray fluorescence; OH=obsidian hydration. *See Table 7 for random sample debitage submitted for XRF.

65 analysis from the Yosemite Superintendent, through the Supervisory Archeologist and

Chief of Resources Management and Science. The Northwest Research Obsidian Studies

Laboratory conducted the obsidian studies, included here as Appendix B.

To control for the possible effects of obsidian source on the rate of hydration, debitage visually identified as Casa Diablo or Bodie Hills obsidian was selected for obsidian hydration analysis. Based on previous studies in this area of the park, obsidian from these two sources was expected to predominate in the surface collections, with fewer specimens of Mt. Hicks, Mono Craters, Mono Glass Mountain, and

Truman/Queen. Although it was considered ideal to source each specimen by geochemical means, x-ray fluorescence analysis is quite costly and funding was limited for this work. Visual sourcing of materials followed standards previously established in the region (Bettinger et al. 1984; Hull and Mundy 1985). To increase the reliability of visual sourcing, park collections previously sourced by geochemical means were reviewed, along with a small type collection of obsidian previously collected from Casa

Diablo and Bodie Hills.

Obsidian studies were conducted in two stages, beginning with three subsamples for x-ray fluorescence analysis. All specimens were larger than about 1 cm in diameter, the standard minimum size necessary for reliable results. The first subsample included 21 projectile points, subjected to both geochemical sourcing and hydration analysis, following previous Yosemite studies. The results contributed to assessments of individual feature and site chronologies and to the development of high-elevation, source-specific projectile point hydration ranges.

The second subsample included random samples of visually sourced Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo debitage recovered from the SCUs to assess the reliability of visual sourcing (Table 7). Twenty pieces visually ascribed to Bodie Hills and 25 pieces identified as Casa Diablo obsidian, comprising about 15 and 10 percent of each sample, respectively, were subjected to geochemical analysis. Results of the sourcing study indicated that all of the Casa Diablo flakes were correctly identified, while 18 (90%) of the Bodie Hills sample were correctly identified. The two pieces misidentified were both

Mt. Hicks obsidian. All in all, the results suggested a high level of confidence in the visual selection of Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo debitage for the project.

The third x-ray fluorescence subsample included 19 flakes recovered from the rock ring features. An initial visual assessment indicated greater source diversity in this group than anticipated, while Hull (2002b) has also suggested that use of Mono Craters obsidian increased in the late prehistoric period, the time frame thought to represent at least some of the features.

The obsidian hydration sample consisted of the 21 projectile points noted above and 403 pieces of debitage (Table 6). Most of the debitage (n=367) was collected from the SCUs, a sample that included the 45 geochemically sourced pieces. Nineteen geochemically sourced flakes collected from the rock rings, in addition to 17 visually sourced flakes too small for x-ray fluorescence analysis, made up the remainder of the debitage sample. The sample included a maximum of 20 pieces per site, although most sites were represented by only 10 pieces of debitage.

The overall sample of sites with relatively substantial chronological data, either obtained through previous investigations or the present study, is listed in Table 8 by

Table 7. Results of Obsidian Visual Reliability Assessment.

Sample Type Catalog No. Site Unit Source (XRF) Random BH YOSE 218641a CA-TUO-0751 SCU 2 MH YOSE 218647c CA-TUO-3765 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218650c CA-TUO-3769 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218652a CA-TUO-3777 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218657b CA-TUO-3783 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218661b CA-TUO-3789 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218661d CA-TUO-3789 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218666a CA-TUO-3803 SCU 1 MH YOSE 218667a CA-TUO-3803 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218668b CA-TUO-3803 SCU 3 BH YOSE 218669b CA-TUO-3805 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218670c CA-TUO-3805 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218672a CA-TUO-3811 SCU 1 BH YOSE 218673a CA-TUO-3811 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218699a CA-TUO-4635 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218716b CA-TUO-4641 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218739d CA-TUO-4972 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218750b P-55-6775 SCU 2 BH YOSE 218751c P-55-6775 SCU 3 BH YOSE 218753a P-55-6776 SCU 1 BH Random CD YOSE 218604a CA-TUO-0046/H SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218607b CA-TUO-0113 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218612b CA-TUO-0128/129/130/504 SCU 3 CD-LM YOSE 218614b CA-TUO-0128/129/130/504 SCU 5 CD-LM YOSE 218619b CA-TUO-0131 SCU 3 CD-LM YOSE 218621a CA-TUO-0159 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218626a CA-TUO-0172 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218629a CA-TUO-0187 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218630a CA-TUO-0187 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218635c CA-TUO-0245 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218637c CA-TUO-0494 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218644b CA-TUO-0755 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218683a CA-TUO-3841 SCU 5 CD-LM YOSE 218691c CA-TUO-4230 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218695a CA-TUO-4490 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218707b CA-TUO-4639 SCU 3 CD-LM YOSE 218717a CA-TUO-4660 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218727a CA-TUO-4851 SCU 2 CD-SR YOSE 218729b CA-TUO-4857 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218730b CA-TUO-4857 SCU 3 CD-SR YOSE 218733b CA-TUO-4859 SCU 3 CD-LM YOSE 218736a CA-TUO-4907 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218745f P-55-6561 SCU 2 CD-LM YOSE 218747e P-55-6564 SCU 1 CD-LM YOSE 218755a P-55-6782 SCU 2 CD-LM Key: BH=Bodie Hills; CD=Casa Diabo; LM=Lookout Mountain; SR=Sawmill Ridge; MH=Mt. Hicks.

68 geographic area and site type. In all, temporal information is available for 17 (28%) of intensive-use sites and 39 (13%) of limited-use sites, for a total of 56 sites or 15 percent of the total sites in the study area. The unevenness of the sample indicates that the limited- and intensive-use data aren’t comparable to one another, and that patterns of use over time should be examined within rather than between data sets.

Table 8. Chronological Data Sample by Geographic Area and Use Type.

Location Total I-U I-U L-U L-U Sites Sites Sample Sites Sample Expected Trans-Sierra Corridor Matterhorn Canyon 4 - - 4 - Spiller Canyon 6 2 1 4 2 Virginia Canyon/Summit 65 17 4 48 6 &Virginia Tuolumne Meadows/lower river 85 16 5 69 8 Dana Fork/Tioga 47 17 4 30 5 Parker Pass Creek/Mono & Parker 29 2 1 27 3 Lyell Canyon/Donohue 67 4 2 63 7 Total 303 58 17 245 31 (29%) (13%)

Expected Non-Corridor Contexts Northern lakes* 9 - - 9 - Cold Canyon, Conness Creek 9 2 - 7 1 Tuolumne to Young Lakes trail 1 - - 1 - corridors Dog Lake 3 - - 3 - Delaney Creek 8 - - 8 1 Gaylor Lake, Granite Lake, Gaylor 4 - - 4 2 Creek Mt. Dana slope 2 - - 2 - Elizabeth Lake and trails 3 - - 3 - Rafferty Creek 13 - - 13 1 Vogelsang area to Ireland Lake 18 - - 18 3 Total 70 2 - 68 8 (12%)

Study Area Total 373 60 17 313 39 (28%) (13%) Key: I-U=intensive-use sites; L-U=limited-use sites. Sample includes sites sampled for the thesis and previously excavated sites. *Miller, Spiller, Soldier, Return, Onion, McCabe, and Young lakes.

Conversion of Obsidian Hydration Data

An important consideration was the conversion of the raw obsidian hydration data to estimated calendrical dates so that comparisons could be made between sites across the study area. The rate of obsidian hydration may be influenced by several variables, including temperature, relative humidity, obsidian source variability, intrinsic water of individual specimens, and soil chemistry. With the time depth of regional archaeological sites, paleoenvironmental change must also be regarded as a potential variable, although the range of temperature variability is presently unclear. Given the complexity of the hydration process, obsidian hydration measurements were considered as a coarse-grained measure of time in this study.

Hull’s (2001) rate equation for Casa Diablo obsidian in Yosemite contexts constitutes the primary means of converting relative hydration rim measurements to calendrical dates:

t=x2/[2.9822.1016e−10356.9(1/T]

In this equation, t=time in thousands of years, x=hydration in microns, e=base of natural

logarithm (2.718), T=temperature in °K (effective hydration temperature [EHT] in °C

+273.16). The formula is based on the diffusion model, calibrated radiocarbon dates from

feature contexts and associated obsidian hydration rim measurements, and provenience-

specific temperature estimates. The equation does not distinguish between the Casa

Diablo subsources, but most Yosemite artifacts geochemically sourced since Hughes’

(1994) intra-source study have been identified as Lookout Mountain obsidian, a pattern

confirmed by the thesis x-ray fluorescence data. Preliminary results from induced

70 hydration studies also suggest that the Lookout Mountain and Sawmill Ridge subsources hydrate at similar rates (Loyd et al. 1998).

With a widely used and reasonably effective rate equation for Casa Diablo obsidian already in place, Mundy’s (1993) diffusion cell study provided estimates for effective hydration temperature. Mundy emplaced Ambrose diffusion cells in surface and subsurface contexts for one year at 35 archaeological sites throughout Yosemite’s elevational range. Six of the sites are within the study area and represent its elevational extent, though none were specifically sampled for the thesis (Table 9). Given the surface context of the artifacts and the substantial difference in surface and subsurface temperatures, Mundy’s surface data were employed to estimate effective hydration temperature. Five of the six temperature readings vary between 9.14 and 12.55˚C, depending on elevation, while the remaining value, 7.31˚C at Tioga Pass, is anomalous.

Whether this low temperature reading represents a data error or a microclimatic difference remains unclear. Plotted against elevation, the five readings yield a R2 of 0.88, showing a high degree of correlation (Figure 3).

Table 9. Effective Hydration Temperature Data for Study Area Sites (after Mundy 1993).

Location Site Elev. (ft) Annual Mean Temperature by Depth (˚C) CA-TUO- 0 cm 25 cm 50 cm 75 cm Hanging Basket Unrecorded 10800 9.39 6.51 ------Mono Pass 759 10635 9.14 8.02 ------Tioga Pass 927 9920 7.31 5.23 4.89 --- Dana Meadows 2835 9440 10.95 7.88 ------Gaylor Creek 754 9290 10.36 8.52 8.04 --- Tuolumne Meadows 166 8580 12.55 7.47 6.78 6.60 Key: --- = data not collected.

14 y = -0.0014x + 23.731 R2 = 0.8774 12

6 EHT (degreesEHT C) 4

0 8,000 8,500 9,000 9,500 10,000 10,500 11,000 Elevation (ft)

Figure 3. Effective hydration temperature plotted against elevation (after Mundy 1993).

The regression equation, rounded to the nearest whole number, was used to estimate effective hydration temperature for the thesis sites. Sites were grouped into elevation ranges and assigned effective hydration temperature values, as follows: 8400-8800 ft,

12˚C; 8800-9500 ft, 11˚C; 9500-10,200, 10˚C; and 10,200-10,600 ft, 9˚C. Table A-4 in

Appendix A presents calibrated dates for the raw obsidian hydration readings.

Researchers have criticized the diffusion cell method, in general, due to the short- term nature of cell emplacement and the disparate activation energies of the temperature cells compared with those of obsidian (e.g., Ridings 1996; Rogers 2007). There are also specific problems related to the Yosemite formula. First, obsidian hydration dating should be considered with caution in dating early deposits since paired obsidian hydration and radiocarbon dates are not yet available for older material (Hull 2001). Second, similar paired data are not yet available or abundant for the higher elevations of the Park, particularly above 9500 ft, suggesting additional caution in interpreting the thesis results.

Third, while Hull’s formula controls for temperature and obsidian source, variation in obsidian hydration seems to increase over time, even in contexts where those variables are held constant. For example, obsidian artifact caches, which presumably represent very short-term manufacturing and depositional events, tend to demonstrate increased variability in obsidian hydration measurements over time. Two biface caches in Yosemite with relatively thin rims, the Pate Valley and Glen Aulin caches, varied only slightly from 1.7 to 1.8 microns (Humphreys 1994). In contrast, two biface caches with thicker rims, one in the eastern Sierra and one at Yosemite, varied from 3.1−3.7 microns and

3.4−3.9 microns, respectively (Goldberg et al. 1990:176; Hull and Mundy 1985).

With these concerns in mind, the present study employed Hull’s rate equation and

Mundy’s temperature data to estimate calendrical dates. These dates were subsequently grouped into 500-year intervals for analysis. This approach helps to overcome some of the concerns about the hydration and data conversion processes, while also allowing for assessment of broad trends in settlement over time.

A final issue of concern revolved around the Bodie Hills materials prevalent in the northern part of the study area, and whether or not Hull’s formula could be applied to hydration measurements for this source. Accelerated hydration experiments indicate that

Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills obsidians hydrate at similar rates (Tremaine 1991), but more recent results of induced hydration studies, though preliminary in nature, have suggested that various Bodie Hills subsources hydrate at different rates (Loyd et al. 1998). These subsources, however, cannot yet be distinguished by geochemical sourcing studies. To address this issue, temporally diagnostic projectile point hydration ranges for the study

73 area were considered as a coarse-grained means of comparing the rates of hydration for

Casa Diablo and Bodie Hills obsidians.

In general, data for common projectile point forms in the study area show the expected increase in mean obsidian hydration values (Table 10), supporting the regional chronology and the use of obsidian hydration for ordering materials in time. Mean obsidian hydration values for all sources are comparable within the Desert series, while values tend to diverge as rims increase in thickness. Thus, it may be more important to

Table 10. Selected Projectile Point Obsidian Hydration Ranges by Obsidian Source.

Point series Source Count Range Mean SD Desert BH 8 1.0-2.3 1.4 0.4 CD 11 0.6-2.9 1.6 0.67 MC 2 1.2-1.6 1.4 0.28 MH 2 1.1-1.1 1.1 0 All sources 23 0.6-2.9 1.4 0.5

Rosegate BH 9 1.2-3.7 2.2 0.71 CD 7 1.0-2.5 1.8 0.60 MC/MGM 5 0.9-4.4 2.8 1.38 MH 2 1.4-3.8 2.6 1.71 Q 1 4.2 4.2 na All sources 24 0.9-4.4 2.3 1.01

Elko/Contracting stem BH 17 1.9-5.8 3.1 1.1 CD 11 1.3-5.5 3.1 1.4 MH 6 2.0-3.2 2.7 0.4 All sources 34 1.3-5.8 3.0 1.1

Concave base BH 5 1.4-4.3 2.5 1.3 CD 6 2.6-5.9 4.2 1.4 MGM 1 1.9 1.9 na MH 3 2.5-4.2 3.1 0.9 Q 3 2.2-5.0 3.2 1.5 All sources 18 1.4-5.9 3.3 1.3 Key: BH=Bodie Hills; CD=Casa Diablo; MC=Mono Craters; MGM=Mono Glass Mountain; MH=Mt. Hicks; Q=Queen; SD=standard deviation. *Does not include six specimens with NVH readings.

74 consider obsidian source as a factor in hydration rate variability in regard to older materials. Bodie Hills and Casa Diablo obsidians, however, appear to be relatively consistent, at least in regard to the Desert, Rosegate, and the combined Contracting

Stem/Elko series, suggesting it may be appropriate to employ Hull’s formula for converting obsidian hydration measurements to estimated calendrical dates. The obsidian hydration means for the Concave Base points do not compare well, possibly because of small sample size. Alternatively, people may have used them for a longer period of time than previously thought.

In the ensuing chapters, descriptive artifact data are presented as raw hydration measurements, while data summaries and analyses utilize estimated dates derived by

Hull’s (2001) rate equation. The appendices provide further detail per specimen,

Appendix B the raw obsidian hydration data and Appendix A the converted dates.

LIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

A few limitations and assumptions are inherent in this study. As noted above, the data have been generated mainly through compliance-related investigations and the surveyed areas were not randomly selected. It is, therefore, conceivable that aspects of the high-elevation settlement system have not yet been documented. This potential bias may be addressed through reference to archaeological investigations in adjacent high- elevation areas (cf. Jackson and Morgan 1999; Reynolds and Kerwin 2006; Roper

Wickstrom 1992; Stevens 2002; Van Bueren 1988), which do not differ substantially from Yosemite in terms of documented cultural material. An exception is a recently discovered complex of rock walls, blinds, and projectile points thought to represent a bighorn sheep drive (Scott 2007). This site is of particular interest because of its location

75 on Monument Ridge, to the east of Virginia Canyon above Green Creek. Although hunting blinds have been recorded in Yosemite, a complex similar to that of the

Monument Ridge site is currently unknown. In general, however, the high-elevation data from the central and southern Sierra Nevada demonstrate a similar range of archaeological phenomena, indicating the non-random nature of the survey data is unlikely to constitute a problem in this study.

With respect to chronology, temporal information is absent from a large proportion of the sites. While the surface collections made as part of the thesis help to address this issue to a limited extent, small hydration samples and time-diagnostic materials are likely not effective in measuring very incidental use episodes. Broad occupational trends, however, are almost certainly captured by this approach.

Assessments of both chronology and function for almost all sites are based solely on surface materials, while functions may have changed through time and even within the boundaries of a given site. This problem is at least partially mitigated through the generally slow rates of deposition in the higher elevations and the tendency of materials to be moved upward in sediment columns by various disturbance processes. Thus, materials from multi-component sites may be evident in surface contexts. At the same time, this movement of materials may obfuscate associations between obsidian artifacts and objects to be dated. It is difficult, for example, to date rock rings based on surface evidence alone if multiple components are evident. Confining collections to feature contexts alleviates that problem to some extent, but confidently ascertaining associations may require excavation samples, a level of work not proposed for this thesis.

Chapter 5

DESCRIPTION OF CULTURAL MATERIAL

This chapter first describes the cultural material collected or left in place during the thesis fieldwork, and subsequently summarizes classes of material and their distributions by geography and elevation in the study area as a whole. Detailed discussions of previously recorded collections and surface materials are provided in the individual project notes, site records, reports, and databases, on file at the Yosemite

Archeology Office. All thesis materials are archived under Accession YOSE-6945 in the

Yosemite Museum, with copies of documentation on file at the Yosemite Archeology

Office.

THESIS COLLECTIONS

In all, 676 pieces of debitage, 25 projectile points, and nine edge-modified pieces were collected. The artifact catalog, attached as Appendix C, presents catalog number, provenience information, descriptions, and relevant measurements for each lot or individual artifact. Detailed metric measurements and summary obsidian studies data for the temporally diagnostic projectile points are presented in Table 11, with scanned images of these artifacts provided in Figures 4 through 6. The obsidian studies data for selected time-sensitive point series are summarized along with those for the study area as a whole in Table 10 (Chapter 4).

Projectile Points

Twenty-one of the 25 projectile points were classified as follows: eight Desert

Side-notched, three Cottonwood Triangular, two Rose Spring, four Elko, one Contracting

Stem, two Concave Base, and one Pinto. One arrow point that may be a Rose Spring or

Table 11. Metric Attributes and Obsidian Studies Data for Classifiable Projectile Points.

Cat. Site Artifact LT LA LM WM WB WN Th Wt DSA PSA NO BIR WB/ Material/ No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) ° ° ° WM OH rim 218674 TUO-3811 CT 23.45 23.45 0 12.36 12.36 na 3.55 0.83 na na na 1.00 1.00 BH/0 218724 TUO-4665 CT 23.80 22.68 0 13.66 13.70 na 4.09 0.97 na na na 0.95 1.00 BH/2.3 218660 TUO-3783 CT ------0 19.96 19.96 na 3.90 1.16 na na na 1.00 1.00 chert 218746 P-55-6561 DSN ------6.15 3.39 0.55 205 ------LM/1.6 218623 TUO-0159 DSN-G ------7.16 3.10 0.52 203 160 43 ------LM/2.2 218658 TUO-3783 DSN-G ------0 12.50 12.50 7.21 2.64 0.39 223 177 46 --- 1.00 BH/1.5/4.9 218675 TUO-3811 DSN-G 18.17 17.44 0 11.91 11.91 9.6 2.14 0.40 205 180 25 0.96 1.00 BH/1.3 218676 TUO-3811 DSN-G 21.71 20.72 3.56 10.89 10.74 9.11 3.16 0.59 213 135 78 0.95 0.99 BH/1.3 218642 TUO-0751 DSN-S 29.50 25.87 ------6.96 3.27 0.83 204 193 11 0.88 --- MC/1.6 218643 TUO-0751 DSN-S 22.72 18.20 0 11.26 11.26 6.88 3.50 0.52 218 148 70 0.80 1.00 BH/1.5 218712 TUO-4639 DSN-S 24.73 19.64 8.48 12.43 12.38 6.51 2.55 0.59 190 180 10 0.79 1.00 LM/2.9 218725 TUO-4665 RS/DSN 18.33 18.33 3.90 10.15 --- 6.03 2.33 0.34 187 ------1.00 --- LM/UNR 218633 TUO-0187 RSCN ------5.66 --- 11.00 8.01 3.44 1.21 163 120 43 1.00 --- LM/1.1 218632 TUO-0187 RS ------13.98 --- 9.49 3.56 1.20 175 ------LM/2.3 218713 TUO-4639 ECN ------7.76 --- 19.96 13.96 5.48 3.33 175 143 32 1.00 --- SR/3.8 218714 TUO-4639 ECN ------12.65 32.79 24.07 20.68 5.76 4.33 195 113 82 1.00 0.73 BH/2.3 218752 P-55-6775 ECN 34.82 34.49 --- 21.43 --- 15.64 7.02 4.72 205 116 89 0.99 --- chert 218701 TUO-4635 EE ------12.74 22.74 18.61 13.86 7.45 4.72 233 126 107 --- 0.82 SR/UNR 218748 P-55-6564 SCS ------9.84 --- 8.01 11.97 7.00 4.39 152 60 92 1.00 --- BH/4.5 218636 TUO-0245 HCB ------13.45 na 8.37 2.73 na na na ------LM/5.1 218646 TUO-0755 SCB ------na 5.14 1.96 na na na ------Q/2.5 218677 TUO-3811 Pinto ------13.84 24.44 15.81 15.15 5.57 4.60 200 95 105 --- 0.65 LM/UNR 218723 TUO-4665 small cb ------17.05 13.70 na 2.34 0.55 na na na na --- SR/2.2

Key: LT =total length; LA=axial length; LM=length to maximum; WM=maximum width; WB=basal width; WN=neck width; Th=thick; Wt=weight; DSA=distal shoulder angle; PSA=proximal shoulder angle; NO=notch opening; BIR=basal indentation ratio; CT=Cottonwood Triangular; DSN=Desert Side-notched (G, S: General or Sierra subtype); RS=Rose Spring; RSCN=Rose Spring Corner-notched; ECN=Elko Corner-notched; EE=Elko Eared; HCB=Humboldt Concave Base; SCB=Sierra Concave Base; SCS=Sierra Contracting Stem; CB=concave base; PPF=projectile point fragment; na=not applicable; ---not measurable; BH=Bodie Hills; LM, SR=Casa Diablo, Lookout Mountain or Sawmill Ridge; MC=Mono Craters; Q=Queen;

UNR=unreadable rim. 77 78

Desert Side-notched point and three indeterminate specimens were also recovered. All of the points are made of obsidian with two exceptions fashioned of chert.

Desert Series

Both Cottonwood and Desert Side-notched points were originally defined in the

Great Basin (Baumhoff and Byrne 1959; Lanning 1963; Riddell 1951), where they are late prehistoric temporal markers, thought to post-date 650 B.P. (Thomas 1981). Both types are small, thin, and triangular in outline, reflecting use with the bow and arrow.

Cottonwood Triangular points are unnotched, while Desert Side-notched projectile points are notched high on the lateral edges. Two subtypes of the latter, based on distinctive basal configurations, are prevalent in Park collections: the General subtype has a straight to slightly concave base, while a basal notch characterizes the Sierra subtype.

Three Cottonwood Triangular and eight Desert Side-notched points were collected during the thesis fieldwork, the latter including four of the General subtype, three Sierra subtype, and one unclassifiable as to subtype (Figure 4). One Cottonwood point is made of chert, while the other 10 Cottonwood and Desert Side-notched specimens are obsidian: Bodie Hills (n=6) is the most commonly occurring obsidian source, followed by Casa Diablo-Lookout Mountain (n=3), and Mono Craters (n=1).

Obsidian hydration measurements vary between no visible hydration and 2.9 microns, although most rims (n=8) measure between 1.3 and 2.3 microns, consistent with regional hydration ranges. The 2.9-micron rim measured on Cat. No. 218712, however, is anomalous, and cannot be accounted for by technological factors.

Cat. No. 218725 (Figure 4l) is missing most of its proximal end and may be a

Desert Side notched or Rose Spring series point, although the small size suggests the

79 former. Made of Casa Diablo-Lookout Mountain obsidian, the hydration rim is unreadable and therefore does not aid in projectile point classification.

Rosegate Series

Thomas (1981) combined Rose Spring and Eastgate types into the Rosegate series due to their temporal and morphological similarities. These points mark the introduction of the bow and arrow in the region ca. 1500 B.P. and are believed to have been in common use though 650 B.P. and possibly into the historic period (Yohe 1992). Rose

Spring Corner-notched, Rose Spring Contracting Stem, Eastgate Split Stem, and Eastgate

Expandng Stem are recognized within the study area collections. The principal distinction between Rose Spring and Eastgate points is the triangular outline of the latter, long barbs, and notches that extend upwards from the base. Following Thomas (1981), basal widths of ≤1.0 cm generally distinguish Rosegate from Elko series points, although some

Rosegate points in Yosemite and eastern California exceed that measurement (Bettinger and Eerkens 1999; Hull 1989b).

The two Rose Spring points recovered during the thesis fieldwork, one a corner- notched piece (Cat. No. 218633; Figure 5b) and the other difficult to identify beyond the general Rose Spring group (Cat. No. 218632; Figure 5a), are manufactured of Casa

Diablo-Lookout Mountain obsidian. Hydration rims measure 1.1 and 2.3 microns, respectively. The thin rim comports with measurements for Desert series points, suggesting a later period of use for this specimen, while the thicker measurement is consistent with the hydration range for Rose Spring points.

Elko Series

Elko Corner-notched and Elko Eared points are large, thick dart points, conventionally dated between 3500 and 1350 B.P. in the western Great Basin (Bettinger and Taylor 1974; Heizer and Hester 1978; Thomas 1981). Bevill et al. (2005:228) suggested an age range of 5100 to 2200 B.P. in Yosemite based on obsidian hydration readings for Casa Diablo specimens from a wide variety of settings. This initial use in

Yosemite is substantially earlier than that of Great Basin specimens, and remains to be confirmed by radiocarbon dates.

A basal concavity or notch, resulting in the appearance of ears, separates the two

Elko types (Hull 1989b), while a basal width greater than 1.0 cm distinguishes the Elko and Rosegate series. Four specimens within the Elko series, three Elko Corner-notched and one Elko Eared, were recovered during the thesis fieldwork. The Elko Eared point

(Figure 5f), fashioned of Casa Diablo-Sawmill Ridge obsidian, yielded an unreadable hydration band. One of the corner-notched specimens is made of a yellowish-brown chert

(Figure 5e). A second Elko Corner-notched specimen (Figure 5c) made of Casa Diablo-

Sawmill Ridge obsidian retains a hydration rim of 3.8, consistent with the regional hydration range. The third Elko Corner-notched point (Figure 5d) yielded a relatively thin rim of 2.3 microns on Bodie Hills obsidian.

Contracting Stem Series

In the western Great Basin, an additional Elko variant, Elko Contracting-stem, is thought to be coeval with the Eared and Corner-notched forms (Basgall and Giambastiani

1995). In the western Sierra, these are morphologically similar to the Sierra Contracting

Stem and Triangular Contracting Stem points originally defined by Moratto (1972). The

81 western Sierra terminology is maintained here, but these specimens are considered to be dart points temporally congruent with the Elko series. The single Sierra Contracting Stem point (Figure 5g) recovered was made of Bodie Hills obsidian. The hydration rim of 4.5 microns is consistent with the regional hydration range for this series.

Concave Base Series

Concave Base points in the western Sierra constitute a confusing array of types of uncertain temporal affinity. Heizer and Clewlow (1968) originally identified three

Humboldt Concave-base types through work in Nevada, two of which are recognized in the western Sierra. Humboldt Basal-notched forms are long, triangular points with a broad basal notch, termed Sierra Concave Base in the western Sierra. Humboldt

Concave-base A and B points are leaf shaped and of variable size, with a basal width less than the maximum width and a relatively small basal indentation. These have been designated as Humboldt Concave Base forms in Yosemite. Finally, an additional form, termed Eared Concave Base in the western Sierra, is a long heavy point with a notched base and basal ears projecting on each side of the basal concavity. This point is similar in form to the Sierra Concave Base, and may represent reworked specimens of that type

(Hull 1989b).

The utility of these points as time markers remains an open question. Thomas

(1981) lumped them into one group in Monitor Valley, spanning a long period of time from 4950 to 1250 B.P. Research in the eastern Sierra indicates they are generally coeval with Elko points, or markers of the Newberry period (Basgall and Giambastiani 1995;

Jackson 1985), though the basal-notched form may persist into the early portion of the

Haiwee period and the concave base form initially appeared well before the Elko series

(Basgall et al. 2003). In the western Sierra, Moratto (1972) originally assigned the Sierra

Concave Base to the Chowchilla phase (ca. 800 B.C.–A.D. 550). Obsidian hydration data for Yosemite points support this time frame, but also suggest a somewhat longer span of use, overlapping with Rose Spring points (Bevill et al. 2005:231).

Two concave base points were collected during the current fieldwork. The

Humboldt Concave Base specimen (Figure 6a), made of Casa Diablo-Lookout Mountain obsidian, retains a hydration rim of 5.1 microns, commensurate with early Elko readings.

The Sierra Concave Base fragment (Figure 6b) is fashioned of Queen obsidian, with a comparatively thin rim of 2.5 microns.

Pinto Series

Large, bifurcate-stemmed dart points in the Great Basin have been most recently distinguished temporally and morphologically as the younger (ca. 5,000 to 3,000 B.P.), gracile Gatecliff series and the earlier (ca. 7,500 to 4,000 B.P.), more robust Pinto series

(Basgall and Hall 2000). In Yosemite, these point forms have been classified variously as Pinto, Gatecliff, and Indented-base Stemmed (cf. Hull 1989b; Hull et al. 1995). Few specimens have been documented to date, but obsidian hydration data for those pieces are similar to ranges for Elko points (Hull 1989b).

The single specimen recovered (Figure 5h) has an unreadable hydration band, and is manufactured of Casa Diablo-Lookout Mountain obsidian. The metric measurements for this piece (Table 11) fall between those proposed by Basgall and Hall (2000) to distinguish Gatecliff and Pinto points. However, the overall morphology of the specimen—the relatively long stem and the distal shoulder angle of 200°—suggests it is most appropriately classified as a Pinto series point.

a. 218660, TUO-3783 b. 218674, TUO-3811, BH- c. 218724, TUO-4665, BH-2.3 NVH

d. 218623, TUO-159, LM-2.2 e. 218642, TUO-751, MC-1.6 f. 218643, TUO-751, BH-1.5

g. 218658, TUO-3783, BH-1.5/4.9 h. 218675, TUO-3811, BH-1.3 i. 218676, TUO-3811, BH-1.3

j. 218712, TUO-4639, LM-2.9 k. 218746, P-55-6561, LM-1.6 l. 218725, TUO-4665, LM- UNR

Figure 4. Scanned images of projectile points: a-c, Cottonwood Triangular; d-k, Desert Side-notched; l, small arrow point, Desert Side-notched or Rose Spring.

a. 218632, TUO-187, LM-2.3 b. 218633, TUO-187, LM-1.1

c. 218713, TUO-4639, SR-3.8 d. 218714, TUO-4639, BH-2.3

e. 218752, P-55-6775 f. 218701, TUO-4635, SR-UNR

g. 218748, P-55-6564, BH-4.5 h. 218677, TUO-3811, LM-UNR

Figure 5. Scanned images of projectile points: a, Rose Spring; b, Rose Spring Corner- notched; c-e, Elko Corner-notched; f, Elko Eared; g, Sierra Contracting Stem; h, Pinto series.

a. 218636, TUO-245, LM-5.1 b. 218646, TUO-755, Q-2.5

c. 218659, TUO-3783 d. 218723, TUO-4665, SR-2.2

Figure 6. Scanned images of projectile points: a, Humboldt Concave Base; b, Sierra Concave Base; c-d, small, unidentifiable arrow point fragments.

Unclassifiable Fragments

Three projectile point fragments, all fashioned of obsidian, were too small for reliable identification. Catalog No. 218723 (Figure 6d), a small, thin fragment with a slightly concave base, was the only specimen of the three submitted for obsidian studies.

The obsidian source was identified as Lookout Mountain-Sawmill Ridge, and the hydration rim measured 2.2 microns. Catalog No. 218659 (Figure 6c) is a basal fragment, while Cat. No. 218828 (not pictured) is a very small midsection, likely of an arrow point.

Edge-modified Pieces

Nine edge-modified pieces, all of obsidian, were originally collected as debitage from the SCUs. Edge modification was observed upon closer examination in the laboratory, and these pieces were cataloged accordingly as tools. The pieces exhibit

86 between one and three modified edges, most of which show marginal flaking, meaning very little of the modification penetrates to the interior of the piece. Presumably, this marginal modification is due to utilization but it is also possible that it represents non- cultural edge damage. A few pieces with invasive flaking likely represent intentional retouch. None of these informal tools were selected for obsidian studies.

Debitage

Of the 676 pieces of debitage, 403 were submitted for obsidian hydration analysis.

Prior to hydration analysis, debitage was either visually or geochemically sourced as follows: Bodie Hills visually sourced (n=113), Bodie Hills geochemically sourced

(n=28); Casa Diablo visually sourced (n=223); Casa Diablo geochemically sourced

(n=27); Mono Craters geochemically sourced (n=7); Mt. Hicks geochemically sourced

(n=2); and non-Casa Diablo visually sourced (n=3). Because hydration analysis is a partially destructive process, all of the pieces were further described by size class, technology, presence/absence of cortex, and presence/absence of platforms. Briefly, 218 retain at least a portion of their platforms, while 185 are fragmentary, or lack platforms.

Size class distribution varies as follow: 3-6 mm (n=10); 6-12 mm (n=164); 12-20 mm

(n=176); and >20 (n=53). Most pieces (n=369) are interior flakes lacking cortex, but 32 are secondary and two are primary cortical flakes. Of the pieces retaining attributes that allowed for technological classification, 257 are biface thinning or pressure flakes, and 16 are core reduction debris.

THESIS OBSERVATIONS

In addition to the recovered objects described above, previously unrecorded cultural materials at the thesis sites were documented and left in place. These materials

87 are further described in the field forms, which are filed in the archaeological site records at the Yosemite Archeology Office, and the data are included in the overall inventory of cultural material within the study area. As summarized in Table 12, additional artifacts and features were noted at 16 of the sites visited during the thesis fieldwork. The classes of material are consistent with those previously documented in the area, including various flaked stone tools, bedrock mortars and pestles, a single rock ring, and portable ground stone artifacts. Conversely, two features previously documented as pictographs in Lyell

Canyon were identified as natural phenomena as part of the thesis fieldwork. As such,

CA-TUO-3846, recorded as a single pictograph lacking other cultural materials, was removed from consideration in the study, and CA-TUO-3840, was retained in the study as a lithic scatter.

Table 12. Previously Unrecorded Cultural Material Observed at Thesis Sites.

Site PP BF DR EMP RR BRM PE HS MS CA-TUO- - 1 - - - 1(2) 4 - - 0128/129/130/504 CA-TUO-0159 1 (DSN/RS) ------CA-TUO-0172 - 1 ------CA-TUO-0187 1 ------CA-TUO-0751 - - - 1 1 - - - 1 CA-TUO-0755 - 1 ------CA-TUO-3765 1 1 ------CA-TUO-3783 ------1 CA-TUO-3789 - 1 ------CA-TUO-3811 - - 1 - - - 2 - - CA-TUO-3850 - - 1 ------CA-TUO-4635 - - - - - 1(1) 1 - - CA-TUO-4639 3 - - - - 1(2) 2 2 1 CA-TUO-4665 2 (DSN, SCB) 1 1 ------CA-TUO-4907 ------1 - P-55-006775 - 2 ------Key: PP=projectile point; BF=biface; DR=drill; EMP=edge-modified piece; RR=rock ring; BRM=bedrock mortar: #features(#mortars); PE=pestle; HS=handstone; MS=millingstone; DSN=Desert Side-notched; RS=Rose Spring; SCB=Sierra Concave Base.

SUMMARY AND DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY AREA MATERIALS

The discussion to follow briefly describes the classes of material present in the study area, identifies their relative abundance, and details their distribution by geographic location and elevation. The thesis collections and observations, as well as previously documented material, comprise the data herein. Table 13 shows the frequency of sites containing a given cultural constituent by geographic location and elevation range.

Comparison of the various collections is acknowledged as a problem here because assemblage diversity tends to increase with repeated site visits and excavations. Although a detailed historical overview of site investigations was not conducted as part of this thesis, the most intensively studied sites are in Dana Meadows and Tuolumne Meadows, where limited excavations have been carried out, and the least studied areas are Parker

Pass Creek and Delaney Creek, where numerous sites have not been visited since the

1950s.

Flaked Stone

Debitage is by far the most common site constituent, occurring at 365 (98%) of the 373 sites across the study area and at all elevation intervals in which sites have been recorded. Debitage density varies substantially between sites, however, with estimates ranging from five to several thousand flakes per site. This variability could reflect differential use over time, where certain places were occupied repeatedly or for longer periods of time; distinctions in function, where some sites were related to acquisition of obsidian; or site formation processes, where deposits may be substantially buried and few materials are evident on the surface. While the precise meaning of variable-density deposits is unclear at the level of this study, in a general sense higher-density

Table 13. Frequency of Sites by Cultural Material Class, Geography, and Elevation. Location BRM/ AF MID HS/ BST/ RA P RS HB H C MISC FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Total PE MS CH Sites GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Trans-Sierra Corridors Matterhorn Canyon ------4 1 1 - - 4 Spiller Canyon 2 ------1 - - - - - 5 3 1 - - 6 Virginia Canyon 15 6 3 6 3 2 1 2 2 - - 1 1 63 29 22 2 29 65 Tuolumne Meadows 14 - 1 3 2 - - 2 4 3 3 3 3 85 37 18 1 21 85 Dana Fork 14 2 1 7 3 - - - 1 3 - 2 4 45 24 17 1 29 47 Parker Pass/Mono 2 ------1 - - 28 6 5 2 3 29 Lyell Canyon 2 1 2 2 1 4 - 1 - - - 2 - 67 21 18 4 20 67 Non-Corridor Contexts Northern lakes ------9 4 2 1 - 9 Cold Canyon 2 ------1 - - - - - 9 3 1 - - 9 Young Lakes trail ------1 - - - - - 1 1 Dog Lake ------3 - - - 1 3 Delaney Creek ------8 3 3 - - 8 Gaylor Basin ------4 1 - 2 4 Mt. Dana slope ------2 1 - 1 2 Elizabeth Lake ------3 2 - 1 3 Rafferty Creek ------1 - 13 4 3 - 2 13 Vogelsang-Ireland ------1 1 17 8 8 - 5 18 ELEVATION RANGE (ft) < 9000 31 3 5 8 5 5 1 6 6 3 3 5 3 185 75 45 4 49 188 9000-10,000 19 5 2 9 4 1 1 1 3 1 5 5 131 54 40 5 54 135 10,000-11,000 1 1 - 1 ------1 1 48 16 15 2 12 49 11,000-12,000 ------1 1 - - - 1 Total 51 9 7 18 9 6 1 7 7 6 4 11 9 365 146 100 11 115 373 Key: BRM/PE=bedrock mortar/pestle; AF=architectural feature; MID=midden; HS/MS=handstone/millingstone; BST/CH=battered stone/chopper; RA=rock alignment; P=petroglyph; RS=rockshelter; HB=hunting blind; H=hearth; C=flaked stone tool cache; MISC=miscellaneous; FAU=faunal remains; DEB=debitage; PP=projectile point; BF=biface; DR=drill; FT=flake tool. 89 90 concentrations signal an increased level of activity related to flaked stone tool production, either temporally or functionally, compared to low-density deposits. The substantial variation in debitage densities and the prevalence of this material class throughout the study area suggest that further examination is warranted.

Characterization of debitage density for this study as low, moderate, or high relied on the maximum debitage density per square meter and the overall estimated count per site. While both attributes have not been consistently documented for all sites, most site records retain data for at least one. Sites not visited since the 1950s are excluded from consideration due to difficulties in reconciling the earlier notes with the later, more detailed data collection procedures. Low density scatters contain ≤9/m2 or ≤100 flakes on

the surface; moderate scatters have 10−19/m2 or 100−200 flakes; and high-density scatters are defined by ≥20/m2 or more than 200 flakes on the surface. When the two

attributes for a given site did not both fall within these categories (e.g., a maximum flake

density of 25 and an estimated site count of 150), the site count was used for

classification purposes.

Most of the sites with density information (n=333) are light lithic scatters (71%),

fewer are of moderate density (18%), and high-density scatters (11%) are relatively

uncommon (Table 14). Low- and moderate-density debitage scatters are most common in

all geographic locations and within all elevation intervals. High-density scatters, however, are more common in the trans-Sierra corridors, while low-density scatters are

more common in non-corridor contexts. The spatial distribution of high-density scatters parallels that for the general distribution of materials noted above—32 of the 35 sites with high-density debitage scatters are in the trans-Sierra corridors of Virginia Canyon,

Table 14. Frequency of Sites by Debitage Density, Geography, and Elevation.

Estimated Debitage Density Total Low % Moderate % High % GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Trans-Sierra Corridor Matterhorn Canyon 4 100% - - - - 4 Spiller Canyon 4 80% 1 20% - - 5 Virginia Canyon 53 84% 7 11% 3 5% 63 Tuolumne Meadows 61 72% 11 13% 13 15% 85 Dana Fork 29 69% 5 12% 8 19% 42 Parker Pass Creek/Mono Pass 6 46% 4 31% 3 23% 13 Lyell Canyon 37 58% 22 34% 5 8% 64 Subtotal 194 70% 50 18% 32 12% 276

Non-Corridor Context Northern lakes* 9 100% - - - - 9 Cold Canyon, Conness Creek 6 67% 3 33% - - 9 Dog Lake 3 100% - - - - 3 Delaney Creek 2 100% - - - - 2 Gaylor Basin 3 75% - - 1 25% 4 Mt. Dana slope 1 50% 1 50% - - 2 Elizabeth Lake 2 67% 1 33% - - 3 Rafferty Creek 7 64% 2 18% 2 18% 11 Vogelsang - Ireland Lake 11 79% 3 21% - - 14 Subtotal 44 77% 10 18% 3 5% 57

ELEVATION RANGE (ft) < 9000 129 70% 34 19% 20 11% 183 9000-10,000 83 76% 15 14% 11 10% 109 10,000-11,000 26 65% 10 25% 4 10% 40 11,000-12,000 - - 1 100% - - 1 Total 238 71% 59 18% 35 11% 333 *Many sites in this area have not been recorded to current standards and are excluded from analysis.

Lyell Canyon, Dana Fork, Parker Pass, Tuolumne Meadows, and Lyell Canyon. In contrast, none of the sites in Spiller and Matterhorn canyons can be characterized as high density. Of the former, Virginia and Lyell canyons have the lowest proportions of high- density scatters (5% and 8%, respectively), while the three other areas have the highest

proportions (15%, 19%, and 23%, respectively). The figure for Parker Pass Creek, however, is misleading because of the lack of information for many of the sites in that

92 area, and should be considered as preliminary until further work is carried out. The highest debitage densities in the study area, with maximum flake densities per square meter ranging from 180 to 500 pieces, occur at several sites in Dana Meadows, Tuolumne

Meadows, and the lower portion of Lyell Canyon, suggesting these areas were important places, occupied repeatedly or related to obsidian procurement.

Sites with flaked stone tools, including projectile points, bifaces, and flake tools are relatively common, occurring throughout the study area (Table 13). In contrast, sites with drills are rare and limited to the trans-Sierra corridors, suggesting additional assemblage diversity in those locations. Beyond their presence at many sites, not much can be said about flake tools and bifaces, while the temporal parameters of some projectile points allows for further discussion in Chapter 6. It should be mentioned, however, that flake tools are likely an underrepresented class since surface documentation has typically focused on projectile points and identification of flake tools is more difficult in survey contexts.

It is worth noting that flaked stone material is composed almost entirely of obsidian, with few examples of chert, basalt, quartz, or metamorphic materials.

Excavation data show that, in general, obsidian comprises about 98 percent of high- elevation debitage collections (Hull et al. 1995; Montague 1996a), and all site records document obsidian as the primary surface constituent. Concentrations of non-obsidian flaked stone, however, have been noted at a few sites; CA-TUO-754/H in Dana Meadows and TUO-3841 in lower Lyell Canyon exhibit concentrations of metamorphic toolstone, while the site record for TUO-3829, also in lower Lyell Canyon, indicates that basalt makes up a substantial portion of the surface materials at that site.

Flaked Stone Tool Caches

Of the eight flaked stone tool caches documented in the Park, four were located within the study area and one just outside of its boundaries (Table 15). These obsidian caches, composed of flake blanks, bifaces, cobbles/cores, and in one case a combination of flakes and bifaces, are thought to represent material for local use or transport farther to the west. All of the caches except the Tamarack Flat bifaces were located in the

Tuolumne River watershed, underscoring the importance of that drainage and its tributaries as a travel corridor and a place that people returned to on a regular basis as part of the annual subsistence-settlement round. The highest density debitage scatters in the study area are also located in Tuolumne and Dana meadows, perhaps an additional indicator that the Mono Trail was a key route for obsidian transport.

The caches vary in age, technological composition, and obsidian source, allowing for some comparisons over time. Although the sample is very small, a pattern of increasing source diversity through time is apparent. Casa Diablo obsidian occurs throughout the temporal sequence, while the Bodie Hills, Mono Craters, and Mono Glass

Mountain sources are more recent, dating to within the past 500 years or so. To some extent, this pattern reflects the underlying geographic distribution of obsidian sources, but the presence of two caches of Mono Craters and Mono Glass Mountain obsidians in late period contexts in an area otherwise dominated by Casa Diablo glass suggests the possibility of changing obsidian use patterns late in prehistory (Montague 2008). In this case, shifting obsidian procurement patterns might reflect reduced group mobility in the eastern Sierra.

Table 15. Flaked Stone Tool Cache Data (after Montague 2008).

Site No. Location Elev Description of Cache OH OH Range Source Est. (ft) Sample (microns) Years (n=) B.P. WITHIN AND NEAR STUDY AREA TUO- Tuolumne 8570 136 fragmentary 44 mainly mainly 1700 134 Meadows bifaces, flake blanks, 2.5-2.8 CD-LM & and debitage in 3 MGM(x) distinctive rock crevice on dome

TUO- Glen 7900 88 bifaces at base of 15 1.7-1.8 CD(x) 700 4973 Aulin, tree, on and below Tuolumne surface River TUO- Tuolumne 8550 28 large cobbles and 15 4.2-4.5 CD-LM(x) 7500 4436 Meadows flakes; <60 cm below surface

TUO- Tuolumne 8650 9 modified flakes 9 multiple MGM(x) <650 500 Meadows between two cobbles on rims: low granite knoll 1.3-1.6; 3.7-4.0, 6.8

TUO- Parker 9990 58 modified flakes on 21 1.1-1.4 MC(x) <650 4509 Pass Creek downed log

OUTSIDE OF STUDY AREA MRP-94 Tamarack 6360 7 bifaces in crevice of 7 3.4-3.9 CD(v) 2600 Flat large granite outcrop none Pate 4800 6 bifaces (original est. 3 1.7-1.8 BH(x) 350 Valley, total 30-50) on and Tuolumne below surface near two River large projecting rocks

TUO- unnamed 7050 5 large flake blanks on 5 4.0-4.8 CD-LM(x) 3200 4647 tributary, surface in cluster of Tuolumne large boulders River Key: CD = Casa Diablo; LM = Lookout Mountain; BH = Bodie Hills; MGM = Mono Glass Mountain; MC = Mono Craters; x = sourced by x-ray fluorescence; v = visually sourced; OH = obsidian hydration measurement (microns).

In comparing technology against time, a clear correspondence between age and artifact form is not apparent at this point, arguing against the presence of a formal trans-

Sierra exchange system, at least early in time, if such a system entailed consistency in the production of artifact forms. However, caches of pre-1500 B.P. age exhibit greater diversity in artifact form—large flake blanks, cobbles and cores, and bifaces—than caches post-dating 1500 B.P., which are either flake blanks or bifaces, suggesting the latter period may have seen more regularized production of artifact forms, possibly for exchange. The mean weight of artifacts decreased over time, indicating larger pieces were the preferred means of transport prior to 1500 B.P., whether they were flakes, bifaces, or cobbles/cores (Montague 2008). This decrease in artifact mass likely speaks to the shift in technology from dart to arrow projectiles about 1500 B.P., and the resulting reduction in the need for large pieces of toolstone after that time.

Bedrock Mortars and Pestles

Bedrock mortars, sometimes with associated pestles, are by far the most common feature in the study area. In all, 60 milling features have been documented at 50 sites, comprising 14 percent of the study area sites (Table 16). One site in Virginia Canyon also contains a pestle, but no apparent mortar. Milling implements include a total of 202 mortars, 18 milling slicks, and 94 pestles. The vast majority of sites with milling surfaces occur in the geographic areas of Tuolumne Meadows, Dana Meadows, and Virginia

Canyon (Table 16, Figure 7). Two sites each in Cold Canyon, Parker Pass Creek and

Mono Pass, lower Spiller Canyon, and lower Lyell Canyon also contain bedrock mortars and pestles.

Similar to other classes of material in the study area, most bedrock mortars and pestles occur below 10,000 ft elevation. Curiously, only eight pestles have been documented in Tuolumne Meadows, a low number compared to frequencies in Virginia

Table 16. Bedrock Mortar and Pestle Data by Geography and Elevation.

# Sites % of Total # # # Total # with Total Sites Features Mortars Slicks Milling Pestles BRM Surfaces GEOGRAPHIC

LOCATION Spiller Canyon 2 33% 6 2 4 - 4 1 Virginia Canyon 15 23% 65 17 48 7 55 29 Cold Canyon 2 22% 9 2 7 - 7 - Tuolumne Meadows 14 16% 85 16 70 1 71 8 Dana Meadows 14 30% 47 19 55 7 62 43 Parker Pass/Mono 2 7% 29 2 16 2 18 10 Lyell Canyon 2 3% 67 2 2 1 3 3

ELEVATION

RANGE (ft) <9000 31 16% 188 33 121 3 124 33 9000-10,000 19 14% 135 26 78 15 93 60 10,000-11,000 1 2% 49 1 3 - 3 1 11,000-12,000 - 1 - - - - - Total 51 14% 373 60 202 18 220 94 Key: BRM=bedrock mortar.

Canyon and Dana Meadows (Table 16). Since Tuolumne Meadows is situated at 8600 ft

elevation, the low pestle count is also reflected in the elevation data, where far fewer

pestles have been recorded below 9000 ft than in the 9000−10,000 ft elevation range.

Given the contradictory pattern evinced by milling surface distribution, the pestle data may be a result of post-depositional processes, as opposed to a cultural pattern. Tuolumne

Meadows has been the location of intensive Euroamerican use and development in the post-contact era, and it may be that many pestles have been removed from their original locations.

The number of milling features varies between one and three per site, with only one example observed at 42 of the 50 sites. Two features have been documented at six sites and three features have been recorded at two sites. The number of milling surfaces per site ranges from one to 25 (Figure 8), with a mean of 4.4, a median of 3.0, and a

97 mode of 1.0. Most sites (n=33) exhibit between one and four milling surfaces, 14 sites contain between five and 13, two sites have 15, and one site has 25 milling surfaces.

Figure 7. Map showing bedrock milling surface distributions by site.

Milling feature data have not been examined recently by elevation and biotic community in a comprehensive park-wide study, but it is clear that high-elevation sites

include far fewer mortars than low- and middle-elevation sites. For example, 76 sites

(77%) of the prehistoric sites in Yosemite Valley at 4000 ft in elevation contain milling features (Hull and Kelly 1995). In total, 1423 milling surfaces, with a mean of 18.7 per site, have been documented at those features.

10 y

8 Frequenc 6

0 5 10152025 No. Milling Surfaces Per Site

Figure 8. Histogram of number of milling surfaces per site.

Identifying the specific functions of milling equipment will be an important step

in elucidating land use in the higher elevations, particularly concerning whether

subsistence focused on local plants, transported resources from the lower and middle

elevations such as acorn, or both. The issue of resource processing in bedrock mortars has

been considered in Yosemite and regional studies through various functional

ethnographic models, most commonly the Western Mono model (Haney 1992; Hull and

Moratto 1999; Morgan 2006; Mundy 1992). Western Sierra ethnographic studies indicate

99 that the mortar and pestle were used for processing the staple food acorn by women, but this technology was also used for preparing seeds, fish, berries, meat, and medicines

(Barrett and Gifford 1933). Similarly, acorns and a variety of other resources were processed in bedrock mortars in the eastern Sierra (see Haney 1992:95). The Western

Mono model, developed in a study with contemporary Western Mono people south of

Yosemite, states that milling surfaces were created for specific functional purposes

(McCarthy et al. 1985). According to the model, mortars less than or equal to 5.5 cm in depth reflect initial acorn processing, those between 5.51 and 9.5 cm were used for final processing of acorns, and mortars greater than 9.5 cm, as well as slicks, were used to crush seeds and berries (McCarthy et al. 1985).

For the 47 sites in the study area with detailed milling surface data (n= 212), 194

(92%) are mortars and 18 (8%) are slicks. Most of the mortars (n=179, 92%) are ≤5.5 cm in depth, 10 mortars (5%) measure between 6 and 9.5 cm, and only five (3%) attain depths between 10 and 13 cm (Figure 9). Mortars >5.5 cm in depth also tend to occur at sites which have greater total numbers of milling surfaces, including three sites in

Tuolumne Meadows (CA-TUO-111, -166, and -125/126/H) and three sites in Virginia

Canyon (CA-TUO-3783, -3786, and -3811). Slicks number between one and five per site, and are present at 10 sites, with all specimens except one at CA-TUO-3838 in lower

Lyell Canyon co-occurring with mortars.

Comparing mortar depths by elevation range provides a frame of reference for interpreting the study area data. In the absence of a comprehensive park-wide study for comparison, accessible project-specific mortar data are provided in Table 17 by elevation, representing a small sample of mortar attributes collected for the Park as a

100

80 70 60

y 50 40

Frequenc 30 20 10 0 012345678910111213 Mortar depth (cm)

Figure 9. Histogram of mortar depths.

Table 17. Mortar Data for Selected Yosemite Areas within the Western Mono Model.

Location Elevation (ft) Mortar type Total Starter Finishing Seed ≤5.5 cm 5.51-9.5 cm >9.5 cm Study area 8500-10,600 179 (92%) 10 (05%) 5 (03%) 194

Tioga Road & 7000-8500 245 (85%) 36 (13%) 7 (02%) 288 Harden Lake1

Ackerson Fire 4000-7000 735 (71%) 171 (17%) 122 (12%) 1028 area2

Yosemite Valley3 4000 1061 (80%) 144 (11%) 116 (09%) 1321

El Portal4 2000 464 (70%) 100 (15%) 101 (15%) 665 1 Keefe et al. (1999) and Mundy (1992) 2 Keefe et al. (1999), The Ackerson Fire area is in the northwestern area of the Park in the Tuolumne River watershed. 3 Hull and Kelly (1995) 4 Data compiled from site records on file at the Yosemite Archeology Office.

101 whole. Features in all elevation ranges demonstrate a high prevalence of starter mortars, but sites above 7000 ft, where oaks are absent, have a higher percentage of shallow mortars, 85–92 percent compared to 70–80 percent below that elevation. Seed mortars above 7000 ft are also few in number and shallower in depth than those in the lower elevations. The deepest mortars above 7000 ft do not exceed 13 cm in depth, while those in the lower elevations attain depths between 20 and 23 cm.

Within the Western Mono functional framework, the mortar depth distribution in the study area suggests acorn was the primary, but not the only, plant resource processed in the bedrock mortars, and the absence of oaks implies acorns were transported from lower elevations to the west. Acorn is viewed as a staple food item in western Sierra subsistence, while the role of acorn in eastern Sierra Nevada subsistence systems has been proposed as an augmentation to the pinyon nut as a winter staple, a factor in the maintenance of social relations between eastern and western groups, and a reflection of intensification processes operating at the regional level (Haney 1992; see also Basgall

1987). Pinyon nut crops are only abundant three out of seven years (Lanner 1981); thus, acorn may have provided a winter supplement in years of poor crops. Given the diversity and abundance of oaks in the middle and lower elevations of the western Sierra, acorn was almost certainly a more reliable food source than the pinyon nut.

The prevalence of shallow mortars across disparate vegetation communities, however, suggests that a model based on contemporary Western Mono practices may not be germane to Yosemite (Hull and Kelly 1995). Instead, some researchers (Hull and

Moratto 1999) advocate a return to earlier perspectives (e.g., Barrett and Gifford 1933), where mortar depth equates to duration of use, in addition to continuing examination of

102 the geographic distribution of milling surface attributes. The study area data comport well with the duration of use hypothesis; that is, the high proportion of shallow mortars and comparatively low frequencies appear to be consistent measures of minimal use. In this view, the shallow mortars prevalent in the study area are multifunctional tools used for processing a variety of resources. The co-occurrence of mortars and slicks, and the presence of portable groundstone at some sites, however, suggests that some functional distinctions in milling surfaces may yet be evident.

The spatial distribution of bedrock mortars in the study area, primarily within two of the trans-Sierra corridors, could be taken as support for the acorn transport hypothesis.

Although ethnographic accounts indicate that acorn was transported to the eastern Sierra

(Bibby 2002), it is difficult to envision the fall-ripening acorn as the primary plant resource sustaining people during the summer months in the high country. In this scenario, stored acorn would have been the primary resource transported to the high country for most of the summer, a less likely proposition compared to local resource exploitation. Otherwise, acorn would not have been available until September or October, a time when the higher elevations became less desirable for longer stays because of weather conditions and a time when people focused their activities on procurement of staple foods in the lower elevations, acorn to the west and pinyon to the east.

If ethnographic models are not germane to Yosemite, the function of bedrock mortars in the high country remains problematic and may not be resolved without specialized residue and macrofloral analyses at specific sites. Based on the current data, it seems likely that the prevalence of shallow mortars and their relatively low overall frequencies suggest they were multifunctional tools in an area used only during the

103 warmer months by small groups of people. Plant resource processing was apparently geared toward daily or short-term subsistence needs, in comparison to the lower elevations of the western slope where acorn gathering and processing for storage played an important role in sustaining larger population aggregates in winter villages.

At first glance, the minimal use implied by the comparison of upper and lower elevation data does not appear to support the hypothesis of regional subsistence intensification. However, if a change in land use within the high elevation areas transpired over time, as hypothesized in this thesis, then subsistence intensification is supported. To the extent that high-elevation milling features are linked with plant processing and date to the late prehistoric period, their geographic distribution in the study area—almost entirely within two of the trans-Sierra travel corridors—provides support for the importance and intensification of plant resources in the larger region.

Portable Ground Stone and Battered Stone

In comparison to bedrock mortars and pestles, portable ground stone tools are uncommon in the study area. In total, seven minimally used millingstones and 21 handstones have been documented at 18 sites in Virginia Canyon, Tuolumne Meadows,

Dana Meadows, and lower Lyell Canyon. Most of these sites (n=14) also contain other cultural constituents indicative of intensive use, such as rock rings and bedrock mortars.

In addition, eight battered stone tools and two choppers have been documented at nine sites, all in trans-Sierra corridor contexts.

Structural Remains

Thirty-five structural features thought to represent prehistoric dwellings, hunting blinds, storage, and unknown functions have been recorded at 20 of the study area sites,

104 all located in Dana Meadows, Tuolumne Meadows, Virginia Canyon, and lower Lyell

Canyon (Table 13). Fourteen of these, documented at eight sites, are domestic structures, identified by rock rings or partial rock rings encircling slight depressions, or circular features with their centers cleared of rocks (Figure 10). An additional depression, recorded in 1988 at CA-TUO-3778/H, could not be relocated in 2007 due to stock trampling. All of the structures exhibit soil substrates, and they often encompass naturally occurring boulders in their alignments. Measuring between 2.8 and 4.5 m in maximum diameter, dwellings are generally larger than rock constructs interpreted as hunting blinds. Most dwellings contain some combination of debitage, flaked stone tools, millingstones, small unidentifiable bone fragments, and midden, while artifactual materials are less common in association with hunting blinds. Three minimally used millingstones occur in the walls of three individual rock rings, and one is in the center of a feature. Between one and three structures occur at each site, suggesting small groups of people, perhaps a few families, lived together in these locations if they were occupied contemporaneously. Dwellings tend to be clustered in close proximity to one another, and at CA-TUO-749 and -3783 in Virginia Canyon, two rock rings share cobble alignments along one edge.

The prevalence of multi-component sites indicates the importance of associating temporally diagnostic materials with features representing intensive use. Structural features were deemed of particular importance in this regard and, as such, were a focus of sampling within the intensive-use group. Minimal surface collections were made from nine features, seven at Virginia Canyon/Summit Pass and two at Lyell Canyon (Table

17). All are rock rings except one linear alignment at CA-TUO-4665 in Lyell Canyon,

105 which may have functioned as a shelter or blind. When possible, SCUs were also established in close proximity to the features in an attempt to further define periods of use for those locations.

Figure 10. Sketch map of Feature 6, rock ring, CA-TUO-3783.

106

In all, 39 obsidian artifacts from nine feature contexts and 14 from three proximal

SCUs yielded readable hydration rims. The combined temporal information—obsidian hydration results, estimated calendrical dates, and projectile points of the Desert or indeterminate Desert/Rose Spring series (Table 18, Figure 11)—provides evidence of use for all features after ca. 1500 B.P. The presence of thicker obsidian hydration values converted to pre-1500 B.P. dates at several features, however, suggests the possibility of earlier initial use of the features, an underlying older component unrelated to the construction of the features, or recycling of obsidian materials by later inhabitants. The pre-1500 B.P. dates are most clearly associated with the two features at CA-TUO-3765, the structures that are also the most difficult to discern on the surface. It may be that they are, indeed, older structures and difficult to identify because of depositional processes, but it is possible that they are not structures at all and the thick rims may simply represent the older component clearly present at that site.

Two structural features have been partially sampled through small-scale test excavations, both at Dana Meadows (Montague 1996a). At CA-TUO-2833, a surface rock alignment incorporates several granite boulders to form a circular enclosure.

Multiple components are present at the site, but the structure is thought to represent late prehistoric use based on radiocarbon and obsidian hydration analyses. High densities of obsidian debitage—mainly small pressure flakes—few flaked stone tools, and a couple of unidentifiable faunal remains characterize the deposit within the feature. A central hearth, containing an unmodified granite slab at its center, yielded two radiocarbon dates, cal

1300–1060 B.P. (Beta-73050) above the slab and cal 1990–1610 B.P. (Beta-67238) below the slab. Obsidian hydration measurements, varying between 0.8 and 3.2 microns,

107

Table 18. Temporal Data for Structural Features and Proximal Surface Collection Units.

Site, Feature Source: OH Values Associated Diagnostic Artifacts Designation TUO-0751, F1 BH: 1.5, 2.9 DSN* CD: 2.8 MC: 1.1 TUO-3765, RR1 BH: 1.8, 2.5, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 5.4 - TUO-3765, RR2 BH: 2.5 - MC: 3.3, 3.8, 4.4 TUO-3783, F3 BH: 0, 1.7, 2.4, 5.1 - TUO-3783, F4 BH: 1.5, 2.2 - TUO-3783, F6 BH: 1.4, 1.4, 2.1, 2.7, 2.7 - TUO-3783, SCU1 BH: 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1 DSN* TUO-3811, F3 BH: 0, 0, 0, 1.3, 1.3, 2.8 2 DSN*, 1 CT* MC: 2.3 TUO-3811, SCU1 BH: 1.4, 1.8, 2.5, 2.9 - TUO-4665, F1 Non-CD: 2.2, 2.8, 2.9 DSN TUO-4665, F2 BH: 2.3, 2.4 CT*, CT, DSN, DSN/RS MC: 3.1 CD: 6.0 TUO-4665, SCU1 CD: 2.2, 2.5, 2.5, 2.9 arrow point*, DSN, DSN/RS Key: BH=Bodie Hills; CD=Casa Diablo; MC=Mono Craters; DSN=Desert Side-notched; CT=Cottonwood Triangular; RS=Rose Spring; F=feature; RR=rock ring; SCU=surface collection unit; OH=obsidian hydration. *Also reflected in obsidian hydration values.

Estimated Years B.P. 0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500

751, F1 3765, RR1 3765, RR2 3783, F4 3783, F3

Feature 3783, F6 3811, F3 4665, F1 4665, F2

Figure 11. Converted obsidian hydration values for sampled rock ring features.

108 show multiple periods of use, as well. Temporal data for the upper excavation levels, a suite of thin hydration rims (no visible hydration and 0.8 to 1.3 microns) and a Desert series point, indicate most recent use of the feature during the late prehistoric period.

A subsurface feature at nearby CA-TUO-2834, also only partially exposed, was composed of a rock alignment and charcoal-rich soils, along with a more varied inventory of cultural material. Flaked stone material included very high debitage densities and abundant flaked stone tools, mainly projectile points and biface fragments, though edge- modified pieces were present as well. One handstone, two pieces of pigment, a quartz crystal, and a fragmentary steatite ornament complete the collection. Abundant and highly fragmented, burned faunal remains were identified mainly as large mammal, likely deer or bighorn sheep. Although multiple components are present at the site, a suite of radiocarbon dates and several Elko series points indicate the feature dates to cal 2430–

1900 B.P.

Ten features documented at seven sites are identified as hunting blinds. These are composed of small (generally less than 3 m diameter), circular, semi-circular, or stacked rock features, with little or no associated cultural material. While most sites contain only one such feature, four are present at CA-TUO-2813. Two talus pit features on a glacial knoll in lower Virginia Canyon may also represent hunting blinds, but it is possible that they functioned as storage pits (Figure 12).

A single feature at CA-TUO-3845 in lower Lyell Canyon, thought to have functioned for storage, consists of stacked rock at the edge of a granite outcrop, forming a

50-cm-deep enclosure. Two arrow-sized projectile point fragments were documented within the enclosure. The remaining seven features are various linear cobble alignments

109 of unknown function. It is of interest, however, that five of these occur with other structural features at sites in Lyell and Virginia canyons.

Figure 12. Photograph of talus pit at P-55-5164, Virginia Canyon (DC-07M-68).

Uncommon Features

Rockshelters, midden sediments, hearths, and rock art are relatively uncommon in

the study area, occurring at only a handful of sites in the trans-Sierra corridor contexts.

Rockshelters, generally slight overhangs on the faces of large granite boulders, have been

recorded at seven sites, while hearths have been recorded in subsurface contexts at six sites. Similarly, midden sediments, generally taken as an indicator of long-term use, have been observed at just seven sites. A single petroglyph panel, composed of 16 small, shallow cupules in a semi-circular arc, is present in the southern portion of Virginia

Canyon.

110

Uncommon Artifacts

Ornamental artifacts are rare, including seven quartz crystals, one steatite object, and two pieces of pigment. Glass beads were documented at two sites, 10 opaque blue beads at a prehistoric and historical component site in Tuolumne Meadows, and a single large, black/amethyst bead at a lithic scatter at Vogelsang Lake. Bates (1998) surmised that the black bead represents use of that area by Mono Lake Paiute people between 1875 and 1930 based on comparisons with objects in the Yosemite Museum and similarities with eastern Sierra archaeological and ethnographic collections. Finally, one object made of pumice is likely a fragment of a shaft straightener.

Faunal Remains

Faunal remains are present at nine sites, each containing few, very small pieces of unidentifiable bone. As noted above, an exception is CA-TUO-2834, where abundant burned large mammal fragments were excavated in a feature context. A second exception is a piece of culturally unmodified mussel collected from CA-MRP-1438 at Vogelsang

Lake.

Summary

Despite the disproportionate geographic focus of the previous archaeological work, some similarities and differences in the distributions of classes of material are apparent across the study area. First, sites with debitage and flaked stone tools occur throughout the study area, and these are the most common site constituents. Low- to moderate-density debitage deposits are prevalent in all areas, but high-density debitage deposits occur most frequently in the trans-Sierra corridors. Second, features, midden sediments, and other types of tools are uncommon at study area sites and are, for the most

111 part, confined to the drainages leading to the trans-Sierra passes and below 10,000 ft in elevation, where site density is highest. Within the feature classes, sites with bedrock mortars are most abundant, while rock rings taken as hunting blinds or dwellings, rock alignments, rockshelters, rock art, flaked stone tool caches, midden sediments, and subsurface hearths are uncommon constituents. Likewise, sites with portable ground stone, choppers, ornaments, and faunal remains are relatively rare.

Previous and current studies relating to bedrock mortars, rock rings, and flaked stone caches, allowed for more detailed assessment of some temporal and functional parameters. Rock rings and bedrock mortars are thought to be prevalent after ca. 1500

B.P., and the low frequencies of both types of features per site suggests occupation by small groups of people. In comparison with a sample of low- and middle-elevation

Yosemite data, the low frequencies and shallow depths of bedrock mortars in the study area indicate that plant resource processing was a less important activity in the high elevations. The shallow mortars prevalent in the study area may also reflect multifunctional use, rather than acorn processing implied by the Western Mono functional model (McCarthy et al. 1985). The obsidian cache data emphasize the importance of the study area in the acquisition and transport of obsidian and as places people intended to return to as part of the annual settlement round. Beyond this general level of description and recognizing that the sample is very small, patterns of source diversity and artifact form over time may support notions of territorial circumscription in the eastern Sierra and exchange as a medium of obsidian procurement after 1500 B.P.

112

Chapter 6

INTENSIVE- AND LIMITED-USE SITES ANALYSIS

This chapter examines the data in terms of space, time, and function to determine whether a spatially limited, residential-related land use strategy followed an earlier, widespread hunting pattern. As outlined in Chapter 3, archaeological expectations include a higher frequency of intensive-use sites with thin hydration rims and arrow points and a higher frequency of limited-use sites with thicker hydration rims and dart points. The density of sites should be higher along drainage corridors leading from trans-Sierra passes if trade and travel structured the archaeological record, and residential sites should occur more commonly in those locations. In addition, early period sites and isolates indicating a logistical hunting focus should occur in higher frequencies over a more extensive area. The discussion to follow addresses chronology and function, first to determine if the hypothesized patterns are evident, and second to identify relevant spatial distributions.

CHRONOLOGY AND FUNCTION

This section integrates the chronological and functional data, initially through examination of the surface materials recovered as part of the thesis, and subsequently through incorporation of results from previous investigations. Finally, temporally sensitive projectile point data are compiled and analyzed against site type as an independent means of assessing change over time.

The thesis analysis included 424 specimens submitted for obsidian hydration analysis, of which 31 returned unreadable rims and six had no visible hydration. The latter are retained in the analysis since they may represent relatively recent use. Virtually

113 all of the remaining pieces (n=385) yielded hydration bands measuring between 1.1 and

6.6 microns, with two additional rims of 7.2 and 8.2 microns. Table 19 displays the frequency of hydration measurements converted to estimated dates in 500-year increments by site, while Figure 13 consolidates the same data for all of the thesis sites.

In each case, the data are sorted by functional designation. These data demonstrate a long span of Native American occupation in the study area, beginning in the early Holocene and continuing through the late prehistoric period. Based on historical records, it is also clear that Native people continued to frequent the high country for various purposes in the historic period. Given the caveats noted above for converting obsidian hydration values to calendrical dates, initial occupation should be considered with caution until radiocarbon dates are available for early-period materials. It would not be inconsistent with the regional archaeological record, however, to find evidence of the early Holocene at high elevations in the Park.

In terms of functional patterns, the chronologies for both limited- and intensive- use sites span the range of occupation. Limited-use sites, however, demonstrate a greater abundance of early dates during the middle Holocene epoch. Relatively greater frequencies of late Holocene materials are apparent at intensive-use sites, more or less coincident with a decrease in the frequency of limited-use dates. Distinguishing between the pre- and post-1500 B.P. temporal periods (Table 20) shows a clear change in the frequency of dates through time, where 66 percent occur at intensive-use sites later in time and only 25 percent earlier in time. In contrast, limited-use sites display 34 percent of the post-1500 B.P. dates and 75 percent of the pre-1500 B.P. dates. In a broad sense, this pattern supports the temporal expectations of the thesis, in which intensive-use sites

114

Table 19. Obsidian Hydration Results Converted to Calendrical Dates for Thesis Sites. 1001 1501 2001 2501 3001 3501 4001 4501 5001 5501 0– 501– Site* – – – – – – – – – – >6000 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 128/ - - - 2 3 2 2 - 1 2 - 1 6 187 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 ------751 1 2 - 1 3 1 6 ------3765 - 1 2 - 1 3 1 1 - - - 1 5 3783 5 7 2 2 ------1 - 3811 6 1 2 2 1 1 - 2 - - - - - 4635 - 1 - - - - 2 - - - 1 - 5 4639 - - 2 2 - 1 2 2 - 1 - - 1 4665 - - 6 3 1 ------1 46/H 1 2 1 2 1 2 - - 1 - - - - 113 - 2 4 1 2 ------131 ------1 1 1 4 1 1 159 - - 2 - 3 1 2 - 1 - - - - 172 - - - - - 2 1 2 2 - 1 - 2 245 ------2 1 1 3 3 494 ------1 - 4 2 1 - 755 - - - 1 - - 2 - 4 1 1 1 1 3769 - - - - 1 1 - - 4 2 - 2 - 3777 - 1 - 3 - - 4 1 - 1 - - - 3789 - - - - - 1 - 1 - 2 2 - 3 3803 - - - 2 - 3 1 - 1 1 - - 1 3805 - 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 - - - - - 3841 - - - 2 - 2 - 2 2 - - - 1 4230 ------1 1 - - 2 4 4490 ------1 2 1 - 4 4637 - 1 - - - 1 - 1 1 2 1 2 1 4641 ------4 - 1 1 1 1 1 4660 - - - - 1 2 1 1 2 - 1 - 1 4851 - - - - - 2 - 2 1 2 - 1 2 4857 ------3 6 4859 - - - - - 1 - - - 1 3 3 2 4907 - - 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 2 1 1 - 4972 - - - - 1 - 2 1 2 1 3 - - 6561 - 1 ------1 8 6564 - - - 1 3 1 2 2 - - - 1 1 6775 - 1 - - - 1 - - 2 1 - - 3 6776 1 - 1 - - 2 - - - 1 - - 2 6782 - - - - - 1 - - 1 4 - - 3

Total 13 13 16 13 14 9 14 5 1 3 1 3 18 I-U Total 2 9 11 13 14 24 22 19 31 30 22 23 50 L-U Total 15 22 27 26 28 33 36 24 32 33 23 26 68 *Sites highlighted in bold text are intensive-use sites (I-U); unbolded text denotes limited-use sites (L-U).

115

35 Intensive use 30 Limited use

15 Frequency

0 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 7500 8500 9500 Estimated Years B.P.

Figure 13. Frequency of calendrical dates for intensive- and limited-use sites.

Table 20. Frequency of Pre- and Post-1500 B.P. Dates for Intensive- and Limited-Use Sites.

Post-1500 B.P. % Pre-1500 B.P. % Intensive use 42 66 81 25 Limited use 22 34 248 75 Total 64 100 329 100

tend to reflect late-period occupation and, conversely, limited-use sites tend to reflect early-period use. Evidence of intensive-use across both temporal categories is not an anticipated outcome, however, and may be explained by the presence of multi-component deposits in which later intensive-use cannot be distinguished from earlier limited-use based on the limited surface collections, or the initiation of at least some level of intensive-use prior to 1500 B.P. The presence of late-period materials at both intensive and limited-use sites, by contrast, suggests greater diversity in site types later in time.

116

Combining the chronological data from previous investigations with the thesis results encompasses a greater sample of sites within the study area, allowing for a broader consideration of change through time. Fifty-six sites, representing 15 percent of the study area sites, have some level of chronological data beyond a few surface tools, 18 through previous test, data recovery, or tool cache investigations and 38 through the thesis surface collections (Table 21). Since this analysis combines the results of surface and subsurface investigations, diagnostic chronological attributes are simply tabulated as present or absent by prehistoric period.

Seventeen sites are designated as intensive-use sites, while 39 are classified as limited-use sites. In this analysis, the chronological indicators include obsidian hydration values converted to calendrical dates, time-sensitive projectile points, bedrock mortars, and in a few cases, radiocarbon dates. Given the relatively wide span of use for some materials (e.g., bedrock mortars), chronology was considered broadly as either pre- or post-1500 years B.P. As illustrated in Table 21, the most apparent pattern is the presence of early-period material at all of the sites except CA-TUO-4509, a late prehistoric tool cache. Within the intensive-use sample, all 17 sites contain material spanning the entire chronological range. Within the limited-use sample, 18 sites evince late-period use, while

38 exhibit evidence of pre-1500 B.P. use. A chi-square value of 2.84 (df=1, p=0.09) demonstrates some support for a pattern of changing land use through time (Table 22). In particular, the late period is characterized by increased residential use demonstrated by milling features and rock rings, although logistical use continues to be evident. The early period is more clearly indicated by logistical use likely related to hunting and/or obsidian procurement. The multi-component nature of most sites, however, points out that

117

Table 21. Chronological Data for Study Area Sites.

Site Type Post-1500 B.P. Pre-1500 B.P. Desert OH BRM RG CB Elko OH Dart CA-TUO-0124 I - - x - x - x - CA-TUO-0128/ I - - x - - - x - CA-TUO-0134 I - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-0166 I x x x x - x x x CA-TUO-0179/ I x x x - - x x x CA-TUO-0187 I - x x x - - x - CA-TUO-0500 I x x - - x x x - CA-TUO-0751 I x x - - x x x x CA-TUO-0754/H I - x - - x x x x CA-TUO-2833 I x x x - - - x - CA-TUO-2834 I - x - x - x x x CA-TUO-3765 I - x x x x - x x CA-TUO-3783 I x x x - - - x - CA-TUO-3811 I x x x - - - x x CA-TUO-4635 I - x x - - x x - CA-TUO-4639 I x x x x - x x - CA-TUO-4665 I x x - x x - x - CA-TUO-0046/H L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-0113 L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-0120 L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-0131 L ------x x CA-TUO-0159 L x x - - - - x - CA-TUO-0172 L - - - - x - x - CA-TUO-0245 L - - - - x - x - CA-TUO-0494 L ------x - CA-TUO-0755 L - - - - x - x - CA-TUO-2811 L x x - x - - x - CA-TUO-2825 L - x - x - - x - CA-TUO-2828 L - x - x - x x - CA-TUO-2830 L ------x - CA-TUO-2831 L - - - x - - x - CA-TUO-2841 L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-3561 L - x - - x - x - CA-TUO-3769 L ------x - CA-TUO-3777 L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-3789 L ------x - CA-TUO-3803 L ------x - CA-TUO-3805 L - x - - - - x x CA-TUO-3841 L - - - - - x x - CA-TUO-4230 L ------x - CA-TUO-4436 L ------x - CA-TUO-4490 L ------x - CA-TUO-4509 L - x ------CA-TUO-4637 L - x - - - - x -

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Site Type Post-1500 B.P. Pre-1500 B.P. Desert OH BRM RG CB Elko OH Dart CA-TUO-4641 L ------x - CA-TUO-4660 L ------x - CA-TUO-4851 L ------x - CA-TUO-4857 L ------x - CA-TUO-4859 L ------x - CA-TUO-4907 L - x - - - - x - CA-TUO-4972 L ------x - P-55-006561 L x - - - - - x - P-55-006564 L ------x x P-55-006775 L - x - - - x x - P-55-006776 L - x - - - - x - P-55-006782 L ------x - Key: Bold site numbers = previously investigated sites; I = intensive use; L = limited use; BRM= bedrock mortar; OH = obsidian hydration values converted to calendrical dates; RG = Rosegate points; CB = concave base points; x = attribute present; - = attribute absent..

Table 22. Frequencies of Limited-and Intensive-Use Sites for Pre- and Post-1500 B.P. Materials.

Post-1500 B.P. Pre-1500 B.P. Total Intensive use 17 17 34 Limited use 18 38 56 Total 35 55 90

additional work—sorting function by site component—will be an important next step in investigating this research issue.

An additional means of examining the relationship between function and time involves comparing the relative frequency of temporally sensitive projectile points

against site type. If intensive-use sites were primarily a late-period phenomenon, then

arrow points should be relatively more abundant at those sites. The inverse should also

hold true; that is, dart points should be relatively more common at limited-use sites. This

analysis encompasses all projectile point data from sites within the study area, in contrast

to the sample represented above.

119

Focusing on the Desert, Rosegate, and Elko series as the most abundant time markers in the study area, Table 23 tallies 220 specimens by site type, point type frequency, and the number of sites at which the various types of points occur. Overall,

109 points have been documented at the 60 intensive-use sites and 111 points have been recorded at the 313 limited-use sites. In general, points of these three series occur at relatively few sites of either intensive or limited use, though proportionately they are far more common at intensive-use sites. Desert series points are most abundant overall, followed by Rosegate and Elko points, respectively. Sixty-one percent of the Desert series specimens were documented at 19 of the intensive-use sites, suggesting a robust late-period presence at intensive-use sites. Rosegate and Elko points display a similar pattern to one another, where most points occur at limited-use sites. A chi-square value of

9.57 (df=2, p=0.008) demonstrates a statistically significant association between the two variables. Desert and Elko series points meet the expected pattern, but the Rosegate series is less similar to the Desert series and more similar to the Elko series than anticipated.

Table 23. Selected Temporally Sensitive Projectile Points at Intensive- and Limited-Use Sites within the Study Area.

Point type Intensive-use Sites Limited-use Sites Total # Points # Sites # Points # Sites # Points Desert 62 (61%) 19 (32%) 40 (39%) 27 (09%) 102 Rosegate 29 (40%) 16 (27%) 44 (60%) 31 (10%) 73 Elko 18 (40%) 12 (20%) 27 (60%) 23 (07%) 45 Total 109 60 111 313 220

The numbers of sites with later point types are also proportionately greater at intensive-

use sites, supporting the pattern of late-period use at those sites, but there may be too few

limited-use sites with points to provide a meaningful measure. Alternately, some limited-

120 use sites may have been occupied consistently across the entire occupational span, a hypothesis supported by the combined chronological data in Table 21.

These data may suggest a shift in high country use from a hunting focus to a more intensive-use pattern later in time, when Desert series points became prevalent, ca. post-

A.D. 1300. However, this type of analysis should be considered less robust for a few reasons. First, late-period points should be more abundant on the surface than early- period points given the principle of superpositioning. Second, Yosemite experiences very high frequencies of visitor use, and some of those visitors (and employees) illegally collect artifacts, in particular projectile points. Since large dart points tend to be more visible than the diminutive Desert series points, it may be that the former are collected more frequently. Finally, recycling of obsidian material may have been a common occurrence on the western slope, in which case later inhabitants would have selected material from early-period deposits. All of these actions would result in a biased surface archaeological record, where late-period points are more abundant than early-period points.

SPATIAL PATTERNS

Spatial patterns are considered in terms of overall site density, distribution of intensive- vs. limited-use sites, and to a lesser degree, isolate form and distribution. If the

Yosemite pattern follows those described for the southern Sierra, intensive-use sites should be more common in areas leading directly from trans-Sierra passes, reflecting a more restricted land use pattern. In contrast, early-period sites and isolates indicating a logistical hunting focus should occur in higher frequencies over a more spatially extensive area.

121

Table 24 summarizes the study area survey acreage and the frequencies of sites and isolates. The number of sites per 100 acres surveyed is provided as a rough measure of site density for comparative purposes, although small-scale and nonrandom surveys, as well as issues with sites not visited since the 1950s, tend to undermine this approach to geographic comparisons. For example, the anomalous figures of 10 sites per 100 acres reported for Dog Lake and Dana Meadows are likely due to the limited survey conducted in those locations. In areas with numerous sites not re-inspected since the 1950s, such as

Rafferty and Parker Pass creeks, site frequencies are likely lower than portrayed.

Nevertheless, a few spatial patterns are evident in terms of site densities, the locations of intensive- and limited-use sites, and isolate distributions.

A broad overview of site distribution shows the highest frequencies along drainages leading to the trans-Sierra passes of Virginia/Summit, Tioga, Parker/Mono, and

Donohue (Figure 14). Most of the documented sites (n=293, 79%) are located within these areas, along with virtually all of the intensive-use sites (n=56, 93%). There are, however, some clear distinctions in the distributions of intensive-use sites. Along the

Tuolumne River and its two main forks, the Lyell and Dana, most intensive-use sites occur in a relatively limited zone within the Dana and Tuolumne subalpine meadow systems. The four intensive-use sites in Lyell Canyon are in the lower portion of the canyon, in close proximity to these meadows, while only limited-use sites are present in the middle and upper reaches of the canyon.

To the north, Virginia Canyon contains most of the intensive-use sites, although two each occur in Cold Canyon and the lower portion of Spiller Canyon. Within Virginia

Canyon itself are two main clusters of intensive-use sites, the first in the lower portion of

Table 24. Survey, Site Density, and Isolate Data by Geographic Location.

Location Acres Total Sites per Intensive Limited Total Isolate Isolate Surveyed Sites 100 Acres Use Sites Use Sites Isolates Debitage Tools TRANS-SIERRA CORRIDOR, HIGH SITE DENSITY Virginia Canyon/Summit &Virginia 1728 65 3.76 17 48 29 18 11 Tuolumne Meadows/lower river corridor 2635 85 3.23 16 69 26 15 11 Dana Fork/Tioga 456 47 10.31 17 30 22 17 5 Parker Pass Creek/Mono & Parker 500 29 5.80 2 27 7 2 5 Lyell Canyon/Donohue 1000 67 6.70 4 63 37 24 13 Total 6319 293 4.64 56 237 121 76 45

TRANS-SIERRA CORRIDOR, LOW SITE DENSITY Matterhorn Canyon 390 4 1.03 - 4 4 3 1 Spiller Canyon 279 6 2.15 2 4 5 5 - Total 669 10 1.49 2 8 9 8 1

NON-CORRIDOR CONTEXT, HIGH SITE DENSITY Rafferty Creek 314 13 4.14 - 13 8 7 1 Vogelsang area to Ireland Lake 300 18 6.00 - 18 - - - Total 614 31 5.05 - 31 8 7 1

NON-CORRIDOR CONTEXT, LOW SITE DENSITY Northern lakes* 379 9 2.37 - 9 12 1 11 Cold Canyon, Conness Creek 470 9 1.91 2 7 5 3 2 Tuolumne to Young Lakes trail corridors 200 1 0.50 - 1 - - - Dog Lake 30 3 10.00 - 3 - - - Delaney Creek ** 8 na - 8 - - - Gaylor Lake, Granite Lake, Gaylor Creek 400 4 1.00 - 4 20 - 20 Mt. Dana slope 613 2 0.33 - 2 5 4 1 Elizabeth Lake and trails 110 3 2.73 - 3 - - -

Total 2202 39 1.77 2 37 42 8 34 122 *Miller, Spiller, Soldier, Return, Onion, McCabe, and Young lakes. **not surveyed to current standards. 123

Figure 14. Map showing distribution of intensive- and limited-use sites.

124 the canyon around the confluences of two tributary creeks, McCabe and Spiller, and a contemporary trail junction. From this location, trails head northeasterly up Virginia

Canyon, south towards Cold Canyon and the Tuolumne River, and to the west. The second cluster of intensive-use sites occurs at the base of the short approach to Summit

Pass, an easy ascent to the crest. These clusters occur at entrance/exit points in the canyon, suggesting their locations are partly related to travel considerations.

In contrast to the high frequencies of sites at most trans-Sierra pass locations, survey results for Matterhorn and Spiller canyons show relatively low site frequencies

(Table 24). Ease of access may have been a consideration for travelers in both of those locations. To reach the head of Matterhorn Canyon from the eastern slope requires traversing two passes, Mule Pass at about 10,500 ft and Burro Pass at 10,600 ft elevation, perhaps involving significant extra effort that would be expended only occasionally. The four sites documented to date in Matterhorn Canyon are small, sparse lithic scatters, suggesting very light and infrequent use. Only one pass at the head of Spiller Canyon breaches the crest, but this unnamed, north-facing pass at 10,700 ft elevation may have been more difficult to access given the substantial snowfields and extensive talus on the northern slope (K. Warner, personal communication 2009). It may be significant, too, that there is not a formal trail constructed through Spiller Canyon, if today’s trail system is patterned largely on Native American routes.

In locales that do not lead directly to trans-Sierra passes—lake basins or tributary drainages—site densities are generally low and few intensive-use sites are apparent

(Table 24). The higher site densities at Rafferty Creek and the Vogelsang-Ireland area are distinct, however, perhaps because they were also travel routes between the Tuolumne

125 and Merced River watersheds. Relatively easy routes up Rafferty Creek from Tuolumne

Meadows and across the Lyell-Rafferty divide from Lyell Canyon allowed for access into the Merced River drainage.

Isolate distributions tend to track site distributions, where most have been recorded in trans-Sierra contexts (Table 24). In addition, isolate debitage occurs more frequently than isolate tools in these areas. Notable exceptions to the overall pattern include the northern lakes and Gaylor basin, where tools are more abundant than debitage. The prevalence of isolate tools and the presence of few limited-use sites suggest hunting was an important activity in these areas.

Examining the distribution of sites by temporal component allows for an initial assessment of spatial distinctions in land use through time. Table 25 presents a comparison of site and isolate distributions based on pooled chronological data from the thesis and previous studies within the study area, while Figure 15 depicts the site data geographically. In total, 115 sites and 14 isolates indicate use prior to 1500 B.P., and 124 sites and 11 isolates show some evidence of use post-1500 B.P. Although many sites within the study area retain chronological markers, it should be noted again that samples per site are relatively small, limited for the most part to the minimal collections made for the thesis and surface artifacts and features documented during previous surveys. It is likely that early-period components are severely under-represented here given the abundance of debitage pre-dating 1500 B.P. identified during the thesis analysis at virtually all sites (see Table 18 above). As such, the primary objective of this analysis is to compare the spatial extent of human activity through time and identify potential patterns that might provide fruitful avenues of investigation in future studies.

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Table 25. Site and Isolate Frequencies by Geographic Location and Time Period.

Location # Sites with # Sites with # Isolates # Isolates Post-1500 Pre-1500 B.P. Post-1500 Pre-1500 B.P. Materials Materials B.P. B.P. TRANS-SIERRA CORRIDOR, HIGH SITE DENSITY Virginia Canyon/Summit&Virginia 27 28 2 3 Tuolumne Meadow/river corridor 35 25 4 1 Dana Fork/Tioga 23 18 1 - Parker Pass Creek/Mono&Parker 4 3 1 - Lyell Canyon/Donohue 14 15 1 3 Total 103 89 9 7

TRANS-SIERRA CORRIDOR, LOW SITE DENSITY Matterhorn Canyon - 1 - 1 Spiller Canyon 4 3 - - Total 4 4 - 1

NON-CORRIDOR CONTEXT, HIGH SITE DENSITY Rafferty Creek 3 5 - - Vogelsang area to Ireland Lake 6 8 - - Total 9 13 - -

NON-CORRIDOR CONTEXT, LOW SITE DENSITY Northern lakes* 2 3 1 4 Cold Canyon, Conness Creek 3 1 - - Tuolumne to Young Lakes trail corridors - - - - Dog Lake - - - - Delaney Creek 1 2 - - Gaylor Lake, Granite Lake, - 2 1 2 Gaylor Creek Mt. Dana slope - - - - Elizabeth Lake and trails 2 1 - - Total 8 9 2 6 *Miller, Spiller, Soldier, Return, Onion, McCabe, and Young lakes.

127 Figure 15. Distribution of sites with post-1500 B.P. (left) and pre-1500 B.P. (right) materials. 128

That said, two patterns are most apparent in the spatial data (Table 25, Figure 15).

First, the distribution of sites and the abundance of both early- and late-period materials illustrate that the trans-Sierra travel corridors were the most densely used locations through time, a pattern most clearly tied to the topography of the study area. Second, the spatial extent of sites across the study area is roughly similar through time, calling into question the hypothesis of a more spatially extensive, early-period land use pattern.

However, it may be notable that late-period materials are more apparent at Tuolumne and

Dana meadows in trans-Sierra corridors, while early-period sites are slightly more widespread geographically. A closer examination of the sites and isolates in Matterhorn

Canyon, the northern lakes, Gaylor Lakes Basin, and the Ireland Lake area suggest this might yet be the case.

Four limited-use sites and 20 isolates have been documented in the Gaylor Lakes

Basin. All of the isolates are bifaces, projectile points, or fragments thereof (Hanchett

2004), suggesting a hunting focus for that locale. The identifiable projectile points include one Elko Corner-notched, one probable Elko Corner-notched, and one Rose

Spring Corner-notched specimen. The remaining specimens are large pieces, suggestive of dart points, while one very large white chert biface is also present. In addition, an

Eared Concave Base projectile point was collected by a Park employee from the basin.

Chronological data for the sites are limited to CA-TUO-755 and P-55-6782, both containing early-period debitage and the former a Sierra Concave Base point fragment.

All in all, these data suggest a hunting focus mainly prior to 1500 B.P.

The northern lakes (Onion, Spiller, Soldier, Miller, McCabe, and Return) and

Matterhorn Canyon show a similar distribution of few limited-use sites, isolates, and

129 projectile point types. Temporal data for the 10 sites in those locales are limited to two

Elko Corner-notched, one Sierra Concave Base, and one Rose Spring Corner-notched point. Of the 16 documented isolates, 12 are tools, either biface or projectile point fragments. The temporally diagnostic specimens include one Elko Corner-notched, two

Sierra Concave Base, one Rose Spring Corner-notched, and one Desert Side-notched projectile point. The types of sites and artifacts suggest a hunting focus, while the time sensitive artifacts indicate activity both before and after 1500 B.P., though with an emphasis during the Late Prehistoric 1 and 2 periods (3200–600 B.P.).

At the time of the thesis work, the Ireland Lake area had been minimally surveyed and the four documented limited-use sites indicated a hunting focus. A recent survey in the Ireland Lake basin (Curtis 2007) has resulted in recordation of seven additional archaeological sites since the thesis work was completed, all lithic scatters of varying debitage density. The greater density of sites contrasts with the few sites in other lake basins in the northern portion of the study area, perhaps because Ireland Lake is adjacent to, or on, a travel route. The topography of the basin, an expansive, gently sloping terrain which would have allowed for widespread settlement, also contrasts sharply with the steeper-walled glacial cirques of other lake basins. Nonetheless, the current chronological data, though minimal, suggest Late Prehistoric 1 and 2 period (3200–600 B.P.) use. The chronological information for the Ireland Lake area include debitage from CA-TUO-245 dating to pre-1500 B.P, one Humboldt Concave Base, one Sierra Concave Base, two Elko

Eared, one Elko Corner-notched, one possible Elko, one large dart point, one Rose Spring or Elko Corner-notched, and two Rose Spring Corner-notched points.

130

Although the data are scant, it seems possible that these outlying areas were used primarily earlier in time. It may be, however, that such use continued into the Late

Prehistoric 2 period (1300–600 B.P.) when Rose Spring points were prevalent. The dearth of Desert series points and the relative abundance of early-period artifacts suggest that further research in non-corridor contexts would be worthwhile in addressing this issue.

SUMMARY

The results of data analysis within the limited/intensive use model indicate spatial and temporal variability within the study area, the first related to the differential distribution of sites and site types and the second signified by a shift toward more intensive use in the late period. More specifically, overall site densities are high in the trans-Sierra pass locations of Virginia Canyon, the Mono Trail corridor (Tuolumne and

Dana meadows, Parker Pass Creek) and Lyell Canyon, and the non-corridor areas of

Rafferty Creek and the corridor between Vogelsang and Ireland Lake. Conversely, site densities are relatively low in Matterhorn and Spiller canyons, and around most of the lake basins. Intensive-use sites, more clearly associated with use during the past 1500 years, occur in highest frequencies in Virginia Canyon, along the Mono Trail corridor, and in the lower Lyell Canyon.

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Chapter 7

SITE VARIABILITY AND CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

Up to this point, sites have been considered within the limited/intensive use construct, a simple classificatory system that may mask important variability in site constituents and combinations of material. This chapter examines the data in greater detail, focusing on the co-occurrences of site constituents and potential chronological implications. Also addressed here is the issue of whether or not the limited/intensive use construct is sufficient to conceptualize land use in Yosemite at the level of surface studies. Finally, an important assumption in the thesis—the initial use and spread of bedrock mortars after 1500 B.P.—is critically assessed, using chronological data derived from the study area.

VARIABILITY AND MODEL ASSESSMENT

A land use model incorporating only two categories almost certainly obscures variability in the archaeological record to some degree. To further examine the range of variability in cultural constituents within the study area and identify combinations of cultural materials with potential chronological implications, sites were classed within 12 types based on the presence of flaked-stone material, bedrock mortars, portable ground stone, rock rings, and various other less abundant site constituents. Table 26 summarizes the combinations of materials for each type and their frequencies, the number of sites containing each constituent and pooled chronological data from temporally diagnostic projectile points, obsidian hydration values, and radiocarbon dates for all sites.

Most notably, nearly 80 percent (n=298) of the sites are flaked-stone lithic scatters. Portable ground stone, bedrock mortars, rock rings and other types of features

Table 26. Co-occurrence of Site Attributes and Chronological Data.

Type Primary Secondary # % of LS RS HB H C BRM/ GS RR RA Mid P Post- Pre- Constituents Constituents Sites Total PE 1500 1500 Sites B.P. B.P. 1 LS - 298 79.9 298 ------57 79 2 LS HB, RS, H, 11 2.9 11 5 4 2 2 ------5 6 or C 3 LS RA or 3 0.8 3 - - 1 1 - - - 2 2 - 3 1 Mid+H or C 4 Single feature - 5 1.3 - - 1? - 1 3 - - - - - 1 0 5 BRM+LS - 30 8.0 30 - - - - 30 - - - - - 13 13 6 BRM+LS HB, Mid, H, 4 1.1 4 2 1 - - 4 - - 1 1 - 2 2 RA, or RS 7 BRM+LS+GS H, Mid, or 9 2.4 9 - - 1 - 9 9 - 1 1 - 6 4 RA 8 GS+LS - 4 1.1 4 - 1 - - - 4 - - - - 3 4 9 RR+BRM+LS Mid or H 3 0.8 3 - - 1 - 3 - 3 - 1 - 3 2 10 RR+BRM+GS H, P, Mid, or 2 0.5 2 - - - - 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 +LS RA 11 RR+GS+LS Mid or H 3 0.8 3 - - 1 - - 3 3 - 1 - 2 2 12 RR+LS+RA - 1 0.3 1 ------1 1 - - 1 1 Total 373 100 368 7 7 6 4 51 18 9 6 7 1 Key: - =attribute is absent; LS=lithic scatter; BRM/PE=bedrock mortar and/or pestle; GS=portable groundstone (handstone and/or millingstone); RR=rock ring; HB=hunting blind; RS=rockshelter; RA=rock alignment; H=hearth; Mid=midden; C=cache; P=petroglyph.

132 133 are present at 75 sites (20%). Within this latter group of sites, bedrock mortars and/or pestles are most abundant, recorded at 51 (14%) of all sites. Thirty of these sites are composed solely of lithic scatters and bedrock mortars and three are isolated bedrock mortars. Thus, lithic scatters and/or bedrock mortars account for 331 (89%) of the total sites, suggesting low variability within the study area and general support for a simple model in conceptualizing land use at this stage of analysis.

Although variability is low, numerous sites contain complex deposits worthy of further consideration in regard to the co-occurrences of cultural materials and resulting chronological implications. These kinds of associations are necessarily preliminary and broad in scope, given the limited samples of many classes of material and the ubiquity and abundance of early-period lithic materials across the study area. Portable ground stone and midden deposits are of particular interest because such materials may signal early-period residential use. Handstones and millingstones are relatively uncommon in the study area, present at just 18 sites (5%) in limited quantities (generally one to two specimens per site). Within this small sample, portable ground stone occurs with bedrock mortars and/or rock rings at 14 (78%) of the sites, suggesting a strong affinity with materials thought to be prevalent after 1500 B.P. Three handstones and one millingstone, however, have been documented in early-period, subsurface contexts at three sites, CA-

TUO-120, -166, and -2834 (Hull et al. 1995; Montague 1996a, 1996b). The combined subsurface and surface data suggest that use of portable ground stone spans a wide range of time in the high elevations, while the surface data alone support increasing late-period use.

134

Midden deposits have been recorded at only seven sites in the study area, a sample that is too small for assessing patterns. Similar to the portable ground stone locations, however, patches of midden co-occur with either bedrock mortars and rock rings at five of the seven sites, again suggesting a late-period emphasis. Midden dating to an early-period context, however, is present at one site (CA-TUO-2834), and indicators of early-period use occur at several of the sites. Clearly, further work and larger samples are necessary to further identify any temporal trends in midden development.

Sites with rock rings tend to demonstrate the greatest diversity in site constituents, with eight of the nine containing bedrock mortars or portable ground stone, three exhibiting midden, and one including the study area’s only example of rock art (Table

26). Combinations of materials are distinctive even within this small sample, suggesting some temporal and/or functional variability. As discussed in Chapter 5, most of the rock rings with chronological data evince late period use, but they do not appear to be entirely late-period phenomena. Functional variability may also be apparent among rock ring sites that include bedrock mortars, compared to those with portable ground stone alone and the single site with no evidence of milling equipment. Minimal or no milling equipment, combined with the presence of moderate or abundant lithic materials, may indicate that the function of some of these sites was geared primarily toward hunting rather than as residential occupation by family groups. CA-TUO-749 in Virginia Canyon is an exception in that it has three rock rings, a single millingstone in the center of one feature, and limited surface debitage. The two-model construct clearly obscures variability in the case of rock ring sites, but the focus on surface constituents and the inability to

135 distinguish components at this level of analysis also does not allow for the development of clear chronologies and inventories of material by component.

Flaked stone debitage and tools are the predominant material within the study area, occurring at all sites except for four composed of single features (Type 4 in Table

26). As indicated in Chapter 5, debitage density varies substantially among sites and there are clear spatial distinctions in the distributions of the variable-density deposits. That is, the majority of the high-density debitage scatters are located in the trans-Sierra corridors, particularly in Dana Meadows, Tuolumne Meadows, and the lower portion of Lyell

Canyon. Moving beyond spatial distributions toward the examination of functional and chronological variability in lithic materials, Table 27 presents debitage density, bifacial tool frequencies, and chronological data for the site types described above. These surface attributes have been collected reliably for most sites (n=333). Types 1-2 sites display low variability in cultural materials and are thought to represent limited activities, while

Types 3/5-12 exhibit greater variability and cultural materials suggesting more substantial use. These combined categories are essentially the same as the limited- and intensive-use categories. In general, low-density debitage deposits and sites lacking bifacial tools are taken as locations that reflect less intensive activity either temporally or functionally, while higher-density concentrations signal an increased level of activity related to flaked stone tool production.

Most sites in both categories are low-density debitage deposits, totaling 238 of

333 sites (72%). Comparison of site frequencies between the site type categories, however, suggests some broad patterns in function and chronology. The proportion of low-density deposits is greater among the Type 1-2 sites (69.8% vs. 51.7%), and

136

Table 27. Site Types by Debitage Density, Bifacial Tool Occurrence, and Chronology.

Debitage # % of # Sites % of Post- % of Pre- % of Density Sites Total with PP or Total 1500 Total 1500 Total Sites BF Sites B.P. Sites B.P. Sites TYPE 1-2 SITES Low Density 208 69.8 94 45.2 41 19.7 51 24.5 Mod. Density 48 16.1 30 62.5 15 31.3 21 43.8 High Density 19 6.4 13 68.4 5 26.3 10 52.6 Total 275 137 49.8 61 22.2 82 29.8

TYPE 3, 5-12 SITES* Low Density 30 51.7 19 63.3 15 50.0 14 46.7 Mod. Density 12 20.7 10 83.3 10 83.3 7 58.3 High Density 16 27.6 11 68.8 10 62.5 10 62.5 Total 58 40 69.0 35 60.3 31 53.4 Key: PP=projectile point; BF=biface. *Type 4 sites do not contain debitage scatters and are therefore not represented in this table.

conversely, high-density debitage deposits are more common among the Type 3/5-12

sites (27. 6% vs. 6.4%). Bifacial tools are also present at more complex sites compared to

the Type 1-2 sites (69% vs. 49.8%). Sites with bifacial tools (n=94, 45.2%) are

proportionately least common at low-density Type 1-2 sites. Among the Type 1-2 sites, sites with pre-1500 B.P. temporal data are slightly more prevalent than those with post-

1500 B.P. data (29.8% vs. 22.2%), but most high density sites in that category exhibit

early- rather than late-period materials (52.6% vs. 26.3%). In contrast, a slightly higher

percentage of late-period materials are present at Type 3/5-12 sites (60.3% vs. 53.4%).

The combination of sites with higher-density debitage deposits, bifacial tools, and

features suggests these were preferred locations for a variety of activities and that such

activities were more prevalent after 1500 B.P., consistent with the intensive- and limited-

use analysis results in Chapter 6.

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CHRONOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF BEDROCK MORTARS

Bedrock mortars have been considered as temporal markers of the post-1500 B.P. period in the current study based on the results of archaeological research conducted in the surrounding region. The data assembled for the thesis also allow for an independent, albeit imperfect, assessment of the temporal framework for bedrock mortars. These features were in widespread use in the contact era, but their initial use and florescence is a more difficult issue to address. Ideally, a large sample of single-component sites with reliable chronological data in clear association with bedrock mortars would demonstrate the initial use and spread of this technology. Two factors militate against this outcome in regard to the current study—multi-component sites predominate in the trans-Sierra corridors where milling features are almost exclusively located, and early-period lithic materials are ubiquitous across the landscape. Against this backdrop, only broad trends are expected to emerge which may support early- or late-period inception of bedrock mortar use.

If bedrock mortars are indeed late-period phenomena, then evidence of post-1500

B.P. use should be consistently detected at sites with these features except in a few cases where bedrock mortars occur as isolated features. In addition, sites lacking bedrock mortars and dating to pre-1500 B.P. should occur with greater frequency than those dating to post-1500 B.P. Finally, bedrock mortars should not be present at early-period, single-component deposits except in the few cases of isolated features.

Considering only sites which have either undergone excavations or sampling for the current work provides the best possible chronological sample within the study area at this time. Of the 11 sites with bedrock mortars (Table 21 above), nine contain evidence of

138 post-1500 B.P. activity and all 11 exhibit early-period dates. One of the two sites lacking late-period dates, CA-TUO-124, has been largely destroyed by modern construction and the area near the feature was not sampled (Vittands 1994); thus, it is not suitable for inclusion within the sample. In the revised sample, late-period temporal data are present at nine of 10 sites, or 90 percent of the total. In contrast, 24 (53%) of the 45 sites lacking bedrock mortars show late-period use, while 44 (98%) evince early-period use. The only clear single-component, late-period site is an isolated obsidian artifact cache (CA-TUO-

4509), suggesting it may be very difficult, even in high-elevation contexts, to identify single components dating to that time period at the analytical unit of the site. In contrast,

22 sites appear to be early-period deposits alone, and only one of these, a large, very dense lithic scatter (CA-TUO-128/), contains a bedrock mortar.

All in all, the presence of late-period temporal indicators at nearly all of the sites in the sample with bedrock mortars combined with the absence of bedrock mortars at early-period lithic scatters suggests a late-period trend in bedrock mortar use. It is difficult, however, to determine whether the absence of bedrock mortars at many early- period sites reflects functional versus temporal patterning. More convincing evidence must be mounted through further analysis incorporating larger excavation samples. At multi-component sites with relatively intact stratigraphy, pestles in secure association with early-period materials would also indicate early-period inception of the mortar/pestle technology.

The distribution of temporally diagnostic projectile points also supports a late- period trend in bedrock mortar use. Of the 25 sites with temporally diagnostic projectile points and bedrock mortars, Desert and Rosegate series points are present at 14 sites and

139

13 sites, respectively. Taken together as post-1500 B.P. indicators, either Desert or

Rosegate points are evident at 22 (88%) of the 25 sites. Elko series points are present at only eight sites, but Elkos combined with other dart points have been documented at 17

(68%) of the 25 sites.

SUMMARY

In this section, two important underlying assumptions of the thesis were critically addressed: the characterization of high-elevation land use within the intensive/limited use model and the post-1500 B.P. inception of bedrock mortar/pestle technology. The two- part model has allowed for a broad-brush examination of patterns in time and space, but whether it adequately characterizes land use in Yosemite is an important issue. Given the limited variability of surface constituents in the study area, where 80 percent (n=298) of the sites are flaked-stone scatters and 89 percent (n=331) include only two classes of material—flaked-stone and bedrock mortars—the simple land use model provides an acceptable framework for interpreting surface remains. Nevertheless, the model surely obscures variability in the range and co-occurrence of constituents.

The two variables further examined at flaked-stone scatters, debitage density and presence of bifacial tools, suggested some broad, albeit tentative, trends in chronology and function. While most sites with data (n=238, 72%) contain low-density deposits, the proportion of low-density deposits is greater at sites without other features that suggest residential use. Conversely, high-density scatters are more common at sites with residential features in the trans-Sierra corridors. The presence of bifacial tools mirrors this pattern. Although temporal patterns are weak, sites with pre-1500 B.P. temporal data

140 are slightly more prevalent among sites without residential features, while a slightly higher percentage of late-period materials are present at sites with residential features.

Many of the less common cultural materials occur in such low quantities that patterns are difficult to assess. It is of interest, however, to identify how materials such as midden, portable ground stone, bedrock mortars, rock rings, and other features are distributed across the landscape and any temporal and functional implications thereof.

For example, all sites with rock rings are treated within the intensive-use category of the model, but the co-occurrence of rock rings with other materials varies substantially between sites, suggesting functional distinctions. In summary, the intensive/limited use model provides an acceptable model of land use at the most general level, but there may be more to be gained from a detailed assessment of the co-occurrence, chronology, and spatial distribution of specific site attributes.

Dating bedrock mortars in the Sierra Nevada has long posed a problem because of the difficulty in associating temporally diagnostic materials with features and an inability to date the mortars themselves. The widespread nature and abundance of early-period materials hampers independent efforts to date bedrock mortars in the present study. The presence of late-period materials at 90 percent of the sampled sites combined with the dearth of bedrock mortars at lithic scatters and their near absence at single-component early-period lithic scatters broadly supports a late prehistoric age for these features. In addition, the prevalence of late-period temporally diagnostic projectile points at sites with bedrock mortars supports this hypothesis. While some study area data were brought to bear on this topic, defining the initial use and spread of bedrock mortars remains an important research issue in the Sierra Nevada.

141

Chapter 8

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study explored high-elevation land use on the western slope of the central

Sierra Nevada by compiling existing data maintained by Yosemite National Park and minimal surface collections conducted as part of the thesis. Building on previous research in the White Mountains and the southern Sierra Nevada (Bettinger 1991; Roper

Wickstrom 1992; Stevens 2002), the study investigated whether an early, widespread hunting pattern was followed by a later, spatially limited residential strategy in response to regional resource intensification. This chapter summarizes the study results and explores potential explanations for these patterns, in terms of the constraints and opportunities created by environmental factors and how changing social, technological, and economic systems in the lowlands may have influenced use of the higher elevations.

Finally, a few recommendations are offered in the interest of continuing research along these lines.

PROJECT SUMMARY

Encompassing an area of roughly 105,000 acres of the upper Tuolumne River watershed between approximately 8500 and 12,000 ft elevation, the study area included

373 previously recorded archaeological sites within approximately 9800 surveyed acres.

The existing Yosemite survey, site, isolate, and artifact data were supplemented by surface collections from documented sites and obsidian hydration analysis undertaken as part of the present study. This produced a 15 percent (n=56) sample of sites with at least a minimal level of chronological data. Although the sample is small, and the survey area is biased geographically and by elevation toward the trans-Sierra corridors and below

142

10,000 ft elevation, the thesis allows for a preliminary and necessarily broad assessment of subalpine and alpine land use.

The primary goal of the thesis was to determine whether sites representing particular activities, designated as limited- or intensive-use (following Stevens [2002]), varied in time and space. Limited-use sites (n=313) were defined as lithic scatters, representing short-term activities related to travel, hunting, and exchange. Intensive-use sites (n=60) were indicated by the presence of bedrock mortars, residential structures, ground stone artifacts, midden sediments, and/or a greater diversity of artifacts, and were thought to represent longer-term residential use by family social groups. This simple model allowed for a broad examination of patterns in time and space in an area where surface constituents are limited in variability; sites composed solely of flaked-stone scatters account for 80 percent (n=298) of the total sites, while 89 percent (n=331) of the locations include only two classes of material, flaked-stone material and bedrock mortars.

Given this limited variability and the low frequencies of other classes of documented cultural material, the model is believed to be an acceptable construct for conceptualizing land use in Yosemite at this preliminary, surface level of study. However, a more detailed examination of the combinations of materials occurring at specific locations in future studies will allow for further assessment of variability in prehistoric use of the high country.

Analysis of the spatial and chronological data within the intensive/limited-use construct resulted in the identification of broad patterns that persisted through time, as well as a shift in land use that provides some level of support for the thesis hypothesis.

Beginning with the most general of observations, the study area is characterized by an

143 uneven distribution of sites, with the highest site frequencies (n=293, 79%) present along drainages leading to the trans-Sierra passes of Virginia, Summit, Tioga, Parker, Mono, and Donohue. Chronological data for sites and isolates along the drainages leading from these passes indicate that they functioned as destinations and travel thoroughfares through time. Based on the preponderance of limited-use sites in all of these areas, hunting, travel, and exchange were important activities conducted seasonally by Native people in the high country, again, throughout prehistory.

Limited-use sites occurred throughout the study area and temporal sequence.

Materials pre-dating 1500 B.P., however, are more clearly associated with this type of site. In addition, early-period hunting may have occurred more commonly in areas outside of the trans-Sierra corridors, suggesting a more spatially extensive pattern of use, though additional research is necessary to further address this issue. These patterns suggest that short, logistical trips, likely combining activities of hunting and exchange, constituted the primary mode of land use in the higher elevations.

Materials post-dating 1500 B.P. are more clearly associated with intensive-use sites. However, all of the intensive-use sites also contain early-period materials, indicating the presence of multiple components, a common occurrence at Yosemite deposits and a complicating factor in dating features. A small sample of obsidian material was collected from rock ring contexts in an attempt to more securely date the features, while two features were previously investigated through test excavations. Thin obsidian hydration values and arrow points (mainly Desert series) reflecting post-1500 B.P. use are most prevalent, occurring at all of the features except one dating to 2200 B.P. Three features contain several obsidian hydration values representing pre-1500 B.P. activity in

144 addition to the more recent dates, making it difficult to assess the initial occupation of those features on surface evidence alone. All in all, rock ring constructs appear to be more common post-1500 B.P., but they are not entirely a late-period phenomenon.

Intensive-use sites tend to be limited in spatial extent to the trans-Sierra corridors of Virginia Canyon and along the Mono Trail, traversing Dana Meadows, Tuolumne

Meadows, and Parker Pass Creek. Lyell Canyon is the sole exception, where only a few intensive-use sites have been recorded at the lower end of the canyon in close proximity to the Mono Trail. It may be that this cluster of sites was situated on a spur of the Mono

Trail, a distinct possibility given the local geography (P. DePascale, personal communication 2007), although an expansive mineral spring located nearby is also currently an attraction for mule deer and may have been a settlement consideration in the past. If intensive-use sites tend to contain late-period components, then the trans-Sierra corridors (except Lyell Canyon) functioned as the primary locations of high-elevation, seasonal residential camps. Desert series projectile points and other flaked stone material at sites outside of base camps appear to represent logistical hunting and/or travel.

The simplest and most likely explanation for the spatial pattern in the study area is ease of access in the mountainous terrain; that is, the passes provided the most convenient, least-cost routes between the east and west. As noted by John Muir

(1879:645) over a century ago, “the trails of white men, Indians, bears, deer, wild sheep, etc.” will converge on the best passes in rugged and inaccessible terrain. The drainages leading from the Summit/Virginia, Tioga/Mono/Parker, and Donohue passes contain the greatest site densities, suggesting these were the primary thoroughfares for trans-Sierra travel. Of these routes, the Mono Trail, through Bloody Canyon, Mono Pass, and

145

Tuolumne Meadows, was known historically to Indian people as the shortest route between Yosemite Valley and Mono Lake (Hulse 1935b). The low site densities in

Matterhorn and Spiller canyons indicate limited use of those areas, perhaps because travel was difficult or less direct in comparison to other routes. The former required travel over two passes from the east and the latter retains extensive snowfields and talus slopes on its northern face.

Exchange or acquisition of a variety of nonlocal resources from the lower elevations of the western slope and the eastern escarpment was an important reason for trans-Sierra travel. Most relevant to the Sierra are the staple food items in the east and west, pinyon nuts and acorn, respectively, while obsidian obtained from sources in the eastern Sierra was the primary material utilized for flaked stone tool manufacture. Given the absence of these materials in the high country, the costs incurred from transporting items from the lower elevations should not have outweighed the caloric benefits of the foods themselves. Bettinger et al. (1997:895) suggest that the one-way travel threshold for foragers carrying a 36 kg load of unprocessed black oak acorn at 3 miles per hour is

77 miles, while Jones and Madsen (1989) calculate the round-trip, maximum transport distance for the high-calorie pinyon nut at about 500 miles. Approximately 40 miles via contemporary trails covers the distance between the base of the eastern escarpment and important middle-elevation locations such as Yosemite Valley, indicating a clear benefit for transporting both pinyon nuts and acorn. Based on the presence of bedrock mortars and other indicators of intensive use in Virginia Canyon and along the Mono Trail, these corridors appear to be the primary late-period trans-Sierra routes. The absence of a similar pattern in Lyell Canyon—an area of high site density but lacking intensive-use

146 sites in its middle and upper reaches—may be due to increased access costs relative to the other routes. Donohue Pass is higher in elevation than the passes to the north and the distance from the pass to important locations such as Tuolumne Meadows and Yosemite

Valley is greater. It seems more likely that Mammoth Pass, the lowest elevation pass

(9200 ft) in the central Sierra and just south of Donohue Pass, would have functioned as the main route from Long Valley to the western Sierra via the San Joaquin River. If that is the case, then Donohue Pass, at 11,000 ft elevation, may have been used primarily for hunting and possibly obsidian transport in the late period, as it was early in time. The relatively high elevation of Donohue Pass may have made it a more suitable platform for the pursuit of bighorn sheep. The locations of numerous archaeological sites in the upper

Lyell basin, noted by former long-time Yosemite employee Jack Knieriemen (1997) but not yet formally investigated, suggest bighorn sheep were a target in the early period.

The high density of sites along the drainages leading to passes indicates the importance of these areas for a range of activities over time, whether it was for reasons of hunting, trade, or broader residential activities. Trade clearly conditions settlement in these areas, but they also are good locations for hunting and more generalized resource acquisition because access is relatively easy. This makes settlement strategies intrinsically difficult to differentiate, which in turn, makes trends in the data presented here more significant than they might otherwise seem.

CONCLUSIONS

This study viewed the high elevations of the Sierra Nevada in terms of opportunities and constraints for people occupying distinctive biogeographic zones in the lower elevations of the eastern and western slopes. Heavy snow cover functioned as a

147 primary constraint, limiting access to the warmer months between late spring and early fall, depending on annual weather conditions. The summer months, however, allowed for a range of opportunities, including access to resources in the high country, particularly large mammals, social interactions, and exchange of, or direct access to, resources present only in the core lowlands on either side of the range. The study examined the spatial distribution of cultural material, implied functions, and available chronological data to assess land use over time. The results of this analysis, viewed in the contexts of environment and regional subsistence-settlement systems, indicate both persistence and change in high-elevation land use, generally supporting regional models of cultural development.

Prior to ca. 1500 B.P., groups from both sides of the Sierra Nevada made logistical trips to the high country from lower elevations for hunting and transport of nonlocal resources. The focus on hunting high-return resources combined with the dart/atlatl technology prevalent in the region necessitated large quantities of obsidian in both hunting and obsidian procurement contexts, resulting in the ubiquitous early-period lithic scatter. However, the trans-Sierra passes funneled most human activity during that time into the western-slope drainages leading from the passes. The presence of vast amounts of obsidian on the western slope and the abundance of early-period deposits in the trans-Sierra corridors points out the importance of obsidian transport and travel in the study area. The specific mechanisms of obsidian acquisition are still unclear, with some researchers hypothesizing direct access by western groups (e.g., Bouey and Basgall 1984) and others proposing exchange as a value-added activity to the hunting of bighorn sheep by eastern groups (Rosenthal 2008). The obsidian cache data from the Park, combined

148 with the highly mobile settlement system thought to be in place in the eastern Sierra during the Newberry period, suggest that a formal exchange network was not in existence at that time.

After 1500 B.P. the trans-Sierra corridors continued to be the focus of settlement, although hunting occurred in non-corridor contexts as well. The presence of bedrock mortars, rock rings, and other features dating to this period imply increased residential use and longer stays by groups of people in comparison to the earlier occupations. The confinement of intensive-use sites to only a few of the trans-Sierra corridors suggests a more spatially constrained pattern of land use, consistent with developments in the lowlands where increased population densities, subsistence intensification, and greater territorial circumscription are thought to have transpired. Lacking intensive-use sites in its middle and upper reaches, Lyell Canyon and Donohue Pass likely continued to be an important location for hunting and travel, but most intensive use occurred in Virginia

Canyon and in Dana and Tuolumne meadows along the Mono Trail. The presence of bedrock mortars, assumed to date to this period, implies an increased reliance on plant resources relative to the preceding period, consistent with regional developments in the lowlands. The limited quantities of features and mortars, as well as the shallow depths of most mortars, however, indicates that plant resource processing was still a less important activity in the high elevations than in the middle and lower elevations of the western slope, where oak trees are abundant. Whether subsistence in the high country involved the procurement of local resources and/or transported plant foods remains an issue for further inquiry. Some seasonal distinctions in high country use may be suggested by the availability of key mammal species in the high elevations and other food resources at

149 lower elevations such as acorns and pinyon nuts. Deer, bighorn sheep, and other mammal species would have been available during the summer in the high country, while the pinyon nut and acorn harvests would have taken place in September and October in the middle and lower elevations. Exchange or direct acquisition of these resources may have intensified in the fall, particularly if crops were unproductive in a given area.

The shift in weapon technology to the bow and arrow resulted in a decreased demand for obsidian, yet trans-Sierra transport of obsidian continued, some to meet local, seasonal needs and others for transport farther to the west. Late-period caches of bifaces and smaller flake blanks are less technologically diverse than those dating to earlier times, implying increased consistency in the manufacture of obsidian products. At the same time, Mono Basin quarries may have become more important for obsidian acquisition than they were in earlier times. These factors, in light of the subsistence intensification in the lowlands and the spatial tethering in both low- and high-elevation contexts, suggest that trade of commodities became more important after about 1500 B.P.

Based on previous studies and the current work, it is clear that the higher elevations of the Sierra were important elements of regional subsistence-settlement systems and key conduits for social interactions between people living in the lowlands of the eastern and western slopes. The high density of sites in the canyon bottoms is consistent with ease of access in a mountainous terrain and the predominance of lithic scatters attests to the importance of hunting over time. However, the prevalence of intensive-use sites in the late period along major travel routes signaled a shift in use of the higher elevations from a pattern focused on logistical hunting and obsidian procurement to a more residential pattern along a few key travel routes. This shift is

150 consistent with the regional pattern of increased population densities, increased trade, and plant resource intensification, as well as findings in the subalpine and alpine zones of the southern Sierra Nevada (Morgan 2006; Stevens 2002), where sites with bedrock mortars and other indicators of intensive use clustered in travel corridors suggest greater residential mobility and a focus on trans-Sierra travel in the late period.

DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The current project was initiated as a pilot study of high-elevation land use, incorporating previously collected data for a segment of Yosemite’s high country and relying on minimal surface collections to supplement the existing chronological data sets.

The analysis revealed several avenues for further research on high-elevation land use.

The principal recommendations are to increase survey coverage within the Park boundaries, ensure that site and isolate data are collected consistently and to current standards, and to continue a program of minimal surface sampling to supplement temporally diagnostic projectile point findings. Additional survey and site documentation in contexts outside of direct trans-Sierra corridors would aid in clarifying the spatial distributions and combinations of cultural materials for the region. Within the study area, this work could include a multitude of locations, including Delaney Creek, Dingley

Creek, Conness Creek, Alkali Creek, Kuna Crest, upper Lyell and McClure basins, and the lake basins. Resurvey of Parker Pass Creek and re-documentation of sites not visited since the 1980s would also help in securely identifying site constituents and densities in that trans-Sierra corridor.

Outside of the study area, very little survey has been conducted in the northern part of the Park, including Slide, Thompson, Stubblefield, and Jack Main canyons. In

151 addition to canyon bottom investigations, an objective of future research should be to increase survey coverage above 10,000 ft so that prehistoric use of alpine environments can be more fully explored. At the same time, further research regarding bedrock mortar chronology, plant resource exploitation, and obsidian source distributions will be important to understanding high-elevation land use. At a methodical level, developments in projectile point taxonomy and the use of obsidian hydration dating for estimating calendrical dates will greatly contribute to future studies in the area. Finally, as surveyed areas are increased, taking a larger perspective that synthesizes site data from Yosemite’s wide elevational range would be an important step in settlement research.

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APPENDIX A

Data Sources

153

Table A-1. Major Archaeological Projects within the Study Area.

Yosemite Project Type Location within Study Collections Special Studies Reference* Project Area

1952 A/ Survey Tuolumne x - Bennyhoff (1956a) 1953 A Dana Meadows Parker Pass Creek Rafferty Creek Delaney Creek Ireland-Vogelsang Dog Lake Elizabeth Lake Lyell Canyon 1956 A Pothole Dome Tuolumne: TUO-134 x XRF, OH Bennyhoff (1956b); study, test Montague (2008)

1976 B Survey Tuolumne x - Napton and Dana Meadows Greathouse (1976) Parker Pass Creek Mono Pass Rafferty Creek Delaney Creek Virginia Canyon Cold Canyon Ireland-Vogelsang Dog Lake Elizabeth Lake Lyell Canyon Young Lakes 1985 E Survey Tuolumne x XRF, OH Mundy (1992) Dana Meadows 1987 P Survey Tuolumne x Hull (1987) 1988 D/ Survey Virginia Canyon x XRF, OH Laird (1988, 1989) 1989 M 1989 L Survey Lyell Canyon x - Gavette (2007) 1992 C Test Dana Meadows: x XRF, OH, Montague (1996a) TUO-754/H, 2825, C-14, faunal 2828, 2829, 2830, 2831, 2833, 2834, 2841 1992 E Survey Dana Meadows x - Jackson (1992) 1992 Survey, cache Tuolumne x XRF, OH Gavette (2002) I,J,K,L study Young Lakes Vogelsang area TUO-4436 (cache) 1993 B Test Tuolumne: TUO-124, x XRF, OH, C-14 Vittands (1994) 500 1994 H Survey Lyell Canyon x - DePascale and Curtis (2006) 1994 M Test, data Tuolumne: TUO-166, x XRF, OH, Hull et al. (1995) recovery 501, 2810, 2811, 3561 tephra 154

Yosemite Project Type Location within Study Collections Special Studies Reference* Project Area 1995 C Test Tuolumne: TUO-120 x XRF, OH, C-14 Montague (1996b) 1996 G Subsurface Tuolumne: TUO-121, x - Kahl (1999) survey 167, 3937/H, 3938, 3940, 3941, 3944, 3945/H 1996 I Survey Tuolumne x - Jackson (1996) Matterhorn Canyon Virginia Canyon McCabe Lakes Ireland-Vogelsang 1998 P Survey Vogelsang area x - Kahl (2001a)

1998 II Cache study Tuolumne: x XRF, OH Vittands (1998) TUO-500 cache 1999 X Survey Lyell Canyon x - Kahl (2001b) Elizabeth Lake 2000 C Survey Lyell Canyon x - Gavette (2000) 2001 D Survey Matterhorn Canyon - - DePascale (2002) Miller and Hook lakes Virginia Canyon 2001 H/ Survey Lyell Canyon x - Gavette (2003) 2002 I Elizabeth Lake 2001 U Survey Lyell Canyon x - Jackson (2002) 2002 H Survey Ireland-Vogelsang x - Jackson and Hagen Lyell Canyon (2007) 2002 R Survey Dana Meadows - - Norum et al. (2002) Parker Pass Creek 2003 A Survey Lyell Canyon x - DePascale (2004) Rafferty Creek Virginia Canyon 2003 H Survey Cold Canyon x - Gavette (2004) Conness Creek Lyell Canyon Onion, Spiller, &Soldier lakes Spiller Canyon Virginia Canyon 2003 R Survey Gaylor Creek x - Hanchett (2004) 2004 X Survey Matterhorn Canyon x - Gavette (2005) Miller Lake Rafferty Creek 2004 MM Cache study Parker Pass: TUO- x XRF, OH, C-14 Bevill (2009) 4509 2006 C Survey Tuolumne x - Shive (2007) Dana Meadows Lyell Canyon Key: x=collections present; XRF=x-ray fluorescence analysis; OH=obsidian hydration analysis; *see References Cited.

Table A-2. Summary of Site Attributes.

I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-4638 L 1 Alkali Creek 8042 x CA-MRP-0156 L 1 Boothe Lake 9880 x x x CA-TUO-0741 L 2 Cold Canyon 8690 RS x x CA-TUO-0742 L 1 Cold Canyon 8710 x CA-TUO-4641 L 1 Cold Canyon 8700 x CA-TUO-4642 L 1 Cold Canyon 8680 x x x CA-TUO-4643 L 1 Cold Canyon 8570 x CA-TUO-4644 I 5 Cold Canyon 8725 x x x CA-TUO-4645 L 1 Cold Canyon 8700 x CA-TUO-4646 I 5 Cold Canyon 8700 x x P-55-006554 L 1 Dana slope 10800 x x x P-55-006555 L 1 Dana slope 10440 x CA-TUO-0171 L 1 Delaney Creek 9400 x CA-TUO-0172 L 1 Delaney Creek 9410 x x x CA-TUO-0173 L 1 Delaney Creek 9400 x x CA-TUO-0174 L 1 Delaney Creek 9560 x CA-TUO-0175 L 1 Delaney Creek 9600 x CA-TUO-0176 L 1 Delaney Creek 9640 x CA-TUO-0177 L 1 Delaney Creek 9680 x x CA-TUO-0178 L 1 Delaney Creek 9760 x x x CA-TUO-0047 L 1 Dana Fork 9900 x CA-TUO-0179/2829 I 5 Dana Fork 9400 x x x x x x BST CA-TUO-0180/2837 I 8 Dana Fork 9450 x x x x x CA-TUO-0181 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 x CA-TUO-0182 L 1 Dana Fork 9520 x CA-TUO-0183 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 x x CA-TUO-0201 L 1 Dana Fork 9910 x

CA-TUO-0202 L 1 Dana Fork 9840 x 155 I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-0203 L 1 Dana Fork 9800 x CA-TUO-0754/H I 8 Dana Fork 9280 x x x x x BST CA-TUO-0758 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 x x CA-TUO-0927 L 1 Dana Fork 9935 x x x x CA-TUO-0928/3933 L 1 Dana Fork 8800 x x CA-TUO-2814/H L 1 Dana Fork 9085 x x x CA-TUO-2815/H I 5 Dana Fork 9040 x x x x x CA-TUO-2816 I 5 Dana Fork 9210 x x CA-TUO-2817 L 1 Dana Fork 9250 x x x CA-TUO-2818 L 1 Dana Fork 9250 x x CA-TUO-2819 L 1 Dana Fork 9270 x x x x CA-TUO-2820 L 1 Dana Fork 9315 x x CA-TUO-2821/H I 5 Dana Fork 9290 x x x x CA-TUO-2822 I 7 Dana Fork 9360 x x x x CA-TUO-2823 I 5 Dana Fork 9330 x x CA-TUO-2824 I 5 Dana Fork 9370 x x x x x CA-TUO-2825 L 1 Dana Fork 9360 x x x x CA-TUO-2826 I 5 Dana Fork 9380 x x x x CA-TUO-2827 L 1 Dana Fork 9380 x CA-TUO-2828 L 1 Dana Fork 9370 x x x x CA-TUO-2830 L 2 Dana Fork 9415 H x x x CA-TUO-2831 L 1 Dana Fork 9440 x x x x CA-TUO-2832 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 x x CA-TUO-2833 I 9 Dana Fork 9450 x x H x x x x x x Steatite, CA-TUO-2834 I 11 Dana Fork 9450 x x x H x x x x x Crystal, Ochre CA-TUO-2835 I 7 Dana Fork 9440 x x x x x x Chopper CA-TUO-2836 L 1 Dana Fork 9460 x x x CA-TUO-2838 I 7 Dana Fork 9470 x x x

CA-TUO-2839 I 5 Dana Fork 9450 x x x x 156 I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-2840 L 1 Dana Fork 9540 x x CA-TUO-2841 L 1 Dana Fork 9920 x x x x Core CA-TUO-4905 L 1 Dana Fork 9840 x CA-TUO-4906 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 x x x P-55-006556 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 x YOSE 1992 E-01 L 8 Dana Fork 9938 x HB x x x x YOSE 1994 C-01 I 5 Dana Fork 9320 x x YOSE 1994 C-02 I 4 Dana Fork 9300 x YOSE 1994 C-03 L 1 Dana Fork 9390 x YOSE 1994 C-05 L 1 Dana Fork 9630 x x CA-TUO-0168 L 1 Dog Lake 9170 x CA-TUO-0169 L 1 Dog Lake 9170 x CA-TUO-0170 L 1 Dog Lake 9185 x x CA-TUO-0163 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9520 x x CA-TUO-0164 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9520 x CA-TUO-0165 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9508 x x x CA-TUO-0099 L 1 Evelyn 10340 x CA-TUO-0156 L 1 Evelyn 10350 x CA-TUO-0157 L 1 Evelyn 10334 x x CA-TUO-4230 L 1 Evelyn 10334 x x CA-MRP-0157 L 1 Fletcher 10160 x x x CA-TUO-0755 L 1 Gaylor 10050 x x CA-TUO-0756 L 1 Gaylor 10340 x CA-TUO-0757 L 1 Gaylor 10400 x x P-55-006782 L 1 Gaylor 10000 x x CA-TUO-0161 L 1 Ireland area 10500 x CA-TUO-0241 L 1 Ireland area 10600 x x x CA-TUO-0245 L 1 Ireland area 10760 x x CA-TUO-0246 L 1 Ireland area 10550 x

CA-TUO-4521 L 1 Ireland area 10480 x 157 CA-TUO-4522 L 1 Ireland area 10660 x x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-0045/4311 L 1 Lyell Fork 10200 x CA-TUO-0046/H L 1 Lyell Fork 9680 x x CA-TUO-0135 L 1 Lyell Fork 8690 x CA-TUO-0136 L 1 Lyell Fork 8700 x CA-TUO-0145 L 1 Lyell Fork 8880 x x CA-TUO-0147 L 1 Lyell Fork 8880 x x CA-TUO-0149 L 1 Lyell Fork 8840 x x x CA-TUO-0150 L 1 Lyell Fork 8820 x x CA-TUO-0151 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 x CA-TUO-0162 L 1 Lyell Fork 9800 x CA-TUO-3823 L 2 Lyell Fork 8750 RS x x x CA-TUO-3828 L 1 Lyell Fork 8710 x x CA-TUO-3829 L 1 Lyell Fork 8720 x CA-TUO-3830 L 1 Lyell Fork 8760 x CA-TUO-3831 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750 x x x x CA-TUO-3832 L 1 Lyell Fork 8705 x CA-TUO-3833 L 1 Lyell Fork 8735 x CA-TUO-3834 L 1 Lyell Fork 8745 x CA-TUO-3835 L 1 Lyell Fork 8740 x x CA-TUO-3836 L 1 Lyell Fork 8735 x x x CA-TUO-3837 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750 x x

Core, BST, CA-TUO-3838 I 7 Lyell Fork 8770 x x RA x x x x x SS

CA-TUO-3839 L 1 Lyell Fork 8740 x CA-TUO-3840 L 1 Lyell Fork 8760 x x CA-TUO-3841 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 x x x x CA-TUO-3842 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 x CA-TUO-3843 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 x CA-TUO-3844 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750 x 158 I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA

CA-TUO-3845 I 3 Lyell Fork 8760 x RA x x x x x

CA-TUO-3847 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 x x CA-TUO-3848 L 3 Lyell Fork 8800 RA x x CA-TUO-3849 L 1 Lyell Fork 8790 x x CA-TUO-3850 L 1 Lyell Fork 8790 x x CA-TUO-4056 L 1 Lyell Fork 8888 x x x CA-TUO-4264 L 1 Lyell Fork 8995 x x CA-TUO-4265 L 1 Lyell Fork 8919 x x CA-TUO-4266 L 1 Lyell Fork 8904 x x CA-TUO-4488 L 1 Lyell Fork 8900 x x CA-TUO-4489 L 1 Lyell Fork 8950 x x CA-TUO-4490 L 1 Lyell Fork 8840 x CA-TUO-4491 L 1 Lyell Fork 8920 x CA-TUO-4492 L 1 Lyell Fork 8920 x x CA-TUO-4510 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 x x x CA-TUO-4511 L 1 Lyell Fork 8884 x x CA-TUO-4636 L 1 Lyell Fork 8728 x x CA-TUO-4637 L 1 Lyell Fork 8775 x x CA-TUO-4639 I 7 Lyell Fork 8815 x x x x x x x x CA-TUO-4640 L 1 Lyell Fork 8855 x CA-TUO-4662 L 1 Lyell Fork 8845 x CA-TUO-4663 L 1 Lyell Fork 8860 x CA-TUO-4664 L 1 Lyell Fork 8610 x

CA-TUO-4665 I 12 Lyell Fork 9045 x RA x x x x x Core

CA-TUO-4849 L 1 Lyell Fork 9520 x x CA-TUO-4850 L 1 Lyell Fork 9570 x x 159 CA-TUO-4851 L 1 Lyell Fork 9540 x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-4852 L 1 Lyell Fork 11056 x x CA-TUO-4854 L 1 Lyell Fork 10850 x CA-TUO-4855 L 1 Lyell Fork 10820 x CA-TUO-4856 L 1 Lyell Fork 10700 x x CA-TUO-4857 L 1 Lyell Fork 10620 x x CA-TUO-4858 L 1 Lyell Fork 10560 x x CA-TUO-4859 L 1 Lyell Fork 10400 x x CA-TUO-4860 L 1 Lyell Fork 8960 x CA-TUO-4869 L 1 Lyell Fork 8977 x CA-TUO-4895 L 1 Lyell Fork 9680 x x CA-TUO-4896 L 1 Lyell Fork 9620 x x P-55-006568 L 1 Lyell Fork 8720 x x Matterhorn CA-TUO-4227 L 1 8640 x Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4228 L 1 8640 x Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4731 L 1 9600 x Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4732 L 1 9600 x x x Canyon CA-TUO-4497 L 1 McCabe Creek 9245 x CA-TUO-4224 L 1 McCabe Lake 9820 x CA-TUO-4225 L 1 McCabe Lake 10460 x x P-55-005161 L 1 McCabe Lake 9800 x CA-TUO-4721 L 1 Miller Lake 9515 x x CA-TUO-0759/H I 5 Mono Pass 10604 x x CA-TUO-0752 L 1 Dingley Creek 9880 x Crystal CA-TUO-0184 L 1 Parker Pass 9530 x x CA-TUO-0185 L 1 Parker Pass 9520 x x x CA-TUO-0186 L 1 Parker Pass 9500 x CA-TUO-0187 I 5 Parker Pass 9500 x x x

CA-TUO-0188 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 x 160 CA-TUO-0189 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-0190 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 x CA-TUO-0191 L 1 Parker Pass 9750 x CA-TUO-0192 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 x CA-TUO-0193 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 x CA-TUO-0194 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 x CA-TUO-0195 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 x CA-TUO-0196 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 x CA-TUO-0197 L 1 Parker Pass 10100 x CA-TUO-0198 L 1 Parker Pass 10400 x CA-TUO-0199 L 1 Parker Pass 10400 x CA-TUO-0200 L 1 Parker Pass 10500 x CA-TUO-0204 L 1 Parker Pass 10700 x CA-TUO-4509 L 4 Parker Pass 9990 C P-55-006557 L 1 Parker Pass 10100 x x P-55-006558 L 1 Parker Pass 10000 x x P-55-006559 L 1 Parker Pass 10240 x P-55-006560 L 1 Parker Pass 10320 x x x P-55-006561 L 1 Parker Pass 10450 x x x x P-55-006562 L 1 Parker Pass 10800 x P-55-006563 L 1 Parker Pass 10760 x x x x P-55-006564 L 1 Parker Pass 10600 x x P-55-006565 L 1 Parker Pass 10520 x x CA-TUO-0152 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 x CA-TUO-0153 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 x x CA-TUO-0155 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9992 x x x x CA-TUO-0760 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9160 x x CA-TUO-0761 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9220 x CA-TUO-0762 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9400 x x CA-TUO-4055 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9870 x x x Crystal

CA-TUO-4659 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9320 x 161 CA-TUO-4660 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9915 x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-4661 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9160 x CA-TUO-4722 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9990 x CA-TUO-4756/H L 1 Rafferty Creek 9550 x x CA-TUO-0154 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 x YOSE 1989 M-05 L 1 Return Lake 10250 x CA-TUO-4229 I 4 Spiller Canyon 8760 x CA-TUO-4635 I 6 Spiller canyon 8910 x RS x x P-55-006775 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9300 x x x P-55-006776 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9450 x P-55-006777 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9500 x P-55-006778 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9200 x x P-55-006779 L 1 Spiller Lake 10680 x x CA-TUO-0108 L 1 Tuolumne 8565 x x

CA-TUO- 0109/110/509/510/511 L 1 Tuolumne 8569 x x x /H

CA-TUO-0111 I 5 Tuolumne 8565 x x CA-TUO-0112 L 1 Tuolumne 8570 x x CA-TUO-0113 L 1 Tuolumne 8565 x x CA-TUO-0114 L 1 Tuolumne 8569 x CA-TUO-0115 L 1 Tuolumne 8570 x CA-TUO-0116 L 1 Tuolumne 8575 x CA-TUO-0117 L 1 Tuolumne 8575 x Core

CA-TUO-0118 I 5 Tuolumne 8575 x x

CA-TUO-0119 L 1 Tuolumne 8590 x CA-TUO-0120 L 8 Tuolumne 8550 x x x x CA-TUO-0121 I 5 Tuolumne 8580 x x x CA-TUO-0123 L 1 Tuolumne 8572 x x x CA-TUO-0124 I 5 Tuolumne 8600 x x x x x 162 CA-TUO-0125/126/H I 5 Tuolumne 8560 x x x x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-0127 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x CA-TUO- I 5 Tuolumne 8565 x x x 0128/129/130/504 CA-TUO-0131 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x x CA-TUO-0132 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x CA-TUO-0133 I 6 Tuolumne 8585 x HB? x x CA-TUO-0134 I 3 Tuolumne 8560 x H, C x x x CA-TUO-0146 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x BST, Core, CA-TUO-0166 I 7 Tuolumne 8600 x x H x x x x Crystal CA-TUO-0167/H I 7 Tuolumne 8610 x x x x CA-TUO-0490 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x CA-TUO-0491 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 x CA-TUO-0492 L 1 Tuolumne 8655 x x CA-TUO-0493 L 1 Tuolumne 8580 x CA-TUO-0494 L 1 Tuolumne 8578 x x x hist CA-TUO-0495/H L 2 Tuolumne 8645 RA, x x RS CA-TUO-0496 L 1 Tuolumne 8592 x CA-TUO-0497 L 1 Tuolumne 8580 x CA-TUO-0498 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 x CA-TUO-0499 I 5 Tuolumne 8560 x x H, C, CA-TUO-0500 I 2 Tuolumne 8650 x x x x Core RS CA-TUO-0501 L 1 Tuolumne 8615 x x CA-TUO-0502 L 1 Tuolumne 8625 x x CA-TUO-0503 L 1 Tuolumne 8660 x x x CA-TUO-0505 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x CA-TUO-0506 L 1 Tuolumne 8630 x CA-TUO-0507 I 5 Tuolumne 8558 x x 163 CA-TUO-0508 L 1 Tuolumne 8680 x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-0527/H L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x x CA-TUO-0528 L 1 Tuolumne 8630 x x CA-TUO-0529 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x CA-TUO-0530 L 1 Tuolumne 8720 x x CA-TUO-0531 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x x x CA-TUO-0532 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x CA-TUO-0733 L 1 Tuolumne 8410 x x x CA-TUO-0734 L 1 Tuolumne 8400 x x CA-TUO-0735 L 1 Tuolumne 8360 x CA-TUO-2808 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x x x CA-TUO-2809 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x CA-TUO-2810 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x x x x

CA-TUO-2811 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x x x x CA-TUO-2812 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 x x CA-TUO-2813 L 2 Tuolumne 8800 HB x x CA-TUO-3561 L 1 Tuolumne 8625 x x x x BST CA-TUO-3824 L 1 Tuolumne 8680 x CA-TUO-3825 L 1 Tuolumne 8660 x CA-TUO-3826 L 1 Tuolumne 8690 x x CA-TUO-3827 L 1 Tuolumne 8710 x x CA-TUO-3936 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x x

CA-TUO-3937/H L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x x Glass bead

CA-TUO-3938/H I 5 Tuolumne 8600 x x x x CA-TUO-3939 L 2 Tuolumne 8640 HB x x CA-TUO-3940 L 1 Tuolumne 8579 x x CA-TUO-3941 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x CA-TUO-3942 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x x CA-TUO-3943 L 2 Tuolumne 8700 HB? x x

CA-TUO-3944 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x 164 CA-TUO-3945/H L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-3959 I? 5 Tuolumne 8680 x x CA-TUO-3960 I? 5 Tuolumne 8700 x x x CA-TUO-3961 L 1 Tuolumne 8575 x CA-TUO-4435 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x x x CA-TUO-4436 L 2 Tuolumne 8400 C x CA-TUO-4437 L 1 Tuolumne 8540 x x CA-TUO-4438 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x CA-TUO-4439 L 1 Tuolumne 8585 x x CA-TUO-4440 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x CA-TUO-4902/H L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x x CA-TUO-4903 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x CA-TUO-4907 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x x P-22-001741 L 1 Townsley 10370 x x P-22-001743 L 1 Townsley 10400 x CA-TUO-0158 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x x CA-TUO-0159 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x x x CA-TUO-0160 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x x x x CA-TUO-0743 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8600 x CA-TUO-0744 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8700 x CA-TUO-0745 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x x x x CA-TUO-0746 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8880 x x CA-TUO-0747 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 x x x CA-TUO-0748 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9150 x x CA-TUO-0749 I 11 Virginia Canyon 9240 x x x CA-TUO-0750 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9360 x x x x CA-TUO-0751 I 11 Virginia Canyon 10250 x x x x x x CA-TUO-3763 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9900 x x x x CA-TUO-3764 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9350 x x BST CA-TUO-3765 I 10 Virginia Canyon 8360 x x x Petro x x x x

CA-TUO-3766 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8380 x x x x 165 CA-TUO-3767 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-3768 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8460 x Core CA-TUO-3769 L 2 Virginia Canyon 9280 RS x x x CA-TUO-3770 I 5 Virginia Canyon 9240 x x x x CA-TUO-3771 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9120 x x CA-TUO-3772 I 7 Virginia Canyon 9040 x x x x CA-TUO-3773 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8560 x x x x x CA-TUO-3774 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8560 x x CA-TUO-3775 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8600 x RS, CA-TUO-3776/H I 6 Virginia Canyon 8700 x x x RA CA-TUO-3777 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8620 x x CA-TUO-3778/H I 9 Virginia Canyon 8610 x x x x x CA-TUO-3779 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9100 x x CA-TUO-3780 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9050 x x CA-TUO-3781 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9050 x CA-TUO-3782 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9060 x x BST, CA-TUO-3783 I 10 Virginia Canyon 8970 x x x x RA x x x x Chopper CA-TUO-3784 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8890 x CA-TUO-3785 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8780 x x CA-TUO-3786 I 6 Virginia Canyon 8650 x x x x x CA-TUO-3787 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8620 x CA-TUO-3788 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8650 x x CA-TUO-3789 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8750 x x x CA-TUO-3790 L 2 Virginia Canyon 8800 HB x CA-TUO-3791 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8800 x x x CA-TUO-3792 I 7 Virginia Canyon 8520 x x x x x x BST CA-TUO-3793 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8820 x x CA-TUO-3794 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x x CA-TUO-3795 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x

CA-TUO-3796 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x x 166 CA-TUO-3797 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8960 x x I-L Sub- Elev BRM HS/ Other Site Area AF MID FAU DEB PP BF DR FT Other Tool Type type (ft) /PE MS FEA CA-TUO-3798 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8970 x CA-TUO-3799 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 x x CA-TUO-3800 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9120 x CA-TUO-3801 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 x x CA-TUO-3802 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9250 x CA-TUO-3803 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8480 x CA-TUO-3804 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8680 x x CA-TUO-3805 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x x CA-TUO-3806 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x x CA-TUO-3807 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x x x CA-TUO-3808 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9430 x x x CA-TUO-3809 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9430 x x x CA-TUO-3810/H I 5 Virginia Canyon 9300 x x x x x CA-TUO-3811 I 9 Virginia Canyon 9280 x x x x x x x x CA-TUO-4226 I 4 Virginia Canyon 8400 x CA-TUO-4496 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8760 x CA-TUO-4972 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9760 x P-55-005164 L 4 Virginia Canyon 8350 HB? YOSE 1989 M-02 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9950 x x hist YOSE 1989 M-03/H L 1 Virginia Canyon 9900 x x x x RA YOSE 1989 M-04 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9920 x x x CA-MRP-1438 L 1 Vogelsang Lake 10360 x x x x Glass bead CA-TUO-0753 L 1 Young Lake 9883 x x x x CA-TUO-4223 L 1 Young Lake 9860 x x Key: x=attribute is present; site designations in bold text=previously excavated; I-L: intensive or limited use; BRM/PE=bedrock mortar/pestle; AF=architectural feature (domestic structure); MID=midden; HS/MS=handstone/millingstone; Other FEA=other feature; FAU=faunal; DEB=debitage; PP=projectile point; BF=biface; DR=drill; FT=flake tool; RS=rockshelter; H=hearth; HB=hunting blind; RA=rock alignment; C=flaked-stone cache; SS=shaft straightener; BST=battered stone tool; Petro=petroglyph. 167 Table A-3. Summary of Chronological Data by Site.

I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-4638 L 1 Alkali Creek 8042 CA-MRP-0156 L 1 Boothe Lake 9880 x CA-TUO-0741 L 2 Cold Canyon 8690 x CA-TUO-0742 L 1 Cold Canyon 8710 CA-TUO-4641 L 1 Cold Canyon 8700 x CA-TUO-4642 L 1 Cold Canyon 8680 CA-TUO-4643 L 1 Cold Canyon 8570 CA-TUO-4644 I 5 Cold Canyon 8725 x CA-TUO-4645 L 1 Cold Canyon 8700 CA-TUO-4646 I 5 Cold Canyon 8700 P-55-006554 L 1 Dana slope 10800 P-55-006555 L 1 Dana slope 10440 CA-TUO-0171 L 1 Delaney Creek 9400 CA-TUO-0172 L 1 Delaney Creek 9410 x x CA-TUO-0173 L 1 Delaney Creek 9400 CA-TUO-0174 L 1 Delaney Creek 9560 CA-TUO-0175 L 1 Delaney Creek 9600 CA-TUO-0176 L 1 Delaney Creek 9640 CA-TUO-0177 L 1 Delaney Creek 9680 CA-TUO-0178 L 1 Delaney Creek 9760 x x CA-TUO-0047 L 1 Dana Fork 9900 CA-TUO-0179/2829 I 5 Dana Fork 9400 x x x x x CA-TUO-0180/2837 I 8 Dana Fork 9450 x x x CA-TUO-0181 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 CA-TUO-0182 L 1 Dana Fork 9520 CA-TUO-0183 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 168 CA-TUO-0201 L 1 Dana Fork 9910 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0202 L 1 Dana Fork 9840 CA-TUO-0203 L 1 Dana Fork 9800 CA-TUO-0754/H I 8 Dana Fork 9280 x x x x x CA-TUO-0758 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 x CA-TUO-0927 L 1 Dana Fork 9935 x x

CA-TUO-0928/3933 L 1 Dana Fork 8800

CA-TUO-2814/H L 1 Dana Fork 9085 CA-TUO-2815/H I 5 Dana Fork 9040 x CA-TUO-2816 I 5 Dana Fork 9210 CA-TUO-2817 L 1 Dana Fork 9250 x CA-TUO-2818 L 1 Dana Fork 9250 CA-TUO-2819 L 1 Dana Fork 9270 x CA-TUO-2820 L 1 Dana Fork 9315 CA-TUO-2821/H I 5 Dana Fork 9290 x x CA-TUO-2822 I 7 Dana Fork 9360 CA-TUO-2823 I 5 Dana Fork 9330 CA-TUO-2824 I 5 Dana Fork 9370 x x CA-TUO-2825 L 1 Dana Fork 9360 x x x CA-TUO-2826 I 5 Dana Fork 9380 x x CA-TUO-2827 L 1 Dana Fork 9380 CA-TUO-2828 L 1 Dana Fork 9370 x x x x CA-TUO-2830 L 2 Dana Fork 9415 x CA-TUO-2831 L 1 Dana Fork 9440 x x CA-TUO-2832 L 1 Dana Fork 9480 x CA-TUO-2833 I 9 Dana Fork 9450 x x x x x CA-TUO-2834 I 11 Dana Fork 9450 x x x x x CA-TUO-2835 I 7 Dana Fork 9440 x

CA-TUO-2836 L 1 Dana Fork 9460 169 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-2838 I 7 Dana Fork 9470 CA-TUO-2839 I 5 Dana Fork 9450 x CA-TUO-2840 L 1 Dana Fork 9540 CA-TUO-2841 L 1 Dana Fork 9920 x x x CA-TUO-4905 L 1 Dana Fork 9840 CA-TUO-4906 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 P-55-006556 L 1 Dana Fork 9600 YOSE 1992 E-01 L 8 Dana Fork 9938 x YOSE 1994 C-01 I 5 Dana Fork 9320 YOSE 1994 C-02 I 4 Dana Fork 9300 YOSE 1994 C-03 L 1 Dana Fork 9390 YOSE 1994 C-05 L 1 Dana Fork 9630 x CA-TUO-0168 L 1 Dog Lake 9170 CA-TUO-0169 L 1 Dog Lake 9170 CA-TUO-0170 L 1 Dog Lake 9185 CA-TUO-0163 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9520 x x CA-TUO-0164 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9520 CA-TUO-0165 L 1 Elizabeth Lake 9508 x x CA-TUO-0099 L 1 Evelyn 10340 CA-TUO-0156 L 1 Evelyn 10350 x CA-TUO-0157 L 1 Evelyn 10334 x x CA-TUO-4230 L 1 Evelyn 10334 x CA-MRP-0157 L 1 Fletcher 10160 CA-TUO-0755 L 1 Gaylor 10050 x x CA-TUO-0756 L 1 Gaylor 10340 CA-TUO-0757 L 1 Gaylor 10400 P-55-006782 L 1 Gaylor 10000 x CA-TUO-0161 L 1 Ireland area 10500 170 CA-TUO-0241 L 1 Ireland area 10600 x x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0245 L 1 Ireland area 10760 x x CA-TUO-0246 L 1 Ireland area 10550 CA-TUO-4521 L 1 Ireland area 10480 CA-TUO-4522 L 1 Ireland area 10660 x CA-TUO-0045/4311 L 1 Lyell Fork 10200 CA-TUO-0046/H L 1 Lyell Fork 9680 x x CA-TUO-0135 L 1 Lyell Fork 8690 CA-TUO-0136 L 1 Lyell Fork 8700 CA-TUO-0145 L 1 Lyell Fork 8880 x CA-TUO-0147 L 1 Lyell Fork 8880 CA-TUO-0149 L 1 Lyell Fork 8840 x CA-TUO-0150 L 1 Lyell Fork 8820 x CA-TUO-0151 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 CA-TUO-0162 L 1 Lyell Fork 9800 CA-TUO-3823 L 2 Lyell Fork 8750 x CA-TUO-3828 L 1 Lyell Fork 8710 CA-TUO-3829 L 1 Lyell Fork 8720 CA-TUO-3830 L 1 Lyell Fork 8760 CA-TUO-3831 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750 x CA-TUO-3832 L 1 Lyell Fork 8705 CA-TUO-3833 L 1 Lyell Fork 8735 CA-TUO-3834 L 1 Lyell Fork 8745 CA-TUO-3835 L 1 Lyell Fork 8740 CA-TUO-3836 L 1 Lyell Fork 8735 x CA-TUO-3837 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750

CA-TUO-3838 I 7 Lyell Fork 8770 x x x x x

CA-TUO-3839 L 1 Lyell Fork 8740 171 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-3840 L 1 Lyell Fork 8760 CA-TUO-3841 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 x x CA-TUO-3842 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 CA-TUO-3843 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 CA-TUO-3844 L 1 Lyell Fork 8750

CA-TUO-3845 I 3 Lyell Fork 8760 x x

CA-TUO-3847 L 1 Lyell Fork 8780 CA-TUO-3848 L 3 Lyell Fork 8800 x CA-TUO-3849 L 1 Lyell Fork 8790 CA-TUO-3850 L 1 Lyell Fork 8790 CA-TUO-4056 L 1 Lyell Fork 8888 x CA-TUO-4264 L 1 Lyell Fork 8995 CA-TUO-4265 L 1 Lyell Fork 8919 x CA-TUO-4266 L 1 Lyell Fork 8904 CA-TUO-4488 L 1 Lyell Fork 8900 CA-TUO-4489 L 1 Lyell Fork 8950 CA-TUO-4490 L 1 Lyell Fork 8840 x CA-TUO-4491 L 1 Lyell Fork 8920 CA-TUO-4492 L 1 Lyell Fork 8920 CA-TUO-4510 L 1 Lyell Fork 8800 x CA-TUO-4511 L 1 Lyell Fork 8884 x CA-TUO-4636 L 1 Lyell Fork 8728 CA-TUO-4637 L 1 Lyell Fork 8775 x x CA-TUO-4639 I 7 Lyell Fork 8815 x x x x x CA-TUO-4640 L 1 Lyell Fork 8855 CA-TUO-4662 L 1 Lyell Fork 8845

CA-TUO-4663 L 1 Lyell Fork 8860 172 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-4664 L 1 Lyell Fork 8610

CA-TUO-4665 I 12 Lyell Fork 9045 x x x x

CA-TUO-4849 L 1 Lyell Fork 9520 CA-TUO-4850 L 1 Lyell Fork 9570 CA-TUO-4851 L 1 Lyell Fork 9540 x CA-TUO-4852 L 1 Lyell Fork 11056 CA-TUO-4854 L 1 Lyell Fork 10850 CA-TUO-4855 L 1 Lyell Fork 10820 CA-TUO-4856 L 1 Lyell Fork 10700 x CA-TUO-4857 L 1 Lyell Fork 10620 x CA-TUO-4858 L 1 Lyell Fork 10560 CA-TUO-4859 L 1 Lyell Fork 10400 x CA-TUO-4860 L 1 Lyell Fork 8960 CA-TUO-4869 L 1 Lyell Fork 8977 CA-TUO-4895 L 1 Lyell Fork 9680 x CA-TUO-4896 L 1 Lyell Fork 9620 P-55-006568 L 1 Lyell Fork 8720 Matterhorn CA-TUO-4227 L 1 8640 Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4228 L 1 8640 Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4731 L 1 9600 Canyon Matterhorn CA-TUO-4732 L 1 9600 x Canyon CA-TUO-4497 L 1 McCabe Creek 9245 CA-TUO-4224 L 1 McCabe Lake 9820 CA-TUO-4225 L 1 McCabe Lake 10460 x P-55-005161 L 1 McCabe Lake 9800 173 CA-TUO-4721 L 1 Miller Lake 9515 x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0759/H I 5 Mono Pass 10604 CA-TUO-0752 L 1 Dingley Creek 9880 CA-TUO-0184 L 1 Parker Pass 9530 CA-TUO-0185 L 1 Parker Pass 9520 CA-TUO-0186 L 1 Parker Pass 9500 CA-TUO-0187 I 5 Parker Pass 9500 x x x x CA-TUO-0188 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 CA-TUO-0189 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 CA-TUO-0190 L 1 Parker Pass 9700 CA-TUO-0191 L 1 Parker Pass 9750 CA-TUO-0192 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 CA-TUO-0193 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 CA-TUO-0194 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 CA-TUO-0195 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 CA-TUO-0196 L 1 Parker Pass 9900 CA-TUO-0197 L 1 Parker Pass 10100 CA-TUO-0198 L 1 Parker Pass 10400 CA-TUO-0199 L 1 Parker Pass 10400 CA-TUO-0200 L 1 Parker Pass 10500 CA-TUO-0204 L 1 Parker Pass 10700 CA-TUO-4509 L 4 Parker Pass 9990 x P-55-006557 L 1 Parker Pass 10100 P-55-006558 L 1 Parker Pass 10000 P-55-006559 L 1 Parker Pass 10240 P-55-006560 L 1 Parker Pass 10320 P-55-006561 L 1 Parker Pass 10450 x x P-55-006562 L 1 Parker Pass 10800 P-55-006563 L 1 Parker Pass 10760 174 P-55-006564 L 1 Parker Pass 10600 x x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier P-55-006565 L 1 Parker Pass 10520 CA-TUO-0152 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 x CA-TUO-0153 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 x x CA-TUO-0155 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9992 x x x CA-TUO-0760 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9160 CA-TUO-0761 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9220 CA-TUO-0762 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9400 CA-TUO-4055 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9870 x x CA-TUO-4659 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9320 CA-TUO-4660 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9915 x CA-TUO-4661 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9160 CA-TUO-4722 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9990 CA-TUO-4756/H L 1 Rafferty Creek 9550 x CA-TUO-0154 L 1 Rafferty Creek 9640 YOSE 1989 M-05 L 1 Return Lake 10250 CA-TUO-4229 I 4 Spiller Canyon 8760 CA-TUO-4635 I 6 Spiller canyon 8910 x x x P-55-006775 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9300 x x x P-55-006776 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9450 x x P-55-006777 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9500 P-55-006778 L 1 Spiller Canyon 9200 P-55-006779 L 1 Spiller Lake 10680 x CA-TUO-0108 L 1 Tuolumne 8565 x

CA-TUO- 0109/110/509/510/511/ L 1 Tuolumne 8569 x x H

CA-TUO-0111 I 5 Tuolumne 8565 CA-TUO-0112 L 1 Tuolumne 8570

CA-TUO-0113 L 1 Tuolumne 8565 x x 175 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0114 L 1 Tuolumne 8569 CA-TUO-0115 L 1 Tuolumne 8570 CA-TUO-0116 L 1 Tuolumne 8575 CA-TUO-0117 L 1 Tuolumne 8575

CA-TUO-0118 I 5 Tuolumne 8575

CA-TUO-0119 L 1 Tuolumne 8590 CA-TUO-0120 L 8 Tuolumne 8550 x x CA-TUO-0121 I 5 Tuolumne 8580 x x CA-TUO-0123 L 1 Tuolumne 8572 CA-TUO-0124 I 5 Tuolumne 8600 x x x CA-TUO-0125/126/H I 5 Tuolumne 8560 x CA-TUO-0127 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 CA-TUO- I 5 Tuolumne 8565 x 0128/129/130/504 CA-TUO-0131 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x x CA-TUO-0132 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 CA-TUO-0133 I 6 Tuolumne 8585 x CA-TUO-0134 I 3 Tuolumne 8560 x x CA-TUO-0146 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 CA-TUO-0166 I 7 Tuolumne 8600 x x x x x x x CA-TUO-0167/H I 7 Tuolumne 8610 x CA-TUO-0490 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 CA-TUO-0491 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 CA-TUO-0492 L 1 Tuolumne 8655 CA-TUO-0493 L 1 Tuolumne 8580 CA-TUO-0494 L 1 Tuolumne 8578 x CA-TUO-0495/H L 2 Tuolumne 8645

CA-TUO-0496 L 1 Tuolumne 8592 176 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0497 L 1 Tuolumne 8580 CA-TUO-0498 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 CA-TUO-0499 I 5 Tuolumne 8560 CA-TUO-0500 I 2 Tuolumne 8650 x x x x x x CA-TUO-0501 L 1 Tuolumne 8615 x x CA-TUO-0502 L 1 Tuolumne 8625 CA-TUO-0503 L 1 Tuolumne 8660 CA-TUO-0505 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 CA-TUO-0506 L 1 Tuolumne 8630 CA-TUO-0507 I 5 Tuolumne 8558 CA-TUO-0508 L 1 Tuolumne 8680 CA-TUO-0527/H L 1 Tuolumne 8620 CA-TUO-0528 L 1 Tuolumne 8630 x CA-TUO-0529 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x CA-TUO-0530 L 1 Tuolumne 8720 CA-TUO-0531 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x CA-TUO-0532 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 CA-TUO-0733 L 1 Tuolumne 8410 x CA-TUO-0734 L 1 Tuolumne 8400 CA-TUO-0735 L 1 Tuolumne 8360 CA-TUO-2808 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 x CA-TUO-2809 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 CA-TUO-2810 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x CA-TUO-2811 L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x x x x CA-TUO-2812 L 1 Tuolumne 8650 x CA-TUO-2813 L 2 Tuolumne 8800 x CA-TUO-3561 L 1 Tuolumne 8625 x z x CA-TUO-3824 L 1 Tuolumne 8680 177 CA-TUO-3825 L 1 Tuolumne 8660 I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-3826 L 1 Tuolumne 8690 CA-TUO-3827 L 1 Tuolumne 8710 CA-TUO-3936 L 1 Tuolumne 8620 CA-TUO-3937/H L 1 Tuolumne 8640 x x x CA-TUO-3938/H I 5 Tuolumne 8600 x x CA-TUO-3939 L 2 Tuolumne 8640 x CA-TUO-3940 L 1 Tuolumne 8579 x x CA-TUO-3941 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 CA-TUO-3942 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x CA-TUO-3943 L 2 Tuolumne 8700 x x CA-TUO-3944 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 CA-TUO-3945/H L 1 Tuolumne 8550 x x CA-TUO-3959 I? 5 Tuolumne 8680 CA-TUO-3960 I? 5 Tuolumne 8700 CA-TUO-3961 L 1 Tuolumne 8575 CA-TUO-4435 L 1 Tuolumne 8560 x CA-TUO-4436 L 2 Tuolumne 8400 x CA-TUO-4437 L 1 Tuolumne 8540 x CA-TUO-4438 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 CA-TUO-4439 L 1 Tuolumne 8585 CA-TUO-4440 L 1 Tuolumne 8550 CA-TUO-4902/H L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x CA-TUO-4903 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 CA-TUO-4907 L 1 Tuolumne 8600 x x P-22-001741 L 1 Townsley 10370 P-22-001743 L 1 Townsley 10400 CA-TUO-0158 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x CA-TUO-0159 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x x x 178 CA-TUO-0160 L 1 U. Evelyn 10440 x x x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-0743 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8600 CA-TUO-0744 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8700 CA-TUO-0745 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x x x CA-TUO-0746 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8880 CA-TUO-0747 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 CA-TUO-0748 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9150 CA-TUO-0749 I 11 Virginia Canyon 9240 CA-TUO-0750 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9360 x x x x CA-TUO-0751 I 11 Virginia Canyon 10250 x x x x x x x CA-TUO-3763 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9900 x x x x x CA-TUO-3764 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9350 x CA-TUO-3765 I 10 Virginia Canyon 8360 x x x x x x CA-TUO-3766 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8380 x x x CA-TUO-3767 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8400 x CA-TUO-3768 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8460 CA-TUO-3769 L 2 Virginia Canyon 9280 x CA-TUO-3770 I 5 Virginia Canyon 9240 x CA-TUO-3771 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9120 CA-TUO-3772 I 7 Virginia Canyon 9040 x CA-TUO-3773 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8560 x CA-TUO-3774 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8560 CA-TUO-3775 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8600 x CA-TUO-3776/H I 6 Virginia Canyon 8700 CA-TUO-3777 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8620 x x CA-TUO-3778/H I 9 Virginia Canyon 8610 x CA-TUO-3779 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9100 CA-TUO-3780 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9050 CA-TUO-3781 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9050 179 CA-TUO-3782 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9060 x x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-3783 I 10 Virginia Canyon 8970 x x x x CA-TUO-3784 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8890 CA-TUO-3785 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8780 CA-TUO-3786 I 6 Virginia Canyon 8650 x CA-TUO-3787 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8620 CA-TUO-3788 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8650 x CA-TUO-3789 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8750 x CA-TUO-3790 L 2 Virginia Canyon 8800 CA-TUO-3791 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8800 x CA-TUO-3792 I 7 Virginia Canyon 8520 x x CA-TUO-3793 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8820 CA-TUO-3794 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x CA-TUO-3795 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 CA-TUO-3796 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8800 x CA-TUO-3797 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8960 CA-TUO-3798 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8970 CA-TUO-3799 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 x CA-TUO-3800 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9120 CA-TUO-3801 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9040 x CA-TUO-3802 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9250 CA-TUO-3803 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8480 x CA-TUO-3804 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8680 x CA-TUO-3805 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x x x CA-TUO-3806 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8400 CA-TUO-3807 I 5 Virginia Canyon 8400 x x CA-TUO-3808 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9430 x CA-TUO-3809 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9430 x CA-TUO-3810/H I 5 Virginia Canyon 9300 x x x 180 CA-TUO-3811 I 9 Virginia Canyon 9280 x x x x x x I-L Sub- Elev Desert/ OH, RS/ OH, LP1 Site Area OH, LP2 Arrow Elko CB Dart type type (ft) CT LP3 EG and earlier CA-TUO-4226 I 4 Virginia Canyon 8400 CA-TUO-4496 L 1 Virginia Canyon 8760 CA-TUO-4972 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9760 x P-55-005164 L 4 Virginia Canyon 8350 YOSE 1989 M-02 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9950 YOSE 1989 M-03/H L 1 Virginia Canyon 9900 x x YOSE 1989 M-04 L 1 Virginia Canyon 9920 x x CA-MRP-1438 L 1 Vogelsang Lake 10360 x CA-TUO-0753 L 1 Young Lake 9883 x x x x CA-TUO-4223 L 1 Young Lake 9860 Key: x=attribute is present; site designations in bold text=previously excavated; I-L: intensive or limited use; Desert/CT=Desert or Cottonwood series; RS/EG=Rose Spring/Eastgate types; Elko=Elko series; CB=concave base series; OH=obsidian hydration data; LP1-3=Late Prehistoric 1, 2, or 3 period.

181 182

Table A-4. Calibrated Dates for Obsidian Hydration Data.

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218604a 46/H DEB SCU 1 2.6 10 1748 CD-LM(x) 218604b 46/H DEB SCU 1 1.7 10 746 CD(v) 218604c 46/H DEB SCU 1 0.0 10 0 CD(v) 218605a 46/H DEB SCU 2 3.2 10 2610 CD(v) 218605b 46/H DEB SCU 2 4.1 10 4311 CD(v) 218605c 46/H DEB SCU 2 2.7 10 1830 CD(v) 218606a 46/H DEB SCU 3 2.8 10 2018 CD(v) 218606b 46/H DEB SCU 3 1.8 10 825 CD(v) 218606c 46/H DEB SCU 3 2.1 10 1109 CD(v) 218606d 46/H DEB SCU 3 3.3 10 2709 CD(v) 218607a 113 DEB SCU 1 3.4 12 2328 CD(v) 218607b 113 DEB SCU 1 3.4 12 2270 CD-LM(x) 218607c 113 DEB SCU 1 3.0 12 1748 CD(v) 218608b 113 DEB SCU 2 2.5 12 1224 CD(v) 218609a 113 DEB SCU 3 2.2 12 932 CD(v) 218609b 113 DEB SCU 3 2.5 12 1242 CD(v) 218609c 113 DEB SCU 3 2.4 12 1100 CD(v) 218609d 113 DEB SCU 3 2.7 12 1445 CD(v) 218609e 113 DEB SCU 3 1.9 12 735 CD(v) 218610a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 1 4.1 12 3410 CD(v) 218610b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 1 5.3 12 5513 CD(v) 218611a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 2 4.0 12 3214 CD(v) 218611b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 2 5.8 12 6656 CD(v) 218611c 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 2 5.7 12 6363 CD(v) 218612a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 3 4.7 12 4290 CD(v) 218612b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 3 5.6 12 6229 CD-LM(x) 218612c 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 3 2.9 12 1661 CD(v) 218612d 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 3 4.9 12 4741 CD(v) 218612e 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 3 3.9 12 2959 CD(v) 218613a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 4 5.7 12 6396 CD(v) 218613b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 4 4.8 12 4606 CD(v) 218614a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 5 6.2 12 7683 CD(v) 218614b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 5 6.0 12 7038 CD-LM(x) 218614c 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 5 3.8 12 2810 CD(v) 218615a 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 6 2.9 12 1699 CD(v) 218615b 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 6 3.3 12 2118 CD(v) 218615c 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 6 3.5 12 2411 CD(v) 218615d 128/129/130/504 DEB SCU 6 3.3 12 2161 CD(v) 218617a 131 DEB SCU 1 4.3 12 3592 CD(v) 218617b 131 DEB SCU 1 5.0 12 5041 CD(v) 218617c 131 DEB SCU 1 5.8 12 6689 CD(v) 218618a 131 DEB SCU 2 5.1 12 5065 CD(v) 218618b 131 DEB SCU 2 4.5 12 4003 CD(v) 218618c 131 DEB SCU 2 5.5 12 5923 CD(v) 218619a 131 DEB SCU 3 5.0 12 4935 CD(v) 218619b 131 DEB SCU 3 5.1 12 5114 CD-LM(x) 183

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218619c 131 DEB SCU 3 5.0 12 5024 CD(v) 218620a 159 DEB SCU 1 3.4 9 3309 CD(v) 218620b 159 DEB SCU 1 2.8 9 2238 CD(v) 218620c 159 DEB SCU 1 2.8 9 2320 CD(v) 218621a 159 DEB SCU 2 2.8 9 2316 CD-LM(x) 218621c 159 DEB SCU 2 2.9 9 2532 CD(v) 218621d 159 DEB SCU 2 2.2 9 1405 CD(v) 218622b 159 DEB SCU 3 3.9 9 4496 CD(v) 218622c 159 DEB SCU 3 3.7 9 3939 CD(v) 218623 159 DSN-G 2.8 M @ 110 2.2 9 1393 CD-LM(x) 218626a 172 DEB SCU 1 4.1 11 3861 CD-LM(x) 218626b 172 DEB SCU 1 6.4 11 9156 CD(v) 218626c 172 DEB SCU 1 4.4 11 4418 CD(v) 218627a 172 DEB SCU 2 3.5 11 2788 CD(v) 218627b 172 DEB SCU 2 4.1 11 3874 CD(v) 218627c 172 DEB SCU 2 3.9 11 3492 CD(v) 218627d 172 DEB SCU 2 3.6 11 2972 CD(v) 218628a 172 DEB SCU 3 6.0 11 8223 CD(v) 218628b 172 DEB SCU 3 4.8 11 5286 CD(v) 218628c 172 DEB SCU 3 4.4 11 4402 CD(v) 218629a 187 DEB SCU 1 3.0 10 2295 CD-LM(x) 218629b 187 DEB SCU 1 3.4 10 3029 CD(v) 218629c 187 DEB SCU 1 2.3 10 1391 CD(v) 218629d 187 DEB SCU 1 2.9 10 2093 CD(v) 218630a 187 DEB SCU 2 3.0 10 2261 CD(v) 218630b 187 DEB SCU 2 2.9 10 2145 CD(v) 218630c 187 DEB SCU 2 2.7 10 1910 CD(v) 218631a 187 DEB SCU 3 3.1 10 2519 CD(v) 218631b 187 DEB SCU 3 3.0 10 2260 CD(v) 218631c 187 DEB SCU 3 2.0 10 976 CD(v) 218632 187 RS 33 M @ 54 2.3 10 1313 CD-LM(x) 218633 187 RSCN 16.80 M @ 19 1.1 10 338 CD-LM(x) 218634a 245 DEB SCU 1 4.5 9 5955 CD(v) 218634b 245 DEB SCU 1 4.2 9 5236 CD(v) 218634c 245 DEB SCU 1 4.0 9 4697 CD(v) 218634d 245 DEB SCU 1 5.0 9 7224 CD(v) 218635a 245 DEB SCU 2 5.0 9 7373 CD(v) 218635b 245 DEB SCU 2 3.9 9 4440 CD(v) 218635c 245 DEB SCU 2 3.7 9 4008 CD-LM(x) 218635d 245 DEB SCU 2 4.5 9 5789 CD(v) 218635f 245 DEB SCU 2 4.4 9 5724 CD(v) 218636 245 HCB 16.8 M @ 205 5.1 9 7706 CD-LM(x) 218637a 494 DEB SCU 1 4.9 12 4744 CD(v) 218637b 494 DEB SCU 1 5.1 12 5213 CD(v) 218637c 494 DEB SCU 1 4.9 12 4791 CD-LM(x) 218637e 494 DEB SCU 1 5.3 12 5540 CD(v) 218637f 494 DEB SCU 1 4.4 12 3774 CD(v) 218638a 494 DEB SCU 2 4.8 12 4644 CD(v) 184

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218638b 494 DEB SCU 2 5.0 12 5013 CD(v) 218638c 494 DEB SCU 2 4.9 12 4789 CD(v) 218639a 751 DEB F 1 2.8 9 2343 CD-LM(x) 218639b 751 DEB F 1 2.9 9 2467 BH(x) 218639c 751 DEB F 1 1.1 9 356 MC(x) 218640a 751 DEB SCU 1 2.6 9 1995 BH(v) 218640b 751 DEB SCU 1 2.9 9 2486 BH(v) 218641a 751 DEB SCU 2 3.2 9 2933 MH(x) 218641b 751 DEB SCU 2 3.4 9 3276 BH(v) 218641c 751 DEB SCU 2 3.2 9 3043 BH(v) 218641d 751 DEB SCU 2 3.4 9 3432 BH(v) 218641e 751 DEB SCU 2 3.3 9 3196 BH(v) 218641f 751 DEB SCU 2 3.3 9 3225 BH(v) 218641g 751 DEB SCU 2 3.4 9 3352 BH(v) 218642 751 DSN-S 43 M @ 176, D2 1.6 9 725 MC(x) 218643 751 DSN-S F 1 1.5 9 692 BH(x) 218644a 755 DEB SCU 1 4.1 10 4229 CD(v) 218644b 755 DEB SCU 1 4.8 10 5836 CD-LM(x) 218644c 755 DEB SCU 1 3.5 10 3226 CD(v) 218644d 755 DEB SCU 1 4.5 10 5166 CD(v) 218644e 755 DEB SCU 1 4.4 10 4957 CD(v) 218645a 755 DEB SCU 2 3.5 10 3118 CD(v) 218645b 755 DEB SCU 2 4.0 10 4153 CD(v) 218645c 755 DEB SCU 2 5.1 10 6542 CD(v) 218645d 755 DEB SCU 2 4.1 10 4406 CD(v) 218645e 755 DEB SCU 2 4.2 10 4498 CD(v) 218646 755 SCB 8.10 M @ 92 2.5 10 1541 Q(x) 218647a 3765 DEB SCU 1 8.2 12 13452 BH(v) 218647b 3765 DEB SCU 1 5.6 12 6151 BH(v) 218647c 3765 DEB SCU 1 5.8 12 6685 BH(x)? 218647d 3765 DEB SCU 1 5.9 12 6942 BH(v) 218647e 3765 DEB SCU 1 5.8 12 6769 BH(v) 218648a 3765 DEB RR 1 1.8 12 638 BH(x) 218648b 3765 DEB RR 1 2.5 12 1242 BH(v) 218648c 3765 DEB RR 1 5.4 12 5835 BH(v) 218648d 3765 DEB RR 1 3.8 12 2931 BH(v) 218648e 3765 DEB RR 1 4.0 12 3174 BH(v) 218648f 3765 DEB RR 1 3.6 12 2517 BH(v) 218649a 3765 DEB RR 2 3.3 12 2209 MC(x) 218649b 3765 DEB RR 2 4.4 12 3827 MC(x) 218649c 3765 DEB RR 2 3.8 12 2866 MC(x) 218649e 3765 DEB RR 2 2.5 12 1252 BH(v) 218650a 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.5 11 4546 BH(v) 218650b 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.2 11 4060 BH(v) 218650c 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.4 11 4425 BH(x) 218650d 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.5 11 4471 BH(v) 218650e 3769 DEB SCU 1 3.5 11 2760 BH(v) 218650f 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.9 11 5417 BH(v) 185

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218650g 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.9 11 5416 BH(v) 218650h 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.7 11 4906 BH(v) 218650i 3769 DEB SCU 1 3.3 11 2404 BH(v) 218650j 3769 DEB SCU 1 4.3 11 4157 BH(v) 218651a 3777 DEB SCU 1 3.2 12 1999 BH(v) 218651b 3777 DEB SCU 1 1.7 12 595 BH(v) 218651c 3777 DEB SCU 1 3.0 12 1748 BH(v) 218651d 3777 DEB SCU 1 3.2 12 1977 BH(v) 218652a 3777 DEB SCU 2 4.9 12 4679 BH(x) 218652b 3777 DEB SCU 2 4.1 12 3351 BH(v) 218653a 3777 DEB SCU 3 4.2 12 3533 BH(v) 218653b 3777 DEB SCU 3 4.0 12 3174 BH(v) 218653c 3777 DEB SCU 3 4.1 12 3386 BH(v) 218653d 3777 DEB SCU 3 4.0 12 3234 BH(v) 218654a 3783 DEB F 4 1.5 11 491 BH(v) 218654b 3783 DEB F 4 2.2 11 1129 BH(v) 218655a 3783 DEB F 3 5.1 11 5957 BH(x) 218655b 3783 DEB F 3 0.0 11 0 BH(v) 218655c 3783 DEB F 3 1.7 11 679 BH(v) 218655d 3783 DEB F 3 2.4 11 1349 BH(v) 218656a 3783 DEB F 6 2.7 11 1599 BH(x) 218656b 3783 DEB F 6 2.1 11 971 BH(x) 218656c 3783 DEB F 6 1.4 11 440 BH(x) 218656d 3783 DEB F 6 1.4 11 461 BH(v) 218656e 3783 DEB F 6 2.7 11 1596 BH(v) 218657a 3783 DEB SCU 1 1.6 11 588 BH(v) 218657b 3783 DEB SCU 1 2.0 11 895 BH(x) 218657c 3783 DEB SCU 1 2.1 11 977 BH(v) 218657d 3783 DEB SCU 1 1.7 11 664 BH(v) 218657e 3783 DEB SCU 1 1.9 11 779 BH(v) 218658 3783 DSN-G 19.3 M @ 44 1.5 11 479 BH(x) 218661a 3789 DEB SCU 1 3.4 11 2538 BH(v) 218661b 3789 DEB SCU 1 5.6 11 7141 BH(x) 218661c 3789 DEB SCU 1 5.5 11 6894 BH(v) 218661d 3789 DEB SCU 1 5.5 11 6697 BH(x) 218662a 3789 DEB SCU 2 4.9 11 5442 BH(v) 218662b 3789 DEB SCU 2 4.0 11 3584 BH(v) 218662c 3789 DEB SCU 2 4.9 11 5453 BH(v) 218663a 3789 DEB SCU 3 4.6 11 4775 BH(v) 218663b 3789 DEB SCU 3 4.6 11 4823 BH(v) 218666a 3803 DEB SCU 1 3.8 12 2813 MH(x) 218666b 3803 DEB SCU 1 5.7 12 6396 BH(v) 218666c 3803 DEB SCU 1 3.7 12 2675 BH(v) 218667a 3803 DEB SCU 2 3.2 12 1975 BH(x) 218667b 3803 DEB SCU 2 4.7 12 4375 BH(v) 218667c 3803 DEB SCU 2 3.9 12 3018 BH(v) 218668a 3803 DEB SCU 3 3.7 12 2675 BH(v) 218668b 3803 DEB SCU 3 3.1 12 1907 BH(x) 186

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218668c 3803 DEB SCU 3 4.9 12 4815 BH(v) 218669a 3805 DEB SCU 1 4.1 12 3401 BH(v) 218669b 3805 DEB SCU 1 3.2 12 2046 BH(x) 218669c 3805 DEB SCU 1 4.3 12 3678 BH(v) 218669d 3805 DEB SCU 1 1.6 12 519 BH(v) 218669e 3805 DEB SCU 1 3.8 12 2901 BH(v) 218669f 3805 DEB SCU 1 2.8 12 1554 BH(v) 218669g 3805 DEB SCU 1 4.4 12 3888 BH(v) 218670a 3805 DEB SCU 2 4.1 12 3312 BH(v) 218670b 3805 DEB SCU 2 2.3 12 1052 BH(v) 218670c 3805 DEB SCU 2 2.5 12 1282 BH(x) 218671a 3811 DEB F 3 2.3 11 1216 MC(x) 218671b 3811 DEB F 3 0.0 11 0 BH(x) 218671c 3811 DEB F 3 2.8 11 1745 BH(x) 218671d 3811 DEB F 3 0.0 11 0 BH(v) 218672a 3811 DEB SCU 1 2.5 11 1434 BH(x) 218672b 3811 DEB SCU 1 1.4 11 453 BH(v) 218672c 3811 DEB SCU 1 2.9 11 1841 BH(v) 218672d 3811 DEB SCU 1 1.8 11 756 BH(v) 218673a 3811 DEB SCU 2 3.3 11 2496 BH(x) 218673b 3811 DEB SCU 2 4.1 11 3830 BH(v) 218673c 3811 DEB SCU 2 4.1 11 3852 BH(v) 218673d 3811 DEB SCU 2 3.6 11 2980 BH(v) 218674 3811 CT F 3 0.0 11 0 BH(x) 218675 3811 DSN-G F 3 1.3 11 372 BH(x) 218676 3811 DSN-G F 3 1.3 11 376 BH(x) 218679a 3841 DEB SCU 1 3.5 11 2684 CD(v) 218679b 3841 DEB SCU 1 4.0 11 3599 CD(v) 218680 3841 DEB SCU 2 4.2 11 4063 CD(v) 218681a 3841 DEB SCU 3 4.3 11 4254 CD(v) 218681b 3841 DEB SCU 3 5.4 11 6683 CD(v) 218682a 3841 DEB SCU 4 4.1 11 3762 CD(v) 218682b 3841 DEB SCU 4 3.0 11 1986 CD(v) 218682c 3841 DEB SCU 4 2.9 11 1903 CD(v) 218682d 3841 DEB SCU 4 3.4 11 2625 CD(v) 218691a 4230 DEB SCU 1 5.0 9 7378 CD(v) 218691c 4230 DEB SCU 1 6.1 9 10819 CD-LM(x) 218691d 4230 DEB SCU 1 5.6 9 9044 CD(v) 218692b 4230 DEB SCU 2 3.6 9 3815 CD(v) 218692c 4230 DEB SCU 2 3.8 9 4312 CD(v) 218692d 4230 DEB SCU 2 4.8 9 6795 CD(v) 218693a 4230 DEB SCU 3 4.4 9 5699 CD(v) 218693b 4230 DEB SCU 3 4.4 9 5729 CD(v) 218695a 4490 DEB SCU 1 6.6 11 9897 CD-LM(x) 218695b 4490 DEB SCU 1 5.7 11 7382 CD(v) 218695c 4490 DEB SCU 1 5.6 11 7145 CD(v) 218696c 4490 DEB SCU 2 4.8 11 5122 CD(v) 218696d 4490 DEB SCU 2 5.4 11 6472 CD(v) 187

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218697a 4490 DEB SCU 3 4.7 11 4929 CD(v) 218697b 4490 DEB SCU 3 4.4 11 4428 CD(v) 218697c 4490 DEB SCU 3 4.6 11 4816 CD(v) 218698a 4635 DEB SCU 1 5.2 11 6056 BH(v) 218698b 4635 DEB SCU 1 5.4 11 6533 BH(v) 218699a 4635 DEB SCU 2 5.2 11 6176 BH(x) 218699c 4635 DEB SCU 2 3.7 11 3018 BH(v) 218699d 4635 DEB SCU 2 5.8 11 7540 BH(v) 218699e 4635 DEB SCU 2 5.6 11 7023 BH(v) 218700a 4635 DEB SCU 3 3.7 11 3058 BH(v) 218700b 4635 DEB SCU 3 4.8 11 5277 BH(v) 218700c 4635 DEB SCU 3 1.5 11 514 BH(v) 218702a 4637 DEB SCU 1 5.0 11 5711 CD(v) 218702b 4637 DEB SCU 1 2.0 11 901 CD(v) 218703a 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.0 11 3517 CD(v) 218703b 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.9 11 5501 CD(v) 218703c 4637 DEB SCU 2 6.5 11 9557 CD(v) 218703d 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.5 11 4495 CD(v) 218703e 4637 DEB SCU 2 3.5 11 2762 CD(v) 218703f 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.8 11 5191 CD(v) 218703g 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.5 11 4505 CD(v) 218703h 4637 DEB SCU 2 4.7 11 4899 CD(v) 218705b 4639 DEB SCU 1 5.3 11 6324 CD(v) 218706a 4639 DEB SCU 2 4.0 11 3540 CD(v) 218706b 4639 DEB SCU 2 4.1 11 3831 CD(v) 218707a 4639 DEB SCU 3 3.9 11 3417 CD(v) 218707b 4639 DEB SCU 3 3.4 11 2647 CD-LM(x) 218708b 4639 DEB SCU 4 4.5 11 4596 CD(v) 218709a 4639 DEB SCU 5 2.8 11 1745 CD(v) 218709b 4639 DEB SCU 5 2.4 11 1308 CD(v) 218712 4639 DSN-S 6.5 M @ 326 2.9 11 1871 CD-LM(x) 218713 4639 ECN 16 M @ 320, SUB A 3.8 11 3305 CD-SR(x) 218714 4639 ECN 44.4 M @ 360 SUB A 2.3 11 1158 BH(x) 218715b 4641 DEB SCU 1 4.8 12 4534 CD(v) 218715c 4641 DEB SCU 1 5.4 12 5707 CD(v) 218715d 4641 DEB SCU 1 5.6 12 6229 CD(v) 218716a 4641 DEB SCU 2 4.7 12 4421 BH(v) 218716b 4641 DEB SCU 2 4.0 12 3136 BH(x) 218716c 4641 DEB SCU 2 4.1 12 3332 BH(v) 218716d 4641 DEB SCU 2 4.0 12 3175 BH(v) 218716e 4641 DEB SCU 2 5.2 12 5361 BH(v) 218716f 4641 DEB SCU 2 4.1 12 3252 BH(v) 218717a 4660 DEB SCU 1 4.5 10 5089 CD-LM(x) 218717b 4660 DEB SCU 1 2.9 10 2165 CD(v) 218717d 4660 DEB SCU 1 3.4 10 2985 CD(v) 218717e 4660 DEB SCU 1 3.5 10 3181 CD(v) 218717f 4660 DEB SCU 1 4.0 10 4049 CD(v) 218717g 4660 DEB SCU 1 3.9 10 3877 CD(v) 188

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218717h 4660 DEB SCU 1 4.1 10 4256 CD(v) 218717i 4660 DEB SCU 1 4.8 10 6021 CD(v) 218717j 4660 DEB SCU 1 3.2 10 2683 CD(v) 218718a 4665 DEB F 1 2.8 11 1820 non-CD(v) 218718b 4665 DEB F 1 2.2 11 1056 non-CD(v) 218718c 4665 DEB F 1 2.9 11 1905 non-CD(v) 218720a 4665 DEB F 2 6.0 11 8006 CD-SR(x) 218720c 4665 DEB F 2 3.1 11 2176 MC(x) 218720d 4665 DEB F 2 2.4 11 1328 BH(x) 218721a 4665 DEB SCU 1 2.5 11 1399 CD(v) 218721b 4665 DEB SCU 1 2.9 11 1836 CD(v) 218721c 4665 DEB SCU 1 2.5 11 1434 CD(v) 218723 4665 PPF 11.3 M @ 172, D2 2.2 11 1128 CD-SR(x) 218724 4665 CT F 2 2.3 11 1211 BH(x) 218726a 4851 DEB SCU 1 5.5 10 7639 CD(v) 218726b 4851 DEB SCU 1 3.3 10 2838 CD(v) 218726c 4851 DEB SCU 1 5.2 10 7046 CD(v) 218726d 4851 DEB SCU 1 4.3 10 4753 CD(v) 218726e 4851 DEB SCU 1 4.7 10 5608 CD(v) 218727a 4851 DEB SCU 2 4.3 10 4778 CD-SR(x) 218727b 4851 DEB SCU 2 3.2 10 2550 CD(v) 218727c 4851 DEB SCU 2 4.0 10 3999 CD(v) 218727d 4851 DEB SCU 2 3.9 10 3897 CD(v) 218727e 4851 DEB SCU 2 4.2 10 4463 CD(v) 218728a 4857 DEB SCU 1 5.6 9 9099 CD(v) 218728b 4857 DEB SCU 1 5.5 9 8816 CD(v) 218728c 4857 DEB SCU 1 5.5 9 8816 CD(v) 218728d 4857 DEB SCU 1 7.2 9 15203 CD(v) 218729b 4857 DEB SCU 2 5.7 9 9470 CD-LM(x) 218729c 4857 DEB SCU 2 5.5 9 8850 CD(v) 218729d 4857 DEB SCU 2 4.5 9 5865 CD(v) 218730a 4857 DEB SCU 3 4.5 9 5951 CD(v) 218730b 4857 DEB SCU 3 4.4 9 5604 CD-SR(x) 218731a 4859 DEB SCU 1 4.3 9 5285 CD(v) 218731b 4859 DEB SCU 1 4.4 9 5729 CD(v) 218731c 4859 DEB SCU 1 4.3 9 5381 CD(v) 218731d 4859 DEB SCU 1 4.4 9 5692 CD(v) 218732a 4859 DEB SCU 2 4.5 9 5980 CD(v) 218732b 4859 DEB SCU 2 4.6 9 6128 CD(v) 218732c 4859 DEB SCU 2 5.0 9 7227 CD(v) 218732d 4859 DEB SCU 2 3.1 9 2774 CD(v) 218733a 4859 DEB SCU 3 4.1 9 4931 CD(v) 218733b 4859 DEB SCU 3 4.2 9 5228 CD-LM(x) 218735a 4907 DEB SCU 1 4.5 12 4024 CD(v) 218735b 4907 DEB SCU 1 4.9 12 4670 CD(v) 218735c 4907 DEB SCU 1 3.2 12 2046 CD(v) 218735d 4907 DEB SCU 1 4.9 12 4718 CD(v) 218735f 4907 DEB SCU 1 4.3 12 3612 CD(v) 189

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218736a 4907 DEB SCU 2 3.9 12 3051 CD-LM(x) 218736b 4907 DEB SCU 2 5.3 12 5643 CD(v) 218737a 4907 DEB SCU 3 2.5 12 1282 CD(v) 218737b 4907 DEB SCU 3 5.1 12 5063 CD(v) 218738a 4972 DEB SCU 1 3.6 10 3390 BH(v) 218738b 4972 DEB SCU 1 4.6 10 5375 BH(v) 218738c 4972 DEB SCU 1 3.9 10 3874 BH(v) 218739a 4972 DEB SCU 2 4.2 10 4460 BH(v) 218739b 4972 DEB SCU 2 4.0 10 4049 BH(v) 218739c 4972 DEB SCU 2 4.5 10 5085 BH(v) 218739d 4972 DEB SCU 2 4.5 10 5150 BH(x) 218739e 4972 DEB SCU 2 3.5 10 3142 BH(v) 218740a 4972 DEB SCU 3 2.9 10 2204 BH(v) 218740b 4972 DEB SCU 3 4.4 10 4950 BH(v) 218744a P-55-6561 DEB SCU 1 4.5 9 5798 CD(v) 218744b P-55-6561 DEB SCU 1 4.5 9 6012 CD(v) 218744c P-55-6561 DEB SCU 1 5.1 9 7596 CD(v) 218745a P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 5.8 9 9703 CD(v) 218745b P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 5.7 9 9572 CD(v) 218745c P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 5.6 9 9147 CD(v) 218745d P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 5.6 9 9240 CD(v) 218745e P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 5.4 9 8459 CD(v) 218745f P-55-6561 DEB SCU 2 6.2 9 11213 CD-LM(x) 218746 P-55-6561 DSN 61 M @ 5 1.6 9 748 CD-LM(x) 218747a P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 2.9 9 2438 CD(v) 218747b P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 2.9 9 2402 CD(v) 218747c P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 3.4 9 3329 CD(v) 218747d P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 3.5 9 3639 CD(v) 218747e P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 5.3 9 8302 CD-LM(x) 218747f P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 2.6 9 1964 CD(v) 218747g P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 2.6 9 2025 CD(v) 218747h P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 3.6 9 3780 CD(v) 218747i P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 3.1 9 2772 CD(v) 218747j P-55-6564 DEB SCU 1 3.3 9 3142 CD(v) 218748 P-55-6564 SCS 50.30 M @ 96 4.5 9 5794 BH(x) 218749a P-55-6775 DEB SCU 1 3.6 11 2912 BH(v) 218749b P-55-6775 DEB SCU 1 5.3 11 6400 BH(v) 218750b P-55-6775 DEB SCU 2 5.5 11 6731 BH(x) 218750c P-55-6775 DEB SCU 2 4.3 11 4086 BH(v) 218750d P-55-6775 DEB SCU 2 1.6 11 584 BH(v) 218751a P-55-6775 DEB SCU 3 4.5 11 4475 BH(v) 218751b P-55-6775 DEB SCU 3 5.7 11 7202 BH(v) 218751c P-55-6775 DEB SCU 3 4.5 11 4569 BH(x) 218753a P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 5.0 10 6350 BH(x) 218753b P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 3.4 10 2901 BH(v) 218753c P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 2.1 10 1152 BH(v) 218753d P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 4.3 10 4753 BH(v) 218753e P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 0.0 10 0 BH(v) 190

Catalog Site (CA-TUO-) Object Location OH EHT Calibrated Source No. Date

218753f P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 3.3 10 2836 BH(v) 218753g P-55-6776 DEB SCU 1 5.2 10 6920 BH(v) 218755a P-55-6782 DEB SCU 2 5.1 10 6687 CD-LM(x) 218755b P-55-6782 DEB SCU 2 5.4 10 7534 CD(v) 218755c P-55-6782 DEB SCU 2 5.3 10 7157 CD(v) 218756a P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 4.1 10 4253 CD(v) 218756b P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 4.2 10 4509 CD(v) 218756c P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 4.4 10 4864 CD(v) 218756d P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 4.4 10 4868 CD(v) 218756e P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 4.4 10 4864 CD(v) 218756f P-55-6782 DEB SCU 3 3.3 10 2819 CD(v) Key: DEB=debitage; CT=Cottonwood Triangular; DSN=Desert Side-notched (G, S: General or Sierra subtype); RS=Rose Spring; RSCN=Rose Spring Corner-notched; ECN=Elko Corner-notched; EE=Elko Eared; HCB=Humboldt Concave Base; SCB=Sierra Concave Base; SCS=Sierra Contracting Stem; CB=concave base; PPF=projectile point fragment; BH=Bodie Hills; LM, SR=Casa Diablo, Lookout Mountain or Sawmill Ridge; MC=Mono Craters; MH=Mt. Hicks; x=sourced by XRF; v=visually sourced. 191

Table A-5. Summary of Bedrock Mortar Data.

Elev Total Milling Site Area Features Mortars Slicks Pestles (ft) Surfaces CA-TUO-0111 8600 Tuolumne 1 11 0 11 0 CA-TUO-0118 8600 Tuolumne 2 2 0 2 0 CA-TUO-0121 8600 Tuolumne 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-0124 8600 Tuolumne 1 2 0 2 1 CA-TUO-0125/ 8600 Tuolumne 1 6 0 6 1 CA-TUO-0128/ 8600 Tuolumne 1 2 0 2 4 CA-TUO-0133 8600 Tuolumne 1 2 1 3 0 CA-TUO-0166 8600 Tuolumne 2 25 0 25 0 CA-TUO-0167/H 8600 Tuolumne 1 5 0 5 2 CA-TUO-0499 8600 Tuolumne 1 6 0 6 0 CA-TUO-0507 8600 Tuolumne 1 4 0 4 0 CA-TUO-3938/H 8600 Tuolumne 1 2 0 2 0 CA-TUO-3959 8600 Tuolumne 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-3960 8600 Tuolumne 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-0187 9500 Parker Pass 1 13 2 15 9 CA-TUO-0759/H 10604 Mono Pass 1 3 0 3 1 CA-TUO-3838 8770 Lyell Canyon 1 0 1 1 1 CA-TUO-4639 8815 Lyell Canyon 1 2 0 2 2 CA-TUO-4229 8760 Spiller Canyon 1 3 0 3 0 CA-TUO-4635 8910 Spiller Canyon 1 1 0 1 1 CA-TUO-0179/2829 9400 Dana Fork 2 4 2 6 0 CA-TUO-2815/H 9040 Dana Fork 1 2 0 2 4 CA-TUO-2816 9210 Dana Fork 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-2821/H 9290 Dana Fork 1 4 0 4 1 CA-TUO-2822 9360 Dana Fork 1 1 1 2 2 CA-TUO-2823 9330 Dana Fork 1 4 0 4 2 CA-TUO-2824 9370 Dana Fork 2 12 3 15 13 CA-TUO-2826 9380 Dana Fork 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-2833 9450 Dana Fork 1 3 0 3 0 CA-TUO-2835 9440 Dana Fork 2 5 1 6 8 CA-TUO-2838 9470 Dana Fork 1 4 0 4 5 CA-TUO-2839 9450 Dana Fork 1 6 0 6 8 YOSE 1994 C-01 9320 Dana Fork 1 1 0 1 0 YOSE 1994 C-02 9300 Dana Fork 3 7 0 7 0 CA-TUO-3765 8360 Virginia Canyon 1 6 0 6 3 CA-TUO-3770 9240 Virginia Canyon 1 2 0 2 1 CA-TUO-3772 9040 Virginia Canyon 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-3773 8560 Virginia Canyon 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-3776/H 8700 Virginia Canyon 1 5 1 6 5 192

Elev Total Milling Site Area Features Mortars Slicks Pestles (ft) Surfaces CA-TUO-3778/H 8610 Virginia Canyon 1 3 0 3 1 CA-TUO-3783 8970 Virginia Canyon 2 7 0 7 1 CA-TUO-3786 8650 Virginia Canyon 1 8 0 8 3 CA-TUO-3791 8800 Virginia Canyon 1 2 0 2 2 CA-TUO-3792 8520 Virginia Canyon 0 0 0 0 1 CA-TUO-3806 8400 Virginia Canyon 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-3807 8400 Virginia Canyon 1 4 0 4 0 CA-TUO-3810/H 9300 Virginia Canyon 1 0 1 1 3 CA-TUO-3811 9280 Virginia Canyon 3 7 5 12 4 CA-TUO-4226 8400 Virginia Canyon 1 1 0 1 5 CA-TUO-4644 8725 Cold Canyon 1 1 0 1 0 CA-TUO-4646 8700 Cold Canyon 1 6 0 6 0

193

APPENDIX B

Obsidian Studies Report

194

195

196

197

198

199

200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219

220

APPENDIX C

Artifact Catalog

Catalog L W T W Object Count Site (CA-TUO-) Unit/Feature Coordinates Material No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) 218604 DEB 5 46/H SCU 1 4 m @ 88° from datum 7.46 OB 218605 DEB 5 46/H SCU 2 11 m @ 350° from datum 1.50 OB 218606 DEB 5 46/H SCU 3 36 m @ 348° from datum 4.24 OB 218607 DEB 3 113 SCU 1 22 m @ 262° from datum 6.66 OB 218608 DEB 4 113 SCU 2 28 m @ 329° from datum 3.57 OB 218609 DEB 8 113 SCU 3 43 m @ 220° from datum B 5.77 OB 218610 DEB 5 0128/129/130/504 SCU 1 18 m @ 24° from main datum 4.25 OB 218611 DEB 5 0128/129/130/504 SCU 2 65 m @ 353° from main datum 13.83 OB 218612 DEB 5 0128/129/130/504 SCU 3 67 m @ 314° from main datum 9.87 OB 218613 DEB 5 0128/129/130/504 SCU 4 29 m @ 143° from subdatum A 4.09 OB 218614 DEB 5 0128/129/130/504 SCU 5 42 m @ 195° from subdatum A 2.37 OB 218615 DEB 4 0128/129/130/504 SCU 6 59 m @ 217° from subdatum A 2.33 OB 218616 EMP 1 0128/129/130/504 SCU 6 59 m @ 217° from subdatum A 28.8 32.9 5.7 4.79 OB 218617 DEB 4 131 SCU 1 21 m @ 263° from subdatum A 2.85 OB 218618 DEB 5 131 SCU 2 42 m @ 250° from subdatum A 1.78 OB 218619 DEB 7 131 SCU 3 52 m @ 242° from subdatum A 5.77 OB 218620 DEB 5 159 SCU 1 7 m @ 147° from datum 2.49 OB 218621 DEB 5 159 SCU 2 13 m @ 188° from datum 3.07 OB 218622 DEB 5 159 SCU 3 6 m @ 220° from datum 1.60 OB 218623 PP 1 159 2.8 m @ 110° from datum 19.3 11.4 3.1 0.52 OB 218624 DEB 9 164 SCU 1 19 m @ 160° from datum 4.99 OB 218625 DEB 5 164 SCU 2 16 m @ 127° from datum 3.19 OB 218626 DEB 4 172 SCU 1 2 m @ 322° from datum 2.62 OB 218627 DEB 8 172 SCU 2 13 m @ 280° from datum 8.48 OB 218628 DEB 3 172 SCU 3 93 m @ 258° from datum 1.87 OB 218629 DEB 5 187 SCU 1 39 m @ 223° from datum 7.54 OB 218630 DEB 5 187 SCU 2 12 m @ 94° from datum 1.96 OB 218631 DEB 5 187 SCU 3 9 m @ 8° from datum 22.91 OB 218632 PP 1 187 33 m @ 54° from datum 26.2 14.0 3.6 1.20 OB 218633 PP 1 187 16.80 m @ 19° from datum 22.5 18.4 3.4 1.21 OB 218634 DEB 7 245 SCU 1 22 m @ 205° from datum 2.64 OB 218635 DEB 8 245 SCU 2 31 m @ 188° from datum 9.05 OB 218636 PP 1 245 16.8 m @ 205° from datum 15.5 24.7 8.4 2.73 OB 218637 DEB 8 494 SCU 1 8 m @ 302° from Area A datum 4.10 OB

218638 DEB 6 494 SCU 2 11 m @ 45° from Area A datum 7.14 OB 221 218639 DEB 5 751 F 1 60 m @ 190° from datum 3 8.15 OB Catalog L W T W Object Count Site (CA-TUO-) Unit/Feature Coordinates Material No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) 218640 DEB 6 751 SCU 1 5 m @ 168° from datum 3 1.83 OB 218641 DEB 8 751 SCU 2 40 m @ 206° from datum 1 3.08 OB 218642 PP 1 751 43 m @ 176° from datum 2 29.5 12.4 3.3 0.83 OB 218643 PP 1 751 F 1 60 m @ 190° from datum 3 22.7 11.3 3.5 0.52 OB 218828 PP 1 751 F 1 60 m @ 190° from datum 3 6.0 8.2 2.2 0.09 OB 218917 EMP 1 751 SCU 2 40 m @206° from datum 1 16.9 20.5 5.5 2.35 OB 218644 DEB 8 755 SCU 1 7 m @ 136° from datum 9.64 OB 218645 DEB 7 755 SCU 2 19 m @ 155° from datum 4.52 OB 218646 PP 1 755 8.10 m @ 92° from datum 17.4 21.7 5.1 1.96 OB 218647 DEB 7 3765 SCU 1 24 m @ 195° from datum 5.95 OB 218648 DEB 8 3765 RR 1 27 m @ 66° from datum to F center 2.70 OB 218649 DEB 9 3765 RR 2 40 m @ 72° from datum to F center 3.22 OB 218650 DEB 10 3769 SCU 1 8 m @ 152° from datum 3.29 OB 218651 DEB 4 3777 SCU 1 17 m @ 209° from datum 5.86 OB 218652 DEB 5 3777 SCU 2 15 m @ 187° from datum 4.42 OB 218653 DEB 5 3777 SCU 3 9 m @ 162° from datum 3.61 OB 218654 DEB 3 3783 F 4 11 m @ 14° from datum 0.50 OB 218655 DEB 6 3783 F 3 13 m @ 28° from datum 2.00 OB 218656 DEB 11 3783 F 6 22.7 m @ 42° from datum 6.24 OB 218657 DEB 10 3783 SCU 1 17 m @ 44° from datum 4.91 OB 218658 PP 1 3783 19.3 m @ 44° from datum 15.3 12.5 2.6 0.39 OB 218659 PP 1 3783 13.3 m @ 22° from datum 14.1 12.9 3.3 0.70 OB 218660 PP 1 3783 37.7 m @ 7° from datum 14.8 20.0 3.9 1.16 CH 218661 DEB 5 3789 SCU 1 4 m @ 114° from datum 3.96 OB 218662 DEB 5 3789 SCU 2 62 m @ 228° from datum 11.53 OB 218663 DEB 5 3789 SCU 3 72 m @ 235° from datum 3.85 OB 218664 DEB 3 3793 SCU 1 5 m @ 116° from datum 2.62 OB 218665 DEB 5 3793 SCU 2 7.5 m @ 180° from datum 2.10 OB 218666 DEB 4 3803 SCU 1 14 m @ 240° from datum 3.64 OB 218667 DEB 4 3803 SCU 2 14.5 m @ 351° from datum 5.27 OB 218668 DEB 7 3803 SCU 3 15 m @ 26° from datum 6.87 OB 218669 DEB 9 3805 SCU 1 6 m @ 110° from datum 2.95 OB 218670 DEB 4 3805 SCU 2 19 m @ 255° from datum 1.25 OB 218671 DEB 9 3811 F 3 31 m @ 90° from datum 1 4.61 OB

218672 DEB 6 3811 SCU 1 28 m @ 95° from datum 1 5.51 OB 222 218673 DEB 5 3811 SCU 2 8 m @ 247° from datum 2 2.35 OB Catalog L W T W Object Count Site (CA-TUO-) Unit/Feature Coordinates Material No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) 218674 PP 1 3811 F 3 0.9 m @ 222° from F 3 subdatum 23.5 12.4 3.6 0.83 OB 218675 PP 1 3811 F 3 0.6 m @ 120° from F 3 subdatum 18.2 11.9 2.1 0.40 OB 218676 PP 1 3811 F 3 1.75 m @ 112° from F 3 subdatum 21.7 10.9 3.2 0.59 OB 218677 PP 1 3811 12.9 m @ 112° from datum 1 35.0 24.4 5.6 4.60 OB 218678 DEB 15 3834 SCU 1 18.5 m @ 140° from datum 9.95 OB 218679 DEB 3 3841 SCU 1 N 95 E 100 2.68 OB 218680 DEB 1 3841 SCU 2 N 90 E 100 34.78 OB 218681 DEB 3 3841 SCU 3 N 75 E 90 1.45 OB 218682 DEB 4 3841 SCU 4 N 75 E 105 12.47 OB 218683 DEB 2 3841 SCU 5 N 85 E 120 5.78 OB 218684 EMP 2 3841 SCU 5 N 85 E 120 48.0 25.1 4.2 5.41 OB 218685 DEB 3 3850 SCU 1 N 160 E 75 1.44 OB 218686 DEB 5 3850 SCU 2 N 70 E 115 3.12 OB 218687 DEB 7 3850 SCU 3 N 95 E 120 13.10 OB 218688 DEB 5 3943 SCU 1 10 m @ 23° from datum 1.87 OB 218689 DEB 5 3943 SCU 2 23 m @ 301° from datum 2.08 OB 218690 DEB 5 3943 SCU 3 45 m @ 246° from datum 1.65 OB 218691 DEB 6 4230 SCU 1 4 m @ 215° from datum 2.33 OB 218692 DEB 6 4230 SCU 2 14 m @ 192° from datum 2.96 OB 218693 DEB 3 4230 SCU 3 18 m @ 306° from datum 5.27 OB 218694 DEB 8 4440 SCU 1 11 m @ 307° from datum 3.74 OB 218695 DEB 5 4490 SCU 1 32 m @ 211° from datum 6.52 OB 218696 DEB 5 4490 SCU 2 39 m @ 199° from datum 4.30 OB 218697 DEB 5 4490 SCU 3 43 m @ 214° from datum 4.65 OB 218698 DEB 3 4635 SCU 1 11 m @ 44° from datum 2.05 OB 218699 DEB 6 4635 SCU 2 38 m @ 60° from datum 1.77 OB 218700 DEB 4 4635 SCU 3 15 m @ 246° from datum 0.81 OB 218701 PP 1 4635 41 m @ 50° from datum 35.4 22.7 7.5 4.72 OB 218702 DEB 4 4637 SCU 1 25 m @ 146° from datum 5.77 OB 218703 DEB 10 4637 SCU 2 25 m @ 230° from datum 6.75 OB 218704 EMP 1 4637 SCU 1 25 m @ 146° from datum 33.3 50.1 16.9 15.74 OB 218705 DEB 3 4639 SCU 1 7 m @ 310° from main datum 2.97 OB 218706 DEB 2 4639 SCU 2 15 m @ 310° from subdatum A 2.95 OB 218707 DEB 2 4639 SCU 3 34 m @ 355° from subdatum A 3.74 OB

218708 DEB 3 4639 SCU 4 25 m @ 226° from subdatum B 5.56 OB 223 218709 DEB 3 4639 SCU 5 19 m @ 172° from subdatum B 1.07 OB Catalog L W T W Object Count Site (CA-TUO-) Unit/Feature Coordinates Material No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) 218710 EMP 1 4639 SCU 2 15 m @ 310° from subdatum A 17.6 18.4 4.4 1.41 OB 218711 EMP 1 4639 SCU 3 34 m @ 355° from subdatum A 29.1 19.3 6.3 3.53 OB 218712 PP 1 4639 6.5 m @ 326° from main datum 24.7 12.4 2.6 0.59 OB 218713 PP 1 4639 16 m @ 320° from subdatum A 19.4 26.7 5.5 3.33 OB 218714 PP 1 4639 44.4 m @ 360° from subdatum A 22.1 32.8 5.8 4.33 OB 218715 DEB 7 4641 SCU 1 27 m @ 230° from datum 11.95 OB 218716 DEB 8 4641 SCU 2 30 m @ 310° from datum 14.93 OB 218717 DEB 10 4660 SCU 1 4 m @ 143° from datum 7.32 OB 218718 DEB 3 4665 F 1 5 m @ 318° from Locus 2 datum 0.40 OB 218719 DEB 2 4665 F1 8.7 m @ 326° from Locus 2 datum 5.36 OB 218720 DEB 5 4665 F 2 12.4 m 2 196° from Locus 2 datum 8.46 OB 218721 DEB 4 4665 SCU 1 13 m @ 180° from Locus 2 datum 7.21 OB 218722 EMP 1 4665 SCU 1 13 m @ 180° from Locus 2 datum 15.6 24.3 8.4 2.84 OB 218723 PP 1 4665 SCU 1 11.3 m @ 172° from Locus 2 datum 12.7 17.1 2.3 0.55 OB 218724 PP 1 4665 F 2 12.7 m @ 193° from Locus 2 datum 23.8 13.7 4.1 0.97 OB 12.25 m @ 165° from Locus 2 218725 PP 1 4665 datum 18.3 10.2 2.3 0.34 OB 218726 DEB 7 4851 SCU 1 6 m @ 190° from datum 12.51 OB 218727 DEB 7 4851 SCU 2 19 m @ 116° from datum 12.96 OB 218728 DEB 5 4857 SCU 1 35 m @ 203° from datum 5.71 OB 218729 DEB 7 4857 SCU 2 30 m @ 172° from datum 6.65 OB 218730 DEB 3 4857 SCU 3 24 m @ 125° from datum 7.32 OB 218731 DEB 5 4859 SCU 1 13 m @ 247° from datum 8.91 OB 218732 DEB 6 4859 SCU 2 43 m @ 216° from datum 7.21 OB 218733 DEB 4 4859 SCU 3 41 m @ 198° from datum 5.76 OB 218734 EMP 1 4859 SCU 3 41 m @ 198° from datum 43.7 24.3 13.3 10.89 OB 218735 DEB 9 4907 SCU 1 7 m @ 158° from datum 10.92 OB 218736 DEB 3 4907 SCU 2 19 m @ 180° from datum 1.96 OB 218737 DEB 3 4907 SCU 3 22 m @ 70° from datum 22.82 OB 218738 DEB 6 4972 SCU 1 15 m @ 320° from datum 1.56 OB 218739 DEB 6 4972 SCU 2 12 m @ 282° from datum 3.62 OB 218740 DEB 3 4972 SCU 3 28 m @ 244° from datum 4.25 OB 218741 DEB 5 P-55-6558 SCU 1 33 m @ 359° from datum 11.80 OB 218742 DEB 4 P-55-6558 SCU 2 21 m @ 360° from datum 0.99 OB

218743 DEB 6 P-55-6558 SCU 3 18 m @ 25° from datum 5.07 OB 224 218744 DEB 7 P-55-6561 SCU 1 14 m @ 336° from datum 5.68 OB Catalog L W T W Object Count Site (CA-TUO-) Unit/Feature Coordinates Material No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) 218745 DEB 8 P-55-6561 SCU 2 24 m @ 52° from datum 5.38 OB 218746 PP 1 P-55-6561 61 m @ 5° from datum 18.4 10.7 3.4 0.55 OB 218747 DEB 15 P-55-6564 SCU 1 16 m @ 20° from datum 31.24 OB 218748 PP 1 P-55-6564 50.30 m @ 96° from datum 29.3 25.3 7.0 4.39 OB 218749 DEB 5 P-55-6775 SCU 1 15 m @ 187° from datum 10.05 OB 218750 DEB 5 P-55-6775 SCU 2 13 m @ 232° from datum 2.53 OB 218751 DEB 5 P-55-6775 SCU 3 14 m @ 264° from datum 8.04 OB 218752 PP 1 P-55-6775 12.7 m @ 204° from datum 34.8 21.4 7.0 4.72 CH 218753 DEB 7 P-55-6776 SCU 1 13 m @ 146° from datum 3.23 OB 218754 DEB 1 P-55-6782 SCU 1 14 m @ 204° from datum 0.17 OB 218755 DEB 6 P-55-6782 SCU 2 27 m @ 72° from datum 8.20 OB 218756 DEB 7 P-55-6782 SCU 3 1 m @ 130° from subdatum 8.29 OB 218918 EMP 1 P-55-6782 SCU 1 14 m @ 204° from datum 38.9 24.8 7.7 8.77 OB Key: DEB=debitage; PP=projectile point; EMP=edge=modified piece; OB=obsidian; CH=chert.

225 226

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