Victorian Week Nineteen & James Clerk Wed March 6, 2019 Institute for the Study of Western Civilization Michael Faraday 1791-1867 and 1831-1879

A story of two amazing Victorians and a revolution in science. What do you know about Electricity? Flip a switch, things just work. What do you know about Electricity? Flip a switch, things just work. What do you know about Magnetism? Electricity & Magnetism in Nature Early Modern “Natural Philosophy” Early Modern “Natural Philosophy” • 1492 Columbus discovers America • 1609 Kepler laws of • 1675 Robert Boyle, planetary motion first book in English 1514 Copernicus, • devoted to Electricity heliocentric theory • 1610 Galileo, The Starry Messenger 1676 Microorganisms 1543 Copernicus’ • • observed, van work published • 1620 Francis Bacon, Leeuwenhoek Novum Organum 1543 Vesalius, On the • 1687 Isaac , Workings of the • 1637 Descartes, Principia Mathematica Human Body • Analytic Geometry 1769 James 1589 Galileo, de Motu • • 1654 Fermat, Steam (on Motion) use of • found probability improvement experimental method theory 1775-89 Lavoisier, 1600 William , • • 1661-62 Boyle, founds combustion, On the Magnet • elements, chemical conservation of matter analysis, gas volume/ 1608 of • pressure relation found 1783 hot air balloon telescope - • Lippershey, Jansen British Natural Philosophy (Science) 1600 William • 1660 Foundation Gilbert, On the • of Royal Society Magnet 1661-62 Boyle, 1701 Jethro Tull, 1614 Napier, • • • founds elements, seed drill logarithms chemical analysis, gas volume/ 1712 Newcomen 1620 Francis • • pressure relation Bacon, Novum found Organum • 1769 James Watt 1675 Robert Steam Engine 1635-1703 Robert • • Boyle, first book improvement Hooke, natural in English devoted philosopher to Electricity • 1798 Jenner, vaccine 1656-1742 • 1687 Isaac Edmund Halley, • Newton, Principia astronomer, Mathematica Newton

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

• 1687 Principia • Demonstrated truths in Mechanics

• Tremendous increase in understanding, gradually

• New tools for science • Rejected speculation in favor of experimentation and mathematical reasoning The Moderns Industrial Enlightenment Revolution and Revolution • 1760 - ?? • Great innovation • Enlightenment: 1715 - 1789 • Phases Liberty, philosophy • Mechanics, tinkerers, industrialists • • Later, engineers, scientists, • Revolution: 1774 - 1849 financiers • Monarchy -> Constitutions • Increase in population and income • Agricultural, Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Electronic, Computer, Biological … Natural Philosophy -> Science

London in 1800 Coal fires in home furnaces for heating Candles light homes No indoor plumbing Thames River was an open sewer Cholera and Typhoid outbreaks in Steam in use in mines and factories Average life expectancy 30-40 years Infant mortality was high Individuals surviving childhood might live 50 or 60 yrs Population: London 1M, Britain 9M London in 1900 Natural gas in home furnaces for heating Gas or electric lights in homes Indoor plumbing, flushing toilets Public sewer systems Massively reduced disease outbreaks in London Steam trains, automobiles, streetlights, Underground Telephone, telegram, phonograph, photography Average life expectancy 50 years Infant mortality high, but reduced Individuals surviving childhood might live 50-60 yrs Population: London 6M, Britain 40M London in 1900 Quality of life had improved for a great number of people, due largely to science and technology improvements, not least of which was the advent of electrical technology Electricity and Magnetism Electron is Greek for 1745 Leyden Jar • • 1801 Wollaston, frictional amber, used to observe • and galvanic electricity are static electricity 1747 Franklin single fluid • one and the same model of electricity 580 BC Thales studies • 1809 Davy, electric lamp amber and the lodestone 1752 Franklin, lightning is • • (arc lamp) electricity 450 BC Empedocles • 1814 effluvial theory of electricity • 1767 Priestly, electrical • force, distance 1818 Mary Shelley, 413 AD Augustine reports • • Frankenstein phenomenon of magnetic • 1785 , electrical induction charge, attraction, 1820 , current repulsion • laws, invented solenoid • 1269 Peregrinus Epistle on the Magnet describes 1786 Galvani, animal • 1820 shows construction and use of electricity • electric current deflect compass magnetic needle • 1787 Galvani, voltage, 1600 William Gilbert, On battery • 1827 , current/voltage the Magnet • relationship • 1800 Battery, Volta 1704 Newton, Opticks • No math models exist to 1800 Wm. Nicholson • • describe electricity so 1733 Dufay, two-fluid discovers electrolysis, • progress is slow theory of electricity separates H2O Theories of Electricity Varied Widely

Luigi Galvani (Bologna), an Italian physician, biologist, and natural philosopher.

Discovered bioelectromagnetics in 1780 when he reanimated frog legs.

Galvani believed the animal electricity was a different species of electrical fluid than that commonly found.

Alessandro Volta (Milan) an Italian physicist and chemist, disputed Galvani’s theory, and invented the Voltaic pile (battery) to prove his point (1800).

Galvani’s nephew, Aldini, shocked audiences in London by reanimating the corpse of an executed criminal (1803).

Mary Shelley is said to have been in the audience.

Born Boston January 17, 1706 Polymath, inventor: Lightning rod, Franklin Stove, glass harmonica, bifocals, flexible urinary catheter His Youth

He was one of seventeen children born to Josiah Franklin, and one of ten born by Josiah's second wife, Abiah Folger.

He attended Boston Latin School for two years, but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. His schooling ended when he was 10. Apprentice

He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught Ben the printing trade. When Ben was 15, James founded The New-England Courant, which was the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. Newspaper Man

Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Silence Dogood (Franklin) (quoting Cato's Letters) proclaim: "Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech.”

Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother's permission, and in so doing became a fugitive. He took up living in Philadelphia. Electricity Sparks his Interest

Franklin attended a lecture on electricity in 1743 in Boston given by Archibald Spencer, an immigrant businessman and natural philosopher from .

Spencer demonstrated static electricity to his audiences’ amusement.

Franklin bought all of Spencer’s equipment for his personal use in 1746.

Spencer acted as mentor to Franklin in natural philosophy investigations of electrical fluids. Lightning in a Bottle

In 1750 Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning was electricity by flying a kite in a lightning storm. On May 10, 1752, a Frenchman, Dalibard conducted this experiment. Instead of a kite, he used a 40-foot iron rod and successfully captured electricity in a Leyden jar, said to have been made with a wine bottle.

Franklin himself published an account of his experiment having been performed successfully using a kite. This was read into the notes of the RS and published in their Philosophical Transactions. Franklin himself was apparently the experimenter in this instance. He was careful to stand on an insulator and under a roof. At least one other attempting this experiment was electrocuted.

“When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening completely demonstrated.” Lightning in a Bottle

“When rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening completely demonstrated.” Franklin’s Impact in Electricity He advocated a single fluid theory, in contrast with the then popular two- fluid theory of electricity.

He introduced the terms positive and negative into the context of what would become voltage/charge.

He discovered the principle of conservation of charge.

He constructed a multiple plate capacitor.

The Royal Society awarded him its Copley Medal in 1753.

He was awarded FRS in 1756. A rarity for an American.

Harvard and Yale awarded him honorary degrees. The Lightning Rod

Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod.

He noted that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point could discharge silently, and at a far greater distance.

He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by …

…attaching "upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" (1749)

Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752. The Moderns Faraday Early Life

• Born in village south of London 1791 - Newington, Surrey.

• His father was a blacksmith who had poor health. Before marriage, his mother had been a servant.

• The family lived in a degree of poverty. • Educated in Sunday school until age 13. Mother removed him from school due to the teacher’s beating of young Faraday.

• Apprenticed to bookbinder from age 13 to 19. Lucky, for master was kind and encouraging.

Bookbinding

George Riebau

7 years

Reading extensively Attending popular science lectures Conducting simple experiments Opportunity

• 1812 Faraday attended Humphrey Davy lecture. As was his habit, he took detailed notes.

• Tried for position with royal society: no reply. • 1812 apprenticeship ended, took bookbinder job with another firm.

• A customer of his old employer had read Faraday’s notes and had recommended F to Davy.

• Faraday hired in a temp job with Davy. • F Sent davy his prized notes. Davy impressed. But No place for Faraday.

• In a stroke of luck, an assistant was dismissed, and Faraday was hired 1813. Bottle Washer to Assistant to Chemist!

• 1812 Faraday attended Humphrey Davy lecture. As was his habit, he took detailed notes.

• Tried for position with royal society: no reply. • 1812 apprenticeship ended, took bookbinder job with another firm.

• A customer of his old employer had read Faraday’s notes and had recommended F to Davy.

• Faraday hired in a temp job with Davy. • F Sent davy his prized notes. Davy impressed. But No place for Faraday.

• In a stroke of luck, an assistant was dismissed, and Faraday was hired 1813. The Grand Tour • Traveled with Daveys in Napoleon’s France. Napoleon granted passports. And all over Europe, meeting grandees of science. Faraday had never been more than 12 miles from London. The Good Life

• Married Sarah Barnard in 1821 • They lived in a flat at the RI The State of Things • Coulomb conducted experiments in looking for links between electricity and magnetism, but had found no evidence of a link. • Ampere believed that electricity and magnetism were the effects of two different fluids acting independently of one another. • Franklin had argued that electricity was the effect of a single fluid - English philosophers followed this theory; the French followed the two-fluid theory. • As late as 1819 it was accepted that electricity and magnetism were separate phenomena.

• Oersted in 1820 conducted a simple experiment that exploded this belief and launched the field of electromagnetics. • Scientists jumped to explore this promising development. • Arago demonstrated that a copper coil with current would become magnetized. • Ampere theorized an electrodynamic molecule. • 1820 Oersted shows electric current deflect magnetic needle • Oersted shows electricity and magnetism are bound together. Electromagnetic Rotations

• 1821 Faraday electricity can produce continuous circular mechanical motion

• Crude motor • Davy accused Faraday of plagiarism!! He fought on honestly and overcame accusations. Accusations groundless. The Royal Society

• 1824 elected to Fellow of RS, over blackball by Davy Prolific

• Experimental chemist, physicist • 1823 First to liquefy • Director of RI and ammonia • Industrial consultant • 1825 Discovered benzene • Researcher • Lecturer The Royal Institution Founded 1799 Purpose “for diffusing the knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical and improvements; and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life.” • 1826 began Friday Evening Discourses as means to raise funds for RI - huge success • These continue to this day. • And Christmas Lectures for kids - also conducted to this day.

His method • Methodical, painstaking experiment • Detailed notes, precise • Handcrafted devices that could be modified with ease • Flexibility to pursue unexpected effects • Building intuition for the physics • No math • Unable to develop rigorous theory for his findings Induction

• 1831 Faraday, magnet moving around copper coil produces electricity.

• This is discovery of electromagnetic induction

• The production of voltage across a conductor in a changing magnetic field

• Convert electrical energy to => motor

• The reverse => generator • Instant worldwide fame Prolific

• 1831 World Famous - had published 60 papers. Offered university position. Declined and returned to research

• 1831 Faraday coins term Dynamo • 1832 Faraday introduce terms electrode, cathode, anode, ion

• 1833 Faraday: Laws of Electrolysis • 1843 Faraday Cage • 1845 Diamagnetism as inherent material property • 1845 William Thomson (Lord ) suggests to Faraday a magnetic/light interaction

• 1845 Faraday discovers effect of magnetic field on polarized light: Faraday Effect

• Shows link between light and magnetism Trouble

• 1839 Faraday nervous breakdown, convalescence. Bled.

• Massive breakdown • Memory loss, giddiness, loss of use of legs

• 1844 able to return to work Ether, effluents, waves, particles

• Much speculation on how electricity and magnetism operated

• action-at-a-distance - Newton even hated this aspect of his theory

• every particle exerts force at a distance on other particles

• forces were thought to be caused directly by the distant bodies Action at a Distance

Lines of Force

• Faraday’s work with electrochemistry spurred his questioning how electrical charge and magnetism was transmitted in matter.

• He believed that he was on the track of a model involving material particles to explain electromagnetism.

• He held that if electricity was force convertible to magnetism, then magnetism was a force as well. But how did these forces act? At a distance?

• His peers all subscribed to the theory of electricity as an effect of the action of fluids distinct from matter.

• His work on diamagnetism convinced him that the magnetic field was independent of the material, and that the energy was to be found in the field and not in the material itself.

• He held that magnetism was an interaction of matter with a property in its vicinity. Lines of Force

• Faraday was not content with action at a distance, which he considered speculation. • 1844 Lines of Force lecture: an attempt to find a scheme for replacing the theory of action propagated by polarization of particles of matter with a theory of lines of force.

• Lines of force he sees as equivalent to a means of forces acting in the vicinity of material objects. • He introduces the term “Field” as meaning the space in the vicinity of material acting or interacting with electrical or magnetic force

• 1852 Lines of Force as physical state of nature, though their nature was unclear. • Speculated that the lines of force were transmitted by an action that was a function of the ether. Ether was to him speculation.

• Rejection. People did not understand him. • Faraday had shown the physical evidence. People were accustomed to thinking about a physical mechanical world. Faraday’s view was of a different world. His work was thought to be speculation.

• Fought to go beyond Newtonian worldview and its action at a distance, i.e., as for gravity. • He could not develop a rigorous mathematical theory for his model Faraday’s Last Experiment

• 1862 Last Experiment, age 71 • Looking for effects of magnetic field on color/optical properties of elements.

• Unable to detect effect • 1897, Pieter Zeeman repeated the experiment with stronger and better equipment, and identified the effect that Faraday had been looking for.

• Zeeman, with Lorenz, was awarded the Nobel Prize for this in 1902, while crediting Faraday.

• This became an important tool in the quest to understand atomic structure. Self-effacing to the End

• 1862 Faraday Leaves RI for Hampton Court, retirement • Had lived at RI for 42 years • 1867 dies at home in chair • Buried in a simple plot at his church, having declined burial at Westminster

Who will pick up the torch?

• Faraday has run out of time. • Without proof, his ideas are speculation

• How to proceed?

Edinburgh Academy Maxwell Rises

1831 Born 13 June, 14 India Street, Edinburgh

1833 Moved to Glenlair

1841 Enrolled, Edinburgh Academy

1846 Maxwell’s first paper “On the description of oval curves and those having a plurality of foci” Proc Roy Soc Edinburgh, Vol. II

1847-50 Studied, University of Edinburgh

1850 Entered Peterhouse College, Cambridge - after one term migrated to Trinity College

1854 Mathematical Tripos – 2nd Wrangler and First (Equal) Smith’s Prizeman

1856-60 Appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen

1856 Elected Fellow Royal Society Edinburgh (FRSE) aged 24

1857 Essay on “The Stability of Saturn’s Rings” won the Adams Prize, University of Cambridge

1858 Marriage to Katherine Mary Dewar on 2 June, Old Machar, Aberdeen Brilliant

•Proofs •Discoveries •The Math

Maxwell’s proof was confirmed by Voyager probe Looking at Faraday’s Ideas

• 1857 Maxwell On Faraday’s Lines of Force reinforces Faraday. Maxwell theorizing on lines of force using models of fluid lines.

• This was somewhat controversial, as Faraday’s theory was generally discounted. Marriage to Katherine Mary Dewar, 1858 Aberdeen 1860 Time for Change University merges and Maxwell out of a job Near-fatal bout of smallpox - recovers Takes position with King’s College, London 1860 Paper “Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gasses” where the Maxwell-Bolzman distribution for velocities in a gas are derived

1860-65 Appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy at Kings College, London

1860 Awarded Rumford Medal, Royal Society

1861 Royal Institution, first demonstration on color reproduction

1861 Elected Fellow Royal Society (FRS) shortly before 30th birthday 1861 Royal Institution, first demonstration on color reproduction Maxwell’s Approach to the Electricity and Magnetism

Maxwell read Faraday’s experimental research for its careful insight into the experimental phenomena. He avoided mathematical research into the same topics, so as not to prejudice his own insight. He reasoned that the action-at-a-distance theory implied the presence of physical connections between objects. The alternative, Faraday’s lines of force, or field model, required some other means for the force to propagate. The ether was a popular conception for this purpose. Maxwell conceived of the problem as analogous to that of heat flow, with which he had some experience. He constructed geometrical models following Faraday’s notions. Maxwell on the Case

• 1862 Maxwell On the Physical Lines of Force. Maxwell working on physical model of fields using vortices and particles.

• Resolved his model to one of mathematical abstraction of EM field.

• Still a work in progress Famous Lecture to RS

• 1864 Maxwell A Dynamical Theory of the EM Field • revolutionary synthesis of EM/Optical. • Produced equations of time-variant EMT. • This allowed the derivation of the speed of EM waves. That was found to be the speed of light, which had been measured at that point in time. He therefore concluded that light was a species of EM energy wave.

• Oral presentation: “Dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field” presented to Royal Society containing ‘Maxwell’s Equations’

• States “.. that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat and other radiations if any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated ……according to the electromagnetic laws”

• The energy of a physical system is not to be found in the material particles of which it is composed but in the ethereal medium surrounding these particles … eliminating the need for action at a distance. Unifying Theory

Originally written as 20 equations with 20 unknowns, the equations are shown in modern vector form, as developed by Heaviside and others

• ’ dream: combine multiple fundamental forces into one single theory • Integrate all relevant EM experimental evidence into system • Theory of Light, Electricity, Magnetism - unified • Light is an electromagnetic wave • Field Theory - first appearance

Einstein on this work: "Imagine [Maxwell's] feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarized waves, and at the speed of light! To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers.”

Richard Feynman: "From a long view of the history of the world—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electromagnetism. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade." • But the reception to his work was lukewarm. Misunderstood. Doubted.

• 1865 Maxwell resigned his position and returned to Glenlair. Research, tended his working estate.

• Published original research in Statistical Mechanics, , Control Theory, Topology, Mathematical Physics

• Maxwell Designer, First Director and Professor at Cavendish Labs 1871-1879. 29 Nobels followed.

• 1873 Treatise on E&M, light. Polishes theory. Maxwell’s Remainder

• 1879 Maxwell sick with abdominal cancer at age 48. Given one month to live.

• His mother had died at the same age from the same disease.

• Maxwell died in Cambridge Nov. 5. His wife died 7 years later.

• Buried at his childhood church yard in simply marked plot near Glenlair, with his wife and parents.

Validation

• 1888 demonstrates EM waves. • Faraday and Maxwell vindicated. • Hertz believed that EM waves had no practical use.

• Other scientists interested in the ether. EM Radiation

Solar irradiance spectrum above atmosphere and at surface. Extreme UV and X-rays are produced (at left of wavelength range shown) but comprise very small amounts of the Sun's total output . Computer simulation of the Earth's field in a period of normal polarity between reversals.[1] The lines represent magnetic field lines, blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away. The rotation axis of the Earth is centered and vertical. The dense clusters of lines are within the Earth's core. Aurora seen from ISS

Auroras are produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by the solar wind that the trajectories of charged particles in both solar wind and magnetospheric plasma, mainly in the form of electrons and protons, precipitate them into the upper atmosphere (thermosphere/exosphere) due to Earth's magnetic field, where their energy is lost. The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emits light of varying color and complexity. The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles. Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere. Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes. Faraday & Maxwell Legacies • Maxwell’s field equations would be expanded, translated, and formalized by Heaviside and others.

• Later Einstein would derive the analogous field equations for gravity.

• Physicists have found the notion of a field to be of such practical utility for the analysis of forces that they have come to think of a force as due to a field.

• We now have General Relativity (spacetime field theory) and Quantum Field Theory Faraday & Maxwell Led Einstein to Relativity

• Faraday's law describes two different phenomena: the motional EMF generated by a magnetic force on a moving wire, and the transformer EMF generated by an electric force due to a changing magnetic field (due to the differential form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation).

• James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to the separate physical phenomena in 1861.

• This is believed to be a unique example in physics of where such a fundamental law is invoked to

explain two such different phenomena.[23]

• Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement between a conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was moving.

• This was one of the principal paths that led him to develop special relativity. Faraday & Maxwell Legacies

• Radio waves, television, cellular communication, radio telescopes, radar, microwaves.

• General Relativity, Spacetime concept, QFT follow-on applications of field theory.

• Our modern world a consequence of Faraday, Maxwell, and the Victorians. Faraday & Maxwell Legacies

• Einstein: “one scientific epoch ended and another began with JCM”.

• Einstein: Faraday/Maxwell’s EM theory “the greatest alteration in our conception of the structure of reality since Newton.”

• Field theory paved the way for Quantum Theory and Relativity Theory.

• Mechanical physics superseded by new field theory physics

• All material world now viewed as interactions of fields. Faraday & Maxwell Legacies

• Faraday was an everyman, a dreamer whose dream comes true, a genius whose genius falls short, the human whose humanity rules his actions. - Alan Hirschfeld

• Maxwell never sought fame or fortune, but only to find deeper truths. He was deeply religious. Faraday & Maxwell Legacies

• Two exemplary human beings. • Two very different backgrounds. • Both loved science, loved God, faithful in marriage, loved their fellow men.

• Striving to understand the depths of reality.

• Humble, dutiful, fiercely motivated, brave, stoic. Victorian culture.

• Both misunderstood. • Unlocked one of the keys to the future. What accounts for the improvements in living standards in Victorian Britain? British exports exploded, as the took off. Britain was the Workshop of the World.

This was possible largely due to the development of steamships, railroads, and the telegraph. Increasing size of economy, increasing work opportunities, increasing income.

Disease was still rife, but some inoculations were developed (Smallpox). Disease was believed to be due to “bad air”. Cleaning performed to reduce bad smells was effective in that it reduced germs. More people survived injuries and surgeries and childbirth due to this cleaning as well as due to anesthesia. After the of 1858, funds were allocated to build a sewer system, which was completed 1859-1865. Victorian Science - Technology Achievements • 1769 James • 1850 Bessemer steel process improvement • 1850 Young Oil refining • 1888 , AC power • 1783 hot air balloon • 1859 evolution, Darwin • 1890 movie projector • 1798 Eli Whitney Cotton Gin • 1861 Pasteur, germ theory, • 1895 Marconi radio signal 1800 Battery elevator - Otis • • 1896 radioactivity found 1814 steam locomotive • 1864 Maxwell electromagnetism • • 1897 electron found • 1827 Ohm, current also • 1865 Mendel genetics photography • 1898 virus found • 1867 Otto Internal combustion • 1828 Hot Blast Iron Mfg engine • 1900 Plancks law, Quan. Mech. • 1830 electric motor • 1868 typewriter • 1902 Wrights flight • 1836 propellor blades for ships • 1869 Periodic Table • 1905 Theory of Special Relativity

1838 steamships • 1876 Bell telephone, Gibbs, • 1906 Carrier air conditioner • Edison - phonograph 1837 Fertilizer • 1908 Ford Model T • • 1877 Boltzmann entropy 1838 British telegraph • 1911 Rutherford model of • • 1878 Edison incandescent bulb nucleus 1839 Goodyear rubber mfg • • 1880 Edison power plants • 1913 Ford 1840 paper mfg from wood • • 1880 Taylor scientific • 1913 Stainless steel invented management 1841 Whitworth tools • • 1915 General Theory of Relativity • 1884 Parsons • 1844 Morse, American telegraph generators Victorian Technology in USA

• 1884 Cleveland, OH first with electric 1900 USA compulsory 1829 indoor plumbing • • streetcars education to age 14 in introduced in US most states 1885 Chicago first US 1850 coal replaces • • comprehensive sewer 1901 Long distance wood for heating in US • system radio telegraph cities • 1888 first deodorant • 1906 Carrier, AC • 1869 Transcontinental railroad • 1890 Conventional • 1920 USA great bicycle introduced increase in high school 1876 Bell, telephone • education 1890 cardboard box 1877 Edison, • • invented 1922 Radio phonograph • broadcasting begins 1891 modern toilet 1880 Wabash, IN first • • 1928 Television with street lights • • 1892 first IC powered introduced, refrigerator tractor • 1769 James Watt Steam Engine • 1878 Edison incandescent bulb improvement • 1880 Edison power plants • 1938 Atom split • 1783 hot air balloon • 1888 Tesla, AC power • 1945 penicillin • 1798 Eli Whitney Cotton Gin • 1890 movie projector • 1947 transistor • 1800 Battery • 1895 Marconi radio signal • 1947 ENIAC • 1814 steam locomotive • 1896 radioactivity found • 1953 DNA model • 1827 Ohm, current also photography • 1897 electron found • 1956 nuclear power station • 1830 electric motor • 1898 virus found • 1957 Sputnik • 1836 propellor blades for ships • 1900 Planck’s law, Quan. Mech. • 1958 IC • 1839 rubber mfg • 1902 Wrights flight • 1959 QED • 1844 telegraph • 1905 Theory of Special Relativity • 1960 Laser • 1850 Bessemer steel process • 1906 Carrier air conditioner • 1964 Standard model of particle physics • 1859 evolution, Darwin • 1908 Ford Model T • 1969 Moon landing • 1861 Pasteur, germ theory, elevator - Otis • 1911 Rutherford model of nucleus • 1971 microprocessor • 1864 Maxwell electromagnetism • 1913 Ford assembly line • 1976 Apple 1 • 1865 Mendel genetics • 1913 Stainless steel invented • 1979 QCD • 1867 Otto Internal combustion engine • 1915 General Theory of Relativity • 1981 Space Shuttle • 1868 typewriter • 1920 Farnsworth TV • 1989 Web • 1869 Periodic Table • 1925 Schroedinger equation • 1989 String Theory • 1876 Bell telephone, Gibbs, Edison - phonograph • 1927 Big Bang Theory • 2007 iPhone • 1877 Boltzmann entropy • 1928 refrigerator Victorian England Week Nineteen David Faraday & James Clerk Maxwell Wed March 6, 2019 Institute for the Study of Western Civilization Brian Baigrie, Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective, Greenwood Press, 2007.