ECO-CHRONICLE 1
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 01 - 06 ISSN: 0973-4155
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT FOR MANUFACTURE OF PANEER FORTIFIED WITH CALCIUM SALTS
Rajakumar, S.N., Sudheer Babu, P. and Geeverghese, P.I.
Dairy Plant, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Thrissur, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Calcium fortified paneer was manufactured, observing conventional method from buffalo milk that fortified with calcium at 25,50 and 75 mg per 100 ml, using tri calcium citrate . Paneer prepared from buffalo milk fortified even at higher level was comparable with the control paneer with respect to sensory attributes such as flavour, colour and appearance, body and texture and overall acceptability. The product so obtained was found to have superior nutritional quality with respect to calcium. Keywords: Paneer milk, Tricalcium citrate, calcium fortification
INTRODUCTION low fat cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof, by precipitation with sour milk, lactic Paneer is obtained through heat-acid acid or citric acid. It shall not contain more coagulation of casein component of than 70 per cent moisture and the milk fat standardized buffalo milk, entrapping content shall not be more than 15 per cent through various interactions almost all the of the dry matter. fat, part of denatured whey proteins, and colloidal salts as well as a part of the It is estimated that more than half of the 94 soluble milk solids (in proportion to the million tonnes of milk produced in India is moisture content retained).The utilized for the manufacture of traditional compositional standards of paneer have milk products (Aggarwal, 2007). Traditional been defined under the PFA Act, 1954, while products account for over 90 per cent of all quality standards for paneer are being dairy products consumed in the country developed by the Bureau of Indian (Gupta, 2001). The indigenous milk Standards. Typically paneer is marble white products offer scope for value addition to in appearance with somewhat spongy-body, the extent of 200 per cent as compared to close-knit texture possessing sweetish- 50 per cent for the western milk products acidic nutty flavour (Verma and Mathur, 1986; like cheese, milk powders etc (Aneja, 2007). Bandyopadhyay and Mathur, 1987). The Indian milk products are the country’s According to the PFA rules as amended in largest selling and most profitable segment 2005, Paneer means the product obtained and account for 50 per cent of the milk from the cow or buffalo milk or a combination produced. The market size of this sector is thereof, by precipitation with sour milk, lactic estimated at Rs 5000 crore annually and acid or citric acid (milk solids may also be covers products such as dahi, paneer, used in the preparation of this product). It rasogolla, and shrikhand among others shall not contain more than 70 per cent (Aggarwal, 2007). In the year 2004, the moisture, and the milk fat content shall not paneer production was estimated at 4496 be less than 50 per cent of the dry matter. metric tonnes and during 2002-03, the Low Fat paneer is a product obtained from market size of paneer was estimated at 2 ECO-CHRONICLE Rs 21 billion, while the market size for calcium enrichment of food products (Priya indigenous products as a whole, was Ranjan et al., 2005). High intake of calcium around Rs.1008 billion (Joshi, 2007). The is possible only through calcium fortified value of output of traditional milk products stable dairy products (Vyas and Tong, 1987). was estimated at about Rs. 570 billion (Aneja et al., 2002). Need for Calcium fortification Calcium and chronic diseases It is the rapidly changing lifestyles and increasing reliance on more highly Adequate calcium intake has been processed foods which has been used to associated with reduced risk of justify the addition of nutrients to an osteoporosis, hypertension, colon cancer, expanding range of foods in order to ensure kidney stone, obesity and lead absorption. nutritional adequacy of the diet. The main A high intake of calcium is not normally driving forces behind calcium fortification regarded as harmful. The precise are: homeostatic control mechanism ensures that even when excess calcium is •The recommended daily intake (RDI) of consumed; it does not accumulate in the calcium ranges from 600-1000 mg / day body. Osteoporosis, the silent disease, in most countries, which is much more caused by the deficiency of calcium, is than the actual intake. characterized by low bone mass and an increased susceptibility to fracture. •Whenever calcium consumption is low, According to WHO, osteoporosis is second the human body reacts by pulling calcium only to CVD as a global health care problem away from the bones in order to maintain (IOF, 2000). In India, 30-40% people above the functionality of the bio-chemical the age of 50 years have osteoporosis. processes. There are about 300 million people with osteoporosis, making India one of the •Continuous shortage of calcium leads to largest affected countries in the world (IOF, brittle bones or osteoporosis. 2000). Emphasis should be given to improve the peak bone mass by improving nutrition in childhood & adolescence. •As the population ages, the risk Adequate calcium intake (1 g / day) is increases, especially for women after the presently the most important step to prevent menopause and osteoporosis is better osteoporosis. US RDA for calcium, prevented than treated. published in August 1997 is 1000 mg for children over 4 years of age, men & women Calcium from milk is easily absorbed by aged 19-50 years, and 1200 mg for the intestine in comparison to the calcium individuals older than 50 years. Dairy from vegetables and cereals. Phytate products are considered as rich sources of (present in cereals, beans, pulses), bioavailable calcium (Kansal, 2002). It is oxalates (present in leafy vegetables), long claimed that low dietary calcium intake and chain saturated fatty acids and dietary fiber its bioavailability are responsible for the can reduce the bioavailability of calcium by increased risk of osteoporosis, forming insoluble calcium complexes. Cow hypertension, colon cancer, kidney stone, milk contains 125 - 150 mg calcium / 100 g post partum depression and premenstrual which are much less compared to 180 – syndrome (Weaver, 1988). Calcium dietary 200 mg / 100 g in buffalo milk (Pyne, 1962; intake has been reported to be low Sindhu, 1986). High intake of calcium will compared to the recommended daily only be possible through formulating allowance (RDA) and therefore, most of the calcium enriched stable dairy products, regulatory agencies of the government and since calcium absorption from other health departments are emphasizing sources is insignificant. ECO-CHRONICLE 3 Several commercial calcium salts are Current industrial method for available to the food manufacturers for use manufacture of paneer in food and dietary supplement e.g. inorganic salts like calcium carbonate The manufacture of paneer at pilot plant
(CaCO3), calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium level was first standardized by Bhattacharya phosphate and organic salts like calcium et al. (1971) in which up to about 2000 liters citrate, calcium lactate and calcium of buffalo milk having 6 per cent fat was gluconate. The selection from the wide heated at 82oC for 5 minutes in a jacketed range of calcium sources available is based vat and cooled to coagulation temperature upon various selection criteria including of 70oC. Coagulation was brought about by solubility, bioavailability and sensory profile the addition of 1 per cent hot citric acid (taste and mouthfeel), calcium content, solution to the milk slowly with continuous marketing advantages based on natural stirring till clear whey separated out. When image etc. The salt best suited for coagulation was completed, agitation was fortification should possess a high stopped and the solids were allowed to nutritional value and low interference with settle for 5 min. Whey was drained out the absorption of other nutrients besides through a muslin cloth and in no case the its cost effectiveness and minimal effect on temperature was allowed to fall below 63oC consistency, mouthfeel and taste of the during this time. The curd was filled in a product (Witte, 2000). hoop (rectangular frame of 35 x 28 x 10 cm) lined with a muslin cloth. Pressure was then Technology for calcium fortification applied on top of the hoop by placing a weight of 45 Kg for about 15 min. The Milk and milk-based beverages have been pressed block of paneer was removed from fortified with calcium. Calcium fortification the hoop and after cutting into 6-8 inch may also require addition of stabilizers and pieces, was immersed in chilled water for emulsifiers to maintain calcium in 2-3 h. The chilled paneer was then removed suspension so as to improve mouthfeel, from water and placed on wooden planks and appearance of the product (FAO, 1995). for 10-15 min for draining the adhering The important processing steps involve the water. Afterwards they were wiped, careful control of final pH followed by the packaged in LDPE covers. addition of calcium salts. Upon addition of calcium salts, there is a marked drop in the Buffalo milk was fortified with calcium at the pH, which will render the system unstable rate of 25, 50 and 75 mg calcium per 100 unless it is corrected to near neutrality by ml milk using Tricalcium citrate (TCC), and the addition of a food grade base. the resultant decrease in pH was restored to its original value by adding 10 per cent MATERIALAND METHODS disodium phosphate solution. The resultant fortified milk was standardized and paneer Buffalo milk: Buffalo milk was collected was prepared according to the method from the University Dairy Plant and described by Bhattacharya et al., 1971. standardized to fat to SNF ratio 1:1.65 before using it as panner milk. Analytical Methods
Citric acid: Commercial grade citric acid Moisture in paneer samples was (SQ grade, Qualigens Fine chemicals, determined by the method of Sachdeva Mumbai) was used as a texturizing adjunct (1983). The Rose-Gottlieb’s method in this present investigation. described for fat determination in Chhana in IS: 5162 (1980) was employed for Tricalcium citrate (TCC M2090): 500 g of determining the fat content in paneer. The the chemical obtained from Jungbunzlauer total nitrogen content of the paneer was Ladenburg GMBH, Germany at free of cost determined by Micro Kjeldahl method 4 ECO-CHRONICLE (AOAC, 1984). Ash content and calcium Flow chart for the manufacture of calcium content of paneer was determined using fortified Paneer the method described for chhana in BIS Milk handbook (1981). The lactose content in paneer samples was determined by Pre heating (500c) colorimetric method as described by Action (1977). Addition of calculated quantity of Tricalcium citrate Sensory Evaluation Selection of panel of judges Mixing and restoring the pH by using suitable buffer (10% disodium A panel of four judges was selected based phosphate solution upon triangle test for sensory evaluation (Amerine et al., 1965). The judges were Heat to boil suitably trained to get acquainted with the attribute of the product to be tested. Cool to 80oC The paneer samples under the test along Add 1% citric acid and separate with conventional paneer sample and/or in- coagulum & whey package unfortified paneer were evaluated for their sensory attributes viz. flavor, body Coagulum and texture, color and appearance, and overall acceptability by the panel of judges Placing of Coagulum in hoops and using 9 point hedonic scale. The scores apply pressure obtained were subjected to analysis of variance. Placing of paneer blocks in chilled water tank RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Slicing Sensory evaluation of calcium fortified paneer Packaging Based on the availability in market, tricalcium citrate was selected for Storage enrichment. The paneer was prepared with buffalo milk fortified with the selected (75mg per 100ml of buffalo milk) did not calcium salt at the rate of 25 mg, 50 mg and adversely affect other sensory attributes and 75 mg calcium / 100ml and evaluated for they were therefore, selected for fortification. sensory characteristics i.e. flavour, body and texture, colour and appearance and Compositional characteristics overall acceptability in comparison to the control paneer. The results pertaining to Compositional profile of a food determines sensory evaluation of paneer prepared from its physico-chemical attributes and buffalo milk fortified with calcium at 25, 50 nutritional content. Hence, the and 75 mg/100 ml and control paneer are compositional characteristics viz., fat, presented in Table 1. protein, lactose, ash, moisture and calcium, and yield of paneer that obtained from It is revealed from the table that there was buffalo milk fortified at 75 mg calcium per statistically no significant difference 100 ml were compared with that of control between control and the samples fortified paneer. The results are delineated in Table 2. with tricalcium citrate for any three levels of salt addition with respect to all the sensory The average chemical composition and attributes. Addition of the salt at higher level yields of control paneer and calcium fortified ECO-CHRONICLE 5 Table 1. Effect of levels of calcium salts on the sensory score of calcium fortified paneer Sensory attributes Level of calcium fortification(mg/100 g of milk) CD0.01 0 25 50 75 Flavour 6.42 ±0.08a 6.58 ±0.08a 6.33 ±0.17a 6.50 ±0.14a 0.66 Body and Texture 6.25 ± 0.14a 6.58 ± 0.08a 6.67 ± 0.08a 6.75 ± 0.14a 0.43 Colour and 6.33 ± 0.08a 6.67 ± 0.17a 6.50 ± 0.14a 6.50 ± 0.29a 0.40 appearance Overall 6.58 ± 0.10a 6.58 ± 0.08a 6.67 ± 0.08a 6.72 ± 0.03a 0.32 acceptability
Table 2. Composition and yield of Control and calcium fortified paneer
Chemical attribute Control paneer Calcium fortified paneer Fat (%) 25.21 ± 0.91 24.55 ± 0.23 (53.68 ± 0.78) (50.55 ± 0.07) Protein (%) 19.96 ± 0.13 19.88 ± 0.19 Lactose (%) 2.24 ± 0.11 3.39 ± 0.10 Ash (%) 1.88 ± 0.11 2.24 ± 0.15 Total solids (%) 49.29 ± 1.02 50.06 ± 0.40 Calcium, mg/ 100g 232.29 ± 3.80 403.63 ± 10.32 Yield (%) 20.18 ± 0.17 21.87 ± 0.25 paneer are presented in Table 2. It can be fat paneer, it specifies a maximum of 15 per noted that the fat and protein content in cent fat (DM) and 70 per cent moisture. On traditional paneer are slightly higher, values the basis of the results obtained, it may be being 53.68 per cent (DM) and 19.96 per concluded that the formulations developed cent respectively, while lactose and ash for the manufacture of calcium fortified contents are lower, values corresponding paneer are adequate to meet the prescribed to 2.24 and 1.88 per cent, respectively. The legal limits and quality standards with corresponding values for calcium fortified respect to fat (DM) and moisture content. paneer were 50.55 for fat (DM); 18.88 per cent for protein; 3.39 per cent for lactose REFERENCES and 2.24 per cent for ash, respectively. The moisture content was 52.32 per cent in Action, G.H. 1977. Determination of lactose traditional paneer, while it was 49.45 per in cheese. Australian J. Dairy Technol., 32: 111-113. cent in calcium fortified paneer. The average calcium content in 100g of traditional, Aggarwal, S.S. 2007. Indian Traditional Milk calcium fortified samples were found to be Products Sector. Dairy India Sixth Ed. Pub. 232.29, 403.63 respectively. Regarding yield R.P. Gupta, Devasons Stylish Printing Press. of the finished product, it was 20.18 per cent New Delhi. pp. 405-408. for traditional paneer, 21.87 per cent for calcium fortified paneer. P.FA specifies at Amerine, M.A., Pongborn, R.M. and least 50 per cent fat (DM) and maximum 70 Roessler, E.B. 1965. Principles of sensory per cent moisture for paneer; while for low evaluation of food. Academic Press, Inc. N Y. 6 ECO-CHRONICLE Aneja, R. P., Mathur, B. N., Chandan, R. C. New Delhi. pp. 31-42. and Banerji, A. K. 2002. Technology of Indian Milk products. A Dairy India Kansal, V.K. 2002. Health benefit claims of Publication; Delhi, India, pp. 3-132. dairy calcium-Review. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 55: 12-132. Aneja, R.P. 2007. Traditional Milk Products at Crossroads. Dairy India Sixth Ed. Pub. PFA. Prevention of Food adulteration Act. R.P. Gupta, Devasons Stylish Printing Press. (Amendment) Rules (2005). Ministry of New Delhi. pp. 403-404. Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi. AOAC 1984. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis. Priya Ranjan, Sumit Arora, Ghanshyam Association Official Agriculture Chemists, Sharma, Jagveer S Singh, Vinod K Kansal, Washington D.C. and Ram B Sangwan. 2005. Bioavailability of calcium and physicochemical properties Bandyopadhyay, A.K. and Mathur, B.N. 1987. of calcium-fortified buffalo milk. Int. J. Dairy Indian milk products: A compendium. In Technol., 58 (3):185-189. Dairy India (Edited by Gupta, P.R). New Delhi, India. Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd. 211-218. Pyne, G.T. 1962. Review of the progress of Dairy Science. Dairy Chemistry: Some Bhattacharya, D.C., Mathur, O.N., Srinivasan, aspects of physical Chemistry of milk salt M. and Samlik, D. 1971. Studies on the balance. J. Dairy Res.,29: 101-132. method of production and shelf-life of paneer (cooking type acid coagulated Sachdeva, S. 1983. Production, Packaging cottage cheese). J. Food Sci. and Technl., and Preservation of Paneer. Ph.D. Thesis, 8: 117-121. Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.
FAO. 1995. Micronutrient fortification of Food: Sindhu, J.S., and Sharma G.S. 1986. Technology and quality control. Technical Restoration of pH and heat stability of acidic consultation on food fortification. Rome, Italy buffalo milk with the addition of disodium 20-23 Nov. phosphate. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 39: 434-438.
Gupta, P. R. 2001. Traditional milk products Verma, I.S. and Mathur, B.N. 1986. Status of from India In: Report of the FAO E-mail the Traditional Milk Products manufacturing conference on small-scale milk collection technology. In Traditional Food and processing in developing countries, Technologies: Their Development and May-July, 2000. FAO, Rome. Integrated Utilization with Emerging Technologies.Central Food Technological International osteoporosis Foundation, IOF and Research Institute, Mysore. 87-99. 2000.http://www.osteoporosis/ about_osteporosis html. Vyas, H. K and Tong, P.S. 1987. Impact of source and level of Calcium fortification on IS: SP: 18 (part XI) 1981. Hand book of food the heat stability of Reconstituted Skim Milk analysis. Part XI., Dairy Products. Bureau of Powder. J. Dairy Sci., 1177-1180. Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, New Delhi. Weaver, C.M. 1988. Calcium in food IS: 5162. 1980. Specification for Chhana. fortification strategies. Int. Dairy J., 8: 443-449. BIS., Manak Bhavan, New Delhi. Witte, D. 2000. Milk calcium: The most Joshi, S. 2007. Making Food processing preferred source by consumer.DMV Int. viable. Dairy India Sixth Ed.,. pub. R.P. Nutr., Veghel-The Netherlands. Gupta, Devasons Stylish Printing Press. www.dmv_international.com ECO-CHRONICLE 7
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 07 - 11 ISSN: 0973-4155
PROPAGATION AND CONSERVATION OF AN ENDANGERED PLANT CEROPEGIA BARNESII BRUCE ET CHATTERJEE THROUGH ENCAPSULATED NODAL EXPLANTS
Neelamathi Eswaran, Alagendran Subbarayalu, Miller Samson Sadhasivam and Anusha Ramachandran.
Post Graduate and Research Department of Biotechnology, Nehru Memorial College, Puthanampatti, Tiruchirapalli District, Tamilnadu. E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
An in vitro propagation protocol has been developed for Ceropegia barnesii, Bruce et Chatterjee (Asclepiadaceae), an endangered plant found in the Western Ghats of India. Nodal segments were cultured in vitro on Murashige and Skoog’s (1972) medium (MS). Multiple shoot induction was better on modified MS medium with growth regulators and growth adjuvants. From the in vitro plants healthy nodes were encapsulated in sodium alginate. When encapsulated nodes were germinated, 80% response with multiple shoot formation was observed in MS medium supplemented with growth regulators and growth adjuvants. Considering the status of this species in terms of its distribution, threats, conservation and economic values, in vitro propagation and germplasm conservation through synthetic seeds will compliment and strengthen the large scale propagation activities towards the restoration of endangered species. Keywords: Ceropegia barnesii, Conservation, endangered plant, encapsulation, nodal explants
INTRODUCTION floristic element of the Indian flora are now in Red Data Book (Nayar & Sastry, 1988). Our fragile planet is losing its natural This large scale depletion of variability heritage at a faster unprecedented rate than demands priority action to conserve the even before in the last 25 million years germplasm (Frankel, 1975). (Reid, 1992). Such a widespread loss of the world’s biological wealth is one of the Ceropegia barnesii belongs to the family most serious crises of our earth today. Loss Asclepiadaceae widely distributed in of economically important flora may be due Southeast Asia. There are about 200 to natural factors and by mans need. This species in Ceropegia. Nearly 44 species loss of plant species would lead to are there in India. About 30 species are shrinkage of genetic base, which will have exclusively endemic to South Indian hills direct and irreversible effect on mankind. and are rare to various phytogeographical regions (Ansari, 1984). Ceropegia species India harbors around 15,000 species of are included in Indian Red Data book of higher plants, of which about 2100 (40.2%) Indian flowering plants and many of them are endemic to peninsular India (Khoshoo, are in the verge of extinction (Nayar & Sastry, 1986). At least 10% of the India’s recorded 1988). Ceropegia is highly medicinal; a flora is in the list of rare and threatened novel furopyridine alkaloid ceropegin was plants with many in the verge of extinction known to reduce the percentage growth in (Kothari, 1993). About 500 species of the few cancer cell lines (Sukumar et al., 1995). 8 ECO-CHRONICLE
Being rare, endemic, ornamental and edible beads were recovered by decanting CaCl2 plant with botanic curiosity the present study solution and washed thrice with sterile on Ceropegia barnesii Bruce et Chatterjee, double distilled water. Such beads was undertaken for the production of containing single nodes were stored for a synthetic seeds for mass propagation and period of 30 days at 24ºC and then cultured as a means of germplasm conservation. on MS medium supplemented with growth
regulators such as BA (4.0 mg/l), GA3 (0.5, MATERIALS AND METHODS 1.0 mg/l) and growth adjuvant CW (15%) and AC at different concentrations and Healthy nodes of Ceropegia barnesii were combinations. Five replicates were used for excised from in vitro derived plantlets each substratum. developed on MS medium supplemented with BA (4.0 mg/l) and CW (15%). Uniform RESULTS AND DISCUSSION sized nodes (1 cm) obtained from in vitro shoots were selected and washed in In the present study Ceropegia barnesii a sterilized double distilled water. For wild endemic and endangered plant was encapsulation, three different taken up to standardize a protocol for rapid concentrations (2, 3, and 4%) of sodium multiplication using synthetic seed alginate were prepared by mixing it either technology. The propagation and with MS basal medium or MS basal + 3% conservation by vegetative means are sucrose. For complexation, 1.016 g of desirable for better preservation of true to calcium chloride (CaCl2) solutions was type genetic characteristics. Alginate prepared with 150 ml of distilled water. After encapsulation technique may be reliable adjusting the pH to 5.8 both the gel matrix method for long time storage of plant genetic and the complexing agents were autoclaved resources. at 121°C for 20 minutes. In vitro Ceropegia plants were developed Nodes were mixed with sodium alginate on MS medium supplemented with BA (4.0 solution and were subsequently singly mg/l) + CW (15%) (Fig. 1A). The healthy dropped into calcium chloride solution nodes from multiple shoots were taken as using a wide mouthed glass dropper explants for synthetic seed production (inside diameter 4 mm). Calcium alginate (Fig.1B). In Ceropegia barnesii 3% (w/v) beads were formed within 30-45 minutes sodium alginate was found to be suitable on a shaker moving at 80 rpm under light for the formation of firm, clear, isodiametric (1000 lux). Following encapsulation, the and quick sprouting beads (Fig. 1C). The
Table 1. Results of the sprouted beads on regeneration medium
Encapsulation Regeneration medium Mean shoot length* matrix (MS medium) (in cm) After After After 20 40 60 days days days MS basal 0.8 1.32 1.62 MS basal + 3% BA(4.0) + GA3 (1.0) 1.3 1.52 2.04 Sodium alginate BA(4.0) + GA3 (0.5) + AC(100) 1.64 2.12 2.54 BA (4.0) + CW (15%) 1.54 1.96 2.38 MS basal 0.92 1.32 1.9 MS basal + 3% BA(4.0) + GA3 (1.0) 1.76 2.14 2.66 Sodium alginate + BA(4.0) + GA3 (0.5) + AC(100) 2.06 2.72 3.26 3% Sucrose BA (4.0) + CW (15%) 1.48 2.1 2.64 *The values are the mean values of five replicates each. ECO-CHRONICLE 9
A – Multiple shoots induction of Ceropegia barnesii on MS + BA (4.0 mg/l) + CW (15%)
B – In vitro healthy Ceropegia barnesii on the same medium for synthetic seed prepa- ration.
D – Germination of Synthetic seeds on MS + BA
C – Encapsulated in vitro nodal explants (Syn- (4.0) + GA3 (0.5) + AC (100) showing single shoot. thetic seeds) using 3% Sodium alginate.
C – Ceropegia barnesii with multiple shoots after 40 days in the same medium. B – Multiple shoot initiation in the synthetic seeds germinated on MS + BA (4.0) + CW (15%) 10 ECO-CHRONICLE best results with 4% sodium alginate in to yield higher percentage of germination mulberry (Bapat et al., 1987) and 3% (80%) and development of protocorms. alginate in the banana (Ganapathi et al., 1992) shoot tips. The encapsulated nodal segments showed better germination results even if The encapsulated explants were they were stored at 24ºC for 30 days. The germinated in MS medium supplemented synthetic seeds would be stored for a with different growth regulators. Frequency longtime and are possibly a means of of the regeneration of plants from germplasm storage. This method might be encapsulated beads depends on the a reliable method for the conservation of concentration of sodium alginate, nutrient endangered and endemic plants. salts and exposure to calcium chloride (Castillo et al., 1998 and Piccioni & ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Standardi, 1995). The highest percentage of germination (86.6%) was noted in MS + This work has been supported by
BA (4.0 mg/l) + GA3 (0.5 mg/l) + AC (100 mg/ Dr.V.Narmadha bai, Professor in Botany, l) (Fig. 2A). In MS medium devoid of growth Bharathiar University. The authors kindly regulators, the percentage of germination acknowledge the management of Nehru was 50%. The major limiting factor for the Memorial College, Tiruchirapalli, for their development of artificial seed is probably encouragement and cooperation. the availability of nutrients (Fuji et al., 1987). Among the two different encapsulation REFERENCES matrices tried, MS medium supplemented with sucrose was most effective in inducing Reid, W. V., 1992. How many species will multiple shoots. The shoot length was be there? In: Tropical Deforestation and measured for every 20 days as given in the Species Extinction (Eds.) Whitemore, T., Table 1. Multiple shoots were induced on Sayer J. Chapman and Hall, London, both MS medium supplemented with BA (4.0 UK. mg/l) + GA3 (1.0 mg/l) and MS + BA (4.0 mg/ l) + CW (15%). Nearly 20 shoots were Khoshoo, T. N., 1986. Environmental produced in MS + BA (4.0 mg/l) + CW (15%) priorities in India and sustainable (Fig. 2B). development, Presidential address, 73 rd session, Indian Science Congress Encapsulated nodes of Ceropegia barnesii Association, New Delhi, pp-226. when cultured on MS basal hormone free medium only single shoot produced (Fig. Kothari, A., 1993. Biodiversity convention, 2A), whereas in the presence growth The Hindu Survey of Environment, The regulators and growth adjuvants multiple Hindu publications, Madras, India, pp-44. shoots were initiated (Fig. 2B, 2C). Nayar, M. P. & Sastry, A. R. K., 1988. Red In Ceropegia barnesii the addition of growth Data Book of Indian Plants, Bot. Surv. India, adjuvant CW in the plating media enhanced Calcutta, Vol II: 268. multiple shoot formation. However the shoot length was found to be more in the medium Frankel, O. H., Genetic conservation- why supplemented with growth regulators BA & and how. In: South East Asian Plant Genetic
GA3. The same effect of growth adjuvants Resources (J.T. Williams, C.H. Lamoureux was recorded in the orchid, Geodorum and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto, eds.), densiflorum (Datta et al., 1999), where a Proceedings Symposium Bogor, 1975 combination of growth regulators NAA and (Bogor: International Board for Plant Genetic BA and growth adjuvants CW and P found Resources and others) pp. 16-32. ECO-CHRONICLE 11 Ansari, Y. Y. Asclepiadaceae, Genus- through encapsulated shoot tips, Plant cell Ceropegia, Falc. Fl. Ind. 16, 1984. pp 2-28. Rep., 11: 571-575.
Nayar, M. P. & Sastry, A. R. K. Red Data Book Castillo, B., Smith, M. A. L. & Yadave, U. L., of Indian Plants, Bot. Surv. India, Calcutta, 1998. Plant regeneration from Vol I: 1987 pp 367-368. encapsulated somatic embryos of Carica papaya L. Plant cell Rep., 17: 172-176. Sukumar, E., Gopal, H. R., Bhima Rao, R., Vishwanathan, S., Thirugnana sampanthan, Piccioni, E. & Standardi, A., 1995. P. & Vijayasekaran, V., 1995. Pharma- Encapsulation of micropropagated buds of cological actions of Ceropegin, a novel six woody species, Plant Cell and Org. Cult. pyridine alkaloid from Ceropegia juncea, 60, 177-185. Fitoterapia, 66: 403-406. Fuji, J. A., Slade, D. T., Redenbaugh, K. & Bapat, V. A., Mahatre, M. & Rao, P. S., 1987. Walker, K. A., 1987. Artificial seeds for plant Propagation of Morus indica L. (Mulberry) propagation, Trends in Biotech, 5: 335-339. by encapsulated shoot buds, Plant cell. Rep., 6: 393-395. Datta, K. N., Kanjilal, B. & Sarker, S., 1999. Artificial Seed Technology: Development of Ganapathi, T. R., Suprasanna, P., Bapat, V. a protocol in Geodorum densiflorum (Lam) A. & Rao, P. S., 1992. Propagation of banana Schltr. – An endangered orchid, Curr. Sci., 76: 1142-1145. 12 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE (ISSN: 0973 - 4155)
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References should include only publications cited in the text. They should be arranged alphabetically and the following pattern can be followed. 1. Swift, M. J., Heal, O. W. and Anderson, J. M., 1979. In Decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford. p. 372. 2. Namassivayan, L. and Venugopalan, R. 1989. Avocet in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86 (3). 458 – 460. A soft copy of the paper (CD) need to be submitted along with the hard copy. The soft copy should be prepared in Microsoft word / Page maker with photographs and figures (jpg or tif format), and graphs (xls format) attached as separate files. Labels and legends of photographs and figures should have adequate size to maintain quality, even after size reduction. This can also be e-mailed to [email protected] or [email protected]
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Research papers, complete in all respect, be send to Dr. C.C. Harilal (EDITOR, ECO-CHRONICLE), Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Calicut University P.O., Malappuram District, Kerala - 673645, India. Phone: +91 9447956226; Web site: www.ecochronicle.org, e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] ECO-CHRONICLE 13
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 13 - 16 ISSN: 0973-4155
MARINE MYCOFLORA OF ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
Gayatri, R. Nambiar and Raveendran, K.
Dept. of P.G. Studies and Research in Botany, Sir Syed College, Kannur, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the higher marine fungi on wood from intertidal beaches of Vishakapatanam, Andhra Pradesh. They comprised of 14 Ascomycota, 1 Basidiomycota and 6 mitosporic fungi. Among the fungi encountered Acrocordiopsis patillii, Bathyasus tropicalis, Corollospora maritima, C. gracilis, C. indica, Savoryella appendiculata, Nia vibrissa, Clavatospora bulbosa and Trichocladium melhae were new records to Andra Pradesh. In terms of percent frequency of occurrence, Corollospora pulchella (12.76%) and Lignincola leavis (10.64%) were most frequently obtained. Key words: Marine fungi, wood samples, beach, Andhra Pradesh
INTRODUCTION Andaman and Nicobar Island, beach marine mycoflora of east cost are virtually Marine fungi are a collective term for a large unexplored. Hence the present study. group of fungi which are saprophytic or parasitic in the marine environment (Hyde, MATERIALS AND METHODS 1989). They play a major role in the transfer of nutrient from organic matter to higher Collection and treatment of wood samples trophic levels in the sea (Hyde and Lea, 1995). This young branch of mycology is Collection of wood materials were carried gaining importance not only due to out from beaches of Vishakapatanam, taxonomic and ecological perspective, but Andhra Pradesh in 2007. Collected wood also for unique metabolites, biochemical materials were washed well and placed in and enzymes from the sea (Sridhar and sterile polythene bags and were brought to Prasannarai, 2001). the laboratory. After the preliminary screening for marine fungi under Biodiversity of higher marine fungi along stereomicroscope, these samples were east cost of India was explored by incubated at room temperature. Periodical Raghukumar (1973), Chinnaraj (1993) isolation of marine fungi from these wood Ravikumar and Vittal (1996), Sarma and samples were carried out for six months. Vittal (1998-99, 2000, 2001, 2004), Borse Identifications of marine fungi were done (2000, 2002 a & b), Borse and Borse (2001), using taxonomic keys by Kohlmeyer and Borse and Pawar (2001), Borse et al., Kohlmeyer (1979), Kohlmeyer and (2001,2002), Gayatri and Raveendran Volkmann Kohlmeyer (1991), Hyde and (2008) and Gayatri et al., (2008). Although Sarma (2000), Raveendran and considerable floristic studies have been Manimohan (2007). The marine fungi thus conducted from the mangroves of Tamil isolated were tabulated and recorded Nadu, Andra Pradesh, West Bengal and (Table No. 1). 14 ECO-CHRONICLE Table. 1 List of marine fungi obtained from Andhra Pradesh.
Name of Fungi No. of FO RA Isolates Ascomycetes Acrocordiopsis patillii Borse and Hyde 4 4.25 3.5 Aigialus mangrovei Borse 1 1.06 0.88 Aniptodera chesapeakensis Shearer 5 5.32 4.42 Bathyascus tropicalis Kohlm 6 6.38 5.31 Corollospora maritima Werdermann 8 8.51 7.07 Corollospora gracilis Nakagiri and Tokura 1 1.06 0.88 Corollospora pulchella Kohlm. 12 12.7 10.62 Schmidlt and Nair Corollospora indica Prasannarai, 4 4.25 3.5 Ananda and Sridhar. Dactylopspora haliotrepha (Kohlm and Kohlm) 2 2.13 1.77 Hafellner Halorosellina oceanica Whalley, Jones, 6 6.38 5.31 Hyde and Laessoe Lignincola laevis Hohnk 10 10.6 8.85 Lineolata rhizophorae (Kohlm and Kohlm) 2 2.13 1.77 Kohlm and V.Kohlm Savoryella appendiculata Hyde and Jones 3 3.19 2.65 Verruculina enalia (Kohlm) Kohlm. and 7 7.45 6.19 V. Kohlm Basidiomycete Nia vibrissa Moore and Meyer 1 1.06 0.88 Mitosporic fungi 6 6.38 5.31 Clavatospora bulbosa(Anast.) Nakagiri and Tokura Cirrenalia pygmea Kohlm 5 5.32 4.42 Cirrenalia tropicalis Kohlm 7 7.45 6.19 Periconia prolifica Anastasiou 9 9.57 7.96 Trichocladium alopallonellum (Mey. and Moore) 2 2.13 1.77 Kohlm and V. Kohlm Trichocladium melhae Jones, Abdel-Wahab 3 3.19 2.65 and Vrijmoed Where FO - % Frequency of Occurrence; RA - % Relative Abundance
Presentation of data Number of isolates of a particular species x 100 Percentage frequency of occurrence (FO) = Total number of fungal Number of isolates of a particular isolates obtained from all the locations species x 100 Total number of wood RESULTS samples supporting marine fungi Altogether 21 species of higher lignicolous On the basis of percentage frequency of fungi belonging to 16 genera were recorded occurrence, the marine fungi were classified in the present study. They comprised of 14 as most frequent (>10%), frequent (5-10%), Ascomycota, 1 Basidiomycota and 6 occasional (3-5%) and rare (<3%). mitosporic fungi. Among the fungi Percentage relative abundance (RA) = encountered Acrocordiopsis patillii, ECO-CHRONICLE 15 Bathyascus tropicalis, Corollospora examined, the quality of woody substrates maritima, C. gracilis, C. indica, Savoryella and extend of exposure to beach habitats Name of Fungi No. of FO RA appendiculata, Nia vibrissa, Clavatospora (Sundari et al, 1996, Ananda and Sridhar, Isolates bulbosa and Trichocladium melhae were 2001). Ascomycetes new records to Andra Pradesh. Acrocordiopsis patilli Borse and Hyde 4 4.25 3.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Aigialus mangrovei Borse 1 1.06 0.88 In terms of percentage frequency of Aniptodera chesapeakensis Shearer 5 5.32 4.42 occurrence, Corollospora pulchella The authors are thankful to the Principal and Bathyascus tropicalis Kohlm 6 6.38 5.31 (12.76%) and Lignincola leavis (10.64%) Management of Sir Syed College, Corollospora maritima Werderman 8 8.51 7.07 were most frequently obtained. Nine Taliparamba for providing facilities. Corollospora gracilis Nakagiri and Tokura 1 1.06 0.88 species were frequent in occurrence. Seven Corollospora pulchella Kohlm. 12 12.7 10.62 species were occasionally isolated, while REFERENCES Schmidlt and Nair Aigialus mangrovei, Corollospora gracilis Corollospora indica Prasannarai, 4 4.25 3.5 and Nia vibrissa were recorded rarely. Ananda, K. and Sridhar, K. R. 2001. Ananda and Sridhar. Mycoflora on dead animal substrates of Dactylopspora haliotrepha (Kohlm and Kohlm) 2 2.13 1.77 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION mangrove habitats of Karnataka coast, India. Hafellner Sri Lankan J. Aqut. Sci. 6: 85-93. Halorosellina oceanica Whalley, Jones, 6 6.38 5.31 The present study revealed that the higher Hyde and Laessoe marine fungi from Vishakapatanam, Andhra Borse, B. D. 2000. Marine fungi from India Lignincola laevis Hohnk 10 10.6 8.85 Pradesh are similar to that of other coastal X. Savoryella Jones and Eaton Lineolata rhizophorae (Kohlm and Kohlm) 2 2.13 1.77 regions of India. However, the common (Ascomycotina). In: Ecology of fungi (eds: Kohlm and V.Kohlm species obtained in the present D.J. Bhat and S. Raghukumar) Goa Univ. Savoryella appendiculata Hyde and Jones 3 3.19 2.65 investigation is distinct from earlier studies. Press, Goa. pp. 163-165. Verruculina enalia (Kohlm) Kohlm. and 7 7.45 6.19 Verruculina enalia was recorded most V. Kohlm frequent from mangrove habitat of Krishna- Borse, B. D. 2002 a. Marine fungi from Basidiomycete Godavari delta, Andhra Pradesh (Sarma and Chilka Lake (India). BRI’s JAST 5:36-40. Nia vibrissa Moore and Meyer 1 1.06 0.88 Vittal, 2001), Zalerion maritimum, Periconia Mitosporic fungi 6 6.38 5.31 prolifica, Verruculina enalia and Lignincola Borse, B. D. 2002 b. Marine fungi from India Clavatospora bulbosa(Anast.) Nakagiri laevis from Chilka Lake of Orissa (Borse, XL-A Checklist. J.Ind. Bot.Soc. 81:83-92. and Tokura 2002 a), Corollospora angusta and Cirrenalia pygmea Kohlm 5 5.32 4.42 Cirrenalia sp. from beaches of Pondicherry Borse, B. D. and Borse, K. N. 2001. New Cirrenalia tropicalis Kohlm 7 7.45 6.19 (Gayatri and Raveendran, 2008), Periconia reports of marine Ascomycetes from Orissa, Periconia prolifica Anastasiou 9 9.57 7.96 prolifica and Clavatospora bulbosa from India. Geobios 28: 62-64. Trichocladium alopallonellum (Mey. and Moore) 2 2.13 1.77 beach and mangrove ecosystem of Tamil Kohlm and V. Kohlm Nadu (Gayatri et al., 2008).Similarly, Borse, B. D. and Pawar, N. S. 2001. Trichocladium melhae Jones, Abdel-Wahab 3 3.19 2.65 Chinnaraj (1993) recorded Verruculina Carbosphaerella and Dryosphera: Two new and Vrijmoed enalia and Halocyphina villosa as the generic records of marine ascomycetes dominant species from the mangrove from West Bengal Geobios. 28:117-120. habitats of Andaman and Nicobar Island. A number of factors affect the ecology of fungi Borse, K. N., Pawar, N. S. and Borse, B. D. colonizing on wood in marine environment 2001. Marine fungi from Orissa (India): including physical and chemical Arenicolous group. BRI’s JAST. 4:17-22. parameters, host, chemical composition of the wood, position of intertidal region and Borse, K. N., Pawar, N. S. and Borse, B. D. nature of floor (Meyers and Reynolds, 1958; 2002. Marine fungi from Orissa-The genus Hyde and Lea, 1995). Species diversity in Corollospora Werdermann. Geobios. 29: the current study is poor when compared to 258-263. the report of marine fungi from mangrove habitat of Krishna – Godavari delta by Sarma Chinnaraj, S. 1993. Higher marine fungi and Vittal (2001, 2004). This could be from mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar attributed to limited number of samples Islands. Sydowia. 45:109-115. 16 ECO-CHRONICLE Gayatri, R. Nambiar and Raveendran, K. Ravikumar, D. R. and Vittal, B. P. R. 1996. 2008. Marine Mycloflora of Pondicherry and Fungal diversity on decomposing mangrove Mahe. Eco-chronicle 3:47-50. plant Rhizophora in Pichavaram estuary, east coast of India. Indian. J. Mar. Sci. Gayatri, R. Nambiar, Raveendran, K., Zho 25:142-144. Chanxing and Jaleel, C. A. 2008. A glimpse of lignicolous marine fungi occurring in Sarma, V. V. and Vittal, B. P. R. 1998-99. coastal water bodies of Tamil Nadu (India). Ecological studies on manglicolous fungi C. R. Biologies.331:475-480. from Godavari and Krishna delta, East coast of India-Observations on the seasonal Hyde, K.D. 1989. Ecology of tropical marine occurrence. Kavaka. 26 and 27: 105-120. fungi. Hydrobiologia.178-199-208. Sarma, V. V. and Vittal, B. P. R. 2000. Hyde, K.D. and Lea, S.Y. 1995. Ecology of Biodiversity of mangrove fungi on different Mangrove fungi and their role in nutrient substrata of Rhizophora apiculata and cycling: What gaps occur in our knowledge? Avicennia sp from Godavary and Krishna Hydrobiologia, 295: 107-118. Deltas, east coast of India, In: Aquatic mycology across the millennium (eds. K.D. Hyde, K. D. and Sarma, V. V. 2000. Pictorial Hyde, W.H. Ho and S.B. Pointing) Fungal keys to higher marine fungi. Marine Diversity. 5:23-41. Mycology –A Practical Approch (eds. K. D. Hyde. and S. B. Pointing) Fungal Diversity Sarma, V. V. and Vittal, B. P. R. 2001. Press, Hong Kong. pp.205-270. Biodiversity of manglicolous fungi on selected plants in the Godavari and Krishna Kohlmeyer, J. and Kohlmeyer, E. 1979. deltas, East coast of India. Fungal diversity. Marine mycology the higher fungi. Academic 6:115-130. Press, New York, USA. Sarma, V. V. and Vittal, B. P. R. 2004. Kohlmeyer, J. and Volkmann Kohlmeyer. Manglicolous fungi recorded from Godavary 1991. Illustrated key to the filamentous and Krishna deltas, A.P., East coast of India higher marine fungi Botanica Marina; 34:1-61 along with a dichotomous key and notes on some taxa. Kavaka.32: 65-111. Meyers,S. P. and Reynolds, E. S. 1958. A wood incubation method for the study of Sridhar, K.R. and Prasannarai, K. 2001. lignicolous marine fungi. Bull. Mar. Sci. 8: Biogeography and biodiversity of higher 342-347. marine fungi in tropics-A review. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 7:219-234. Raghukumar.S. 1973. Marine lignicolous fungi from India, Kavaka. 1:73-85. Sundari, R., Vikineswary, S., Yusoff, M. and Jones, E. B. G. 1996. Observations on Raveendran, K. and Manimohan, P. 2007. tropical arenicolous marine fungi on Marine fungi of Kerala- A preliminary floristic driftwood from Malaysia and Singapore. and ecological study. Malabar Natural Bot. Mar. 39: 327-333. Historical Society, Calicut, Kerala, India. ECO-CHRONICLE 17
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 17 - 26 ISSN: 0973-4155
IDENTIFICATION OF SUITABLE SITES FOR ARTIFICIAL RECHARGING IN NOYYAL RIVER BASIN
Brema, J. and Prince Arulraj, G.
School of Civil Engineering, Karunya University, Karunya Nagar, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Email: [email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Even though the basins receive a substantial amount of rainfall, the present groundwater scenario, is not encouraging due to the imbalance between recharge and groundwater exploitation. Over exploitation of groundwater from deep aquifers have been taking place in many places and the shortage has accumulated over decades. Due to this, the current annual rainfall has no immediate effect on groundwater recharge. Keeping this in mind, a study has been undertaken to identify the favorable areas for artificial recharge to avoid fast decline in groundwater levels in Noyyal river basin. Due to presence of many spatial parameters in the selection of suitable sites for artificial recharge, Geographical Information System (GIS), which is powerful tool in handling spatial data has been employed in this study. The various thematic maps such as geology, soil, lineament density, land use, distance of the recharge sites from the river and level difference between the river and the recharge site have been used in this analysis. Criterion tables were generated considering the importance of different themes and necessary ranks and weights were assigned to each theme. Using ArcGIS software, the above themes have been integrated and the areas suitable for artificial recharge have been identified. Key words: Ground water recharging, Overlay analysis.
INTRODUCTION The main purpose of artificial recharge Groundwater is the main source of water technology is to store excess water for later supply for rural areas in many developing use, while improving water quality by countries. With the increasing utilisation of recharging the aquifer with better water. groundwater for agricultural, industrial and Several artificial recharge methods such as other needs, the annual extraction of infiltration basins and canals, water traps, groundwater is more than the average cutwaters, surface runoff drainage wells, recharge from natural resources. septic-tank-effluent disposal wells, and Consequently, groundwater is being diversion of excess flows from irrigation withdrawn from storage and water levels canals into sinkholes etc are reported in are declining resulting in crop failures, the literature. The main advantages of seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers, land artificial recharging of ground water aquifers subsidence etc., Vagaries of monsoon and are the enhancement of dependable yield indiscriminate development of groundwater from wells, elimination of evaporation losses, often result in declining trend of groundwater rise in ground water level, reduction in energy levels. There is an urgent need for artificial cost for lifting water, storage of surplus surface recharge of groundwater by augmenting the runoff, etc. Groundwater recharge does not natural infiltration of precipitation into have adverse effects like inundation of large subsurface formation by some suitable surface areas, loss of cultivable area, method of recharge. displacement of local population etc. 18 ECO-CHRONICLE LITERATURE REVIEW Noyyal River Basin
Obi Reddy et. al.(2000) made a study to The noyyal river basin sprawls for about 175 identify ground water potential zones based kms from west to east with an average width on drainage, geology, geology, of about 25 kms. The widest part of the basin geomorphology and lineaments and has a width of about 32 kms .Total extent of concluded that there is good inter- the basin is about 3646 sq. kms . The basin relationship among the geological, lies between the latitudes 10o53’1.06" N to geomorphological, lineament density and 11o21’57"N and longitudes 76o37’49"E to groundwater yield data. Pankaj et al.(2000) 78o12’55.06"E. Most of the area of the basin made a study to identify the groundwater falls within Coimbatore and Erode districts potential zones based on hydrgeological of Tamilnadu, India, with about two hundred parameters and concluded that drainage density and lineaments are the important sq.kms falling within Karur district in the contributory factors to groundwater eastern most part of the basin. The western recharge. Pradeep (1998) made a study to periphery of the basin is the hilly area that locate favorable zones for groundwater forms part of Western Ghats which has an targeting using satellite images, average altitude of 2200 meters (7220 feet) hydromorphogeological, lineament maps to above mean sea level. The general gradient obtain prospective zones for groundwater of the basin is about 2.5 meters per kilo and concluded that fractures and faults meter(1 in 400). The basin has a gentle parallel to drainage zones are the priority slope in other regions. To understand and zones. estimate the ground water potential of any basin,it is essential to know the rainfall Sarkar et al.(2001) conducted a multi- distribution which is a major factor criterion evaluation based on drainage, contributing to the ground water recharge lineament, lithology, slope and landuse and .Within the basin, there are thirteen rainfall have concluded that high groundwater potentiality is in flood plains and river measuring stations which include one terraces. Subba Rao et al.(2001) identified station maintained by Coimbatore groundwater potential zones by integrating municipality at the foot hills, near Siruvani. geomorphological and associated Fairly wide spread rainfall occurs in the features. They concluded that adequate basin during the north east monsoon period recharge source of groundwater can be from October to December. The basin does expected surrounding the residual hills as not get rain during the period January to it acts as surface runoff zone. Recharge march every year. The study area and the structures will have to be located very close subwatersheds in the basin are shown in to the drains, streams and rivers. If they are Fig.1. located far away from the drains, water has to be transported for a longer distance which The blocks covered by the basin in will result in uneconomical recharge units. Coimbatore district are Sulthanpet, Sulur, Hence proximity to water bodies is an Avinashi, Annur, Thondamuthur, important factor which is not considered by Madukkarai, P.N. Palayam, Sarkarsama- most of researchers. The recharge structure kulam, Pongalur, Palladam, Tirupur. The must be located such that the natural level difference must permit the flow of water from blocks covered in Erode district are the water bodies to the location of recharge Modakurichi, Kodumudi, Perundurai, structures. An attempt has been made to Chennimalai, Uttukuli, Nambiyur, consider the level difference and proximity Kangeyam, Vellakoil and the blocks covered to water bodies in addition to the other in Karur district are Karur and Paramathi parameters which favour ground water blocks. The blocks covered in the basin are recharge. shown in Fig.2. ECO-CHRONICLE 19 METHODOLOGY map of the basin is shown in Fig.3. The geology map was reclassified by assigning The methodology consists of generation of ranks to the various geologic features. The thematic maps of geology, soil, lineaments, ranks assigned to the geological features landuse, difference in elevation between the are shown in Table 1. Rank 1 indicates that river level and ground level at various points the feature is highly suitable for recharge and the distance from the river. These maps and rank 4 indicates that the feature is least were reclassified by giving ranks to various suitable for recharge. classes within the thematic map. The reclassified thematic maps were integrated 2. Soil map together by giving a proper weightage and suitability map for artificial recharging was The soil map was obtained from the obtained. The methodology for identifying digitized soil map of the three districts. From the area suitable for artificial recharge is the combined the soil map, the soil map shown in Fig.2. pertaining to the basin was extracted. The soil map of the basin is shown in Fig.4. The Preparation of Maps soil map was reclassified by assigning 1. Geology map ranks to the various soils. The ranks assigned to the various soil types are The geology maps of the three districts shown in Table 2. were obtained. The maps were digitized and stitched together to get the combined 3. Lineaments map geology map. From the combined the geology map, the geology map pertaining Lineaments are the geological features to the basin was extracted. The operations which represent cracks, faults and folds in as stitching, extraction etc. were carried out the location. The density of lineaments and using the software ArcGIS 9.0. The geology the orientation decide the suitability of
Fig.2. Methodology for Identification of recharge sites
Data Collection
Preparation Preparation of Preparation of Preparation of Preparation of Preparation of of Soil map Geology map Lineament map Landuse map level difference distance from map river map
Assigning Suitable ranks for the various attributes in each map
Reclassification of Thematic Maps with the assigned ranks
Overlay Analysis of the Reclassified Maps with suitable Weightage
Suitability Map for identifying the favourable recharge areas 20 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1. Ranks Assigned to Geological suitable site for recharging, when the other Features parameters such as difference in elevation, distance from the water bodies are also No Feature Rank favorable. The land use map of the basin is 1 Pink Granite 4 shown in Fig.6. The land use map was sAssigned 2 Charnokite 3 obtained from LISS III satellite imagery corresponding to the year 2002. Using the 3 Unclassified Gneiss 4 image processing software ERDAS 4 Lime Stone 2 IMAGINE 8.5, the satellite image was 5 Complex Gneiss 4 processed and classified using supervised classification method. From the classified 6 Pink Granite & 4 image, the land use map was extracted. The 7 Alluvium 1 land use map was reclassified by Granitic 8 Calc.Gneiss 4 assigning suitable ranks for the various land use parameters. The ranks assigned to the Gneiss various land use parameters is shown in Table 2. Ranks Assigned to various soil Table 4. No Type of Soil Rank Assigned Table 4. Ranks assigned to land use 1 Reserved Forest 6 classes 2 Colluvial and Alluvial 1 Soil Sl. Land use type Rank No. assigned 3 Thin Red Soil 1 4 Red Soil 1 1. Cultivated area 2 5 River Alluvium 1 2. Residential area 3 6 Brown Soil 2 3. Rock 6 7 Black Soil 5 4. Water bodies 4 8 Red Non Calcareous 3 5. Hilly area 5 soil 9 Red Calcareous soil 3 6. Barren land 1 10 Red Loam 4 5. Distance map recharge sites. Higher density and orientation of lineaments perpendicular to Any favourable recharge site should be the direction of streams are favourable nearer to the river, as the water can be easily conditions for recharge. Lineament maps diverted, with minimum cost. Hence the were prepared for three districts and distance of various locations from the river combined together to form one composite has been considered as one of the theme. map. From the combined the lineament Distance map of the various locations from map of the three districts, the lineament the river was obtained using ArcMap by map pertaining to the basin was extracted. giving measured distance as attribute data. The reclassified lineament map of the basin From this attribute data, the raster map for is shown in Fig.5. The reclassification was distance from the river was created. The done based on density of the lineament and distance or proximity map is shown in Fig.7. the intersection points of the lineaments. The distance has been reclassified into eight categories. Only the areas that are 4. Land use map within 3 km from the river are considered for overlay analysis. The areas that are Land use is one of the important parameter within 1km from the river, are considered to for deciding the suitability of the land for be most suitable for recharge. The ranks recharging. A barren land is the most assigned are shown in Table 5. ECO-CHRONICLE 21
Fig.1. Noyyal River basin
Fig.2. Blocks in the Basin
Fig.3. Geology Map of the Basin
Pink Granite Charcockite Unclassified Gneiss Limestone Complex Gneiss Complex Gneiss Pink Granite & Granitic Gneiss Alluvium Calcareous Gneiss
Fig.4. Soil Map of the Basin
Reserved Forest Colluvial and Alluvial soil Thin Red soil Red soil River Alluvium Brown soil Black soil Red non-calcareous soil Red Calcareous soil Red loam
Fig.5. Reclassified Lineament Map of the Basin
Value 1 1 - 2 2 - 3 3 - 4 4 - 5 22 ECO-CHRONICLE 6. Difference in Elevation map Table 6. Weightages adopted for the themes
The most favourable recharge site would Sl. Maps Weightage be the one which is at a level, lower than No. (%) that of the river so that the water can be easily diverted by gravity. Therefore the difference 1. Geology 3 in elevation between the recharge site and 2. Soil 5 the river bed has been considered as one 3. Lineament 7 of the themes in GIS model. To obtain the 4. Landuse 30 difference in elevation map, the elevation 5. Distance from river 30 map of the basin is required. Digital elevation model is a representation of 6. Difference in Elevation 25 topography of the land in the form of raster map. Digital Elevation Models (DEM) are in the software was used and from this, a digital files consisting of points of elevations, raster map was created. The map showing sampled systematically at equally spaced the difference in elevation is shown in Fig.9. intervals. The DEM for Noyyal river basin has For the reclassification, the locations with been prepared using the software ArcGIS elevation higher than that of the river by 1m 9.0 and the created DEM is shown in Fig.8. were given the least rank. The locations with elevation lower than that of the river were In order to obtain the raster map showing given the highest rank. the difference in elevation between the various locations and the corresponding points in the river, raster calculator available 7. Suitability Map
The various thematic maps were overlayed Table 5. Ranks Assigned to the Distance from River by adopting proper weightage for the various themes. The weightages given for the Sl. Distance from River Rank various themes are shown in Table 6. No. (km) assigned 1. 0 - 1 1 The suitability of sites for recharge has been 2. 1 – 2 2 found by performing the weighted overlay 3. 2 – 3 3 4. > 3 4 operation and the weightages given for
Table 7. Land use classification
Landuse Area in km2 % of total area highly % of area % of total area suitable for total suitable area recharge area for recharge Cultivated area 868.52 24.14 0.89 0.1 426.51 49.1 Residential area 1014.87 28.20 - - 67.79 6.67 Rock 125.61 3.491 - - - - Water bodies 31.16 0.866 - - - - Hilly area 71.23 1.979 - - 25.12 35.2 Barren land 1486.26 41.31 110.98 7.4 836.64 56.08 ECO-CHRONICLE 23
Fig.6. Land Use Map of the Basin LANDUSE
CULTIVATED AREA
RESIDENTIAL AREA
ROCKY AREA
WATER BODIES
HILLY AREA
BARREN LAND
Fig.7. Distance of the Recharge Sites from the River Distance from river in Km
0.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.8 0.8 - 1.0 1.0 - 2.0 2.0 - 3.0 > 3.0 Fig.8. Digital Elevation Model of the Basin elevation elevn_basin Value 130 - 288.8888889 288.888889 - 447.7777778 447.7777779 - 606.6666667 606.6666668 - 765.5555556 765.5555557 - 924.4444444 924.4444445 - 1,083.333333 1,083.333334 - 1,242.222222 1,242.222223 - 1,401.111111 1,401.111112 - 1,560
Fig.9. Difference in elevation between various points and the corresponding river
-10 - -1.0 -1.0- 0.0 0.0 - 1.0 1.0 - 1029.77
Fig.10 Suitability Map for artificial recharging
Highly Suitable Suitable Less Suitable Not Suitable 24 ECO-CHRONICLE landuse and the distance from the river were away from the water bodies, it will be difficult the highest. Even if a land is found suitable to transport water for a longer distance. for recharge based on the geology, soil, Hence this theme is also given a higher lineament, construction of recharge weightage. If a site suitable for recharge structures may not be economical if the site based on other conditions may not be is located in the residential or industrial suitable for the construction of recharge area. Hence a higher weightage is given for structures if the elevation is much higher land use. Barren land, forest etc. are given than the bed level of the drains. Hence the a higher rank. Similarly, if a site is located level difference theme is given the next
Table 8. Recharge area in various blocks
Name of the Block Block area Area Area suitable % of highly % of within the highly area for suitable to suitable basin suitable recharging block area to block (km2) for re- (km2) area charging (km2) Annur 172.9 - 89.71 - 51.88
Avinashi 271.04 - 170.132 - 62.77
Chennimalai 172.06 8.72 78.4 5.06 45.57
Kangeyam 313.46 5.92 113.56 1.88 36.23
Karur 168.67 0.89 68.8 0.52 40.79
Kodumudi 100.68 - 81.55 - 81.00
Modakurichi 43 - 16.97 - 39.47
Palladam 268.25 5.75 70.41 2.14 26.25
Paramathi 238.37 - 78.94 - 33.12
Pongalur 123.17 - 5.28 - 4.29
Sarkarsamakulam 197.23 - 24.79 - 12.56
Sulthanpet 64.79 - 7.63 - 11.77
Sulur 291.61 38.69 144.08 13.26 49.41
Thondamuthur 518.36 34.05 256.62 6.56 49.51
Tiruppur 256.52 13.337 115.9 5.19 45.18
Uthukuli 209 4.47 2.2 2.13 1.05
Vellakoil 175 - 28.315 - 16.18
Total 111.827 1353.287 ECO-CHRONICLE 25 highest weightage. The other weightages areas. It is also found that most of area given are shown in Table 6. The suitability suitable for recharging is located in the map for groundwater recharge is shown in barren land. 81% of Kodumudi area is Fig.10. The locations in black colour are found to be suitable for recharging. Hence highly suitable for recharging. The locations micro lovel studies can be conducted in this in dark blue colour are found to be suitable area to identify the suitable recharge for recharging. structure. From the study conducted, it is found that there is more potential for ANALYSIS AND RESULTS recharging the groundwater in the Kodumudi, Avinashi, Annur, Sulur and For further analysis the Suitability map was Thondamuthur blocks. overlayed on the basin map and the block map of the basin. The details of land use REFERENCES classification of the basin and the details of the area suitable for recharging are shown Obi Reddy, G.P., Chandra Mouli, K., Srivastav, in Table 7. The total basin area is 3646 Km2. S.K., Srinivas, S.K. and Maji, A.K., 2000. From the suitability map, the area suitable “Evaluation of Groundwater Potential Zones and highly suitable for recharging was found using Remote Sensing Data - A Case Study to be as 1353.06 Km 2 and 110.98 Km2 of Gaimukh Watershed in Bhandara District, respectively. This was found to be 37.11% Maharashtra,” Journal of the Indian Society and 3.04% of the basin area respectively of Remote Sensing, Vol. 28. No. 1, pp.19 - 32. for areas suitable and highly suitable for recharging. It was also observed that 7.46% Pankaj K. Srivastava, Amit K. Bhattacharya, and 56.08% of the barren land area are 2000. “Delineation of Ground Water found to be highly suitable and suitable for Potential Zones in a Hard Rock Terrain of recharging. Bargarh District, Orissa Using IRS Data,” Journal of the Indian Society of Remote The blockwise details of areas that are Sensing, Vol. 28. No. 2 & 3, pp.129-141. highly suitable and suitable for recharging are shown in Table 8. From Table.8, it can Pradeep K. Jain, 1998. “Remote Sensing be observed that highest percentage of Techniques to locate Groundwater Potential highly suitable area is found in Sulur block Zones in Upper Urmil River Basin, District and Thondamuthur block follows next with Chhatarpur – Central India ,” Journal of the a percentage of 65.6%. It is also found that Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Vol. 26. 81% of Kodumudi area, 62.77% of Avinashi No. 3, pp.135 - 146. area and 51.88% of Annur area are found to be suitable for recharging. Sarkar, B.C., Deota, B.S., Raju, P.L.N. and Jugran, D.K., 2001. “A Geographic CONCLUSIONS Information System Approach to Evaluation of Groundwater Potentiality of Shamri Micro- A GIS based model has been developed for watershed in the Shimla Taluk, Himachal the identification of suitable areas for Pradesh,” Journal of the Indian Society of recharging the groundwater. The themes Remote Sensing, Vol. 29. No. 3, pp.151 – 164. such as geology, soil, lineament, landuse, distance from the river and level difference Subba Rao, N., Chakradhar, G.K.J. and from the river bed are considered for the Srinivas, V., 2001. “Identification of identification of groundwater recharge Groundwater Potential Zones using 26 ECO-CHRONICLE Remote Sensing techniques in and around Guntur Town, Andhra Pradesh, India,” Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Vol. 29. No. 1 & 2, pp.69 – 78. ECO-CHRONICLE 27
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 27 - 32 ISSN: 0973-4155
AN APPROACH TO STUDY THE INFLUENCE OF FISH ABUNDANCE IN RELATION TO RAINFALL USING GIS – A CASE STUDY OF ALIYAR RESERVOIR, TAMILNADU.
Geetha, P., Sowmya, V. and Soman, K.P. Department of Remote Sensing and Wireless sensor Networks (CEN) Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
ABSTRACT
The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a rapidly growing technology that incorporates graphi- cal features with the tabular data in order to access real world problems. It has gained importance in the area of fisheries science and management. The foundation of GIS in mapping makes it an initiative tool for fishermen. For assessing fish abundance in Aliyar reservoir, GIS technique using ARCGIS 9.2 has been applied. A GIS data case comprising of fish abundance related to rainfall is thus created. The result of this study thus gives us adequate knowledge about the abundance of fish in relation to rainfall in Aliyar reservoir.
INTRODUCTION also in environmental impact assessment. Using remotely sensed data, hydrological The mapping of water bodies and a well models were classified that have been designed information system such as applied with GIS. Geographic Information System (GIS) may play an important role in building a The present study has been carried out with sustainable future for mankind. The the following objectives information system will immensely help the o fisheries sector for comprehensive To identify and map the favourable planning on regional basis. The resource rainfall for fish species richness. o availability status in an area with information To correlate the fish species richness and potentiality will definitely provide a with rainfall. o basis for development planning for the To prepare a thematic map for fisheries sector. The earliest version of GIS maximum fish catch. was known as computer cartography and involved simple line work to represent land METHODOLOGY features. The data used in a GIS environment may be remotely sensed data, GIS mapping analysis is a process looking digital model of the terrain or point or area at geographical patterns data and their data which is compiled in the form of maps, relationship between features. The table or reports. geographic features are either discrete, continuous phenomena or summarized by Geographical Information System has been an area. The discrete locations, lines and used to predict the pollutants in storm the actual locations can be pinpointed. The secure networks monitor non point source continuous data starts out as a series of of pollution from agricultural and urban sample points that are regularly spaced or environments assist contingency plans and irregularly spaced. 28 ECO-CHRONICLE Mapping Technique: There are two methods of digitization, the first method in which the features in the map The toposheet of the present study area, are traced using a digitized cursor. Here the Aliyar reservoir (scale 1:50,000) obtained system converts the cursor position into a from the survey of India were scanned using digital signal, which can be induced to show HP Scanner and edited using the MS-photo the actual co-ordinates of the points. This editor. The scanned image was stored as is very time consuming one. JPEG file and has been used for the study. In the second method, the scanned image The image was opened in ArcView 9.2a. can be changed into a vector format by Later, these images were projected using heads-up digitization, in which the operator projection of the world polyconic. The units uses a mouse to interactively edit and clean were taken as decimal degrees and the raster image, to remove stray marks or measuring units in km. The registration and line gaps picked up in the scanning transformation was done to convert the process. image to real world co-ordinates. The first method is called the off-screen In the transformation technique, the co- digitization, where a digitizer board is used. ordinates recorded were opened in the Arc The second method is on-screen digitization View. The option ‘Add Table’ present in Arc where the digitization process is carried out View, adds the co-ordinates to the map out directly on the computer. Further tools allow of which points were created. The created the user to select individual raster features points were coordinated to that of raster for the vector conversion, direct keying of layers. Similar features to that of points were attribute data and the other tools to speed identified in the raster layer and a source the process of vector conversion. point was selected in the raster map. The raster layer was assigned the real world The reservoir boundary was digitized as a coordinates of the study area. On completion separate layer using polylines. Polygon of the transformation, further digitized layers are automatically assigned the same co- Schematic illustration of the methodology ordinates.
Digitization Data Source
Digitization is a method of data capture that Convectional Data involves conversion of data in analog form such as maps into a digital form that is Toposheets on directly readable by a computer. Digitizing -Temperature data - rainfall data 1:50,000 scale is the method of converting raster layer to Fish species abundance vector layer. Most of the GIS technologies are vector format based. Therefore, the Location of Zones Preparation of boundary, raster format is converted into a vector streams, plantation and -Preparation of water level water holders format and the position of the line is Maps -Preparation of fish species determined by the co-ordinates, which are abundance map present at the starting and ending points of the line. Cumulative influence of Temperature on fish abundance ECO-CHRONICLE 29 modules were used to fill the reservoir. The The Influence of rainfall on Diversity of streams, contours, planatations and Species reserve forest were digitized from the toposheets. The thematic map for water level was created and is shown (Figs. 1and 2). The STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION water level of first day is 49.62 feet and 52.00 feet in the fifteenth day. Aliyar reservoir, situated between 10°15’ and 103°0 N and 76°50 and 77°10 E, covers The thematic map (Fig. 3) shows the 646.0 ha at the FRL of 320.04m above MSL. abundance of fish species C. catla. Here Current fish yield rate of Aliyar reservoir is the maximum number (4926) of fish one of the highest in the country (Selvaraj, species was observed in Zone IV, which C. and Murugesan, V.K., 1990). The reservoir comprises of a rainfall value of 222.70 mm also acted as a testing ground for the field and the minimum number of fish species trials of the scientific management package (1020) was observed in Zone I. developed by the CICFRI and the yield optimization achieved thereof is a standing The thematic map (Fig. 4) revealed the testimony to the validity of the package. abundance of fish species L. rohu. Here the maximum number of fish species (40500) RESULTS was observed in Zone II, which comprises of a rainfall value of 132.00 mm and the The basemap depicting the boundaries of minimum number (1200) was observed in Aliyar reservoir was prepared using survey Zone IV. of India toposheets. The total area of the Table 1. Rainfall values of different zones reservoir covers 646.0 ha at the FRL of 320.04m above MSL and the above data is Zones 2005-2006 (mm) collected from TamilNadu Fisheries Devel- opment Corporation ltd., Aliyar reservoir. I 149.50 Digital analysis was carried out using II 132.00 ArcView 9.2a GIS environment. III 219.80 IV 222.70 Fishing Zones Table 2. Fish species and total counts The state fisheries department identified four zones inside the reservoir for fishing, Fish Species Total Counts based on the depth of the water. These C. catla 11230 locations were identified by using the L. rohu 75300 latitude/longitude of each site. The locations C. mrigala 98200 were geocoded on the reservoir base map. Labio fimbriates 11250 Information records of each zone were created in the notepad. The database Table 3. Water level at first and contains mean water level at first day and fifteenth day fifteenth day of the month, rainfall and the First day water Fifteenth day water total number of fish species in the location level (in Feet) level (in feet) for each zone were represented in the following tables [1-3]. 49.62 52.00 30 ECO-CHRONICLE
Figure 1. Thematic map of water level for Figure 2. Thematic map of water level for the first day. the fifteenth day.
Figure 3. Thematic map of the abundance Figure 4. Thematic map of the abundance of fish species C. catla. of fish species L. rohu.
Figure 5. Thematic map of the abundance Figure 6. Thematic map of the abundance of fish species C. mirigalae. of fish species Labio Fimbriate. . ECO-CHRONICLE 31 The thematic map (Fig. 5) shows the The current methods of collecting fisheries abundance of fish species C. mirigala. Here related data in Aliyar reservoir stock the maximum number (43217) of fish assessment modeling and management species was observed in Zone III, which decisions rendered us adequate comprises of a rainfall value of 219.80mm information resources of the fishing and the minimum number (9730) was community. observed in Zone IV. CONCLUSION The thematic map (Fig. 6) revealed the abundance of fish species Labio fimbriate. In the area of fisheries management, the Here the maximum number of fish species GIS community has an opportunity to (6812) was observed in Zone II, which respond positively to immediate fisheries comprises of a rainfall value of 132.00 mm crisis around the world. At present, the and the minimum number was observed in methodology applied is flexible which Zone III. incorporates GIS technology as an aid for quantitatively sampling of large areas that DISCUSSION are logistically difficult to sample. The created and stored database in a GIS In present study, it was noticed that there is system can be updated whenever needed, a comparable difference in fish species in used for hydrological modeling. different zones of Aliyar. Fish species like Rohu and Catla were abundant in Zone II and IV. This may be due to changes in REFERENCES moisture content due to rainfall. Studies carried out by Humphries and Baldwin Humphries, P. and Baldwin, D.S., 2003. (2003) reported that water density also Drought and aquatic ecosystems - an changes with rainfall. introduction, Fresh water Biology, Black well Publishing, Vol.48, No.7, pp. 1141-1146. In addition to this, these species are surface feeders. Similar studies were also carried King, A. J., Humphries, P. and Lake, P.S., by Welcomme (2001) in his book of inland 2003. Fish requirement on floodplains: the and fisheries. Rohu and Catla was found to role of patterns of flooding and life history be more in Zone I and it was observed that characteristics. Canadian Journal of Mirigal was abundant in Zone III, since it is Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, pp 773- a bottom feeder. King et al (2003) has 786. revealed some similarities to the present work. Selvaraj, C. and Murugesan, V. K., 1990. Management techniques adopted for For creating fish abundance in Aliyar achieving a record fish yield from Aliyar reservoir GIS technique using ArcGis 9.2a Reservoir, TamilNadu, Reservoir Fisheries has been practiced. For this a GIS data case in India, Proceedings of the national comprising of fish abundance related to workshop on Reservoir fisheries, 3-4 rainfall were created. The result of present January Special Publication 3, Asian study gives us adequate knowledge Fisheries Society, Indian Branch, pertaining to the abundance of fish in relation Mangalore, India, pp 86-96. to rainfall in Aliyar reservoir. 32 ECO-CHRONICLE Tamlpal, 2000. GIS and Sensing technology, GIS at development, 4(1): pp 37-41.
Welcomme, R. L., 2001, Inland Fisheries, Ecology and Management, Oxford, UK, Fishing NewsBooks, Blackwell Science. ECO-CHRONICLE 33
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 33 - 38 ISSN: 0973-4155
STUDIES ON SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE POPULATION DENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF SOIL ISOPOD – PHYLOSCIA JAVANENSIS (RICH)
Sanal Kumar, M.G., Balamurali, R.S. and S. Nandakumar
Department of Zoology, N.S.S. College, Pandalam, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Population density and vertical distribution pattern of soil isopod Phyloscia javanensis in two ecosystems (agricultural land and grass land) in different seasons were studied, along with the analysis of soil properties. It was found that the density of isopod, both in grassland and agricultural land, was high during post monsoon season (36.5± 6.2 & 26.3± 4.5), moderate in monsoon season (36± 8.3 & 23.3± 5.1) and low during summer season (11± 2.6 & 12± 4.7). The population density of isopod was high in grass land in all the seasons when compared to agricultural field except in summer, during which the density was almost same in both ecosystems. The soil of both grass land and agriculture land was sandy loam and acidic in reaction. The grass land soil has high organic carbon (4.7 %) and calcium (1860 ppm) and magnesium content (290 ppm). The agriculture land soil has high amount of nitrogen (2860 ppm) and phosphorous (9.4 ppm) when compared to grass land. Phyloscia javanensis has very low power of vertical distribution in soil which goes to a maximum depth of 30 cm only from the surface. The density of this organism is very high in the top soil than the middle layer (10-20cm) even in summer. The distribution of isopod largely depends on the availability of high organic carbon content and low nitrogen and phosphorous content in the soil, which could substantiate their rich density in grass land than the agricultural land. Keywords: Isopod, Phyloscia javanensis, organic carbon content, ecosystem
INTRODUCTION relatively poor in tropics where decomposition rate is much faster. Soil is an unconsolidated mineral matter Phyloscia javanensis is a common soil on the surface of the earth that is influenced micro arthropod. This is an isopod which is by genetic and environmental factors of seen just beneath the soil surface ranging parent material, climate, micro and macro to a depth of 1-5cm. These micro arthropods organisms, topography and time. The prefer wet conditions (Yoshi.1966). The organic matter decomposition depends on distribution pattern of these isopods varies the integrated activity of the soil dwelling in number at different layers of soil. Many of microbes and small organisms. The litter them are seen on the surface soil. The feeding small organisms have specific number of population decreased in lower feeding sites; some feed only on levels. The vertical distribution of parenchymatous tissue, others on the veins Collembola is regulated due to fluctuation of the leaf tissues etc. In soils the mites in the temperature and moisture content of and collembola dominate and destroy the the soil causing downward migration. Gisin litter completely and promote the formation (1943), Nielsen (1949), Kuhnelt (1955) and of soil aggregates. The humus, that is the Delamare Deboutteville (1951) have shown organic fraction of the soil is a product of that the higher population densities occur activities of the soil organisms, and is in the upper layers of the soil. Exception 34 ECO-CHRONICLE occurs only in places where sufficient food The soil samples from different depth were is present at greater depths. The present sorted out and the number of Phyloscia was study was undertaken to study the counted and recorded. population density of Phylosia javanensis at different seasons and to study the vertical One way Anova was conducted to find the distribution pattern of this micro arthropod difference in the soil properties of grass land in the soil. and agriculture land. Mean and standard deviation of the samples were found out to MATERIALS AND METHODS determine population density. Two way Anova was conducted to find the difference Soil samples were collected from 8 different in the density of organisms in different sites, of which 4 were of grass land and 4 of seasons and between different depths agricultural land of Central Travancore – (vertical distribution). Kerala. Moist surface soil samples were collected from these areas (25 cm2 area) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION using a soil auger. Soil samples were taken from agricultural soil and grass land soil 1.SOIL PROPERTIES (area 25cm 2) during monsoon (July – August), Postmonsoon (September- pH : The pH of grass land varies between November) and summer (December- 5.4 to 5.8 in different sites. The pH of February). Soil samples at a depth of 0-10 agriculture soil ranges from 6.40 to 6.42 cm, 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm were collected (Table.1). One way Anova conducted showed from soil profile. The collected soil samples that there is great significant difference in were transferred to polythene cover and the pH of grass land and agriculture land brought to the soil laboratory of the college. (F=71.469 P<0.05). The soil samples were then taken to the Berlesse funnel apparatus and the Organic Carbon content: The organic organisms were extracted in beakers carbon content was very high in the grass containing picric acid. These organisms land when compared with agriculture land were separated and population density was soil. The value of OC% ranges from 4.3-4.7 estimated. Soil temperature, soil pH and in grass land and 2.3-2.8 in agricultural field organic carbon content of the soil from (Table.1) One way Anova showed a very high where these organisms were collected significant difference in the OC% of both were measured. Temperature was fields. (F=165.927 P<0.05) measured using a soil thermometer. pH of the soil was measured using soil pH meter Exchangeable acid and Exchangeable and organic carbon content was measured base: The EB% was very high in grass land using the standard procedures of Trivedy when compared to agricultural land while and Goel (1987). The NPK value of the soil EA% was high in the agricultural field soil was determined, of which Total Nitrogen EB ranges from 13-16% in grassland and content was analysed using kjeldahl 6-8% in agriculture land. The EA ranges from distillation method and phosphate content 64-70% in grassland and 81-83% in by molybdate stanous chloride method agriculture land (Table 1). The one way (Jackson, 1958). Potassium content was anova conducted here with the values of analysed by Flame photometry method of grass land and agriculture land of EA% and ASA (ASA,1965). Exchangable acid, EB% showed a high significant difference Exchangable base, Calcium and in both properties in two fields. (EA% Magnesium content were found out F=125.58 P<0.05 and EB% F=78.4 P<0.05) according to procedures of Jackson (1958). Sand, Silt and Clay (%): The sand content The method of Sankar and Thomas (1993) was almost same in both grass land and was followed to study species distribution. agriculture land silt content was low in ECO-CHRONICLE 35 agriculture land when compared to grass ecosystem.( N-F= 196.828, P<0.05; P- land. The clay content was also high in F=758.21, P<0.05 and K-F=6.55, P<0.05). grass land. The sand content varies from 6-8% in grass land and 5-6% in agriculture Calcium and Magnesium content: The land. Silt percent ranges from 0.14-0.18 in amount of calcium and magnesium was agriculture land and 0.81-0.88 in grass land. very high in grass land when compared to Clay content ranges from 23-26% in grass agriculture land. The Calcium content varies land and 17-20% in agriculture land (Table from 1420-1860 ppm in grass land and 110- 1). One way anova showed no significant 134 ppm in agriculture land. The difference in the sand content of grass land magnesium content varies from 232-290 and agriculture land (F=5 P>0.05). One way ppm in grass land and 112-136 ppm in anova of silt and clay % showed a very agriculture land (Table-1). One way anova positive significant difference in the grass showed a significant positive difference in land and agriculture land soil. (Silt% F=1224 the Ca and Mg content of both soil. (Ca- P<0.05) (Clay % F= 37.565 P<0.05). F=82.29, P<0.05 and Mg-F= 97.75, P<0.05)
Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium 2.POPULATION DENSITY content: The nitrogen and phosphorous content was high in agriculture land where Monsoon season: Population density of as potassium was high in grass land. There Phyloscia javanensis is high in grass land was a two fold increase in the amount of when compared to agricultural land during nitrogen and phosphorous in agriculture soil monsoon. The density was high in the when compared to grass land and viceversa month of August (36 ± 8.286) and low in in the amount of potassium (Table-1). The July (33.5 ± 2.645) per m2 in the grass land. one way anova conducted to find any The population density was high in the significant difference in the NPK content of month of August (23.25 ± 5.123) and low in grass land and agriculture land showed a the month of June (19 ± 3.366) in agriculture very high positive significant difference in land. (Table.2). The one way anova the these three properties of both conducted to see any significant difference
Table 1. soil properties of grass land and agriculture land at different collection sites
Sample pH OC EA EB Sand Silt Clay N P K Ca Mg (%) (%) (%) ( % ) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
I Grass 5.88 4.3 70 16 7 0.81 26 1020 4.8 120 1520 285 land II Grass 5.44 4.7 68 13 6 0.84 24 1020 4.1 231 1860 288 land III Grass 5.60 4.6 67 14 6 0.88 23 1031 4.1 340 1420 232 land IV Grass 5.63 4.3 64 14 8 0.81 24 1021 4.4 320 1480 290 land I Agriculture 6.40 2.8 82 6 6 0.14 17 2360 9.4 110 620 116 land II Agriculture 6.42 2.6 81 7 6 0.18 17 2860 9.3 130 680 112 land III Agriculture 6.41 2.4 83 8 5 0.16 19 2832 9.2 120 670 136 land IV Agriculture 6.40 2.3 83 8 5 0.18 20 2840 9.1 134 684 132 land 36 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2. Population density of Phyloscia javanensis in agriculture land and grass land during three seasons
Season Month Agriculture land 2 Grass land 2 (mean ± SD per m ) (mean ± SD per m )
June 19± 3.366 35.25± 5.251 Monsoon July 21.5± 4.795 33.5± 2.645
August 23.25± 5.123 36± 8.286
September 26.25± 4.5 36.5± 6.244
Post monsoon October 22.5± 5.972 33.5± 2.380
November 19± 3.366 33± 3.915
December 12± 4.690 11± 2.581
Summer January 11.5± 2.886 9.75± 2.5
February 11.25± 2.986 10.5± 2.645 Table 3. vertical distribution in the density of Phyloscia javanensis (mean per m2) in different seasons at grass land Depth Monsoon Post monsoon Summer
June September December 0-10cm 18 12 8 10-20cm 9 5 4 20-30cm 7 2 3 July October January 0-10cm 20 10 7 10-20cm 15 7 5 20-30cm 10 4 3 August November February 0-10cm 19 10 6 10-20cm 12 4 3 20-30cm 10 2 1 Table 4. Vertical distribution in the density of Phyloscia javanensis (mean per m2) in different seasons at agricultural land Depth Monsoon Post monsoon Summer June September December 0-10cm 13 12 10 10-20cm 10 8 9 20-30cm 8 7 4 July October January 0-10cm 11 10 8 10-20cm 8 7 4 20-30cm 5 5 3 August November February 0-10cm 10 16 7 10-20cm 8 6 5 20-30cm 6 5 4 ECO-CHRONICLE 37 in the density of Phyloscia between Agriculture land: In the agriculture land also agricultural land and grass land showed a a clear pattern of vertical distribution in the very significant positive difference population density of Phyloscia was seen. (F=34.809 P<0.05). The density is high in the top layer (0-10cm depth ) its decreases with other two depths. Post monsoon season: In the post The density difference is clear in different monsoon season also population density seasons also. (Table. 4). A two way anova of Phyloscia was high in the grass land conducted showed a drastic difference in compared to agriculture land. The density the density of Phyloscia at different layers of ranges from 33-36.5 per m2 while in grass soil (F= 26.909 P<0.05) and also between land it was only 19-26.25 per m2. The one different seasons. (F= 7.8181 P<0.05) in the way anova result showed a significant agriculture land. difference in the density of both ecosystems (F=67.545 P<0.05). The soil of grass land is strongly acidic in reaction and strong in organic carbon Summer season: In summer season, the content. The soil is sandy loam in texture. population density of Phyloscia was almost The Exchangable acidity is very low while same in both the ecosystems. It ranged exchangable base is in the moderate level. from 10-12 per m2 . More density was found This soil is rich in nitrogen and in the month of December when compared phosphorous content and has very high to January and February. The one way anova level of potassium, calcium and conducted with the above data showed no magnesium content. The high availability significant difference in the density of both of magnesium and calcium contributes the agriculture land and grass land during low survival of higher plants in grass land summer. (F=0.675 P>0.05). (Sankar,1996). The soil of agriculture land is moderately acidic in reaction and with 3. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERN low organic carbon content. It is sandy loam in texture. The soil has very high Nitrogen, Grass land: During monsoon season more and phosphorous content and low number of Phyloscia was found in the top potassium, calcium and magnesium layer soil (0-10cm depth) 18/m2 in June 20/ content. The very high level of nitrogen and m2 in July and 19/m2 in August. The density phosphorous content in the agriculture land was less in the middle layer (10-20cm is due to the application of chemical depth). It was only 9/m2 in June 15/m2 in July fertilizers during agricultural activity and 12/m2 in August. The density was least (Thomas, 1994). The even values of soil in the bottom layer (20-30cm depth). It was properties showed less leaching of 7/m2 in June, 10/m2 each in July and August. minerals from this ecosystem In the post monsoon season and summer (Balagopal,1980). season also more density was seen in the top layer (0-10cm) followed by middle layer The population density of Isopod is always (10-20cm) and least in the bottom layer (20- high in monsoon season. This is followed 30cm). This indicates that there is vertical by postmonsoon and summer. The high distribution of population density of density of Phyloscia in the grass land in the Phyloscia in different soil layers and the monsoon and post monsoon showed that distribution pattern is pointing towards they prefer slightly acidic soil with high bottom (Table 3). A two way anova conducted organic carbon content. More over the high to find any significant difference in the amount of nitrogen and phosphorous density of Phyloscia at different depths content in the agriculture field also lowers showed a positive result (F=22.716 P<0.05) the population density of this species as it and also there is significant difference in is highly sensitive to soil nitrogen and the density of different soil layers at different phosphorous content (Sanal Kumar and seasons. (F=33.811 P<0.05). Sujatha, 1996). 38 ECO-CHRONICLE The vertical distribution pattern of this even in summer where as the density of species showed a preference of top soil most of the other soil animal groups is more dwelling during monsoon, postmonsoon in the second layer during summer. The and summer. The low density of Phyloscia distribution of isopod largely depends in the in the bottom layer (20-30cm depth) showed more availability of organic carbon content that this species is relecuent to go deep and less availability of nitrogen and soil layers and prefer aestivation in the phosphorous content in the soil. This is the cervices of soil rocks and barks. Isopods reason why isopods are more in grass land have less vertical migration power than soil than the agricultural land soil. Collembolans (Yoshi, 1966). From this study it is clear that Isopods like Phyloscia REFERENCES prefers a soil profile which is rich in organic ASA.,1965. Methods of soil analysis part I& carbon and with low nitrogen and II Black CA et al (eds) Amer. soc. agro. phosphorous content. The vertical Madison, pp:1572. distribution power of this organism is low Balagopal, M., 1980. Soil mineral leaching, and it goes to a maximum depth of 30cm KFRI research report No.102, Peechi. from the surface during any seasons of the Delamare Deboutteville, C.,1951. year. The population density of this species Microfauna du soldes pays tempers is very high in monsoon season followed ettropicaur. Vieet Milieu,Suppl.1, pp:360 by post monsoon and summer. (Quoted from Bullock,J.A. 1967. Trop.Ecol, 8:74-87). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Gisin,H.,1943. Rev.Suiss.Zool. 50, pp: 131-224.
The soil isopod Phyloscia javanensis was Jackson, M.I.,1958. Soil chemical analysis. selected for this study. The isopod density Prentice hall Engle wood cliffs, pp:498. in two ecosystems (agricultural land and Kuhnelt,W.,1955. In:Soil Zoology, kevan, D. grass land) in different seasons were keith McE.Ed., London,pp:29-43. estimated. The soil properties of agricultural Nielsen,C.O.,1949. Nat.Jutland.2,1-131. and grass land were analysed. The vertical In:Soil Biology. A.Burges and F.Raw,(eds.), distribution pattern of isopod was studied Academic Press,London,pp:397-411. in both the ecosystems in different seasons. It was found that isopod density was high Sanal Kumar, M.G. and Sujatha M.P., 1996. Population density of diversity of micro- during post monsoon season (June- arthropods in the rheed growing forest soil August), moderate in monsoon season of Vazhachal reserve forest-south India. (September-November) and low during J.Tro.Forestry, 3, pp:11-19. summer season (December-February). Sankar,S.,1996. Soil nutrient analysis KFRI The population density of isopod was high Research report No.81 Peechi. in grass land in all the seasons when compared to agricultural field. In summer Sankar, S. and Thomas, P. Thomas, 1993. Soil Profile studies KFRI Research report the population density of isopod was No.91 peechi. almost same in both ecosystems. The soil of both grass land and agriculture land has Thomas, P. Thomas, 1994. Chemical sand loam and acidic in reaction. The grass fertilizers and soil. Academic Press New Delhi, pp: 88. land soil has high OC% and calcium and magnesium content. The agriculture land Trivedy, R.K. and Goel, P.K., 1987. Practical soil has high amount of nitrogen, and methods In Ecology and Environmental phosphorous when compared to grass Science. Envtal publications Karad, pp:340. land. This isopod has very low power of Yoshi,R.,1966.On some collembolan of vertical distribution in soil. It goes to a Afganistan, India and Ceylon, Collected by maximum depth of 30cm from the surface. the kuphe expedition,1960.Reprinted from The density of this organism is very high in the results of Kyoto University Scientific expedition to the Karakoram and the top soil than the middle layer (10-20cm) Hindukush,1955,Vol.VIII. ECO-CHRONICLE 39
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 39 - 46 ISSN: 0973-4155
SYSTEMATICS AND FISHERY OF VILLORITA SP. IN COCHIN ESTUARY: AN IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THANNERMUKKOM BUND.
Arun, A.U. *
Department of Marine Biology, Microbiology and Biochemistry, School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala.
* Present Address: Department of Zoology, St.Peter’s College, Kolenclhery, Kerala. Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Of the variety forms of Clam, Villorita cyprinoides and Villorita cyprinoides - variety cochinesis - are distributed in Cochin estuary, the former contributing to more than 99% of the total landings. Villorita cyprinoides var.cochinesis is generally distributed in areas where the freshwater discharge is high or where the river meets the estuary. Villorita cyprinoides is present in areas where the salinity normally does not exceed 25 ppt. From morphological features itself both forms of Villorita sp. can be identified. Total income from clam fishing varied from Rs. 82 to Rs. 290/day. In case of meat, it varied between Rs. 30 to Rs. 120/day, whereas from clamshell, it was between Rs. 40 and Rs.168/day. Significant variation between Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) was observed, the minimum being 15.6 Kg/hour and the maximum 120 Kg/hour. Nearly 4000 fishermen are directly and daily engaged in clam fishing with more than this assumed to be engaged in clam fishing occasionally. Among the fishermen community, nearly 5% of the total fishermen have been resorting to the traditional method of clam fishing i.e., handpicking by diving; rest of the community use small boats and ‘Kolli’ for clam fishing. According to the opinion disclosed by 16.67% fishermen community, clam fishing alone is not sufficient for their survival; whereas 44.44 % revealed that ‘they can just survive’. Average catch/unit effort of Cochin estuary in clam fishery is 36.73 kg/hr and income is Rs.156.5/day and the average standing stock is 3328/m3. It was estimated that the total annual clam landings from Cochin estuary is nearly 1300 tonnes. Salinity and sediment texture is found to influence the fishery potential of Cochin estuary. Periodical opening and closing of bund drastically affects the distribution and fishery of Villorita cyprinoides. Key words: Villorita cyrpinoides, Clam fishery, Catch per unit effort, income.
INTRODUCTION free-living flatworms and new nemerteans (Stasek, 1972; Trueman, 1975; Salvani– Villorita cyprinoides (Gray) belongs to paiven, 1981). Due to extreme diversity of Phylum Mollusca, with over 100,000 living the molluscan body forms, the concept of species (Abbot, 1954), is one of the largest the “ archetypic mollusc” (the theoretical phyla in the Animal Kingdom. The class ancestor exhibiting those features generally Bivalvia, which includes the species, form considered to be the primitive basis of the second class of Mollusca with several molluscan traits) is used as a approximately 31,000 living species. convenient framework for the description of (Russel - Hunter, 1979). There is now a some basic characteristics of the phylum. general consensus that the seven recognized existing classes of the Mollusca A thorough knowledge of the systematics are derived from a Pre–Cambrian ancestor is important in the assessment of bio– having the grade of organization found in diversity. Systematics has been used as a 40 ECO-CHRONICLE synonym for taxonomy by many, but it is gaining popularity as supplementary feed probably best used in a more respective in semi – intensive prawn farming. Villorita sense as the scientific study of this kind cyprinoides forms the predominant clam and includes diversity of organisms and all resource contributing to more than 80% of relationships among them (Simpson, the clam landings in Kerala and more than 1961). It is now obvious that in any widely 95 % of the clam landings from Cochin distributed species, there is a tendency for estuary (Kurup et al., 1989). Being a divergences to become established in parts sedentary organism, the molluscan with different environmental conditions. resource turnover in terms of caloric value Even if a species is continuously distributed, clubbed with the human requirements or the discontinuities in distribution are poses a threat to Villorita sp., beds being small, it is possible for the difference to overexploited in a short time. A proper become established in some parts and management approach for judicious range of the species. These may be of such exploitation and conservation of these magnitude that would bring forth sub- natural resources is necessary. For the species, varieties or even species. The fulfilment of this, a detailed investigation on categorization of Phylum Mollusca as the distribution and fishery of the species suggested by Burch (1956) seems (V.cyprinoides) is essential. adequate on the basis of the statement that “sub–species or variety” should be based Cochin estuary extends from 9 0 30 ‘ to 10 0 on characters resulting from the 20’ Lat N and 76 0 13’ to 76 0 5’ Long E. This environment. This implies that variations estuary is about 100 km long and 3 – 4 km resulted by expression of the gene complex wide and is a part of Vembanadu lake, the in different ways are in different largest estuary along the west coast of India. environments. This appears to be more Thanneermukkom (Plate 1) bund was frequent due to the fact that it leads to “ constructed during 1974 to prevent salt- ecotypes” and “ ecophenotypes” in water incursion and to promote paddy molluscs. cultivation in the low-lying fields. The bund was commissioned in 1976. It remains According to Narasimham (1991) among closed from January to May every year. the exploited bivalve resources of India, Drastic ecological changes had been clams are by far, the widely distributed and reported in the region, particularly south of abundant species. But bivalve fishery has bund, thereby affecting the ecology, not been properly managed or exploited. In distribution and survival of the living order to meet the required level of demand resources in the estuary. This study of fishery products, it is necessary to find attempts to disclose the impact of unconventional sources apart form the Thennermukkom bund on the Villorita sp., conventional ones. In this regard molluscs, fishery in Cochin Estuary. especially bivalves have great prospects to contribute to the unconventional resources. MATERIALS AND METHODS Villorita sp. forms an edible fishery along Hydrographic parameters the west coast in Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major areas of production in Kerala Among 18 stations selected for fishery are the Vembanad Lake and Ashtamudi survey, measurement of hydrographic Lake. The shells of this clam dominate the parameters were done only in two stations; sub-soil deposits of the Vembanad Lake ie., station VII (Zone B-south of yielding approximately 41,000 – 70,000 t/ Thannermukkom bund) and station VIII year (Achari, 1988). Even though clam meat (Zone A - north of Thanneermukkom bund) is rich in protein, it is relished by only a small (Plate 1). Fortnight sampling was carried section of the society. It is also used in out from estuarine bottom for a period of prawn hatcheries as feed for brood stocks two and half years. All the analyses were and as poultry feed. Recently, clam meat is carried out using standard procedure; ECO-CHRONICLE 41 salinity by Strickland and Parsons (1968) brownish periostracum. Their umbones and sediment composition by Carver undergo gradual erosion. The family (1971). includes the freshwater clams, found commonly in lakes, ponds and estuaries. Fishery survey Genus : Villorita ( Griffith and Pidgeon, Questionnaire was prepared to conduct 1833) fishery survey. At least 20 to 40 fishermen of each site were asked to fill up the The shell is solid, moderately large, thick, questionnaire. Peterson’s grab and ‘Kolli’ triangular and somewhat obliquely ovate, were used for the sampling to assess clam being rather inequilateral, with the hind stock. margin being flattened and angular below. The umbones are prominent and well RESULTS elevated. The anterior right lateral tooth is very short and situated close to the hinge Temperature varied from 27.1 to 33.8 0C at margin. The pallial sinus is very small. station VIII (zone A) and 26.1 – 33.4 0C at station VII (zone B) (Fig.1). At zone A salinity Species: Villorita cyprinoides (Gray) varied from 0 to 8.54 ppt and at zone B it was between 0 to 10.18 ppt (Fig.2). At zone The shell is strongly oblique and inflated A, from January to April there was an increase over the umbonal and central portion of the in the percentage of silt and clay and valves. The umbones are situated near the corresponding decrease in sand (Fig. 3,Fig. anterior margin and are strongly recurved 4 & Fig. 5) (Plate 3). At zone B the sediment anteriorly and somewhat inwards, being was mainly sandy. closely approximated towards each other. The anterior margin is short, evenly curved Systematics of the Villorita sp. above, almost straight in the middle and rapidly curving backwards below. The Phylum : Mollusca posterior margin is nearly straight and Class : Pelecypoda (Bivalvia) obliquely sloping much longer than the Order : Eulamellibranchia anterior border (Plate 2). The surface is Sub – Order : Heterodonta traversed throughout by strong concentric Series : Sphaeriacea ridges, which are more strongly developed Family : Corbiculidae in the anterior half of the shell than towards Sub – Family : Corbiculinae the posterior border. The periostracum is Genus : Villorita (Griffith and dark olive-brown or blackish brown, Pidgeon, 1833) somewhat entirely blackish, while the Species : cyprinoides nacreous layer on the inside is whitish, light Variety : cochinensis yellow near the margin with a violet tinge at the border. The class Pelecypoda, Lamellibranchia or Bivalvia includes shelled animals popularly The animal is somewhat trigonal, but the known as bivalves and is most abundantly greater part of the umbonal regions is represented in the seas or on the seashore. occupied by a triangular structure formed But a small portion of the animals inhabit by the union of the mantle flaps of the two freshwater and estuaries.The members of sides. The mantle is very thin and translucent the family Corbiculidae are found both in up to the pallial junction, below which, owing freshwater and brackish water. They have to the large numbers of radiating muscle shells which are not pearly within, trigonal fibers, becomes much thicker in the region or ovately rounded, or more or less of the papillae and opaque. The two mantle triangularly ovate and equivalved with the flaps are united with each other anteriorly to outer surface concentrically striated with a little above the anterior adductor muscle. 42 ECO-CHRONICLE Of the two siphons, the upper or the anal cyprinoides variety cochinesis were widely siphon is about two third the size of the lower distributed in Cochin estuary, the former or the brachial siphon. The anal siphon has contributing to more than 99% of the total a single circle of much larger papillae landings of Villorita sp. Villorita cyprinoides situated inside the smaller papillae. Both var.cochinesis is distributed in areas where the siphons are of a dark brown colour. The the freshwater discharge is high. Major two adductor muscles are of about the same centers where the variety form is identified size, but the posterior is more internally are Poochackal and Murinjapuzha. It is to situated. be noted that an isolated patch of Villorita cyprinoides var.cochinensis is non-existent Species: Villorita cyprinoides variety in the estuary. Villorita cyprinoides are cochinensis (Hanley) present in areas where the salinity normally does not exceed 25 ppt. and are established The shell is thick, solid, corrugate, almost in to new areas as it is eliminated from as high as broad and rather equilateral and natural beds in the estuary. oblique, but the umbo is more centrally situated and less oblique, inclined than in Fishery the typical form. The valves are more or less inflated and the surface, which is covered The field survey conducted along Cochin by a blackish brown periostracum, is estuary revealed that there were 18 major regularly and concentrically striated. The clam-landing centers in this estuary (Table anterior margin is regularly curved but is .1). Total income from clam fishing varied much shorter than in the typical form. The from Rs. 82 to Rs. 290/day,in the case of lunules are greatly reduced. The posterior meat it varied between Rs. 30/day and Rs. margin is rather straight, obliquely sloping 120/day, whereas from clamshell it was and more or less narrowly and angularly between Rs. 40/day and Rs.168/day . Price rounded below. The surface layer below the of clam meat varied from one place to periostracum is reddish purple. The another, usually in the range of Rs. 4 - 10/ cardinal teeth tend to shelve outwards. Kg, but in the case of shell the variation was minimum (Rs. 12/20 Kg to Rs14/20 Kg). The Distribution of species price of shell increases with its size and reaches up to Rs. 25/20 Kg. Total fishing Villorita cyprinoides and Villorita days/week varied from 4-6 and fishing hours in a day were 4 – 7. Significant Plate 1. variation between catch/unit effort (CPUE) was observed, the minimum being 15.6 Kg/ hour and the maximum 120 Kg/hour. Nearly 4000 fishermen were directly and daily engaged in clam fishing, with even more assumed to be engaged in clam fishing occasionally. Among the fishermen community, nearly 5% of the total fishermen have been following the traditional method of clam fishing i.e., handpicking by diving; rest of the community use small boats and ‘Kolli’ for clam fishing.
‘Kolli’ size varied from 252 cm2 to 800 cm2, whereas in the case of stock it ranged from 50 nos./m 3 to 11900 nos./m 3. 16.67% fishermen community expressed that this job alone is not sufficient for their survival; ECO-CHRONICLE 43 Plate 1. Plate 2.
Table 1. showing the fishery statistics of Cochin estuary
St. Stations Fishery statistics No. TI IFM IFS MP SP FD FH CPUE NFM SK SD I Vaduthalla Jetty 290 120 168 6 16 6 5 30 30 1800 695 II Perumbalam 195 75 120 5 12 6 3 72 500 798 8020 III Panavally 138 90 48 6 12 6 3 70 150 1239 6457 IV Poochackal 130 70 60 4.5 12 6 5 43 200 936 5020 V Pallipuram 82 32 50 4 12 6 6 16 200 1512 357 Vadakkumkara VI 255 175 80 7 6 6 4 14 200 1365 1370 Pradesam Thannerkukham VII 176 96 80 8 16 6 4 20 125 1863 600 ( North) Thannerkukham VIII 130 70 60 10 16 6 6 5 50 1065 230 (South) IX Vechoor 120 60 60 6 16 5 6 12 40 1065 420 X T.V.Puram 119 44 75 5.5 16 6 7 16 500 2052 81 XI Vaikom 92 42 50 6 16 6 5 15.6 500 1958 116 XII Nerekadavu 135 50 85 5 16 6 6 45.6 40 1204 1073 XIII Chemmanagari 90 30 60 5 16 6 5 36 50 1054 5693 XIV Chembu 165 100 65 5 16 5 6 20 200 1180 1836 XV Murinjapuzha 190 120 70 6 16 6 6 120 200 1260 11900 XVI Poothotta 305 175 130 7 16 6 5 63 500 1620 11660 XVII South Paroor 100 60 40 6 16 4 6 60 60 1080 4340 XVIII Udayamperoor 105 35 70 7 16 3 6 3 200 1140 50
TI - Total income (Rs/day) IFM - Income from meat (Rs/day) IFS - Income from shell (Rs/day)
MP - Meat price (Rs)/kg SP - Shell price (Rs/20 Kg) FD - Fishing day / week FH - Fishing hours / day CPUE - Catch /unit effort NFM - Number of fishermen SK - Size of kolli ( in cm2) SD - Stock density(No./M3) 44 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig.1. Monthly variation in temperature at whereas 44.44 % revealed that Zone A and B ‘they can just survive’. Live clams Zone A are collected in large quantities Zone B 34 for shell-based industry. Average C o 32 catch/unit effort of clams in Cochin
30 estuary is 36.73 kg/hr, income is
28 Rs.156.5/day and the average 3 Temperature 26 standing stock is 3328/m . It was Nov'98 Feb May Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb found that average CPUE was Months high at station VII (North of bund) (Zone B) to that of VIII (South of Fig.2. Monthly variation in Salinity at Zone bund) (Zone A) and the values A and B Zone A were 20kg/hr and 5kg/hr 12 Zone B respectively, where as in the case 10 of stock it was 600 nos/m 3 in 8 3 6 station VII and 23 nos/m in station 4
Salinity %0 Salinity VIII. Nearly 125 fishermen were 2 engaged in station VII and 50 in 0 station VIII for clam fishery. Jul Jul Mar May Sep Nov Mar May Sep Nov Mar Nov'98 Jan'99 Jan'00 Jan'01 Estimated total clam landings Months from Cochin estuary is nearly 1300 tonnes. Bottom culture of Fig.3.Monthly variation in % of Sand at Villorita cyprinoides are practiced Zone A and B in many places in the estuary, the 120 main centers being Murinjapuzha 100 and Cham-pakulam. 80 60 Zone A 40 Zone B DISCUSSION 20 0 The major clam species present
Jul Jul Mar May Sep Nov Mar May Sep Nov Mar in Cochin estuary is Villorita Jan'99 Jan'00 Jan'01 Nov'98 cyprinoides. The result coincides Fig.4.Monthly variation in % of Silt at Zone A and B with the observation of Rasalam and Sebastian (1976). According 70 to them the most important clam 60 Zone A 50 Zone B species in Cochin estuary is 40 Villorita sp, which contribute more 30 20 than 90% of the clam landings 10 from Cochin estuary. 0 Narasimham (1991) revealed that, Jul Jul Mar May Sep Nov Mar May Sep Nov Mar Nov'98 Jan'99 Jan'00 Jan'01 of the estimated annual production of clam in Vembanad Fig.5.Monthly variation in % of Clay at lake Villorita contribute to the lion Zone A and B share. Price of meat showed 25 much high variation than shell due Zone A 20 Zone B to the fact that meat is collected 15 by private parties for various uses, 10 whereas the shells are collected 5 by major co-operative societies. 0 Fishing clams, irrespective of size
Jul Jul Mar May Sep Nov Mar May Sep Nov Mar for shell industry has been Nov'98 Jan'99 Jan'00 Jan'01 prevalent in the estuary; this is ECO-CHRONICLE 45 because of the absence of steady market (Fig.3,4 and 5) over Zone A (station VIII) and for clam meat and regular market for destruction of Villorita sp at that location. clamshell for cement industry. Nearly 16.67 Swan (1953) and Pratt (1953) reported that percentages of the fishermen community growth and standing stocks of clams Mya revealed that they are not able to live with arenaria and Mercenaria mercenaria was the help of clam fishery alone and they need higher in sediment with sandy texture than some other job for their livelihood, where muddy one. The result became more as 44.44% revealed that they can ‘just relevant when it was proved that only 50 survive’ with the calm fishery. The clam fishermen were employed in zone A (Station fishery in this estuary is not alone sufficient VIII) for fishing compared with Zone B for the better livelihood of the fishermen (station VII), where 125 fishermen were community. The reason may be lower profit, employed. Another reason for low catch per low catch/unit effort, high living expense and unit effort (CPUE) at zone A may be the decrease in fishery stock. Comparatively regular use of small size ‘Kolli’ for fishing. high stock density of 11900/m3 is reported According to Kripa and Joseph (1993) in during this study, the period (September) northern part of Vembanad lake, CPUE was coincides with the early settling of young ones, and a lowest of 50/m3 may be due to 40 – 60 Kg and daily fishing hours were 3- over fishing in that area. The average 4, but in Cochin estuary (southern part of standing stock of the estuary is nearly 3329/ Vembanad Lake) the average CPUE is m3, whereas the average catch per unit 36.73 Kg/hr and daily fishing hours were effort (CPUE) is 36.73 kg/hr. This with the 5.22 hours. This is a direct proof that stock average income Rs. of 156.50/day, force us in that area (Southern part of Vembanad to agree with the fishermen’s opinion that it Lake (Cochin Estuary)) is less when is difficult to survive with this fishery alone. compared with the northern part of the According to present observation, bottom Vembanad lake. A slight decrease in clam culture is a good practice in the aquaculture landings were observed during monsoon of clams because it does not need any season in all the stations in Cochin estuary, attention and human effort. Besides, it the South West monsoon hinders clam- provides high profit compared with normal fishing activities (Kripa and Joseph, 1993). fishing, both in terms of meat as well as Achari (1988) has described the shell. characteristics of clam resources of Comparatively low stock of clam and low Vembanad Lake and stated that there is a catch/unit effort (CPUE) in station VIII (Zone total production of 2,500 tonnes of clams, A) to that of station VII (Zone B) is due to the mainly Villorita sp, but in the present study presence of Thanneermukkom bund and it has been observed that the total landings allied reasons related to its periodical of Villorita from Cochin estuary is nearly closure. Zone B showed high salinity 1,300 tonnes. So this can be concluded that, fluctuation when compared to zone A clam fishery in Cochin Estuary is in a (P>0.001). Abraham (1953) compared two negative trend and it may affect thousands clam beds at Adyar and concluded that of people. growth of clams is much more rapid in the backwater than in the river. According to ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Talikhedkar et al. (1976), in tropical waters, The author thanks the Head, Dept of Marine changes in temperature are negligible and Biology, Microbiology and Biochemistry, therefore, salinity has been found to School of Marine Sciences, Cochin influence the survival of bivalves. At zone B University of Science and Technology for the predominant sediment texture was permission rendered by him to carryout this sand where as at zone A the nature was work in the institute. We also thank those sandy silt. Periodical opening and closing persons who helped us in taking bottom of bund leads to a deposition of silt and clay samples from the sea. 46 ECO-CHRONICLE REFERENCES Pratt, D.M., 1953. Abundance and growth of Venus mercenaria and Callocardia Abbot, R.T., 1954. The marine molluscs of morrhuana in relation to the character of Grand Cayman Island. Monogr. Acd. Natur. bottom sediments. J. Mar. Res., 2:60 - 74. Asc. Philadelphia, No.11. Rasalam, E.J and Sebastian., 1976. The Abraham, K.C., 1953. Observations on the lime shell fisheries of the Vembanad biology of Meretrix casta (Chemnitz). J. Zool. Lake,Kerala State. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, Soc. India, 5:163-190. 18(2): 323-355.
Achari, G.P.K., 1988. Characteristics of clam Russel-Hunter, W.D., 1979. “A Life of resources of Vembanad Lake - A case study. Invertebrates”. Mac Millan, New York. 650. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Salvani-Plaiven, L.V., 1981. On the origin Shellfish Resources and Farming, and evolution of the Mollusca Atti. Conv. Tuticorin, India. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish. Res. Lincei. 49, 17:99-109. Inst., 42: 10-18. Simpson, G.C., 1961. Principles of Animal Burch, J.Q., 1956. Taxonomic characters in Taxonomy. N.C Dunn( Ed.),Columbia Mollusca. Syst. Zool., 5: 144. Uty.,Press,Columbia,247.
Griffith and Pidgeon., 1833. Animal Stasek, C. R., 1972. The Molluscan Kingdom, XII Pl.31.fig.5. Quoted from” Notes framework in “ chemical zoology”. M. Florkin on lamellibranches in the Indian museum and Scheer, (eds.)., Vol.3,1-44. (Prashad,B.1921), Rec.Ind.Mus.,XXII : 111 – 119, PI. XV. Swan, E.F., 1953. The effect of substratum on the growth rate, shell-weight and shape Kripa, V and Mathew Joseph., 1993. Clam of May arenaria. Fourth annual conference Fishery of North Vembanad Lake. M.F.I.S. on clam research, U. S. Fish and Wildlife No.119:12-16. Serv. Boothbay Harbour. Marine: 43-46.
Kurup, Madhusoodhana, B., Sebastian M.J, Thalikedkar, P.M., Mane, U.H and Sankaran T.M and Rabindranath, P., 1989. Nagabhushanam, R., 1976. Growth rate of Exploited Fishery Resources of the the wedge clam, Donax cuneatus, at Vembanad Lake. Final Report. Mirgabay, Ratnagiri. India J. Fish. 23(1- 2):183-193. Narasimham, K.A., 1991. Present status of clam fisheries of India. J. Mar. Miol. Ass. Trueman, E. R., 1975. “ The locomotion of India, 33 (1&2): 76 - 88. soft Bodied Animals”. Arnold, London. ECO-CHRONICLE 47
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 47 - 50 ISSN: 0973-4155
COMPARISON OF THE FLORA OF TWO MAJOR SACRED GROVES IN KANNUR DISTRICT, KERALA.
Deepa mol, P. C. and Khaleel, K. M.
Department of P.G. Studies & Research in Botany, Sir Syed College, Taliparamba, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of the ecosystem is of overriding importance for the survival of the human race itself. The sacred groves have played a crucial role in conserving the biodiversity including endangered species. Kannur district, one of the fourteen districts of Kerala, encompasses about 352 major sacred groves. ‘Pungottu Kavu’ and ‘Niliyar Kottam’ are two important among them, with rich biodiversity. The present paper highlights the comparison of major flora of these two sacred groves.
In ‘Niliyar Kottam’, the dominant flora includes Memecylon randerianum (Melastomaceae), Strychnos cinnamomifolia (Loganiaceae), Desmos lawii (Annonaceae), Sarcostigma kleinii (Icacinaceae), Hydnocarpus pentandra (Flacourtiaceae), Gnetum edule (Gnetaceae), Cottonia peduncularis, Acampe praemorsa (Orchidaceae). ‘Pungottu kavu’ is having dense forest with all the characteristics of a tropical evergreen forest. It is the only sacred grove having fresh water wetland in which Myristca plants are dominant. Here the dominant flora include Hopea parviflora (Dipterocarpaceae), Holigarna arnottiana (Anacardiaceae), Knema attenuate (Myristicaceae), Elaeocarpus tuberculatum (Elaeocarpaceae) etc. Need for the protection of these sacred groves was also discussed. Key words: Sacred grove, Pungottu kavu, Niliyar kottam, Bio diversity
INTRODUCTION worship place for Goddess ‘Niliyamma’. ‘Pungottu Kavu’ is a reserve forest in Sacred groves are the last remnants of the Kottiyoor range under Tholabra section. It native vegetation of each particular region. is near to Mattannur in Kolari village. The They probably indicate the heroic efforts area of the grove is 35acres. It is also a made by local communities to protect and midland sacred grove, falling in N 110 55’ preserve their natural forestry tracts against 24. 4’’ and E 750 36’ 52.4". In this sacred the onslaught of the clearing the forest grove, people worship the God ‘Ayyappan’. cultivation and settlement. MATERIALSAND METHODS The first documented study of sacred groves in north Kerala (Unnikrishnan,1990) Survey of flora was made in the grove by recorded 57 groves in Kannur District. inventory method. Twigs of all the plant According to Jayarajan (2004) 352 sacred species present in sacred grove were groves are reported in Kannur district. collected in either flowering or fruiting stage. ‘Niliyar Kottam’ and ‘Pungottu Kavu’ are the The collected specimens were poisoned, important sacred groves in Kannur district. dried and stitched on herbarium sheets Niliyar Kottam is situated in Morazha village following Jain and Rao (1977). The plants near to Kannur university campus. The were then identified. The density, frequency, locality falls in N 110 59’ 3.8" and E 750 21’ basal area and importance value index of 50", and has an area of 18acres. It is different species are calculated by quadrate situated in a midland region and has a method. 48 ECO-CHRONICLE Density sciophytes are found. It refers to the numerical strength of a species in relation to a definite unit space. In ‘Niliyar kottam,’ about 80 species of plants Density of a species per unit area = Total were identified. Various species present are number of individual of a species in all the listed in table 1. The most dominant groups sample plots / Total number of sample plots are trees, of which Memecylon randerianum studied. is significant. Very large trees are not Density of a sps. common in this grove. Due to the presence Relative Density = x 100 of climbers, the grove is in a continuous Density of all the sps. nature. The luxurious growth of medicinal plants like Madhuca nerifolia, Uvaria narum, Frequency Embelia Tsjerrian-cottam, Adenanthera The distribution patterns of individuals of pavonina, Carallia brachiata etc. are different species indicate their reproductive significant. In rainy season Drosera indica capacity as well as their adaptability to the (insectivorous plant), Nervilia environment. infundibulifolia (Orchidaceae), Amomum Total no. of quadrats in muricatum, Curculigo orchioides which the sps. occurred (Zingiberaceae) etc. are found. Frequency = x 100 Total no. of quadrat ‘Pungottu Kavu’ is considered as a studied myristica swamp. About 112 species of Frequency of a sps. plants are identified in this grove. This Rel. Frequency = x 100 swamp is expected to give rise to perennial Frequency of all sps. streams. Evergreen forest trees with various root adaptations such as stilt root and Basal area breathing root, together with plants For calculation of Importance Value Index of commonly associated with swamps are a particular species, basal area is to be found here. Special kinds of roots called calculated. By measuring GBH (Girth at pnematophores, which are negatively Breast Height) and radius, basal area is geotropic, are characteristic features of calculated. Myristica swamp. Here endemic species GBH = 2πr; r = GBH/2π, Basal Area = πr² like Hopea parviflora, Myristica malabarica, Basal area of a sps. Holigarna arnotiana and Knema attenuata Rel. Basal Area = x 100 are associated together. On the sides of the Basal area of all sps. stream, Pandanus thwaitesii and Lagenandra ovata are present. A woody Importance Value Index (IVI) climber like Gnetum edule is also present. It is used to denote the ecological success The number of trees with great thickness is of a species. high as compared to shrubs and herbs. IVI = Relative Density (R.D) + Large buttressed roots are also another Relative Frequency (R.F) + important character. The other species Relative Basal Area (R.B.A). noticed in the grove are listed in table 1. The value of IVI for a species is less than 300 Some of the rare plants found here are Antiaris toxicaria and Gymnacranthera RESULTS AND DISCUSSION furcariana. Climbing pteridophyte Stenochlaena palustris is another attraction The general phytosociology of sacred of this grove. Anaphyllum wightii and groves studied is extremely complex. Woody Myristica beddomi, which are found in the plants are the dominant species. In addition, grove are having high medicinal shrubs, herbs, climbers and stragglers, importance. epiphytes and parasites are other floristic elements. Luxurious growth of all plant groups is more prominent in ‘Pungottu This study gives us an idea about the kavu’. In the interior part of the grove, only species diversity of two sacred groves in ECO-CHRONICLE 49 Table 1. List of plants present in the Sacred Groves Botanical Name Family * * Botanical Name Family * * N P N P Acampe praemorsum Orchidaceae * Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Elaeocarpaceae * Acronychia pedunculata Rutaceae * Cansjera rheedii Opliaceae * Adenanthera pavonina Leguminosae * Uvaria narum Annonaceae * Alseodaphe malabaricum Lauraceae * Myristica beddomi Myristcaceae * Anaphyllum wightii Araceae * Pandanus thwaitesii Pandanaceae * Antidesma ascidum Euphorbiaceae * * Hydnocarpus pentandre Bixaceae * Antidesma Ghaesembilla Euphorbiaceae * Derris brevipes Leguminosae * Artocarpus integrifolia Moraceae * Elephantopus scaber Compositae * * Buddleia asiatica Loganiaceae * Blepharistemma seratum Rhizophoraceae * Carallia integrrima Rhizophoaceae * * Flacourtia Montana Bixaceae * * Careya arborea Lecythidaceae * Leptonychia cordata Sterculiaceae * * Caryota urens Arecaceae * Terminalia paniculata Combretaceae * Chasalia curviflora Rubiaceae * * Connarus monocarpus Connaraceae * * Ficus arnottiana Moraceae * Bolbitis uppendiculata Elaphoglossaceae * * Ficus macrocarpa Moraceae * Cissus heyneana Vitaceae * * Ficus Mysorensis Moraceae * * Syzigium chavaran Myrtaceae * Gastrochilus acaulis Orchidaceae * Zingiber Zerumbet Zingiberaceae * Geophila repens Rubiaceae * Myxopyrum smilacifolium Oleaceae * Globba marantina Zingiberaceae * Olea dioica Oleaceae * Gnetum edule Gnetaceae * * Ixora brachiata Rubiaceae * * Gymnema sylvestre Asclepiadaceae * Loranthus Falcatus Loranthaceae * Hugonia mystax Linaceae * Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Orchidaceae * * Jasminum massoricum Oleaceae * Polycarpaea corymbosa Caryophyllaceae * Knema attenuata Myristicaceae * Holigarna arnottiana Anacardiaceae * * Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae Lythraceae * Cinnamomum Malabathrum Lauraceae * Lophopetalum wightianum Celastraceae * Melicope Lunu-ankenda Rutaceae * Lygodium fluxosum Lygodiaceae * Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscoriaceae * * Madhuca nerifolia Sapotaceae * * Embelia Tsjeriam-cottam Myrisinae * Mallotus philipensis Euphorbiaceae * Glochidion zeylanicum Euphorbiaceae * Memecylon renderianum Melastomaceae * * Sarcostigma Kleini Icacinaceae * Murdamia Japonica Commelinaceae * Amorphophallus prainii Araceae * Myristica malabarica Myristicacea * Ficus Tjakela Moraceae * Naregamia alata Meliaceae * Cottonia peduncularis Orchidaceae * Pogostemon paniculatus Labiatae * Curculigo orchioides Zingiberaceae * Pothos scandens Araceae * * Santalum album Santalaceae * Stachyphrynium spicatum Marantaceae * Olea dioica Oleaceae * Casearia ovatum Samydaceae * Hopea parviflora Dipterocarpacea * Strychnos cinnamomifolia Loganiaceae * Aglaia langenoidia Meliaceae * Strobilanthus ciliatus Acanthaceae * Ficus beddomi Moraceae * Strychnos nux-vomica Loganiaceae * Elaeagnus indica Elaeagnaceae * Tabernaemontana divaricata Apocynaceae * * Gymnacranthera furcariana Myristicaceae * Tetracera acara Dilinaceae * Gomphandra coriacea Icacinaceae * Tinospora synensis Menispermaceae * Sterculia guttata Sterculiaceae * Vallaris solanacea Apocynaceae * Ficus callosa Moraceae * Vateria indica Dipterocarpaceae * Polyanthia fragrans Anonaceae * Vitex ultissima Vitaceae * * Antiaris toxicaria Moraceae * * N - Niliyar Kottam, * P - Pungottu Kavu 50 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2. Quantitative structure of plants in Nilayar Kottam.
Name of species A B D R.D P.F R.F BA R.B.A IVI
Memecylon randerianum 44 10 4.4 36.0655 100 21.27 50382.9 85.73 143.08
Hugonia mystax 19 7 1.9 15.5737 70 14.89 - - -
Dalbergia horrida 16 6 1.6 13.1147 60 14.28 - - -
Canthium parviflorum 11 5 1.1 9.01639 50 11.90 443.0 0.75 21.67
Vitex ultissima 1 1 0.1 0.81967 10 2.38 258.6 0.44 3.64
Hydnocarpus pentandre 9 4 0.9 7.37704 40 9.52 1475.3 2.51 19.41
Holigarna arnottiana 6 2 0.6 4.91803 20 4.76 979.8 1.66 11.34
Table 3. Quantitative structure of plants in Pungottu Kavu. Name of species A B D R.D. P.F. R.F. B.A. R.B.A. IVI
Myristica malabarica 144 20 7.2 39.0243 100 17.0940 105912.4 58.48 114.59 40 Knema attenuata 33 8 1.65 8.94308 6.8376 8216.3 4.54 20.317 60 Hopea parviflora 46 12 2.3 12.4661 10.2564 11537.82 6.37 29.093
Holigarna arnottiana 73 14 3.65 19.7832 70 11.9658 43277.9 23.89 55.644
Lophopetalum Wightianum 14 9 0.7 3.7940 45 7.6923 4592.12 2.54 14.022
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus 10 8 0.5 2.7100 40 6.8376 3233.3 1.79 11.333
A - Number of plants, B - Number of quadrats, D - Density, R.D. - Relative Density, P.F. – Percentage Frequency, R.F. - Relative frequency, B.A. - Basal area, R.B.A. - Relative Basal Area, IVI -Importance Value Index. Hugonia & Dalbergia are woody climbers, so calculation of B.A. is not applicable, The most dominant species is Memecylon renderianum. Kannur district. Both are treasures of rare sacred groves named ‘Niliyar Kottam’ and and endemic species. Species diversity is ‘Pungottu Kavu’ of Kannur District. Species more in ‘Pungottu kavu’. Endemic species diversity includes both rare and like Desmos lawii, Holigarna arnottiana, endangered plants in both sacred groves. Ixora brachiata, Artocarpus integrifolia and These types of sacred groves deserve strict threatened species like Santalum album protection because the gene pool surviving and Gnetum edule are existing in ‘Niliyar in these groves might be lost for ever if any kottam’. These two groves faces some kind further degradation is allowed to these of threat. A road is passing through one side fragile ecosystems. of the ‘Niliyar kottam’, making destruction of flora at this side. For the physical REFERENCES protection of these two sacred groves, Gamble J.S., 1935. Flora of the Presidency fencing is essential. Local people do some of Madras, Vol.1, 2 & 3.London: Published antisocial activities with in the sacred groves under the Authority of the Secretary of states and they make it as a place for dumping for Indian Council. wastes, including plastic materials. Biomass collection, footpath across the Jain, S. K. and Rao, R.R., 1977. A handbook grove, legal disputes between owner and of field and herbarium methods. Today and government etc. are some of the problems tomorrow publishers, New Delhi. 350pp. being faced by ‘Pungottu kavu’. Jayarajan, M., 2004 Sacred Groves of North CONCLUSION Malabar, Disscussion paper No.92, KRPLLD 92: 86 -124. Sacred groves deliver a number of ecosystem services. The present study Unnikrishnan, E., 1990. Sacred Groves of establishes the biological richness of the North Malabar, Jeevarekha, Trichur, 230pp. ECO-CHRONICLE 51
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 51 - 58 ISSN: 0973-4155
A STUDY ON THE POTENTIAL OF ‘NEW AGE TOURISM’ IN KERALA
Shyamlal, G.S.
ICFAI National College, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
Tourism seeks greener pastures for its growth and in this century, every dimension of human culture has the potential to become a ‘tourism product’. Gauging the potential of variety, the products that are offered in new age tourism varied from alternative healing methodologies, avenues for aesthetic development, discourses by spiritual gurus and innovative tourism practices. This variety in tourism product resulted in the evolution of centres of attraction, which are almost three times more growth potential than the classic tourism market. Kerala is considered as the first State in India, which had initiated steps to exploit the emerging market of new age tourism and is now providing with wide and varied centres of attraction like aesthetic development, experiential and personalised self-development, and alternative approaches to health care. This study is of the view that there is a need for Certification of these New Centers of tourist attractions which will ensure quality of service provide and finally will boost tourism in Kerala.
INTRODUCTION meets the varied needs of the tourist (Maria and Peter, 2006). The history of tourism industry depicts a The New Age faction has grown significantly picture of exponential growth and increasing since its emergence in the 1950’s and diversity. The number of activities and 1960’s (Dallen and Daniel, 2006). Originally, experiences that can be categorised as it was a counter-cultural movement, tourism has increased significantly and interacting with other counter-cultural now every dimension of human culture has movements of that time, such as the the potential to become a ‘tourism product’. ecology, hippie, and commune movements. It is rightly opined that tourism seeks for During the last decades, spiritual and greener pastures to grow and expand. It esoteric methods have been popularized uniquely celebrates ‘differences’ in places and commercialized by an expanding and peoples to create novel experiences market of literature and workshops. This (Tejvir, 2004). Gauging the potential of has made New Age a socially accepted variety, the products that are offered with new phenomenon and it has thus lost much of age tourism varied from alternative healing its anti-modernist and culture-critical methodologies, avenues for aesthetic character. development, discourses by spiritual gurus and innovative tourism practices. This variety in tourism product resulted in the Objective of the study evolution of centres of attraction, which are almost three times more growth potential The main objective framed for this study is than the classic tourism market. Now tourist to analyse the available potential of tourism destinations are not seen as set of distinct in Kerala vis-à-vis to the New Age Tourists. natural, cultural, artistic and environmental resources but as an overall product, a The other objectives are as follows: complex and integrated package offered by i. To identify the basic motivations of tourists a territory able to supply a holiday, which visiting Kerala. 52 ECO-CHRONICLE ii. To analyze the socio-demographic profile METHODOLOGY and the image of the destination from the tourist perspective. Both primary and secondary data was used iii. To examine the activities undertaken by for the study. Through the primary survey, tourists and the usage of usage of tourism we tried to analyse the demographic profile, intermediaries and suppliers. visitor motivation, activities indulged at the centre and duration of stay. Statistical tools Study Area like correlation analysis were used to analyse the expenditure pattern and The new age destinations are facing a duration of stay of these visitors. challenge to manage and organize their resources in order to supply a holiday RESULTS AND DISCUSSION experience that must be equal to or better than the alternative destinations experiences on the market (Maria and Peter, Driven by a buoyant economy and increase 2006). Hence Kerala can be considered as in the purchasing power of the middle class the first State in India, which had initiated population along with the rising interest steps to exploit the emerging market of new towards oriental culture and values, one can age tourism. As is rightly opined by witness an increasing shift of tourism traffic Professor Peter Cochrane ‘Travel has long towards India. From the Figure – 1.1, it is been with us. Virtual reality is well upon us. clear that the tourist flow to India is showing Experience is already being revealed in an increasing trend. Only the moths April to tourism to the extent that it may now be the June can be considered as slump period key objective of today’s traveler’ (Khan, while peal flow is observed during the tourist 1997). It is this urge of the present day season October to February. Likewise, only traveler which made the tourism authorities the off season period between April-May, one in Kerala to developed wide and varied can observe a short fall in the tourist centers of attraction like aesthetic earnings. The efforts made by the Central development (Kalamandalam - art, drama government along with the sufficient support and music); experiential and personalised of various State Governments to make self-development, (courses on meditation, tourism a yearlong affair, can be clearly personal relationships and self knowledge observed in the Figure - 1.2. and finally, courses on alternative approaches to health care (Ayurveda Though with vast potential and diversity in massage for body rejuvenation). Moreover, the products that can be offered by India, yet it can also be opined that the primary sector it ranks only twenty-second. Hence, India comprising of agricultural allied operations was not able to harness its multiplier effects is stagnant and tourism is considered one for employment and poverty eradication. of the alternative strategy that can be The recent policy changes like liberalization adopted to regenerate the economy in aviation sector, rationalization of tax rates especially in the rural area (Tribe, 1995). in the hospitality sector, tourist friendly visa During the last decade, one can witness regime etc is imperative to boost the tourism the development of tourist resorts where sector in India. packages are provided where all the above amenities are clubbed together. The study Tourism in Kerala area was restricted to Kovalam, Varkala, Guruvayoor, Vallikavu, Kumarakom and Domestic tourist arrivals (excluding Munnar. Out of this Kovalam and Varkal are pilgrims) rose from 52.40 lakhs in 2001 to beach resorts, Munnar, the famous hill 59.46 lakhs in 2005. Thus in five years, resort and Gurvayoor and Vallikavu are annual growth rate for foreign and domestic religious centers. tourist arrivals are respectively 13.27% and 2.69%. According to the study of World ECO-CHRONICLE 53 Figure : 1.1 2005. It can be observed that Foreign Tourist Arrivals in India, 2004- 2006 600000 the foreign exchange earnings
500000 during 2005 is Rs. 1552.31 Crores and the total earnings 400000 from the tourism sector is Rs. 300000 7738 Crores. The Economic 200000 Review highlights that the No. of tourists of No.
100000 Tourism sector employs around 10 Lakhs persons in 0 the State. March May July January September November 2004 2005* 2006* As per the estimates of World
* - Provisional; Source : Ministry of Tourism, GOI. Tourism Organization (WTO), propelled by the tourism and Figure : 1.2 business travel boom, India Foreign Exchange Earnings in India, 2004- 2006 4000 needs an additional 300,000 by 3500 the year 2020. When we 3000 analyzed the expansion plan of 2500 various tourist markets in India,
2000 it is observed that Kerala is
1500 considered as a potential tourist No. No. of tourists 1000 zone, yet the expansion plan
500 should be further strengthened to accommodate the needs of 0 the tourists. Figure 1.3 March May July January September November illustrates the new room supply 2004 2005* 2006* expected to be included in the * - Provisional; Source : Ministry of Tourism, GOI. key tourist zones.
Figure: 1.3. Earnings from Tourism Potential of Spiritual Tourism in Kerala It is the Greeks and the Romans who cultivated the quest of well being through Spiritual tourism. One can also observe that the followers of majority of the religions used to undertake spiritual journeys at least once in a year. It is rightly opined by Timothy Dallen that Source: Economic Review, 2006. spiritual tourism as the “oldest and now one of the fastest- Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) on growing segments in the travel industry.” tourism sector in the State, Travel and The new breed of spiritual travelers likes to Tourism generates as much as 7.7% of enjoy spiritual enlightenment without giving GSP and 6.2% of total employment. Visitor up their comforts, which resulted in this exports (tourism receipts) are worked out being added as an important component of as 14.3% of the total export of the State. ‘New Age Tourism’ (Greg, 2007).
Figure – 1.3 provides a clear insight into the Various studies had pointed out that many earnings from Tourism between 2001 – thousands of tourists visit India for various 54 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure - 1.4 is seen by many Details of Expected Increase in Room Capacity government and tourism 2008 - 2010 officials as a way to 4000 either diversifying or save 3500 struggling economies 3000 (Dallen and Daniel,
2500 2006). 2008
2000 2009 2010 There exist difference of Tourist Centers Tourist 1500 opinion about whether 1000 spiritual tourism is 500 related to escapism from 0 Delhi Mumbai Chennai Kolkata Cochin the self to an entirely Number of Rooms different environment that offers pure Figure - 1.5 relaxation, or, an Details regarding source of Information opportunity to renegotiate 16 one’s place in the world 14 and relationships. In 12 extreme cases, it might 10 be about confrontation of 8 the world’s darker side 6 and human tragedy, a 4 reminder of one’s
No. of Respondents of No. 2 mortality and place in a 0 universal cycle (Steiner and Reisinger, 2006). This kind of exploration TI Brochure TO BorchureAccomodationGuide BooksWord of MouthAlready Visited arguably has Source philosophical and spiritual dimensions, Spiritual Health Cultural which can make one’s minor troubles, seem relatively insignificant. Table: 1.1. Trend in Expenditure Pattern of Foreign Tourists Katusuhiko Yazaki who is the Japanese mail-order Activity Foreign (%) Domestic (%) multimillionaire opined that ‘We cannot find true meaning in life by Shopping for souvenirs 78 52 occupying spacious Local cuisine 63 48 residences. At some Historic buildings 81 67 point people will need to raise their desires to a higher level’ (Khan, types of spiritual interactions with ‘diety’ or 1997). His illusion is that we have material ‘godman’. Though there are reservations possessions but for fulfillment, we need against comodifying religion and to put holy something beyond them, which urged the places into spot light for mass consumption present day traveler to undertake spiritual and to make holy things unholy, yet one can journeys of self-discovery. These spiritual observe that the lines between mass journeys make the traveler feel that he is tourists and religious tourists are becoming just a minute component in the massive increasingly blurred. Even spiritual tourism super structure called Universe. ECO-CHRONICLE 55 The study observed that majority of the century and suicide rates are rising, tourists selected for the study falls in the especially amongst young men (e.g., age group 35 - 45 and 45 – 55. It is Mealanie Smith and Catherine Kelly 2005). surprising to note that in both the groups This can be attributed to high pressure he majority of them is from the female group should withstand in a performance related rather than male. This can be attributed to pay-package work environment. male ego, which refrain them speaking aloud about their personal life or difficulties. But the only viable solution that is left for the The study also observed that there exists a mankind is to indulge in Health Tourism. positive correlation (+.73) between income Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of and expenditure on spiritual journeys. medicine, deals with both the preventive Majority of the tourists are from the higher and curative aspects of health in a most income group due to which there demand comprehensive way. Besides contributing for quality in services is much higher than to maintenance of health, it also has a wide the others. The Gurus or Godmans are of range of therapeutic measures to combat the view that when the tourist (patient) feels various illnesses. Though the art of confident and energetic without any Ayurveda had spread around in the 6th negative side effects literally provides them century BC to Tibet, China, Mongolia, Korea the assurance that the treatment had and Sri Lanka, yet one can witness in Kerala achieved its ultimate objective. that this medical system is still being practised and perfected by the ‘Kalari Potential of Health Tourism in Kerala Gurukals’ who are considered as the master of the traditional martial art of Kerala From the Medieval Age one can trace the ‘Kalari’. Vogue magazine once opined that elements of health tourism like the ‘Technology is destroying us…Nature has scrupulous attention paid to well-being of a remedy for every illness, an answer for Romans and Greeks (Melanie and every problem (Khan, 1999). It is from this Catherine, 2006) along with the view that the strength and growth of Ayurveda development of seaside and spa tourism lies. Kerala is the only state in India, which of the 18th and 19th century by the European can boast of making concerted efforts to elite which continues even now though at a promote health tourism in a big way, which much faster rate. The House of Lords opined has resulted in a substantial increase of that the proliferation of wellness centers, visitor arrivals into the state. Kerala and holistic retreats, spas, spiritual pilgrimages, ayurveda have virtually become and complementary and alternative synonymous with each other. therapies is unprecedented (House of Lords – Report, 2000). Experts came The study observed that many of the health forward with various theories to justify the resorts are located in beach resorts like sudden spurt in growth. Some of them are Kovalam and Varkala. Yet one can also of the view that the anomie of the western observe that the serene hill resorts of capitalist societies, the breakdown of Kerala also attract health tourists in sizeable traditional religions and the fragmentation numbers. Like all other form of tourism, of the communities. Though the Health Tourism also attracts mainly the advancement made in the field of medical affluent sections of the society. It is observed science had resulted in the development of that both man and woman of various age curative care for major diseases, yet one groups are showing considerable interest can observe that the psychological and in ayurveda and body rejuvenation emotional problems of man are left therapies. Kerala can also boast of having untreated. the best pool of ayurvedic physicians and masseurs who are effectively trained and Depression is commonly cited as being one added to the resource pool by the many of the greatest disease burdens of the 21st number of ayurvedic hospitals. When we 56 ECO-CHRONICLE made a correlation analysis with that of the Other Findings total expenditure incurred by the tourists, it was observed that the correlation value is The other findings of the study are as 0.89. Though the study observed that many follows. of the ayurvedic health resorts are available i. Though both the foreign and domestic in developed countries yet majority of them tourists are satisfied with their visits, feel that it only at the origin of the practices, yet majority of them opined that there is they feel that they had received optimum still scope for improvement. service. The study observed that though i. From the study, it is clear that the tourists there is negative opinion about the irrespective of the area to which they effectiveness of certain therapies of belong, depends on internet for their ayurveda yet the people are of the view that information needs. it has placebo effect. ii. The study also observed that spiritual and cultural tourism is most preferred Potential of Culture Tourism in Kerala by domestic tourists than international tourists. Cultural tourism has been identified as one iii. The period of stay is higher for the of the most rapidly growing areas of global foreign tourists than the domestic. It tourism demand. Cultural tourism is about ranges between two to four days for the people traveling for cultural motivations and foreign tourists while majority of the is measured by determining whether the domestic had a shorter stay of less than travelers attended activities and venues three days. such as festivals, exhibitions, theatre iv. The size of the group comprising the performances or historic sites. Kerala can domestic tourist is much higher than boast of a unique Dravidian culture and the foreign tourist. Hence it is clear that tradition. It is because of the uniqueness, the emphasis for domestic tourist is Kerala can boast of a unique standard of quantity and for the foreign tourist it is living, which is very different from the rest of quality. This also conveys that for the India. This unique model is popularly known domestic tourist, time is an important as the Kerala Model of Development. Hence criterion whereas for the foreign they both domestic and foreign tourists want to don’t give undue importance to time have a first hand experience about the social factor. and cultural wealth of Kerala. Along with v. Finally, it can be opined that that the various historical sites, Kerala also boast foreign tourist is very selective about the of unique centers of learning where can both type of accommodation whereas the witness the art forms of Kerala. Moved by domestic tourists are satisfied with the the unique nature, many of the tourists got available accommodation at the area. enrolled in these centers of learning like Kalamandalam. The study observed that CONCLUSION & SUGGESTIONS though various tour packages had included short duration performance by the traditional It can be opined that just as (old) mass artists, only the dedicated ones like to purse tourism is not necessarily unsustainable, these art forms. The short duration in all circumstances, new or alternative performance also enhanced the sales forms of tourism are not inevitably panacea prospects of art souvenirs of Kerala. From in all situations. Indeed neither form of the table given below, one can observe that tourism is sustainable unless an the highest consumer group of cultural appropriate planning and management tourism in Kerala is the foreign tourists. regime is in place (Moscardo, et.al., 1998). ECO-CHRONICLE 57 Much of the research till date focused on etc can be sourced from the village itself service quality in the hospitality sector, and rather than depending on external markets in particular, measurement of customer which will ensure the ‘trickle down effect’ perceptions of quality. There is little or no and sustainability in the long run. effort integrating quality into all aspects of managing tourism enterprise (Derek et.al., REFERENCES 2003). One of the views that emerged from this research is that majority of tourists visit Dallen. J. Timothy and Daniel, H. Olsen, Kerala for relaxation and rejuvenation. It was 2006. Tourism Religion and Spiritual Journeys published by Routledge. observed that both domestic and foreign tourist on their arrival at the destination, a sense of anti-climax prevailed in their minds. David. L. Edgell, 2006. Managing and This is due to the gap between what that is Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy for the propagated and what is actually practiced. Future, published by Haworth Press. The study observed that Certification of these New Centers of tourist attractions Derek, R. Hall, Lesely Roberts and Moreg should be incorporated which will ensure Mitchell, 2003. New Directions in Rural the quality of service provide and finally will Tourism, published by Ashgate Publishing. boost the tourist traffic to Kerala. These New Economic Review, 2006. Published by the Centers should adopt ‘Co-opetetion’ State Planning Board, Government of strategies whereby the new or minor Kerala. centers should co-operate with one another to achieve a sustained flow of tourists to Gianna Moscardo, Eric Laws and Herbert these centers (Edgell, 2006). It can be William Faulkner, 1998. Embracing and concluded that it is due to the availability of Managing Change in Tourism: International diversified products that ensures that Case Studies, published by Routledge. tourism still thrives in Kerala economy. Finally this study is of the view that still the Greg Richards, 2007. Cultural Tourism: government lacks a holistic view towards Global and Local Perspectives published tourism development in Kerala. The by Haworth Press. authorities consider competitiveness and attractiveness as different entities but it is House of Lords Report, 2000. rather supply and demand side of tourism. Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Only through such a holistic approach, policy http://www.parliament.the-stationery- makers will have a clear understanding Office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/ about what the tourists are looking for and 123/12301.htm. what the stakeholders are investing in. Though there is an increase in the John Tribe, 1995. The Economics of Leisure employment for the local community due to and Tourism : Environment, Market and the appearance of tourism, yet this study is Impact published by Oxford Butterworth- of the view that there one can witness Heinemann Limited. conflicts between the host and service providers. Hence it is suggested that the Khan, M.A., 1997. Tourism Marketing by onus for bridging the gap should be on the Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd. shoulders of the service providers and the government. They should try to make the Maria Giaontzi and Peter Nijkamp, 2006. centers of tourist attraction especially the Tourism and Regional Development: New villages a self-sufficient one. The growing Pathways published by Ashgate Publishing needs of tourist sector like meat, egg, fish Limited. 58 ECO-CHRONICLE Melanie Smith and Catherine Kelly, 2006. Wellness Tourism published in Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31(1) Pages 1-4.
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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 59 - 66 ISSN: 0973-4155
INTEGRATED BIOMASS MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Venkateswara Sarma, V.
G1, Ganpath Villa, 67, Padmavathy Nagar, Virugambakkam, Chennai-600092, India [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Though farmers have their own traditional practices of organic cultivation of crops, often the science and logic behind how organic farming works is elusive to many farmers and the common man as well. In the present paper in addition to presenting own ideas, an attempt is made to briefly review and concisely bring out reflections, based on available literature, on some aspects of processes that take place in biodegradation and proper utilization of plant biomass for an integrated biomass management strategy and its sustainable utilization for agricultural purposes.
Key words: Nutrient recycling, Litter degradation, Integrated biomass management, Biomass banking, Organic agriculture, Multiple cropping, Agrobiodiversity, Composting, M ulching, Earthworms.
What is organic agriculture? what is happening in a forest? Are we adding any chemical fertilizers and pesticides? Is Organic agricultural practice is an age old there any need of farming interventions in phenomenon. Though various definitions the forest? For example do they require any have been given for organic farming it can watering, ploughing, seeding, etc. Without simply be said as utilization of only any human intervention if the processes renewable natural bio-resources as nutrient could continue relentlessly, it is mainly inputs and non-usage of chemical fertilizers/ because of nutrient recycling. Nutrient pesticides, etc in addition to the age-old and recycling is simply conversion of organic time tested traditional methods of cropping. content into inorganic elemental form. Who The essentials and importance of organic does it? The microbes such as fungi, farming have been discussed by various bacteria, microfauna (protozoans and authors (Gahukar, 1993; Gupta, 2004; Kler nematodes), mesofauna (springtails and et al., 2001; Lockeretz et al., 1981; Prasad, mites) and macrofauna (millipedes, 2005; Ramesh et al., 2005; Reganold et al., isopods, earthworms, and other burrowing 2001; Shiva et al., 2004). animals). There are a number of reviews and other articles available on nutrient However, the scientific explanation of how it recycling and it is carried out by the above works is not fully appreciated in academic mentioned organisms (Alongi, 1989; Attiwill circles, whereas, it could be easily and Adams, 1993; Cromack and Caldwell, explained, with nutrient recycling and 1992; Dighton, 1995; Hattenschwiler et al., biomass conversions. Taking a cue from 2005; Wicklow and Carroll, 1981; Sarma, forest ecosystems, which are independent 2008a). in maintaining the ecological balance, without any human intervention, we should Nutrient recycling emulate and understand the processes going on and try to simulate such Nutrient recycling mediated by different processes in our agricultural fields also. So organisms has been investigated by 60 ECO-CHRONICLE different researchers as above. Working on adequate moisture all lead to rapid tropical mangroves and nutrient recycling, decomposition and nutrient recycling by bacteria, Alongi (1989) stated that (Dighton, 1995). Fungi are the main sedimentary bacteria, in addition to breaking decomposer organisms in tundra (Dighton, and degrading the organic content, 1995; Flangan and Scarborough, 1974) and efficiently recycle nutrients within microbial mangroves (Fell and Master, 1980). food webs, in order to conserve essential Kozlovskaja (1969) indicated that bacterial elements within the ecosystem (thus populations became increasingly more preventing a loss) and serve as a trophic important in deciduous woodland and link with the rest of the benthic food web in grassland ecosystems, while Sundman surface sediments and in burrow linings, (1970) showed that physiological versatility tubes and other habitats that are aerated of bacteria decreased with decrease in soil and inhabited by larger benthic organisms fertility. Further the slow breakdown of in mangroves (Alongi, 1989). This trophic organic residues is also correlated with linkage decreases with sediment depth reduced faunal activity in soil (Alongi, 1994). where sediments are more anaerobic and less populated by microbial predators. Succession plays a vital role in plant litter degradation and nutrient recycling. In a Temperature and moisture conditions are forest ecosystem one of the main factors key factors for biomass degradation and affecting nutrient recycling within the nutrient recycling by microbes and fauna and forested ecosystem is the change in organic accordingly arctic, temperate and tropical resources entering the soil by litter fall belts will have plant and litter biomass during successional time. For example the increasing (30-130; 180-200; 400 t.ha -1, initial litter fall from herbaceous vegetation respectively) as per the climatic region has a low carbon: nitrogen ratio and is more (Dighton, 1995). Tundra ecosystems have easily decomposed by soil microflora. As low litter fall (1-4 t.ha-1), forest, steppe, and time passes succession progresses deserts similar litter fall (7.3 – 8.2 t.ha-1), wherein more tree-derived litter fall with and tropical forests much greater litter fall higher carbon: nitrogen ratio entering into (44 t.ha -1) (Dighton, 1995; Rodin and the soil that cannot be decomposed easily Brazilevich, 1967). In tundra forests the and hence will increase the residence time accumulation of dead and decomposing on the forest floor leading to litter biomass on the soil will be greater due to accumulation (Actually the mulchy layer) the limitations of climatic factors such as (Alongi, 1994). One of the activities of the cold temperatures for longer period and microbes is to reduce the carbon: nitrogen short summers which restrict highly the ratios during litter decomposition and microbial activity. Differences exist between nutrient recycling. For example C:N ratios grassland (steppe) and temperate forests vary from 15:1 to 160:1 in herbaceous due to differences in temperature and vegetation; 20:1 to 300:1 in tree leaf litter; moisture and more importantly differences 300:1 to 500:1 in woody resources (Alongi, in the quality of the litter. While mean litter N 1994; Swift et al., 1979). These ratios, upon content of steppe and desert litter is 1.26 microbial action, would be brought down to and 1.53%, respectively, when compared 10:1 to 30:1. Similar reductions in ratios of to tree litter which is 1%. Similarly while ash carbon, with other elements, such as P also content is 4-5% in steppe and desert litter, it take place. While in some habitats the is between 2 to 3% in tree liter. In addition to bacteria have a predominant role in these differences the presence or absence degradation and nutrient recycling such as of phenols, tannin, and lignin, affect the pelagic waters in open seas (Raghukumar, palatability of the litter to decomposer 1990) in other habitats such as mangroves organisms and hence have longer of coastal environments, the biomass is residence time of the litter on the soil predominantly degraded by fungi than surface in these environments. On the bacteria (Fell and Master, 1980) which contrary the large inputs of litter in tropical reduce the C: N ratios. forests are balanced by their high resource quality i.e. 1.34 and 4.2% of N and ash, The high ratios of N and P provides high respectively, high temperatures, and quality humus on the forest floor which could ECO-CHRONICLE 61 release nutrients slowly in a phased of the microbes. In fact the nutrients in manner and hence makes the nutrients microbes also have a retention time so that available to growing plants over longer there would be a slow release of the period of time. nutrients into the soil. In the case of fauna, however, it is mostly ingestion or biting and Vertical stratification of fungal communities eating actions and the food that enters within the rain forest floor that are involved inside the animal body is digested by the in nutrient recycling (aphyllophoralean enzymes released intracellularly and finally basidiomycetes as canopy species, agaric the excretion (fecal) that comes out of the communities in the understory and on the animal is the digested litter that is rich in forest floor and microfungi on the litter and nutrients. in the soil) are more efficient in degradation processes and nutrient recycling due to An indirect mention of nutrient recycling their niche partitioning. Some endophytic could be found in Bhagvad Gita also. In (canopy) and pathogenic fungi (understory Bhagvad Gita there is verse in Sanskrit attacking seedlings and other parts) also which is recited before taking food and is play a role in the early stages of interpreted by various scholars differently decomposition and nutrient recycling and (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter IV, verse 24). may contribute to the heterogeneity of These verses are as follows: decomposer communities on the rain forest floor. The vertical stratification also affects “Brahmarpanam brahma havir the rate of litter decomposition and temporal brahmagnau brahmana hutam pattern of nutrient release (Lodge and brahmaiva tena gantavyam brahma Cantrell, 1995). karma samadhinam”
The mode of action of breaking down of plant While some scholars interpret as - all the biomass, that is in the polymeric form matter comes from God and again reaches (chemically bound carbohydrates, proteins, the same God. Others say - all actions are fats, etc.) into monomers and finally into by God and the fruits reach unto Him alone inorganic/elemental form is through i.e. the actor, action, acted & act is all production of a variety of degradative Brahman, one who realizes this realizes enzymes that digest the polymers into Brahman. In addition to these spiritual and monomers. In the case of microbes such philosophical interpretations, the present as fungi and bacteria these enzymes are author would like to interpret the above produced extracellularly and released in the verses as - all the matter that is in the vicinity of the plant biomass. There are inorganic form is converted into organic form several groups of enzymes produced by through various chemical reactions and microbes that finally break down the physical and biological means complex substrates into simpler form; (photosynthesis, etc.) and the matter thus mention could be made of the major attained organic form again goes back into substrates such as the carbohydrates viz. the inorganic (elemental) form through litter cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are degradation, decomposition and nutrient degraded by cellulases, hemicellulases recycling, so that the next cycle could start. (mainly xylanases) and lignolytic enzymes including lignin peroxidase, Mn-dependent Biomass recycling lignin peroxidase and laccases; proteins degraded by proteases; fats degraded by Is it possible to recycle all the biomass that lipases, nucleic acids by nucleases, etc. is in the polymeric form to elemental form Once these enzymes break down the without any loss? There could be loss but it polymers into monomers (such as glucose, would be negligible, if the biomass is xylose, etc.), a major amount of the trapped, properly, within the unit area, degrading organic content will get mixed recycled and applied judiciously and with the soil, while some portion is uniformly (Sarma, 2008b). A more detailed absorbed by the microbes for their own discussion on this aspect could be found growth and sustenance. The latter portion in Sarma (2008b). Where do we find the is again released into the soil upon death organic source? The answer is whatever 62 ECO-CHRONICLE biomass that is available as waste from the supplements are crude in nature and could previous crop could be recycled without provide most of the nutrients that are wasting anything in it. Mulching alone can required for a sustainable agriculture. Since bring out nutrient recycled and over a period carbon dioxide could be fixed under light of time the same makes all the nutrients during photosynthesis, renewal of carbon available for the next set of crop growing. If into the plants in the form of sugars is any human intervention is required there are compensated to some extent even though well established practices that can speed the plant biomass is emigrating to far-off up the process of degradation. These are places. But the same is not true when it aerobic and anaerobic composting comes to other nutrients (both macro and techniques including that of micro nutrients) in addition to the trace vermicomposting, NADEP- composting elements as it would be difficult to recycle (proposed by N.D. Pandheripande, India), them from atmosphere, once they are lost biogas production, farmyard and green from the particular crop land area. What manures (Shiva et al., 2004). would be the fate of such nutrients which reach cities? Either they escape into Immigration and Emigration of organic sewerages, from anthropogenic excretions, matter after passing through their digestive system, to finally reach the oceanic system and get In ecology we have concepts of immigration highly diluted or get dumped as solid waste and emigration of animals, in a unit area, to in specific yards. Will this loss is irreversible study spatio-temporal variations of or the organic content will come back in any organisms (Diamond and Case, 1986). I form? How the organic content as an entity would like to borrow these concepts and (albeit at various stages of decomposition) apply on how organic matter is getting is moving? We need to track it to different recycled, transported to far-off places places? The range could be microcosms through anthropogenic interventions and to macrocosms. But the main point here is the subsequent fate of such organic matter that from a unit area of a crop land there is vis-à-vis the original area from where it has emigration of nutrients through harvests and been taken into consideration, for a their transport to cities or other urban discussion. Taking into the premise that centres and immigration of nutrients by most of the crops of agriculture yield supplementation either through chemical products are of edible nature we know that fertilizers or organic fertilizers depending on the edible portions are the fruiting structures the choice of agriculture adopted by the (cereals, pulses, other grains, fruits, etc.). farmers. If this does not happen These edible portions, nowadays, are (anthropogenic loss of nutrients) and the mostly transported to far-off places, and in produce is recycled in the same unit area most cases to cities, through anthropogenic the agricultural lands could potentially interventions. If we, roughly, calculate the become a forest-like environment where biomass of this edible part of the plants as several processes interactive with abiotic 10-20% from a standing crop then for every and biotic factors would provide a self- season depending on whether the plant is sustaining system/model maintaining a annual, biennial or perennial we will be continuum. The more we simplify and loosing 10-20% of the (produce) plant understand these concepts of immigration biomass to places far away from the crop and emigration of organic inputs in a better lands. If this happens continuously, then, manner the more we become successful over a period of time we would loose the in developing strategies for a sustainable organic load of the crop land, unless it is agriculture. The need of the hour is an refilled at frequent intervals. In the present Integrated Biomass Management. system of agriculture the refilling (immigration of nutrients) is through Comparison with other agricultural chemical fertilizers. That is the reason why methods the soils are loosing essential nutrients/ compounds due to prolonged usage/ The impact of conversion to organic supply of specific compounds alone as agriculture on yield has been assessed and chemical fertilizers. Whereas organic the indications are that (i) In intensive ECO-CHRONICLE 63 farming systems, organic agriculture Raw materials for organic agriculture decreases yield; the range depends on the intensity of external input use before Where to find organic material free of cost? conversion (Stanhill, 1990; Wynen, 1994; The answer is plenty of plant biomass that Halberg and Kristensen, 1997); (ii) In the is available on the roadsides in the form of so-called green revolution areas (irrigated weeds could be used as the raw material lands), conversion to organic agriculture for composting or mulching. This biomass usually leads to almost identical yields (from weeds) should be considered as (Rajendran et al., 2000; Kler et al., 2002); invaluable and the same should be applied (iii) In traditional rain-fed agriculture (with in the agricultural fields. However care low external inputs), organic agriculture has should be taken to remove the biomass shown the potential to increase yields before flowering or make sure that the (Ramesh et al., 2005; Huang et al., 1993; seeds are not carried on to the actual crop Singh et al., 2001). In addition to this a area. This is to avoid weeds growing in the number of studies also have shown that crop area. Then the waste becomes wealth. under drought conditions, crops in organic Here only human labor is involved and there agriculture systems produce significantly is no investment. No one is going to ask us higher yields than comparable conventional as to why you are removing the biomass of agricultural crops (Wynen, 1994; Dormaar the weeds. Further farmers should follow et al., 1988) often more than conventional the theory of “nothing is waste”. Even if a crops (Lockeretz et al., 1981; Halberg and crop fails due to one reason or the other the Kristensen, 1997; Petersen et al., 1991) by farmers should not get panicky. Instead they 7–90% (Ramesh et al., 2005). Organic should try to get something out of the crop crops are more tolerant and resistant to failure. This could be in the form of insect attack (Lotter et al., 1999) and in the converting the biomass of the affected crop case of organically grown rice it has been into charcoal briquettes, compost, reported to have thicker cell walls and lower mushrooms, eco-friendly paper from the levels of free amino acid than conventional fiber or any other such value added rice (Kajimura et al., 1990). products. There should be a trading of biomass (Sarma, 2008a). How organic manures could enhance profits There is no hard and fast rule for compost preparations though methods such as One of the concerns of organic farming has NADEP composting, vermicomposting as been that the yields are 10-15% less than suggested by practitioners of organic chemical farming produce in the case of agriculture8 are proven and tested to have intensive farming systems as mentioned high success rate. Farmers could above. However this situation is often found experiment and innovate in the field to in the initial years of conversion to organic simplify any of the above composting farming method from an erstwhile chemical methods depending upon the availability of farm fields. To compensate any such low facilities and resources, if warranted. Usage yields the farmers could resort to multiple of small tanks, bins or other containers cropping which would provide different other could be used for composting at urban farm produce also, in addition to the main backyards, small households. The urban crop (Shiva et al., 2004; Sarma, 2008c). One waste (it should be organic waste), kitchen of the advantages of multiple cropping is waste and other food waste could be that it could provide additional income from processed as mentioned above if plant various other crops in a unit area, increases waste is not available for preparing compost agrobiodiversity (Shiva et al., 2004) and also in small scale. Similarly farm waste, food sequesters carbon dioxide more efficiently processing waste e.g. tea waste could also if a few trees are also planted thus reducing be converted into compost. As is already the green house gases and global warming mentioned even if we just add the plant (Sarma, 2008c). In fact such tree plantation, biomass and leave it in the field as mulch, along the boundary or intermittently, would biodegradation and nutrient recycling will also provide carbon credits to the farmers take place, albeit at a slower pace (Sarma, (Sarma, 2008a). 2008a). 64 ECO-CHRONICLE Field application of organic manures produce the question of certification does not arise. But if a farmer claims that his The application of the manures in the soil produce is ‘organic’ then he will be asked could be by spreading the powdery manure to get certification and the cost goes and into the field. However this would consume finally the organic produce becomes a luxury a large amount of the manure per acre. item. Why should we allow such a Addition of higher amounts of manure is conspiracy on organic agriculture and make not going to cause any harm as it would it a failure. Selling organic produce at higher remain in the soil and will be available over prices is a retrograde step and would be an extended period of time i.e. 2 or 3 years. detrimental for organic movement itself. But definitely it would give a feeling that Hence the next achievement and focus some amount of expenditure is incurred in should be on to bring down the prices of the first year for manures. From the second organic produce to lesser than the chemical or third year it would stabilize and we need farming produce. not add higher amount of manures. Alternatively if the manure is mixed with What is integrated biomass management? water and a solution is made the larger particles could be filtered off and the Integrated biomass management is solution could be supplied to the entire field nothing but properly utilizing the biomass through fertigation method. The latter (standing live, senescent, dead and method is the best option for field decomposing) and recycling it in the application of organic manures. The agricultural fields without loosing it. If the remaining debris of the latter method could biomass is properly trapped within the field be reused for compost or it could be directly then the successive crops could be grown spread in the field in the powder form itself perennially without any additional inputs. If (Sarma, 2008b). need be the kitchen waste, dung, any other domestic solid waste, weeds on the The approach for organic agriculture roadside converted as composts (vermi – or any other) or the latter purchased from If organic farming has to succeed then it outside can all be added to compensate should compete with chemical farming by any loss of biomass in a particular field. offering the products at lower prices than at Care should be taken to ensure that the higher prices and this is not only possible weeds are removed before flowering. While but also it is very simple. Organic agriculture the leafy material could be directly added to has to be taken as a routine practice for composting pits the hard woody material maintaining ecological balance and as a could be taken up as fire wood material or it method which is safe. If organic farmers could also be converted to charcoal. Leafy become greedy and put a higher price for material should be considered as a their produce, then, only, those, who are rich, precious organic matter as it is easily can purchase and it becomes a fashion, for degradable and readily forms compost and a few, to resort to organic produce. Further hence such a material need not be taken their only aim seems to be to catch the for charcoal briquettes. On the contrary the international market. On the contrary, if they woody material is highly recalcitrant if it is really understand and practice the organic highly lignified and the same cannot be cultivation properly, then, they could sell their used in composting as it takes a much produce at much lower price than chemical longer time to get degraded (may be several agriculture. One of the reasons of high price years). Hence the latter material is for organic agriculture is the requirement of suggested for charcoal briquetting or directly organic certification. The farmers have to used as fire wood. The ash that is left during pay hefty amount to get certification to claim the usage of fire wood could be supplied in one’s produce is organically cultivated the agricultural fields as it contains high which increases the cost of production. Is amount of potash and other elements. In there a necessity to claim that the produce the case of dead animal skeleton remains is organic even if it is grown by following they could be ground into powder and organic agricultural methods? If it is priced spread in the fields as they mainly contain at lower amount than the chemical farming calcium, silica in addition to other trace ECO-CHRONICLE 65 elements (Sarma, 2008a). As school commercial fertilizer in restoring productivity students, we have been taught lessons that of an artificially eroded dark brown but for microbial action this world would chernozemic soil under dryland conditions, have been full of animal/plant dead bodies/ Can. J. Soil Sci. 68: 669–679. remains. Further, most of the points discussed in this article are not new, but, Fell, J.W. and Master, I.M., 1980. The we have not paid attention to biomass association and potential role of fungi in conversions and how organic agriculture mangrove detrital systems, Botanica Marina functions. It is time for us to get back 23: 257-263. ourselves into basic concepts in ecology and physiology and properly understand Flangan, P.W. and Scarborough, A.M., 1974. organic agriculture for the benefit of farmers Physiological groups of decomposer fungi who are committing suicide in great on tundra plant remains, In: (Ed. A.J. numbers. The above points in integrated Holding, O.W. Heal, S.F. Maclean and P.W. biomass management are only a tip of the Flanagan) Soil organisms and iceberg and it could be improvised and decomposition in tundra (IBP Tundra refined further, based on inputs from Biome Steering Committee. 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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 67 - 70 ISSN: 0973-4155
AGRO BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY AMONG TRIBAL WOMEN
Cinthia Fernandaz, C.1 and R. Sendil Kumar.2
1 Spices Board, Adimaly-685561, Idukki, Kerala. 2 Department of Agricultural Extension, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Diversification in agriculture was found to create ample scope for economic sustainability among the tribal women. The basic needs were satisfied with the help of agro biodiversity. This study helped to examine the scope and influence of agro biodiversity on the livelihood sustainability among the tribal women. Twelve major components were identified for the study. These were examined to study the influence on the livelihood sustainability. Food being the basic need of the human was found to be the vital component with high relative weightage and influence on the livelihood sustainability. The socio economic variables of the respondents also had influence on the food sustainability.
INTRODUCTION elite class. Ragi, horse-gram, jowar, maize, Nature is an essential partnership, tapioca, bajra etc. are considered as poor essential because each species has its men’s food basket. Thus, over the years, space, role and performs a function many people have taken to rice or wheat essential to the whole; a partnership more as a symbol of status improvement because the living components of nature, (Anonymous, 2002). the species, can thrive and survive only together, because together they create a The endangered varieties should be dynamic equilibrium. Nature is a dynamic enlisted and collected systematically. Such activity that is never the same; that changes, varieties should be grown on several plots. and then adapts which involves in Adequate encouragement should therefore equilibrium that remains, unchanged be provided to such mini seed sanctuaries because it always accommodated evolution with a view to save the endangered species and biodiversity. on farms. Expeditions to collect traditional crop and plant varieties of ecological and A few decades ago, the planet Earth was medicinal importance should be conducted, very rich with numerous crop, plant and sub- from time to time. The importance of a human species. Similarly, there were species should not be viewed from the diverse forms of food habits practiced narrow angle of human beings alone, but among different social groups. These varied should be seen in the holistic sense. The food habits were essentially sustaining schools, colleges, progressive farmers and multiple crop varieties too. Over the years, other interested groups should be more and more people are leaving their integrated in the seed collection expedition. traditional food habits. For example, a large number of ragi (finger millet) eaters are The collected varieties should be distributed drawn towards rice. Similarly, a large for conservation on the farmlands, number of bajra and jowar eaters have community/grazing lands, tank/canal beds, taken to wheat or rice. Tapioca, which was kitchen gardens, orchards and around consumed by certain groups in Kerala in school fields. These would act as an the past, has become a taboo among the insurance against the endangered species. 68 ECO-CHRONICLE To find out suitable and concrete evidences after reviewing the various techniques or facts to the above mentioned views, a available in the field of scale construction. study was needed. The results of the Guttmann’s (1944) scalogram analysis, empirical approaches could be used in Thurston’s (1947) law of comparative making necessary changes in the agro judgments scale, summated rating method biodiversity conservation and livelihood by Likert (1949) were analysed. Before sustainability among the tribal women. With construction of the scale, the components this background, the present study was were identified. designed to assess the livelihood sustainability through agro biodiversity The components that would reflect the agro conservation practices. biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood were identified through various METHODOLOGY sources such as perusing literature, contact with the concerned officials of development The Nilgiris is one of the “Biodiversity departments, self help group members, NGO Hotspots” as declared by the National officials and extension personnel. Thus 12 Biodiversity Authority in the year 1998. The major components were identified for the green carpet of crops and natural settings study which is depicted in Table 1. always speaks about the biodiversity of the district, which provided ample scope for the Influence of the components towards study. The percentage of tribal population livelihood sustainability was highest in The Nilgiris district than other districts of Tamil Nadu. Hence The The components that had influenced the Nilgiris District was purposively choosen for livelihood sustainability through agro the study. There are six tribal groups viz., biodiversity conservation were measured Dodhas, Irulas, Kurumbas, Paniyas, Kothar with factor analysis. The direct and indirect and Kattunaickar, found in the district. As influence of the components on the Y the study is more related to agro biodiversity, variable could be measured with factor continuous performance in agriculture analysis. The results are depicted in Table related activities among the respondents 2. It was revealed that among the twelve were needed. The Irulars and Kothars components studied seven components depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Table 1.Components identified and Hence these two groups were purposively selected for the study. selected after factor analysis sl. no. Major component A research design may be regarded as the blue print of those procedures, which are 1. Food sustainability adopted by the researcher for testing the relationship between the dependent 2. Nutritional security variable and the independent variable. 3. Health management Expost facto research design was done. The respondents were selected based on 4. Shelter security proportionate sampling method. The 5. Soil and water sustainability independent variables relevant to the study were selected based on the review of 6. Economic sustainability literature, discussion with experts and a pilot study conducted in a place similar to the 7. Employment generation study area. Based on the rating by judges, 8. Educational security the mean and co-efficient of variation were worked out for all the independent variables. 9. Assets management 10. Cultural sustainability Identification and standardization of critical components 11. Infrastructure and marketing sustainability Construction of Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) for tribal women was attempted 12. Political sustainability ECO-CHRONICLE 69 influenced the livelihood sustainability. vegetable needs. Almost all the households These components were food cultivated their own food and satisfied their sustainability, nutritional security, economic needs. Hence food sustainability had sustainability and employment generation. influence on the livelihood sustainability. The factor analysis showed that these variables had direct influence on the The second important component was the livelihood sustainability. institutional security. Apart from obtaining full food security through agro biodiversity The factor value of food sustainability on the conservation, it led to nutritional security livelihood sustainability was 0.745. This had also. The natural food always supplied the a direct influence on the Y variable. Food needed nutrients, vitamins and minerals. being the basic need of the human was Minor millets and vegetables satified the found to be the vital component with high requirement of basic nutrients. Kitchen relative weightage and influence on the gardening was practiced in almost all the livelihood sustainability. The socio households during the field visits. These economic variables of the respondents also kitchen gardens consist of greens, which had influence on the food sustainability. All were known for the fibres and vitamins, the food needs had been satisfied by the vegetables for their unique colours (i.e. respondents from the biodiversity. carrot and beet root). Medicinal plants also Traditional food habits were also followed were found to have an important place in by the respondents. Cultivation of minor the kitchen gardens. Hence the nutrient millets like varagu, samai and cumbu also security had direct influence on the sustained the food needs of the livelihood sustainability of the respondents. respondents. These minor millets played the important part of food needs among the When the food and nutrition status was tribals. satisfied, it led to the health management aspect. The clear nature and clean Compared to the Kothars, Irulars had more environment created a disease free influence on the food sustainability community. Most of the diseases that were because their cultivation had not been identified here were treated with the natural shifted towards the scientific practices. But products. It was also discussed that the some piece of lands among the Kothars medicinal plants found an important place had been shifted to tea plantation. Hence among the kitchen and community gardens. they could rely on the outside market for The regular phenomenon with each and Table 2. Factor analysis showing the influence of the components on livelihood sustainability (n=200) Sl. Components Factors Commu No. Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 nalities 1. Food sustainability 0.745* 0.160 0.240 0.641 2. Nutritional security 0.787* 0.210 0.215 0.720 3. Health management 0.856* 0.148 0.194 0.818 4. Shelter security 0.823* 0.336 0.169 0.837 5. Soil and water sustainability 0.527 0.257 2.405E-02 0.777 6. Economic sustainability 0.723* 0.517 0.624 0.673 7. Employment generation 0.816* 0.171 0.226 0.800 8. Educational security 0.589 0.142 0.260 0.904 9. Assets management 0.468 0.219 0.137 0.854 10. Cultural sustainability 0.489 0.145 0.316 0.681 11. Infrastructure and marketing 0.488 7.646 0.194 0.767 sustainability E-02 12. Political sustainability 0.489 0.286 0.209 0.839 Eigen value 8.400 2.591 2.384 9.311 Per cent of total variance explained 66.347 12.425 7.064 80.689 70 ECO-CHRONICLE every rural and tribal community, among the between the other groups by conducting Indian villages, was malnutrition and interactive meeting. This could be a useful diseases. But these villages were measure where the ideas could be exceptional in these cases. During the field exchanged between other tribal groups. When visit it was rare to document such a there were adequate and timely inputs symptom in these communities. Hence supplied to the respondents, the constraints health management had direct influence on could be easily managed. Hence they could the livelihood sustainability of the actively involve in the participation of agro respondents. biodiversity conservation. When there were easily operating tools and implements, the Shelter security was the next important technology could be easily available to the component that had influence on the respondents. Majority of the tribal women were livelihood sustainability of the respondents. in the need of easy operating tools and It showed direct influence. Even though implements that could reduce the drudgery of there were modern tools and equipments, tribal women in adopting the agro biodiversity the traditional way of building houses was conservation practices. Extension personnel very peculiar among them. Especially the play a very vital role in transferring the important housing style of Kothars was very unique technologies on agro biodiversity with natural fencing around the house and conservation practices. Moreover women tatched roofing. The trees of the forests extension functionaries were having the ability safeguarded the village from natural to convince the women respondents and calamities. The main shrubs were very make the technologies reach them prominent in these villages. In some cases immediately. Timely Environmental education they had medicinal value also. The Irulars and training in agro biodiversity conservation also lived in a natural dwelling of tree leaves would lead towards a better participation and and dried shrubs. Every house had a shrub better livelihood through agro biodiversity or a live fence. Employment and conservation. economic sustainability were the other important components having direct REFERENCES influence on the livelihood sustainability of the respondents. Employment was the Anonymous. 2002. Environment Information base for all the basic needs. Employed System, Centre for Symbiosis of Technology, respondents would be better citizens and Bangalore, India. also a boon for their family. This monetary returns and benefits led to the economic FAO. 2006. Annual Report of the Food and sustainability of the respondents. The basic Agriculture Organisation, Rome. cause for all the problems among the rural and the tribals were the economic instability. Ganesan, R., 1989. Participation Pattern of So employment would provide a way for Officials, Farm Leaders and Farmer them regarding the agro biodiversity Beneficiaries in Agricultural Development conservation. In turns it satisfied the Schemes – A Critical Analysis, Unpub. Ph.D. monetary needs and created an economic Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore. sustainability among the respondents. Hence employment and economic Bhuvaneshwari, Sri Vara Buddhi, 2005. Role component go hand in hand in influencing of Tribal Women in the Conservation of Agro the livelihood sustainability of the biodiversity: A Multidimensional Analysis. respondents. These discussions coincided Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore. with the research findings of Marimuthu (2001). Marimuthu, P., 2001. Indigenous Tribal CONCLUSION Wisdom for Rural Development: A Multidimensional Analysis. Unpub. Ph.D. This study revealed that the tribal women play Thesis. TNAU, Coimbatore. a very vital role in the conservation of agro biodiversity, which lead to high sustainable UNESCO. 1990. Source Book in Environmental livelihood. The respondents had given a Education for Secondary School Teachers, suggestion about exchanging of knowledge Bangkok. ECO-CHRONICLE 71
ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.4., No. 1. March 2009, pp: 71 - 74 ISSN: 0973-4155
WHAT DERAILS WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION?
Venkateswara Sarma, V.
G1, Ganpath Villa, 67, Padmavathy Nagar, Virugambakkam, Chennai-600092, India E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
It is well known that dowry system, domestic violence, upbringing of children are the main reasons that confine women at home. There could be hidden reasons including safety and security of the person, their chastity and modesty being at risk at schools, colleges, offices, prevent them from education and employment, leading to school drop outs. They need security to escape from beast- like men. We should understand and appreciate that girls / women will have their own likes, dislikes, preferences and we should not impose our interest on them. Most important aspect of this article is equal distribution of parental or ancestral properties to both men and women, which would provide financial security to girl child / woman to pursue studies or research for higher education.
When transport facilities were not available, development. However, this potential has until last century, different sections of the not been properly tapped in India. While Indian society were living as close entities several people would provide the routine within particular villages / taluks as part of reasons for lack of enough women joint family system. For various reasons representation in science and technology, patriarchal system was followed wherein an attempt is made in the present article to properties were transferred to men folk/ trace the reasons that are often overlooked brothers in the joint families with women or we have deliberately shield away to accept having no role in ownership or titles in the the truth. sale deeds. Women were confined to houses and were subjected to master the The girl child is given a secondary status domestic household work. They were not within the family when both male and female married to grooms from far away places as children are there. The girls from their very the parents were worried about the girls young age participate and help in the being not taken care of well. In fact attempts domestic household work including were made to marry them off to close washing utensils, clothes and involved in relatives. However with the advent of cooking. This is more so when mother is industrial revolution and advancements in weak, while boys are spared not to spend science and technology, we have very good their time for this type of work. As a result transport systems, which made people to boys have more time to concentrate on their travel across continents, countries and studies when compared to girls (of course, states. Parallel to these, developments in boys also waste time playing games). This, education and literacy rate have increased over a period of time, leads to a compromise with potential for women having on women education. Do we ever think considerable participation in the overall about this later on? When the male child 72 ECO-CHRONICLE gets good education he will also settle in a problems often get compounded with good job. But what will happen to the girl policemen torturing the victims to not only child who has spent her prime time in withdraw the complaints (after being bribed house hold work compromising her studies. by the culprits) but also they exploit the Are there any parents or the society to victims physically and mentally which is understand and realize this fact? This is worse than the acts of culprits. Even in the because the loss that the girls had in their case of married women, such atrocities are formative years gets carried throughout their committed under threat and blackmail. To life. Who will compensate? The brothers or save the life of their children, who are father? Will the system (wives/society) allow threatened, the married women submit the brothers to take care of their sisters, if themselves as a sacrifice. These things they so decide to help their sisters to pay mostly happen to lower/middle class them a gratitude? As otherwise the women families. If these happenings are isolated would remain second class citizens without incidents it would have been a consolation. any redressal. Unfortunately this is not so. And this is the reason why the parents try to nip at the bud Another important reason is lack of enough itself by not preferring to have girl children security for girls in our society. The parents due to fear of their modesty and security will be with full of anxiety day in and day out being at risk. Adding salt to injury is the before their girl children return home. This continuation of practice of dowry system. unnecessary tension is forcing some While some families take excuse at mutual parents, in rural areas as well as cities, to consent, in most other cases it is always stop their daughters from going to schools out of compulsion. This is often given as or colleges. Hence more drop outs of girls the main reason for the parents to not to in schools/colleges are found. The extreme have girl children but more dangerous and action of this situation is to either not to prefer appropriate reason is the safety and security girl children or kill the infants or fetus once of the girl children. The perpetrators who they are found that they belong to fair sex. indulge in atrocities against women often The governments come up with take the help of other women. Such woman legislations, amended from time to time, accomplices become enemies against while the NGOs, and all other forward other women. Alternatively these women looking people raise hue and cry for such (collaborators) often indulge in such practices/mentality. All along, in the past activities under threat from male criminals. 100 years or so, we have been targeting to Probably 95% of the above categories of remove the symptoms without actually trying cases never come out. Even if one or two to cure the root cause of the disease. The cases come out they never get justice. disease here is the dangers posed by Instead they are further victimized with beast-like men in our society who are the ostracism. It is ironical that a country which actual culprits, indulging in various claims conservative and respects chastity atrocities against women including rapes. of women in reality indulges in all sorts of Due to ostracism practiced in our society, atrocities/rape against women. where instead of having sympathy for the victims, often the victims are further Following measures are suggested to victimized by all sorts of biased male improve the situation: (i) Stringent chauvinistic judgments, superstitions, punishments including capital punishment hypocrisy passed by pachayats or for rapes, (ii) speedy disposal of cases kangaroo courts that run parallel instead of trying to find flimsy reasons or governments. If the victims prefer to lodge a yielding to dirty tricks of the culprits to make complaint with law enforcing agency, their safe escape to them. Unfortunately our ECO-CHRONICLE 73 establishments are ever ready to take such provided to take care of the aged i.e. parents dirty reasons to escape the culprits; (iii) we should be ensured. feel ashamed of studying moral studies in the formative years, which lay foundation One of the excuses that the criminals in our and shape the personality of boys and girls, society find is the dress that women wear, becoming good citizens. We can include which has provoked them to indulge in a moral studies that could be from Hinduism, particular crime. This is not only ridiculous Christianity, Islam and others. Or this but readily exploitable argument. If our men combination could be arrived at in do not have control upon themselves and consultation with different religious leaders. find an excuse on the dress that women We can invite rationalists also to have their wear then we have only beasts in our society own moral stories but the main idea is to and not human beings who have control on make a responsible and law abiding themselves. In the west while men wear citizens and not the ones who indulge in full dress the women always have freedom atrocities against women on one pretext or for novelty without compromising decency. the other and give all sorts of reasons to But we don’t hear any problems in their escape; (iv) the bias shown now in the societies and they respect women much distribution of properties to only sons better than us. The matter of the fact here is should be abandoned and daughters that irrespective of whether women are should also get equal shares in the parental conservative or modern the same treatment/ properties. For the first time in India, it harassment is meted to them i.e. sexual seems, the former chief minister of Andhra atrocities/rapes. When we have so many Pradesh, Mr.N.T. Rama Rao, has brought other things to concentrate or achieve, why in legislation, where sons and daughters should we focus on what dress the women could get equal share of properties. This wear. Hence it is advised to men that women law should be universalized in India in all should have equal shares in ancestral or other states also so that irrespective of the parental properties and their chastity, sex the properties get distributed equally. modesty and dignity, throughout their life, Unfortunately, however, this law is should be maintained for which a sea applicable to only ancestral properties. In change in our men folk is needed in their the case of individual properties also, the mindset, attitude, perception and an parents, should change their mindset and understanding that women also will have dogmatic attitude and apply their conscience their own preferences, likes and dislikes to to distribute their property equally to all accept or reject when proposed/pestered children. The properties, when transferred by the ‘so-called lovers’ without assigning to the girl children, are mainly to provide any reason. financial security and not to help their spouses (because the latter could be Most disturbing facts that are happening in troublesome, in some cases, as it seems India are the sexual atrocities/rapes against to be). The reason why the property issue young girls between the ages of 7-12. This has been raised is such equal sharing of is not restricted to Indians alone but even the properties not only provides financial foreigners also. The young girls who are security to girl children but also allows them subjected to such acts become isolated, to have higher education and participate in dejected, completely withdrawn from the the research activities. Whatever may be the society, loose self confidence, cannot case i.e. ancestral or individual property, the concentrate on their studies, and lead a transfer could be after the death of parents pathetic life for the rest. Some can overcome or if before, enough provision should be this, realizing that such things are only 74 ECO-CHRONICLE accidents and for no fault of theirs they present situation for girls/women, how can should not worry too much about it. we expect them to go for higher studies, let Unfortunately, however, neither our society alone entering into research and nor the husbands are magnanimous to development and be a part of science and think that such happenings are acts of technology development. While dowry atrocities against the victims. On the contrary system, domestic violence, children the victims are ostracized and given all sorts upbringing, and violence at offices as of troubles by the society. Rarely, in a few reasons for the derailment of women’s cases, the husbands come forward to fight participation in higher research and for justice for their wives lodging a complaint development are commonly dealt by others and taking a legal course. If this is the and hence they are not covered in this article.