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Identity Crisis: Ethnicity and Conflict in Myanmar
Identity Crisis: Ethnicity and Conflict in Myanmar Asia Report N°312 | 28 August 2020 Headquarters International Crisis Group Avenue Louise 235 • 1050 Brussels, Belgium Tel: +32 2 502 90 38 • Fax: +32 2 502 50 38 [email protected] Preventing War. Shaping Peace. Table of Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... i I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 II. A Legacy of Division ......................................................................................................... 4 A. Who Lives in Myanmar? ............................................................................................ 4 B. Those Who Belong and Those Who Don’t ................................................................. 5 C. Contemporary Ramifications..................................................................................... 7 III. Liberalisation and Ethno-nationalism ............................................................................. 9 IV. The Militarisation of Ethnicity ......................................................................................... 13 A. The Rise and Fall of the Kaungkha Militia ................................................................ 14 B. The Shanni: A New Ethnic Armed Group ................................................................. 18 C. An Uncertain Fate for Upland People in Rakhine -
Languages in the Rohingya Response
Languages in the Rohingya response This overview relates to a Translators without Borders (TWB) study of the role of language in humanitarian service access and community relations in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh and Sittwe, Myanmar. Language use and word choice has implications for culture, identity and politics in the Myanmar context. Six languages play a role in the Rohingya response in Myanmar and Bangladesh. Each brings its own challenges for translation, interpretation, and general communication. These languages are Bangla, Chittagonian, Myanmar, Rakhine, Rohingya, and English. Bangla Bangla’s near-sacred status in Bangladeshi society derives from the language’s tie to the birth of the nation. Bangladesh is perhaps the only country in the world which was founded on the back of a language movement. Bangladeshi gained independence from Pakistan in 1971, among other things claiming their right to use Bangla and not Urdu. Bangladeshis gave their lives for the cause of preserving their linguistic heritage and the people retain a patriotic attachment to the language. The trauma of the Liberation War is still fresh in the collective memory. Pride in Bangla as the language of national unity is unique in South Asia - a region known for its cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity. Despite the elevated status of Bangla, the country is home to over 40 languages and dialects. This diversity is not obvious because Bangladeshis themselves do not see it as particularly important. People across the country have a local language or dialect apart from Bangla that is spoken at home and with neighbors and friends. But Bangla is the language of collective, national identity - it is the language of government, commerce, literature, music and film. -
The Rohingya Origin Story: Two Narratives, One Conflict
Combating Extremism SHAREDFACT SHEET VISIONS The Rohingya Origin Story: Two Narratives, One Conflict At the center of the Rohingya Crisis is a question about the group’s origin. It is in this identity, and the contrasting histories that the two sides claim (i.e., the Rohingya minority and the Buddhist government/some civilians), where religion and politics collide. Although often cast as a religious war, the contemporary conflict didn’t exist until World War II, when the minority Muslim Rohingya sided with British colonial rulers, while the Buddhist majority allied with the invading Japanese. However, it took years for the identity politics to fully take root. It was 1982, when the Rohingya were stripped of their citizenship by law (For more on this, see “Q&A on the Rohingya Crisis & Buddhist Extremism in Myanmar”). Myanmarese army commander Senior General Min Aung Hlaing made it clear that Rohingya origin lay at the heart of the matter when, on September 16, 2017, he posted to Facebook a statement saying that the current military action against the Rohingya is “unfinished business” stemming back to the Second World War. He also stated, “They have demanded recognition as Rohingya, which has never been an ethnic group in Myanmar. [The] Bengali issue is a national cause and we need to be united in establishing the truth.”i This begs the question, what is the truth? There is no simple answer to this question. At the present time, there are two dominant, opposing narratives regarding the Rohingya ethnic group’s history: one from the Rohingya perspective, and the other from the neighboring Rakhine and Bamar peoples. -
Contesting Buddhist Narratives Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar
Policy Studies 71 Contesting Buddhist Narratives Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar Matthew J. Walton and Susan Hayward Contesting Buddhist Narratives Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar About the East-West Center The East-West Center promotes better relations and understanding among the people and nations of the United States, Asia, and the Pacific through cooperative study, research, and dialogue. Established by the US Congress in 1960, the Center serves as a resource for infor- mation and analysis on critical issues of common concern, bringing people together to exchange views, build expertise, and develop policy options. The Center’s 21-acre Honolulu campus, adjacent to the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, is located midway between Asia and the US main- land and features research, residential, and international conference facilities. The Center’s Washington, DC, office focuses on preparing the United States for an era of growing Asia Pacific prominence. The Center is an independent, public, nonprofit organization with funding from the US government, and additional support provided by private agencies, individuals, foundations, corporations, and govern- ments in the region. Policy Studies an East-West Center series Series Editors Dieter Ernst and Marcus Mietzner Description Policy Studies presents original research on pressing economic and political policy challenges for governments and industry across Asia, About the East-West Center and for the region's relations with the United States. Written for the The East-West Center promotes better relations and understanding policy and business communities, academics, journalists, and the in- among the people and nations of the United States, Asia, and the formed public, the peer-reviewed publications in this series provide Pacifi c through cooperative study, research, and dialogue. -
Where There Is Police, There Is Persecution Government Security
Physicians for Where There is Police, Human Rights There is Persecution Government Security Forces and October 2016 Human Rights Abuses in Myanmar’s Northern Rakhine State An immigration officer inspects Rohingyas’ paperwork at a checkpoint in Rakhine State. About Physicians for Human Rights For 30 years, Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) has used science and medicine to document and call attention to mass atrocities and severe human rights violations. PHR is a global organization founded on the idea that health professionals, with their specialized skills, ethical duties, and credible voices, are uniquely positioned to stop human rights violations. PHR’s investigations and expertise are used to advocate for persecuted health workers and medical facilities under attack, prevent torture, document mass atrocities, and hold those who violate human rights accountable. Table of Contents Acknowledgements 2 Introduction This report was written by Claudia Rader edited and Widney Brown, Physicians for prepared the report for 4 Methodology Human Rights (PHR) program publication. director, and is based on field 6 Background research conducted from November PHR would like to acknowledge 2015 to May 2016 in Myanmar the Bangladesh-based research 8 Findings (Rakhine State and Yangon) and team who contributed to the Bangladesh. study, design, and data collection 20 Discussion and also reviewed and edited the The report benefited from review report. PHR would also like to 24 Conclusion and by PHR leadership and staff, thank other external reviewers Recommendations including DeDe Dunevant, director who wish to remain anonymous. of communications, Donna McKay, 27 Endnotes MS, executive director, Marianne PHR is deeply indebted to the Møllmann, LLM, MSc, senior Rohingya and Rakhine people researcher, and Claudia Rader, MS, who were willing to share their content and marketing manager. -
Atrocity Crimes Against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar
BEARING WITNESS REPORT NOVEMBER 2017 “THEY TRIED TO KILL US ALL” Atrocity Crimes against Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State, Myanmar SIMON-SKJODT CENTER FOR THE PREVENTION OF GENOCIDE United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Washington, DC www.ushmm.org The United States Holocaust Museum’s work on genocide and related crimes against humanity is conducted by the Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocide. The Simon-Skjodt Center is dedicated to stimulating timely global action to prevent genocide and to catalyze an international response when it occurs. Our goal is to make the prevention of genocide a core foreign policy priority for leaders around the world through a multipronged program of research, education, and public outreach. We work to equip decision makers, starting with officials in the United States but also extending to other governments and institutions, with the knowledge, tools, and institutional support required to prevent— or, if necessary, halt—genocide and related crimes against humanity. FORTIFY RIGHTS Southeast Asia www.fortifyrights.org Fortify Rights works to ensure and defend human rights for all. We investigate human rights violations, engage policy makers and others, and strengthen initiatives led by human rights defenders, affected communities, and civil society. We believe in the influence of evidence- based research, the power of strategic truth-telling, and the importance of working closely with individuals, communities, and movements pushing for change. We are an independent, nonprofit organization based in Southeast Asia and registered in the United States and Switzerland. The United State Holocaust Memorial Museum uses the name “Burma” and Fortify Rights uses the name “Myanmar” to describe the same country. -
Myanmar Languages | Ethnologue
7/24/2016 Myanmar Languages | Ethnologue Myanmar LANGUAGES Akeu [aeu] Shan State, Kengtung and Mongla townships. 1,000 in Myanmar (2004 E. Johnson). Status: 5 (Developing). Alternate Names: Akheu, Aki, Akui. Classi囕cation: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Ngwi-Burmese, Ngwi, Southern. Comments: Non-indigenous. More Information Akha [ahk] Shan State, east Kengtung district. 200,000 in Myanmar (Bradley 2007a). Total users in all countries: 563,960. Status: 3 (Wider communication). Alternate Names: Ahka, Aini, Aka, Ak’a, Ekaw, Ikaw, Ikor, Kaw, Kha Ko, Khako, Khao Kha Ko, Ko, Yani. Dialects: Much dialectal variation; some do not understand each other. Classi囕cation: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Ngwi-Burmese, Ngwi, Southern. More Information Anal [anm] Sagaing: Tamu town, 10 households. 50 in Myanmar (2010). Status: 6b (Threatened). Alternate Names: Namfau. Classi囕cation: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Kuki-Chin-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Comments: Non- indigenous. Christian. More Information Anong [nun] Northern Kachin State, mainly Kawnglangphu township. 400 in Myanmar (2000 D. Bradley), decreasing. Ethnic population: 10,000 (Bradley 2007b). Total users in all countries: 450. Status: 7 (Shifting). Alternate Names: Anoong, Anu, Anung, Fuchve, Fuch’ye, Khingpang, Kwingsang, Kwinp’ang, Naw, Nawpha, Nu. Dialects: Slightly di㨽erent dialects of Anong spoken in China and Myanmar, although no reported diഡculty communicating with each other. Low inherent intelligibility with the Matwang variety of Rawang [raw]. Lexical similarity: 87%–89% with Anong in Myanmar and Anong in China, 73%–76% with T’rung [duu], 77%–83% with Matwang variety of Rawang [raw]. Classi囕cation: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Nungish. Comments: Di㨽erent from Nung (Tai family) of Viet Nam, Laos, and China, and from Chinese Nung (Cantonese) of Viet Nam. -
Myanmar: Ethnic Politics and the 2020 General Election
MYANMAR POLICY BRIEFING | 23 | September 2020 Myanmar: Ethnic Politics and the 2020 General Election KEY POINTS • The 2020 general election is scheduled to take place at a critical moment in Myanmar’s transition from half a century under military rule. The advent of the National League for Democracy to government office in March 2016 was greeted by all the country’s peoples as the opportunity to bring about real change. But since this time, the ethnic peace process has faltered, constitutional reform has not started, and conflict has escalated in several parts of the country, becoming emergencies of grave international concern. • Covid-19 represents a new – and serious – challenge to the conduct of free and fair elections. Postponements cannot be ruled out. But the spread of the pandemic is not expected to have a significant impact on the election outcome as long as it goes ahead within constitutionally-appointed times. The NLD is still widely predicted to win, albeit on reduced scale. Questions, however, will remain about the credibility of the polls during a time of unprecedented restrictions and health crisis. • There are three main reasons to expect NLD victory. Under the country’s complex political system, the mainstream party among the ethnic Bamar majority always win the polls. In the population at large, a victory for the NLD is regarded as the most likely way to prevent a return to military government. The Covid-19 crisis and campaign restrictions hand all the political advantages to the NLD and incumbent authorities. ideas into movement • To improve election performance, ethnic nationality parties are introducing a number of new measures, including “party mergers” and “no-compete” agreements. -
Persecution of the Rohingya Muslims
OCTOBER 2015 PERSECUTION OF THE ROHINGYA MUSLIMS: IS GENOCIDE OCCURRING IN MYANMAR’S RAKHINE STATE? A LEGAL ANALYSIS PREPARED FOR FORTIFY RIGHTS ALLARD K. LOWENSTEIN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS CLINIC, YALE LAW SCHOOL OCTOBER 2015 PERSECUTION OF THE ROHINGYA MUSLIMS: IS GENOCIDE OCCURRING IN MYANMAR’S RAKHINE STATE? A LEGAL ANALYSIS Prepared by the ALLARD K. LOWENSTEIN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS CLINIC, YALE LAW SCHOOL for FORTIFY RIGHTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper was written by Alina Lindblom, Elizabeth Marsh, Tasnim Motala, and Katherine Munyan of the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School. The team was supervised and the paper edited by Professor James Silk, director of the Lowenstein Clinic, and Soo-Ryun Kwon, formerly the Robert M. Cover - Allard K. Lowenstein Fellow in International Human Rights at Yale Law School. Former clinic member Veronica Jordan-Davis contributed to the initial research for the paper. The team would like to thank the students in the Fall 2015 Lowenstein Clinic for helping to check the paper’s citations. CONTENTS I. SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 1 II. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................4 III. HISTORY OF HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES AGAINST ROHINGYA IN MYANMAR ...........................................................................................5 A. ROHINGYA UNDER MILITARY RULE: FROM MYANMAR’S INDEPENDENCE THR OUGH 2011 ..............................................................5 -
Intercommunal Violence in Myanmar Risks and Opportunities for International Assistance
adapt research and consulting Intercommunal Violence in Myanmar Risks and Opportunities for International Assistance Stephen Gray & Josefine Roos Adapt Research and Consulting April 2014 Executive Summary Root causes and contemporary drivers of intercommunal violence Intercommunal conflict in Myanmar has complex historical roots. State policies and practices sought unity by promoting Buddhism and discriminating against alternative religious (and ethnic) identities. Buddhist nationalism is resurgent in a transition context characterised by instability, increased freedoms, rising economic and political stakes, and perceptions of external threats. Fear of Islamification and demographic besiegement provide powerful driving forces for the conflict. The ‘threat perception’ is invoked by regional examples and interpretations of Buddhist scripture that advocate for the defence of Buddhism. When taken to extremes, the threat perception provides the ideological justification for violence. Historical stratification in wealth and land ownership contributes to economic grievances. The 969 "buy Buddhist" campaign is in part a response to this. Resource development and economic factors are implicated in Buddhist-Muslim conflicts. Weak property rights and lack of access to justice has created a climate in which disagreements cannot be reliably settled via official means, leading people to take the law into their own hands. Since the lifting of strict authoritarian and militarised controls, the Myanmar Police Force has lacked the capacity and culture to respond to security threats rapidly, effectively, and impartially. Polarised discourse and propagandising Events and issues in Rakhine State have been catalytic, deepening threat perceptions and providing a rich source of material for propagandising. Propaganda networks are highly effective in spreading anti-Islamic sentiment, especially when propagated by religious figures and friends, and are directly linked to the instigation of violence. -
Compendium of Articles on the Rohingya And
Monthly News and AnalysisARAKAN of the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation, Arakan ( Burma) ARAKAN: A LAND OF TORMENT AND BLOODSHED Volume 1, Issue 7 JULY 2009 www.ro- www.rohingya.org News and Analysis of the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation, Arakan ( Burma) In this Issue Editorial: “ARAKAN REALITY” rakan, in fact, a continuation of Chittagong plain was an independent kingdom till ABurmese occupation in 1784. The relation Editorial: “Arakan Real- between Chittagong and Arakan has been influ- enced by geographical, cultural and historical ity” consideration. Hinduism and Buddhism spread here from India, whereas Islamic civilization began influencing both Arakan and Bengal from ARAKAN: A LAND seventh century A. D. OF TORMENT AND For the last millennium or so, Muslims and Buddhists have historically lived on both sides of the Naaf Riv- BLOODSHED 3 er, which marks the modern border with Bangladesh. Archaeological remains and historical numismatics and evidences confirmed that Arakan was a Hindu Latest Tactics of Extermi- Kingdom following the Mahayanist form of Buddhism and both the government and the people were Indi- nation 4 ans similar to present day’s Rohingyas. In 957 A.D, Mongolian invasion swept over Arakan Rohingyas are Peace-lov- and placed Mongolian king on the throne of Arakan. The inter mixture of the locals and the invading Mon- golians became Arakanese people. Those who are ing. now known as Rohingya are not solely descended from migrant people but are local indigenous people living in Arakan since the dawn of the history that Yet Persecuted 6 later embraced cultural and religious reformation to upgrade their ancient tradition. -
Myanmar's Education Reforms
Myanmar’s Education Reforms Myanmar’s Education Reforms A pathway to social justice? Marie Lall First published in 2020 by UCL Press University College London Gower Street London WC1E 6BT Available to download free: www.uclpress.co.uk Text © Author, 2021 Images © Author and copyright holders named in captions, 2021 Marie Lall has asserted her rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the author of this work. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library. This book is published under a Creative Commons 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0). This licence allows you to share, copy, distribute and transmit the work; to adapt the work and to make commercial use of the work providing attribution is made to the authors (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information: Lall, M. 2020. Myanmar’s Education Reforms: A pathway to social justice? London: UCL Press. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787353695 Further details about Creative Commons licences are available at http://creative commons.org/licenses/ Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Creative Commons licence unless indicated otherwise in the credit line to the material. If you would like to re-use any third-party material not covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. ISBN: 978-1-78735-404-3 (Hbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-387-9 (Pbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-369-5 (PDF) ISBN: 978-1-78735-410-4 (epub) ISBN: 978-1-78735-416-6 (mobi) DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787353695 For those who were part of this 16-year research journey: the Egress sisterhood – Nan Theingi, Khin Moe Samm, Thei Su San, Phyo Thandar and my Myanmar family – Aung Htun, Nwe Nwe San and their daughter Mia.