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Home , Bruges, Venice of the North, Zwin

NOTES ON THE MEDICAL HISTORY OF AND THE HOSPITAL OF SAINT JOHN*

By HAROLD M. TOVELL, M.D.

TORONTO, CANADA N the dim past when the fabric Bardi increased their capital with of Roman administration was de- the prosperity of the town. stroyed and its culture adulter- Politically it rose from being the ated, when Clovis had succeeded seat of an obscure nobleman to the Ito his Merovingian chieftainship andresidence of the counts of Gregory of Tours in turn had con- and the Dukes of . Admired quered the for the Christian alike by plebians, kings and queens, faith, there gradually arose, from this its fame for beauty, pageants and era of shadowy ghosts and mythical wealth spread throughout Europe. chronicles a new civilization nourished Like all medieval towns its joys and sponsored by the Church. A were not continuous. Wars, assaults, few centuries rolled by; Europe com- plagues, rebellion and tortures moved menced to unfold. From the obscurity across the stage with frequent regu- of the great lowland flats of Flanders, larity until the close of the fifteenth on the banks of the Reye, near its century when Bruges, superseded by junction with the , there in the , ceased to be a factor in year 856 a burg and chapel were built commerce. by one Baldwin Bras-de-Fer for the Believing that the high state of purpose of trade. This was the nais- civilization developed in the four- sance of Bruges. teenth and fifteenth centuries would, Around this chateau there gradually from its economic force, advance the collected a community of merchants. status of public health and medicine The Reye became converted into a until they occupied a position in series of ; streets took form; keeping with the general advance- walls arose; the Zwin became a river ment, I thought it would be of interest of importance. The harbor was the to glance into the history of Bruges safest in the north of Europe. Canals as a representative product of the age. connected it with , , Dun- To follow the medical growth of a kirk, Sluys and Furnis. In 1200 it medieval town is a rather difficult was the central mart of the Hanseatic procedure even with archives at league and by the fourteenth century one’s disposal, due to the fact that the it was the . Mer- inhabitants did not record such devel- chants from all countries traded on its opments as diligently as they would quays; the products of the east were a miraculous intervention of a patron bartered for those of the west; the saint or a successful assault upon a furs of Russia for the jewels of the neighboring town. Orient; the wool of England became The twelfth century opened with the cloth of Flanders. The great Bruges occupying practically the same bankers of the world carried on the space as today yet with fewer build- exchange. The Medici, Fuggers and ings. The houses were inflammable, *Read before The Medical Historical Club, Toronto, November 18, 1927. fire was a constant source of destruc- by word of mouth, by writing, pictures tion and terror. The streets were or demonstration.” unpaved and as Flanders enjoyed rain The water supply having been then as now, they were at times solved, the fathers in their wisdom impassable. Near the market place applied themselves with equal intelli- there was an open cloaca into which gence to drainage. The streets were dead and sometimes live bodies were paved, gutters being provided which thrown. George, one of the murderers drained into receptacles. Special offi- of , after having his cers known as Muederhcren, “officers hands cut off, was cast into the cloaca of mud,” were appointed, whose duties to perish. The canals were filthy, no were to see that the pavements were particular attempt being made to kept clean and repaired, the gutters regulate the water supply; indeed it in good order and the receptacles not was such an unhealthy place that it choked or malodorous. Manure was is difficult to believe that it was of to be disposed of to the neighboring any importance commercially, yet farmers. Partly for hygienic reasons merchants from various countries were but mostly for commercial, the canals established and prospering. With its were deepened and enlarged; a special increasing importance the magistrates boat and crew were appointed to under divers and trying conditions patrol the canals and see that they finally during the thirteenth and four- were free of all offensive materials, teenth centuries evolved an elaborate they being enjoined to pay particular system of drainage and water supply. attention to the removal of dead dogs For the latter, water was led from and pigs. The latter being under St. many clear streams and springs into Anthony’s special care were allowed a large reservoir at St. Bavon, a to roam about at will. nearby hamlet at which point a water- The political situation under Louis house was constructed with two large of Nevers (1322-1346) nearly wrecked towers, all of which have disappeared. the previous good work. Under his The method of distribution was simple regime, the ramparts were destroyed, but effective; buckets running on a the water supply interfered with, chain over a large wheel picked up the canals became clogged; not un- the water from the reservoir and til the general health of the com- emptied it into a large cistern above, munity was threatened did he allow from which point it was distributed in them to be restored to their normal conduits to all parts of the city. Man’s function. Such were a few of the faithful ally, the horse, furnished difficulties experienced by a com- the motive power. That the citizens munity in search of health. Yet were justly proud of this municipal through it all it is surprising to see development is shown by the honour with what persistence the life of the with which they regarded the post of town went on. keeper of the waterhouse. “He swore As a result of Louis’ severe chastise- to be faithful and diligent in his work, ment, Bruges again had to devote that he would guard the Waterhouse much time and money to her pressing and all its instruments, aqueducts needs as she had done in the last half and canals, and that he would never of the previous century. In 1360 pestil- divulge its secret to any living man ence broke out, followed by fire which wiped out a whole section of the especially the roof. The early wooden town. While at the time it seemed a house and thatched roof had always calamity, nevertheless, it served as an been a source of fire. Gradually there incentive to rebuild with better ma- sprang up in various localities brick terial. The main thoroughfares were and stone edifices. Under encourage- repaved, the less important were ment this went on until by fire and stripped down their centers, new law all wooden and thatched houses drains were constructed, the old ones were replaced and where private funds repaired, nor did the work cease till were not sufficient the civic treasury Bruges was remade, and the already helped. While the improvement in the famous waterhouse was enlarged, pro- housing condition may not have arisen vision being made for the erection of from a standpoint of health yet it fountains. Public baths were estab- exerted a beneficial influence. The lished which at first proved of great driving force was economic. benefit to the community but later be- Thus from practically an enclosed came a source of flagrant immorality. field of mud with no water supply, Apparently then as now the sur- drainage or proper housing, we find geons were specially looked after and by the beginning of the fifteenth did not lack for practice, because the century, a veritable city of enchant- magistrates saw fit to construct a ment with its many turretted houses, special pit for the exclusive use of the canals wide and well kept, stone barber surgeons in which they could bridges with graceful arches, foun- deposit the blood drawn from their tains and open spaces; churches and victims. It also suggests that their monasteries. It is no wonder that technique was not above reproach Pius 11 who visited the city in 1435 *s (1361). said to have stated that Bruges was Evidently the old unstable build- one of the three most beautiful ings and houses were of such a he had seen, and he was widely nature that the collapse of a wall or travelled. John Paston, one of the the toppling over of a roof or sign, to English gentlemen who attended the the detriment or death of passersby, wedding of Margaret of with was not uncommon, because we find , in 1469 wrote: “By according to an old Chronicler (Dam- my troth, I heard never of so great houder) that certain officials named plenty as there is, and as for the Deelmannen were appointed, whose Duke’s court, as for lords, ladies and duty it was to inspect the streets, gentlewomen, knights, squires and dwellings and shops, full power being gentlemen, I heard never of none like given them either to demolish or to to it save King Arthur’s court.’’ We make necessary repairs, all charges are told that, when Margaret entered for such work to be borne by the the town, the streets were covered owner. with cloth-of-gold, silks and tapestries, Dating from the early days and and that the had to stop ten extending through the twelfth, thir- times before reaching the market- teenth and fourteenth centuries, we place, to admire tableaux illustrating find a very consistent attempt being episodes of sacred and profane history. made by the authorities to improve From the medicolegal standpoint the quality of house construction, it is difficult to place accurately the dates of various legal enactments or eyes. In i486 three Frenchmen were trials due to the fact that no records so treated after which they were were kept before 1608, but from cer- banished for six years. Bruges thus tain old manuscripts a great deal can recognized the importance of good be reconstructed. Then as now, medi- and pure food. Not only was it impor- cal opinion was sought and accepted tant to the health of her citizens but by the court. One very interesting and economically she could not afford the authentic incident demonstrating that desecration of her marts by the selling for once at any rate medical opinion of anything which was not of first was not divided, occurred in 1490 quality. when “one Van Neyts, a brewer’s While jurisprudence is possibly out- assistant had been sentenced to lose side the scope of this paper yet, as a hand and to be banished for six many offences entailed as a conse- years, but on account of the great quent punishment either mutilation cold and frost and on the advice of or death, a few words concerning the doctors and surgeons who reported such events might be of interest. that the first part of the sentence could Common to all countries of that time not be carried out without danger to death was administered for offences, the culprit, the punishment was de- some trivial, others serious, such as layed.” This custom of cutting off an treason, homicide, highway robbery arm or hand, thereby rendering the with violence, sacrilege, horse stealing, individual unable to follow his occu- coining, arson, rape, and theft from pation to its full capacity, was most dead bodies. It is of interest to see inconsistent with the functions of the ingenuity shown by the authorities the communal burgomaster or as our to administer death. Boiling, accord- chronicler calls him “totius reipublicae ing to the chronicler of the time, was et communitatis pater” who among administered in 1431 and 1455, al- many duties was to take cognizance of though he fails to state the crime. all injuries, dealing with them as Burning gave plenty of scope for the justice might require. One can here torture of the poor victim, especially see the rudiments of a Workmen’s the slow method which is described Compensation Act or possibly some- by an eye witness. “The victim was thing better; further the same “pater tied to a stake by a chain which communitatis” by night accompanied allowed him sufficient freedom to run by a suitable guard was to visit all around and around inside a circle of houses of ill fame to see that every- fire until he collapsed, which however thing was in order. did not happen for a long time.” Druggists had their stalls in the Arson was always serious, especially so public square. Here herbs, spices, in the earlier days. A mere threat roots and medicines, gathered from to burn another’s house was sufficient all quarters of the globe, were shown to be punished by death. Death by in great profusion to be sold locally the sword and hanging were of course or to foreign markets. The food supply commonly used, while burying alive, was carefully guarded. Any merchant though rarely used, for some reason or or trader selling bad food was placed other was left for the female offenders. in the pillory for a certain time and Torture was freely employed some- the food in question burnt before his times to the innocent victim, as happened in 1464 when the authorities minister to the needs of the com- paid compensation for the “breaking munity with power to add during of limbs” of the wrong person. The times of stress and plague. That this cutting-off of hands, fingers, or ears, was considered an honourable appoint- or the burning and piercing of the ment is shown by the positions of hon- tongue were forms of maiming, often our accorded them on all public for trivial offences, as petty theft, occasions. Uniforms both for summer assault, blasphemy, seditious and evil and winter were provided from the speaking. municipal chest as were their funeral One Martine, the wife of Pieter Prys- expenses. The large proportion of mid- beer in 1484 was branded with red hot wives is undoubtedly due to the fact irons first in the market place and again in that in those days practically all ob- front of the Bourse, at St. John’s Bridge, stetrical work was left in their care, at the place called Malberg and in the the physician being called only to ex- Burg. She was then bound to a stake on ceptional cases. It is to be regretted a scaffold and a piece of her tongue cut that a statement of the duties of this off. After this she was banished for six medical staff is not available. It is years under penalty of being buried alive. remarkable to find that such a service Her offence was that she had affirmed existed at the early date of 1294, and at cards that she would win “in although its history is obscure it spite of God and His Holy Mother.” apparently represented a purely civic Branding was also very serious as enterprise; all the more interesting in the hot iron usually pierced the a period characterized as it was by the cheek to the teeth, leaving an unfor- dominance of the church. tunate wound. Immorality was pun- From an old fifteenth century ished by forced pilgrimage to some chronicle, Bruges apparently had its distant shrine or banishment. Appar- accidents then as now. The chronicler ently public opinion was fairly strong is rather a plain, unimaginative per- on this point because we find the son who, however, gives us a picture powerful guilds, doing their utmost of things as they actually occurred. A to purge their ranks of such offenders. short quotation is sufficient to show A master fruiterer was interdicted for that the practictioner of medicine out- allowing his mistress to carry on his side of wars and plagues had ample trade. opportunity to become proficient in Unfortunately from available sources emergency work. so far I have not been able to locate any measures of public health in Whole streets are destroyed by fire. times of plague comparable to those A house collapses in the night and throws put into force in Venice and as the occupants from their beds into the reported in the Fugger News Letters street. A brewer falls into his vat and perishes. An adulterous priest is slain by or to the regulations as issued by the outraged husband. Men, women and the medical schools of Montpellier children fall almost daily into the canals and . Bruges, however, seems to and are fished out dead. A cooper sits have developed a public medical serv- down to drink a pot of beer and dies ice in that two physicians, two sur- before it is finished; the bellringer of St. geons and eight midwives were ap- Sauveur, climbing to the tower, falls pointed by the civic authorities to from the cross into the street below. Five poor people are crushed to death in a its function in the life of the com- crowd close to the Carmelite Bridge. A munity. According to the custom of child’s eye is knocked out in play; a the time St. Jean was placed near the workman killed by a falling wall; a child centre of the city, therefore, favour- gored by a cow; another half-eaten by a ably situated for visitation from the pig, and a girl killed by the sails of a wealthier citizens, who then as now windmill. At the corner of the Rue appeased their conscience by this form Flamande a carter runs down and kills a child, and is killed in turn by a woman of charitable work. To the southwest standing by. A rich merchant is murdered of the opposite L’Eglise in the street and mutilated, and the jester de Notre Dame one sees an unpreten- of my Lord of Muelenbeke is slain in a tious brick building, one side of which public brawl. In the Burg a hand is cut faces the rue St. Catherine while the off or a man hanged. Outside the walls, other rises from the waters of the in the winter sunshine, six women are . The older thirteenth century being slowly roasted to death; within, the portion designed and built by Vincent streets are gay with silks and tapestries, de Roodc, a master mason of repute, while heads rot on the Belfry and the formed then as now an edifice worthy screams of tortured men rise from the of the city, with its steep, uneven roof Grand Place. And through it all the of tiles, its simple Gothic arches and Prince rides up and down and goes a-hunting, hawking and shooting. large windows and its bricks, once red but now enriched with many hues by Common to other cities a plague the seasoning of time. The interesting hospital was built but unfortunately small Gothic additions noted on that it seems difficult to obtain any data side which is bathed by the slow concerning it. Bruges was apparently moving stream; along with its oaken not unmindful of its aged and in- entrance door surmounted by a relief curable, because in 1164 or earlier of St. Augustus all produce an atmos- there was built near the Porte de phere in complete harmony with the the Hopital de la Poterie enclosed garden, along whose paths which however was of secondary im- the sisters pass to and fro ministering portance to the Hopital Saint Jean. to the sick. Here all is quiet, a pleasant To the obscure past belongs the contrast to the noise and traffic with- foundation of the Hopital Saint Jean. out. Unfortunately the grounds now In 1188 it is mentioned as admitting are not as spacious as they were, patients. Further than this nothing having been divided by the erection of appears to be known concerning its more recent buildings. The whole earlier history. It therefore antedates group offers an interesting study of the great hospital movement of Inno- hospital construction dating as it docs cent in. To the Augustinian brothers from the thirteenth century to the and sisters belongs the credit and present day, and although the older honour of having founded and carried parts are now used for storage pur- on this institution through all the poses they nevertheless are of sounder changing fortunes of the ages unto the construction than the later additions, present day. Through famine, war and having been built of brick with high plague, in time of prosperity and of ceilings and tile floors. These one adversity, the hospital silently, cou- story edifices were capable of easy and rageously and efficiently has fulfilled thorough cleaning and afforded excel- lent light and ventilation. The vista of of medical science. ’Tis true its build- the canal for those patients confined to ings are of interest and will always bed gave pleasure by the ever chang- repay the student of architecture, ing scenes, while the spacious garden yet today it ranks as one of the most with its seclusion and repose was ideal famous hospitals in the world, because for the convalescents. Even today the carefully guarded within its precincts, whole preserves an interesting sense its own peculiar possession of over of the medieval, in spite of the later four centuries, born of its own com- portions which, while conforming to mand and hung upon the walls of the the general character, lack the charm unpretentious chapter house of the which only comes with the passage order, are the chef d’oeuvres of Hans of time. Memlinc, comparable to San Marco According to the chroniclers the in , noted for the works of hospital had certain functions to per- Fra Angelico. form, one of which did not always Little is known of Memlinc’s life cause joy to the brothers. It would save that he was born in Mayence appear that it fell to their duty to about 1430, and that in 1468 we find provide a place of burial within the him in Bruges. From the first he ap- grounds for undesirables and for all parently succeeded because in 1478 malefactors who for one reason or he not only owned his own house but another had met with death by execu- had sufficient means to Ioan money to tion. This custom, however, has now the city. In time he corresponds with ceased, the last such burial occurring Piera della Francesca and Verrocchio in 1803 when fourteen bandits with in and Foucquet in France. The their chief, who for sometime had Van Eycks, the earliest known workers terrorized the country, were buried in oil, who sprang full armed into the here. The cemetery has now dis- gray dawn of painting, had appeared. Apparently the alleged stor- been dead for more than a generation ing of explosives in or near a hospital but was painting under the protection of the Red Cross in Ghent and was not of recent origin because in was at work in . From the 1337 gunpowder was manufactured latter Memlinc derived something no in Bruges and one of the sites chosen doubt, a tragic note that he himself for its storage was the Hopital was to portray but in a manner that Saint Jean. One can imagine the con- voiced the emotion of the Bruges that sternation of the worthy brothers he found awaiting him, a city already when informed that a part of their dying and to which he resigned him- buildings was to be used as an arsenal. self. It was not until he had passed The head of the hospital was a man some years in its atmosphere that his of many privileges among which was work came to fruition. the position of wine gauger, which At an early date a friendship was speaks well for his integrity and formed with the Augustinian brothers knowledge of his subject. who, being anxious to beautify their However, it is not for these interest- hospital, gave him several commis- ing things that the hospital is famous, sions, the largest of which, dated 1479, nor is it recorded as having con- was designed for the high altar and tributed anything to the advancement dedicated to the two Saint Johns (St. John the Evangelist and St. John the Christ, and like St. Barbara (the Baptist), patron saints of the hospital. type of active piety) were dedicated The two saints are standing on either to good works. side of the Blessed Virgin who, seated, is holding the Infant Christ on her lap; St. Barbara is placed sitting to her left, calmly reading, with her tower behind her, while St. Catherine of Alexandria with the broken wheel and sword of her martyrdom is seated on the Virgin’s right. The Holy Infant is placing a ring on St. Catherine’s finger. It is this act which has caused the painting to be misnamed “The Marriage of St. Catherine”; it should be the “Altar Piece of the Two Saint Johns.” In the background to the right Memlinc gives a touch of life by depicting Josse Willems, a master of the hospital, carrying out his duties as public gauger of wine and nearby a great which affords a glimpse of the mercantile life of Bruges, enlivens the interest. Either wing depicts scenes from the lives of the two St. Johns, while on the back one finds the portraits Unfortunately we do not know of the master of the hospital, Anthony anything concerning the master An- Seghers, and the treasurer, Jacob de thony Seghers or any of the others Cuenic, and opposite them Agnes except two; one, Josse Willems (1475— Casembrood, mistress, and Claire Van 1488), who, as mentioned, is depicted Hulsen, one of the sisters, all accom- as wine gauger in the large triptych panied by their patron saints. One and was known to be a friend of cannot gaze upon these without feeling Memlinc, and his successor Jean Flor- that they are honest portraits, done eins (1488-1497), who shortly after with infinite care; certainly the treas- his appointment lived through the urer has the usual sad expression. In ravages of the plague, after all the this work there is a harmony and other brothers had been carried off. A unity of design and colour which man of resources, he pressed into blends the whole into an impressive service, as lay brothers, convalescents, poem. The object was to do honour to but so untrained were they in dis- the patrons of the hospital, the two cipline that his difficulties were only St. Johns, and at the same time to multiplied. He died in 1505. Those express the piety of the charitable of us who experienced the influenza sisters, who like St. Catherine (the epidemic of 1918 and saw its ravages, type of contemplative, studious piety) can appreciate the trials and difficul- were consecrated and espoused to ties which Floreins encountered. It was just a year before its outbreak everyday surroundings. On the walls that he presented a small triptych, are paintings of interest including the “The ,” to the Diptych of Martin Van Nieuwen-

hospital and while smaller than the hoven which is considered Memlinc’s other it is probably Memlinc’s finest finest portrait. This work was not work, exhibiting his mastery of the painted for the hospital but was art of creative painting. The rhythms, brought to it from the Hospice St. vital and expressive lines, the blending Julian of which Martin was master. of glorious colours and balance of Among the many objects which composition, all combine to give it came into the possession of the hos- enduring beauty and life. Jean Flor- pital was an arm of St. Ursula. The eins is seen to the right of Mary order wishing to do honour to the leaning over a low wall with his sacred relic commissioned Memlinc to brother behind him, and in the back- paint scenes from the life of St. Ursula ground to the left of Joseph, the head on the sides and ends of a reliquary of a man supposed to be Mcmlinc is made in the form of a Gothic chapel. seen, wearing a yellow cap such as In 1889 the Jesuit father Henri Dur- was worn by the convalescents of the sart discovered the journal of one time, a custom which was carried on Romboudt de Deppere, a priest, and until recently. The right hand portion registrar to the chapter of Saint depicts the birth of Christ. It is Donation and a notary of Bruges worthy of note that apparently the from 1483 to 1491; in which capacity sisters saw to it that the linen was he witnessed on October 21st, 1489, immaculate and that the brother the of the relics of St. accoucheur wore a gown. Again Mem- Ursula to Memlinc’s new shrine. These linc not only paints the figures in panels, which represent Memlinc’s familiar clothing but carries one latest work, are exquisite in color and through the open spaces of the back- pattern, idealizing the legend in a ground into the familiar scenes of way that gives it untold charm. Bruges and beyond to the open air Memlinc with his passion for detail with its Flemish landscape and pas- and his meticulous care is the ideal toral scenes, weaving the story amidst narrative painter. Enamored of his subject he runs the whole gamut The death of Memlinc, 1504, coin- of colours and galvanizes the little cided with the death of Bruges. He St. Ursula into a medieval heroine. was buried in her midst. It is fitting Few finer dramatic effects have been obtained in such small space than in the scene of her martyrdom, when refusing the intercession of the chief with dignity she bravely awaits her death, a small but moving and poetic figure in her graceful, clinging gar- ments. Of historical interest is the architecture of , accurate in detail, reminiscent of Memlinc’s youth. The action and vivacity of the embarkation is unsurpassed, while in the panel depicting the arrival at Rome, the massed grouping of the Virgins’ heads and the tender, fatherly beneficence of the pope make this small picture one of high merit. In Memlinc we have the consumma- tion of primitive Flemish art, spring- ing from the soil and bound to the character of the people reflecting their love of life with their love of God, nature becomes the mirror in which the divinity is reflected, beauti- fully expressed in Max Elskamp’s that he should have painted when poem which might be a description he did. of the triptychs. With his mystic sweetness and repose And Mary reads a Gospel page, he has walked along the canals, which are With folded hands in the silent hours, falling asleep, he has watched under their And Mary reads a Gospel page, waters the flight the clouds, his Where the meadow sings with flowers . . . of pale eye has followed the wandering flotilla of And now the angels in the clouds, leaves which the wind scatters over their And the birds too in chorus sing, surface, he has seen the flowering of the While the beasts graze, with foreheads bowed, glycins, which fall from the walls to drop The plants of scented blossoming; lightly in the water, he has taken long rambles in the courts of the convents And Mary reads a Gospel page, where the plane trees are becoming bare, The pealing hours she overhears, where, behind the glitter of the thousand Forgets the time and all the years, window panes of the facades, life is being For Mary reads a Gospel page; extinguished and muffled with silence, so And masons building cities go that through the egoism of peace, it may Homeward in the evening hours, atone for its orgy of materialism, of And, cocks of gold on belfry towers, colour, and of tumult which has been Clouds and breezes pass and blow. going on for so many years outside, he loves the fine precious landscapes in 1863. Vie de Charlcs-Ie-Bon, dissertation which shimmer the limpid pinks and the du Dr. Wegener, traduite du Danois blues of heaven. One would say that he par un BoIIandiste, in 40. rarely comes forth from his inner life, 1892. Fragments inedits de Romboudt de that he rarely sees life save through the Doppere. Chronique brugeoise de glass thereby giving his 1491-1492, in 40; par le P. Dussart. of his windows, 1896, 1899. Epitaphes et momuments des crowds the appearance of being far away eglises de la Flandre xvie siecle, par and his landscapes the appearance of le Baron J. Bethune, 3 vol. in 40. being precious, veiled, and spiritual. 1899. Cartulaire de Louis de Male, in 40, He does not himself experience the mis- par le comte Thierry de Limburg- fortunes of the world but rather he finds Stirum, 2 vol. its trace in the attitudes of the kneeling 1907. Journal d’evenements divers et re- men and women whom he poses symmet- marquables (1767-1797) redige par rically; he finds that trace on their face Robert Coppieters, publie par M.P. whom he scrutinizes slowly, noting how Verhaegen, in 8°. the suffering of several generations has 1912. Essais d’archeologie brugeoise. 1. LeCarillon. 11. Les Menestrels de accumulated in the countenances of men Bruges, par L. Gilliodts-van Severen, and in the pale, sad, and gentle faces of 2 vol, chaque vol. the women, Memlinc is a very careful, 1914. L’Hospital St. Jean a Bruges. somewhat discreet and timid man, infi- Bah r , K. Handel und Verkehr der Deutschen nitely patient and attentive, infinitely Hanse in Flandern wahrend des vierze- the artist, with a tender and cloistered hnten Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1911. mysticism. (Faure.) Blad es , W. The Life and Typography of . 2 vols. , 1861-3. He is the culmination of that Bruges Blom ma ert , W. 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