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Autumn 2007 Issue 6

In this Issue: Eyes on the horizon, feet on the ground Nobel Prize winner Tim Hunt talks about his passion for science Also: When a dies

Published by EIROforum: Supported by the European Union: Part of the NUCLEUS project:

ISSN: 1818-0353 Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research SIS_6_02-19RZ 27.08.2007 16:10 Uhr Seite 2

Publisher EIROforum www.eiroforum.org

Editor Dr Eleanor Hayes, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Editorial Board Dr Giovanna Cicognani, Institut Laue-Langevin, France Dr Dominique Cornuéjols, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France Dr Richard Harwood, Aiglon College, Switzerland Russ Hodge, Max Delbrück Zentrum, Germany Dr Rolf Landua, European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Switzerland Dr Dean Madden, National Centre for Biotechnology Education, University of Reading, UK Helen Page, European Space Agency, the Netherlands Dr Douglas Pierce-Price, European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere (ESO), Germany Dr Silke Schumacher, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany Barbara Warmbein, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Germany Chris Warrick, European Fusion Development Agreement, UK

Assistant Editor Dr Sai Pathmanathan

Copy Editor Dr Caroline Hadley

Composition Nicola Graf, Germany Email: [email protected]

Printers ColorDruckLeimen, Germany www.colordruck.com

Layout Designer Vienna Leigh, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Web Architect Francesco Sottile, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Germany

Technical Partners European Schoolnet www.eun.org

ISSN Print version: 1818-0353 Online version: 1818-0361

Cover Image Chemistry is where life starts by Elena Pascal from Romania, aged 18 SIS_6_02-19RZ 27.08.2007 16:10 Uhr Seite 1 Contents

Editorial Welcome to the sixth issue of Science in School ...... 2-3 Events Forthcoming events ...... 4-8

Feature article Eyes on the horizon, feet on the ground: interview with Tim Hunt ...... 9-13

Cutting-edge science Recovering Pompeii ...... 14-19 Of Roman roads, train yards and inspectors: recent discoveries in RNA research ...... 20-24 Oxyntomodulin: a new therapy for obesity? ...... 25-29

Teaching activities Counting Buttons: demonstrating the Hardy-Weinberg principle ...... 30-35 Monastic ink: linking chemistry and history ...... 36-40 The Boy Who Would Be Good: understanding ADHD through a film-making project ...... 41-45

Projects in science education Imagine... sharing ideas in the life sciences ...... 46-50 Science centres working with schools: using peer-to-peer teaching to engage students ...... 51-54 DNA labs on the road ...... 55-58

Science topics Why biodiversity research keeps its feet dry ...... 59-63 Fusion in the Universe: when a giant star dies ...... 64-68 Small molecules make scents ...... 69-74

Scientist profile Scientist profile: Nicky Mulder, bioinformatician ...... 75-77

Teacher profile Teaching on ice: an educational expedition to Antarctica ...... 78-81

Reviews The Talking Ape: How Language Evolved ...... 82 Experimental Design for the Life Sciences (2nd Edition) ...... 83 Exploring the Living Cell DVD ...... 84 Fossils: A Very Short Introduction and Dinosaurs: A Very Short Introduction ...... 85 The March of Unreason: Science, Democracy, and the New Fundamentalism ...... 86-87 Science Magic: in the Kitchen and Science Magic: in the Bathroom . . . . . 87

Resources on the web ‘Ask a scientist’ websites ...... 88-90

Back in the staffroom Results of the cover competition ...... 91

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Welcome to the sixth issue of Science in School

n our feature article, we and Alison Campbell show how it can Ishare with you the be demonstrated with little more than thoughts of Nobel Prize a bag of buttons. However, genetic winner Tim Hunt as he information does not spread only talks to Philipp Gebhardt through populations: Russ Hodge about his passion for science, the reviews some recent research that importance of pure research, the demonstrates how important RNA is influence of enthusiastic colleagues – in communicating information at a and the role of serendipity in scientif- cellular level. ic discovery. Teaching is such hard work; Scientific research is important, but wouldn’t it be nice to get outside some fields of research are seen as help? Marc van Mil’s DNA labs more important than others. employ university students to bring ‘Biodiversity’ is now a popular word genomics (including all the necessary in the media, but why do we hear so equipment) directly into the class- little about the biological wealth of room. If that sounds too ambitious or our seas? Iris Hendriks, Carlos Duarte expensive, you could follow Sheena and Carlo Heip investigate. Diversity Laursen’s lead and train keen at a different level is also the key to teenagers to share their knowledge the work of bioinformatician Nicky and enthusiasm with their fellow Mulder. She is looking at differences students. between bacterial genomes to find out Even students who are less enthusi- what makes Mycobacterium tuberculo- astic about science can be inspired by sis, the cause of tuberculosis, so dan- a project like Karen Findlay’s. She gerous. and her students researched, wrote An understanding of how muta- and produced a film about the ethics tions arise and spread through popu- of a controversial medical condition. lations is fundamental to Nicky’s Another unusual approach to science research. This is a surprisingly diffi- education is the ‘Imagine’ project: cult concept to teach, but Pongprapan Daan Schuurbiers and Marije Pongsophon, Vantipa Roadrangka Blomjous describe how Dutch

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Editorial

school students work with scientists of chemicals on our bodies. Katie to turn scientific proposals into busi- Wynne explains how her research into ness plans and make a difference in oxyntomodulin may provide a new the developing world. therapy for obesity. If you think this How far would you go in pursuit of doesn’t apply to you, why not try the perfect lesson? Stripped (nearly) Angelika Börsch-Haubold’s scented naked in a giant freezer, Phil Avery is classroom activities: how does the preparing for an educational trip to structure of organic compounds affect the Antarctic. Why not send him your their smell? suggestions for sub-zero experiments? If none of these articles have satis- From the ends of the to the fied your scientific curiosity, help is ends of the galaxy and beyond: Örs still at hand: Halina Stanley reviews Benedekfi takes us on a trip to the some of her favourite ‘ask a scientist’ stars. In the fourth part of our ‘Fusion websites. in the Universe’ series, he investigates Finally, thanks to all of you who how a star dies and what a nearby completed our online questionnaire. It explosion would mean for was very helpful to learn which arti- us on Earth. cles you most liked and why. We also In 79 AD, the inhabitants of received many useful ideas for future Pompeii faced a catastrophe of a dif- content: watch this space as we follow ferent kind. In an article linking art, some of your suggestions! chemistry and physics, Montserrat Capellas explains how modern analy- ses are shedding light on Pompeii. Gianluca Farusi likewise looks to the past for inspiration, demonstrating the interaction of chemistry, art and botany with a classroom activity to Eleanor Hayes produce mediaeval ink from galls. Editor, Science in School Also focusing on chemistry are two [email protected] very different articles about the effects

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Forthcoming events

9-15 September 2007 9-15 September 2007 ideas for a joint collection of teaching York, UK CERN, Switzerland materials. Teachers from outside Science festival: The BA Festival of Training course: CERN high-school Germany are warmly welcome. Science teacher programme Workshop fee: €10 In September, the University of York, CERN, the world’s largest particle Contact: Matthias Bohn the city of York and the surrounding physics laboratory, organises courses ([email protected]) area will experience an explosion of for physics teachers who would like science. From excursions and hands- to increase their knowledge of particle 14-20 September 2007 on family days to debates on current physics and cosmology, who want to CERN, Switzerland hot topics and unique opportunities find out more about the world of Training course: CERN high-school to question the UK’s top scientists, the frontier research, and who wish to teacher programme bring modern physics into their class- BA Festival of Science offers some- CERN, the world’s largest particle rooms. The course materials are thing for everyone. physics laboratory, organises courses aimed at students aged 13-16. Schools can be involved through a for physics teachers who would like programme of specifically designed The courses are free of charge, but to increase their knowledge of particle activities for students of all ages, their the participants are expected to pay physics and cosmology, who want to teachers and their supporters. As for their travel expenses and accom- find out more about the world of Europe’s largest celebration of sci- modation. frontier research, and who wish to ence, it offers the opportunity to find This course is for participants from bring modern physics into their class- out about latest developments in an Portugal and takes place in Portuguese. rooms. The course materials are exciting and informative way by con- Contact: Mick Storr ([email protected]) aimed at students aged 13-16. necting with a range of scientists, The courses are free of charge, but the engineers, technologists, museums 14 September 2007 participants are expected to pay for and businesses. There is also a strand Universität Kassel, Germany their travel expenses and accommo- of education events aimed specifically dation. at science teachers. Why not take part Workshop: English-language biology This course is for participants from in the Science in School workshop? and chemistry lessons in German schools Germany (Baden-Württemberg, Local UK schools will receive full Biology and chemistry teachers who Saarland and Sachsen-Anhalt and details and booking information in takes place in German. the summer term. To make sure you teach in English are invited to a Contact: Mick Storr ([email protected]) are on the mailing list, email or call, workshop organised by the Verband mentioning the schools programme. deutscher Biologen and the Verei- nigung der Schulen mit deutsch- More information: englisch bilingualem Zug in gym- www.the-ba.net/festivalofscience nasialen Bildungsgängen in Hessen. Contact: [email protected] or +44 (0)20 7019 4963 Participants who already have experi- ence in bilingual teaching are request- ed to submit worksheets or teaching

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Events

29 September 2007 they can practice in the lab and then 19-21 October 2007 Cork Institute of Technology and take back to the classroom. Plaza del Pilar, Zaragoza, Spain Blackrock Castle Observatory, The course is open to 20 European Science teaching festival: Ciencia en Republic of Ireland high-school science teachers and is run Acción Training course: Frontiers of in English. The course, including course Ciencia en Acción recognises, pro- Physics 2007 materials, catering and accommodation, motes and rewards the efforts of All teachers interested in physics is free of charge; participants are ex- teachers of all levels in order to help teaching are invited to attend a day of pected to meet their own travel costs. all students to extend their science lectures, demonstrations and work- More information: www.embl.de/ells background and their appreciation of shops for post-primary teachers of Contact: [email protected] the role of science. physics, organised by the Institute of The festival takes place in Spanish Physics and the city of Cork. The 18-23 October 2007 and Portuguese, and is open to sci- working language is English and the Petnica Science Center, Serbia ence teachers from all Spanish- and registration fee is €30. Conference: Network of Youth Portuguese-speaking countries. More information: Excellence workshop/conference Deadline for applications: 5 July 2007. www.physics.cit.ie/frontiers2007 The Network of Youth Excellence More information: Contact: Paul Nugent (NYEX) is a UNESCO-sponsored net- www.cienciaenaccion.org ([email protected]) work to share good practice between Contact: Rosa Maria Ros worldwide initiatives that encourage ([email protected]) 10-12 October 2007 research possibilities for motivated European Molecular Biology secondary-school students. 31 October – 2 November 2007 Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany The next conference will have three CERN, Switzerland Training course: ELLS LearningLAB main topics: Training course: CERN high-school The European Learning Laboratory 1. Towards successful national policies teacher programme for the Life Sciences (ELLS) is an that support young talents in science CERN, the world’s largest particle education facility to bring secondary- 2. Effects of out-of-school science physics laboratory, organises courses school teachers into the research education for physics teachers who would like lab for a unique hands-on encounter 3. Professional support for young tal- to increase their knowledge of particle with state-of-the-art molecular biolo- ents in science – examples of good physics and cosmology, who want to gy techniques. ELLS also gives practice. find out more about the world of scientists a chance to work with To take part in the conference and/or frontier research, and who wish to teachers, helping to bridge the to give a presentation, submit your bring modern physics into their class- widening gap between research application by 1 May 2007. rooms. The course materials are and schools. More information: aimed at students aged 13-16. The three-day course is designed to http://nyex.info/58-11706.html The courses are free of charge, but the enable the participating teachers to Contact: Vigor Majic ([email protected]) participants are expected to pay for their explore a range of activities, which or Lilla Barabas ([email protected]) travel expenses and accommodation.

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This course is for participants from 19–25 November 2007 Until 12 December 2007 France and takes place in French. Porto, Portugal Many UK venues Contact: Mick Storr ([email protected]) Science fair: Thunderstorms in Lectures: Institute of Physics schools Space Weather lecture series 2007 2-3 November 2007 As part of the Space Weather in The science of light and colour is fan- European Molecular Biology Europe – An Educational Tool with tastically important in an enormous Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany the (SWEETS) project, the Centro number of areas: from observing and de Astrofísica da Universidade do understanding the Universe in astron- Conference: 8th EMBO/EMBL Joint Porto, Portugal, will organise a sci- omy; to diagnosis and treatment Conference on Science and Society ence fair featuring the planetarium processes in medicine; to efficient Teachers and their students are invit- show ‘Thunderstorms in Space communications and signal process- ed to attend this ’s EMBO/EMBL Weather’, where members of the pub- ing in industries. Joint Conference on Science and lic can make solar observations with The Institute of Physics 2007 schools Society entitled ‘The future of our telescopes, join a workshop to make a lecture will be presented by Dr Pete species: evolution, disease and sun clock or take part in many other Vukusic, a researcher and lecturer at sustainable development’. activities. the University of Exeter’s School of The four sessions of the conference Young visitors receive the Portuguese Physics. He is one of the leading sci- cover: version of the ESA Starlight colouring entists in the world involved in · Emerging, re-emerging and persist- book. broadening our understanding of ent diseases More information: www.astro.up.pt how nature uses and controls the flow · Global sustainability and biology Contact: Ricardo Reis of light and colour. · Treatment and enhancement ([email protected]) ‘Light Fantastic: the Science of · Human evolution: once we were Colour’ will open pupils’ eyes to the apes. Until 30 November 2007 basic concepts of the science of light and colour, and show how technology The conference fee is €40 (€20 for Italy, Austria and Switzerland students). is making the most of light’s astonish- Competition: Junge Forscher More information: ing properties. This presentation will gesucht! – Giovani ricercatori include demonstrations, hands-on www.embo.org/scisoc/conference07.html cercansi! (Wanted: young Contact: [email protected] activities and movie clips to help shed researchers!) light on the science of colour. The lec- In this search for talented young 19–25 November 2007 ture lasts an hour and is suitable for researchers, young people are students aged 14-16. Schwerin castle, Germany required to develop scientific projects More information: www.iop.org Science fair: SWEETS science forum on many topics, including art and The Space Weather in Europe – music. Regional finalists, selected on 23-26 October 2008 An Educational Tool with the Sun the basis of a report they submit, (SWEETS) project aims to raise public present their project to an internation- Berlin, Germany awareness of weather in space. al jury and the public. Prizes of Science teaching festival: National During European Science Week, €1500-3000 are awarded. Science on Stage festival activities will take place in 27 The competition is open to people Science teachers are invited to submit European countries, including a aged 16-20 living in South Tyrol proposals to participate in the first space-weather mobile truck tour, a (Italy), Trentino (Italy), Tyrol (Austria) national Science on Stage festival in web quiz, festivals, a rocket and bal- or Grisons (Switzerland) and is held Berlin, organised by Science on Stage loon campaign and a space-weather in the regional languages German and Germany and THINK ING. Three film. The main festival will take place Italian. hundred teachers from Germany and at the castle in Schwerin, Germany. other European countries will present To enter the next competition, register teaching projects and experiments in More information: before 30 November 2007. The final a fair and discuss innovative methods www.sweets2007.eu event will take place in March 2008 at in workshops. The festival pro- Contact: [email protected] the University of Innsbruck in gramme also includes scientific talks, Austria. exhibitions at the science and research More information: institutes in Berlin, as well as on-stage www.explora-science.net/wettbewerb performances.

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All proposals should be submitted via wildlife education specialist. The All year the appropriate national steering com- roadshow takes a full day at each Glasgow Science Centre, mittee. To find the national steering school, and is free. Glasgow, UK committee contact in your country, Each school that is visited receives Free teacher visits consult the international Science on printed materials and web-based Teachers, classroom assistants, nurs- Stage website. The deadline for pro- resources, including an activity book- ery teachers and technicians are invit- posals is 25 May 2008 and the work- let and bookmark for every pupil, and ed to visit the Glasgow Science ing language is English. a poster for every classroom. The Centre, free of charge, to explore and More information: web-based resources can be viewed investigate what is on offer. www.science-on-stage.de here: www.mcsuk.org/coolseas More information: Contact: [email protected] The project also has funding for 37 www.glasgowsciencecentre.org visits to English venues other than Contact: +44 (0)871 540 1003 All year schools, mostly in summer 2007. If you have a large and suitable audi- Schullabor Novartis, Basel, All year Switzerland ence who would like a visit from the Cool Seas Roadshow, please get in Many Scottish venues, UK Workshop: ‘Gentechnik Erleben’ Roadshow: Science Circus (Experience Genetic Engineering) touch. More information: Glasgow Science Centre’s outreach These workshops focus on practical team brings all the fun of the science laboratory work, but background www.mcsuk.org/mcsaction/education/cool +seas+roadshow centre directly to schools and commu- information is given for all experi- nity groups throughout Scotland, ments. Secondary-school students iso- Contact: Angus Bloomfield ([email protected]) thanks to its lively travelling ‘Science late plasmid DNA from bacterial cul- Circus’. Science Circus activities con- tures and digest it with restriction sist of amazing live science shows enzymes. The resulting DNA frag- All year and interactive exhibits delivered at ments are separated and visualised 10 locations around the UK your venue. by gel electrophoresis. Training courses: Science continuing More information: The workshops are for secondary- professional development www.glasgowsciencecentre.org school students who already have the The national network of Science Contact: +44 (0)871 540 1004 necessary theoretical background and Learning Centres, set up by the UK are over 17 of age. The work- Department for Skills and Education All year shops are free of charge, are in and the Wellcome Trust, provides Pembrokeshire, Wales, UK German or English (on request), and continuing professional education for Field trip: Rockpools have a maximum of 20 participants. everyone involved in UK science edu- Teachers are invited to get in touch to cation, at all levels. With nine regional The Pembrokeshire Darwin Science arrange a workshop for their class. centres and a national centre in York, Festival invites all primary schools in More information: www.schullabor.ch access to innovative and inspiring Pembrokeshire to book a rockpool Contact: [email protected] courses is within reach across the UK. ramble and identification field trip. The centres not only deliver hundreds The course is aimed at Key Stage 2 pupils (ages 8-11), takes half a day All year of courses, but also act as a focus for all the science learning activities in and is led by three qualified marine Schools and other venues in England their region. scientists. Cost: £250 with a bus or Roadshow: Cool Seas £170 without a bus. Maximum 30 More information: Run by the Marine Conservation children. www.sciencelearningcentres.org.uk Society, the Cool Seas Roadshow will Contact: [email protected] More information visit 150 primary schools throughout www.darwincentre.com England between September 2006 and Contact: Marten Lewis March 2008. It entertains and edu- ([email protected]) cates primary- /junior-school children about England’s spectacular marine wildlife, using life-size inflatable models of whales, dolphins, sharks, turtles, seals and porpoises in dynam- ic presentations given by a marine

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All year All year Pembrokeshire, Wales, UK Paris-Montagne, Paris, France If you organise events or competi- Workshops: Primary school Science Academy tions that would be of interest to The Pembrokeshire Darwin Science Throughout the year, Paris-Montagne European science teachers and you Festival offers a double workshop runs an outreach programme in all would like to see them mentioned visit for a maximum of 30 Key Stage 2 Parisian suburbs. The programme is in Science in School, please email pupils (ages 8-11) and costs £200. The for high-school students interested in details, including date, location, group is split into two workshops, sciences but not confident enough to title, abstract, price, language, which run simultaneously: enrol in undergraduate studies, due website and contact email address · Plankton/microscopy identification to social and cultural hindrances. The to [email protected] workshop organisation offers personal tutoring · Energy workshop using dynamos, and the possibility to discover the solar panels and a steam engine as world of research by meeting hands-on props. researchers in various fields and by Also available are three 90-minute carrying out their own research in real workshops, each for a maximum of 20 laboratories during their holidays pupils and costing £120: (100 in April 2007, and many more · Oil spill workshop for Key Stage 2 expected in August and October pupils (ages 8-11) 2007). The most dedicated partici- pants in the programme are offered Climate change workshop for Key · the chance to take part in a summer Stage 2 pupils (ages 8-11) camp during the Paris-Montagne · Marine litter workshop for Key science festival (21-25 July 2007). Stage 1 pupils (ages 4-7). More information: More information: www.scienceacademie.org www.darwincentre.com Contact: Marten Lewis ([email protected]) All year INTECH, Hands-on Interactive Science and Discovery Centre, Winchester UK Free teacher previews Teachers are invited to visit INTECH, the hands-on interactive science and discovery centre, free of charge, or to attend a teacher preview session to discover what is available for school visits and workshops. More information: www.intech-uk.com Contact: Angela Ryde-Weller ([email protected])

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Feature article

Eyes on the horizon, feet on the ground: interview with Tim Hunt

Professor Tim Hunt, winner of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, talks to Philipp Gebhardt about his passion for science, the importance of pure

Image courtesy of Ed Swinden research, the influence of enthusiastic colleagues – and the role of serendipity in scientific discovery. Tim Hunt

n 2001, Tim Hunt was awarded Hunt discovered that the passage good chemistry teacher later on, so Ithe Nobel Prize in Physiology or through the cell cycle checkpoints going to university to study biochem- Medicine together with Leland requires cyclins, newly discovered istry – this is in the late 1950s – was proteins that are synthesised just very natural. I never really had to Hartwell and Paul Nurse ‘for their before each checkpoint and destroyed make any decisions; I was just doing discoveries of key regulators of the immediately after the checkpoint has what I liked and found fascinating. w1 cell cycle’ . been passed. The cyclins themselves It was quite a shock when I went Multicellular organisms develop activate other proteins, kinases, that up to university, because there I from a fertilised egg by a process of enable cells to pass into the next stage found there were people who knew many cell divisions. During the life of of the cycle. His work has major much more than I did, who under- the organism, individual cells die and implications for biology and medi- stood much more than I did and who are replaced by the process of cell cine, especially in understanding how were much cleverer than I was. division. There are several events that cells form tumours. He currently [Laughs] Then I found that actually I must occur in a eukaryotic cell before works at Cancer Research UKw2. could hold my own, and again I did it can divide into two daughter cells. well in the exams. I was able to take This series of phases – including the What made you want to study the courses I wanted: I explored a lit- replication of the genome, cellular biology? tle bit and dabbled in psychology, for growth and the segregation of the I think it was largely the influence example. I found it interesting but I chromosomes – is the process known of my school. I decided to be a biolo- was no good at it. The whole point of as the cell cycle (see images). gist when I performed particularly education to me is to find out what All the steps in the cell cycle must well in a school biology exam at the you like and what you are good at. be tightly controlled to avoid damage age of eleven. We had a very good sci- Then it doesn’t feel like work any and subsequent developmental ence teacher and I looked forward to more – you just do it. It’s fun! abnormalities, such as the formation science lessons very much; they were of tumours. Control takes place at much more interesting than the Latin All young scientists learn that well- ‘cell cycle checkpoints’, points at and Greek that we mostly did. I was- planned experiments are crucial for which cellular mechanisms can inter- n’t very good at physics, but biology successful research, but sooner or vene if something goes wrong. Tim required no effort. I also had a very later we also discover that every

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A live mammalian (kangaroo rat) cell going through the different stages of the M-phase in the cell cycle. From left to right: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. DNA (blue) and microtubules (yellow) are labelled with fluorescent proteins or vital dyes respectively

experiment also needs good interpreta- later corrected us and provided the have to look for a better idea.” But it tion. Often the results are totally unex- correct interpretation. That was the can be very crushing when someone pected and that’s where the real work big lesson: serendipity shows you more senior tells you that. starts…and often serendipity comes something that you didn’t suspect, into play. What role did serendipity you try to figure it out with ‘well- How has your research career play in your research career? planned experiments’, you misinter- evolved? Oh, a major role…again and again pret the experiments, a colleague sets Well, I suppose my career has and again. The first real discovery I you right…. It’s fun and it’s a good evolved. [Laughs]. My friends and I made when I was a graduate student, learning experience. somehow always had the money to and some colleagues and I were try- carry on – but not very much money. ing to find out whether ribosomes How should a team leader preserve When I returned from America to were uniformly distributed on mes- and foster the creativity of his or her England, my salary dropped fivefold! senger RNA. This involved running co-workers? We were very poor and had to worry sucrose gradients, experiments that I am not too keen on leaders, actual- about whether there was enough to took quite a long time. Once we went ly; I prefer a loose confederation of eat, but we were having so much fun. out for lunch while the experiment people. Sustaining people’s morale We were in a wonderful, vibrant, was running and stayed out a bit too and enthusiasm is tremendously intellectual environment; we were long. But still, being lazy, we analysed important and I am not so sure how finding things out and that was more the result. As a result of that piece of good I am at that. You have to be so important than a career. The freedom laziness, we discovered something critical of yourself and of the people to have a grant just to do research is a new that we’d never have discovered around you; often they take that very wonderful blessing. For about ten otherwise! We found that there were hard. The truth is that it’s very, very years, I never had more than three fewer ribosomes on the messenger difficult to find things out. And years tenure at a time and the same is RNA making alpha chains than mak- unless you are extraordinarily self- true for some of my most successful ing beta chains. That was my first critical, you get ideas that are wrong friends. You have no responsibilities, paper in Nature! In those days, there and because you love the ideas so you can go anywhere in the world, was no pressure to publish; we just much, you are not prepared to dis- do anything you like. But you do thought it was an interesting result, so prove them. have to find something out, otherwise we sent it in. It was quite an impor- It’s much easier when you are people won’t give you the next grant. tant result, but it was complete acci- working with your peers. There’s a Then I got a job and that was the dent, an utter piece of serendipity – famous interview with James Watson end…. [Laughs] just an experiment that was left a little and Francis Crick – “Why did we suc- I often say to people ‘I am so glad I bit too long. ceed and the others not”; Francis am not twenty-something anymore’. I I must say that we then misinter- Crick said that one of the reasons was think it’s a lot harder now than it was preted the finding and did other that they could be really frank with when I started out. In my particular experiments in which we didn’t do one another and not take it personal- field, so little was known that almost proper controls, so we got the answer ly: “That’s a bad idea. It was your any stone that you turned over had wrong. A good friend, Harvey Lodish, idea, but it’s still a bad idea and you something interesting crawling out

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Feature article Image courtesy of Jan Ellenberg

Fixed mammalian (rat) cells in different stages of the M-phase in the cell cycle. From left to right: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, cytokinesis. DNA (blue) and microtubules (green) and actin filaments (red) are labeled by fluores- cently labelled antibodies or dyes respectively

from under it. I think that’s harder been struggling with it for several puzzled when I retire – whenever that now in biology. years and I don’t know whether we may be. will ever come to a satisfactory con- What are you researching now? clusion. The other very interesting You still sound very excited about I am working on a couple of ques- thing is that the protein that I discov- your research. tions about cell-cycle control. We dis- ered – the cyclin – is distinguished by It comes and it goes, I must admit. covered that cell-cycle transitions are an abrupt disappearance and we still When I won the Nobel Prize, I catalysed by protein kinases, but the don’t really understand what the thought that maybe it was time to question now is how many proteins mechanism is. stop. You know that it’s exceedingly do these kinases have to phosphory- It is a very competitive field but unlikely that you will ever make such late, and to what degree, for cells to it’s good fun. It’s also difficult: it has a great discovery again, so why not enter mitosis? And what about the been a decade since we found the just stop? Stop and try to help other control of the phosphatases that underlying mechanisms but we still people. reverse the process? That turns out to don’t really understand how it For a while, I involved myself in be a very difficult problem; we have works. I think I’ll probably still be lobbying for the European Research Council, for example – something I am passionate about. Ultimately, Image courtesy of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of Commerce though, I found that the only thing I am really good at is doing experi- ments, and the fun of working in a lab and finding things out came back. So that’s what I am doing now.

[Eggs and oocytes from the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis have become an important tool in biological research. These relatively big cells can be manipulated easily and are used for the study of developmental processes. In molecular biology they provide a controlled system for the expression of manipulated proteins. Tim Hunt and his colleagues used these frogs’ eggs to analyse the proteins that play a key role in the complex network of cell- cycle regulation. They not only showed that this regulatory system, identified Sea urchin previously in the eggs of sea urchins

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Image courtesy of Tomasz Sienicki and clams, exists in the cells of verte- effort should be pure research – obvi- brates but also characterized the other ously not. But I do think that, in molecules involved.] Europe, there is not enough emphasis placed on having universities that Paul Nurse, with whom you shared the allow creativity and fun, and value 2001 Nobel Prize, once said that the importance of just understanding. “good science is carried out by cre- We are too obsessed with the utilitari- ative individuals working within a sci- an justification for science and not entific society which is socially inter- enough with the joys of science for its active, with lots of freedom to follow own sake. their scientific ideas.” The public sup- ports this because they expect some- Please complete the following sen- thing back, such as improvements in tence: “The best place to do health or wealth. How would you research…” explain the social benefit of research …is in a place where lots of other on frogs’ eggs to a non-scientist? very smart people are doing research. Sea urchin It isn’t easy! I think one almost has I was very happy in Cambridge to justify it as a cultural activity: it’s you will find that the buildings were because it had such a strong tradition better to know things and if you put up by wealthy local people. That of excellence in research. It was a little know things, it’s very, very beautiful. sort of thing doesn’t happen in bit intimidating – you were well Also, the benefits of pure research Europe so much. aware you were no Newton. On the are often quite unexpected. European universities are in a very other hand, the fact that so many fan- Apparently, Michael Faraday was bad state of repair in general. It’s a tastic scientific discoveries had been demonstrating electricity to an audi- shocking thing that American univer- made in this funny, rather boring, ence in the 1830s and a woman asked sities seem, by any criteria, to be town was quite important: science him, ‘Of what use is your discovery among the most successful: 15 out of was the most interesting thing you of electricity?’ Faraday is supposed to the 20 top universities in the world could do. have said, ‘Madam, of what use is a are in the USA! You would expect to newborn child?’ I feel rather like that find the University of Paris and the What advice would you offer people about my Xenopus research. When University of Berlin up there in the at the start of a research career or Faraday discovered electricity, the top league – but they are not. I think considering it as an option? What are transformation that it has made to our we should ask ourselves very careful- important attributes to have? society cannot have been foreseeable. ly why not and whether there is I think, mainly, you just need He was just finding out about the something that we can do to change curiosity and to enjoy finding things way the world works, and I think it’s that. out. You’ve got to want to know. It the same with working on frogs’ eggs. is not an ordinary career and it isn’t In your opinion, is the European ordinary work. Where do you see the strengths of the Union taking the right measures to Role models are important, too. European research society compared move European science forward? When I started at Cambridge, there with others, for example, in the USA? I am very optimistic that the forma- were many Nobel laureates around I worry about the European tion of the European Research and they had been spectacularly research effort compared with the Council will help. I think, in the past, successful at understanding the US research effort. Somehow, the the emphasis has been too much on way that cells work. That was very Americans are so much more success- practical benefit – with agriculture, helpful because you actually knew ful at engendering and sustaining a with medicine, with technology and these guys, you sometimes sat at vibrant and creative research ethos. so forth. I am a great believer in hav- lunch with them, and you could see It’s partly because they have tons ing a vibrant pure research communi- that they were the best you could more money – although people some- ty because that produces bright, cre- possibly be at science and yet they times deny that. I think they have an ative individuals who will be success- were human beings. They could make amazing openness to new ideas and a ful in whatever they ultimately do. I stupid remarks; they weren’t omnis- kind of celebration of pure research in am not saying that all scientists cient. It gave one some hope that many quarters – not just by scientists. should be pure researchers for their one’s own modest efforts might suc- If you go to any American university, entire lives, or that the entire research ceed.

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Feature article

Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab

Sea urchin

And one last sentence to complete: of the Prize winners, see “Receiving the Nobel Prize changed http://nobelprize.org/ my life in a way that…” w2 – Cancer Research UK is the UK’s Nobel Prize winner Tim … I didn’t foresee. I think the main leading cancer charity: Hunt shares his personal difference is that I’ve become a much www.cancerresearchuk.org experiences and reflec- more self-confident person. tions on science, its utili- tarian applications, its role Web references Resources in our developed society The audio file of the complete inter- w1 – An overview of the cell cycle and especially its cultural view is available here: http:// and details of Tim Hunt, Leland value and beauty. Hartwell and Paul Nurse’s work is onlinesymposium.predocs.org/ media/career-development- Isabella Marini, Italy given in the press release announc- REVIEW ing their Nobel Prize: http://nobel- session/timhuntinterview/ prize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/ index.html laureates/2001/press.html somes are produced at the same rate To learn more about the cell cycle, Philipp Gebhardt is a PhD student in males and in females. Otherwise, play the ‘Control of the Cell Cycle’ at the European Molecular Biology females (with two X chromosomes) game on the Nobel website: Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, would produce twice the quantity of http://nobelprize.org/education- studying proteins involved in the gene products encoded on the X chro- al_games/medicine/2001/ dosage compensation phenomenon. mosome as males (with only one X For more information about the This is a process that ensures that the chromosome). Nobel Prize, including biographies gene products of the sex chromo-

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Public domain image; Image source: Wikimedia Commons Frescos at the Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii, by a Pompeian artist around 40 BC

Recovering Pompeii

Do your students find it hard to see the application of science to other subjects? Montserrat Capellas from the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, explains how modern chemical analyses are shedding light on ancient Pompeii.

rtists in ancient Pompeii, Italy, works revealed the building. Since the Pompeii were turning black. As early Apainted the town red 2000 years discovery of the remains of the house, as the 1st century BC, Vitruvius, in his ago with a brilliant crimson pigment the distinctive red colour of the wall treatise De Architectura, mentioned the that dominated many of the doomed frescoes has turned black in many problem, and gave the recipe for a town’s wall paintings. On 24 August places, in a rapid degradation process sort of protective varnish based on 79 AD, the volcano Vesuvius erupted, that is not yet well understood scien- Punic wax (a waxy soap made of burying nearby towns in pumice and tifically. The source of the red colour beeswax and soda lime): “Those who ash. Instead of destroying Pompeii, in Torre del Greco and Pompeii is are desirous that the vermilion should however, it preserved it and the sulphide (HgS), commonly retain its colour, should, when the bodies of its inhabitants under the named cinnabar. This is a deep red wall is coloured and dry, rub it with a earth. Included in the World Heritage pigment used extensively to cover the hard brush charged with Punic wax List by UNESCO in 1997, the ancient background of paintings, giving a melted and tempered with oil: then, town of Pompeii is now the most uniform red background to pictures. with live coals in an iron pan, the wall visited archaeological site in Yet, in certain circumstances, it can should be thoroughly heated, so as to Europe. become unstable, turning into dull melt the wax and make it lie even, The Villa Sora, in the nearby town grey-black shades. and then rubbed with a candle and of Torre del Greco, remained buried Scientists have been wondering for clean cloth, as they do marble statues. until 20 years ago, when excavation many years why the red walls in The coat of Punic wax prevents the

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Cutting-edge science Public domain image; Image source: Wikimedia Commons

The Last Day of Pompeii (1827-1833) by Karl Pavlovich Briullov

effect of the Moon’s as well as that of New results tar, they detected low levels of other the Sun’s rays thereon which injure A Franco-Italian team of researchers elements, including aluminium, sili- and destroy the colours in work of studied four samples of wall paint con and potassium. However, the this nature.” from Villa Sora using the European most interesting element found was Despite the Punic wax, ancient Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) chlorine, which could provide Pompeian walls have lost their in Grenoble, France, to monitor the answers to the mysterious blackening colours in recent years. The most chemical processes taking place in the process. common explanation is that the expo- walls. The samples of wall painting By mapping micro X-ray fluores- sure to the Sun transforms cinnabar were taken from both altered and cence signals (see box) over red, grey into another phase (in which the same unaltered areas and submitted to or black surfaces, scientists were able atoms, mercury and sulphur, are microanalyses to shed light on this to directly correlate the distribution of arranged differently), metacinnabar, dramatic blackening. elements to the visible appearance of which is black. However, the causes The team identified the elements paintings. This technique is often and mechanisms have remained a present in both well preserved (red) used on paintings, but normally mystery and conservators have and altered (grey-black) samples. In employs microscopy rather been losing a race against time to addition to the sulphur and mercury than the more sensitive synchrotron prevent the degradation – until originating from the pigment, and the analysis. The synchrotron elemental now. present as calcite in the mor- mapping of one of the samples

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X-rays as a tool to study Pompeii

The experiments performed at the ESRF needed a very and so forth. As in life, there are small houses (small small (from 100 µm to less than 1 µm) and intense atoms, with few ) and big houses (big atoms, beam of X-rays to detect low concentrations of ele- with many electrons). ments and to provide detailed chemical information. The principle of X-ray fluorescence is to shine X-ray They were performed on the X-ray microscopy beam- light on these atoms. This light will behave like a lift in line (ID21) by combining the techniques of micro X- the house that transfers the electrons living on low ray fluorescence mapping and micro X-ray absorption floors to floors higher up the house; this process is . The former was used to detect the pres- called ‘absorption’, as light is absorbed by the atom ence of chlorine and sulphur, the latter to identify their (the electron is absorbed by the lift). As these electrons speciation, i.e. the way they are bound to other atoms. depart, some empty space will be available on these Below are simple explanations of X-ray fluorescence low levels. Consequently, electrons living higher are and spectroscopy, which may be suitable for younger quite happy to move downstairs. During this transition, school students. they will express their happiness by emitting some light, or fluorescence. In a small house, the transition Principle of X-ray fluorescence will be small, so the shout of joy will be small, where- A simple way to understand the principle of X-ray flu- as in a big house, some transitions – and the corre- orescence is to consider that atoms (the small elements sponding shouts of joy – may be large. By measuring that compose ) are like houses, with occupants the fluorescence signal (the energy of fluorescence, which are named electrons. These occupants are quite which is the distance between the departure and lazy, and do not like to live on high floors. So, they will arrival floors), one can distinguish small and big atoms, first occupy the ground floor; when there is no more and more precisely, identify each atom according to its room there, they will occupy the first floor, and so on characteristic shout of joy.

Image courtesy of Calvero; image source: Wikimedia Commons

absorption

fluoresence

Electrons absorb X-ray light and move to a higher energy level (left). When electrons move to a lower energy level, they release energy in the form of fluorescence (right) BACKGROUND

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Cutting-edge science Image courtesy of Mario Pagano

Principle of X-ray spectroscopy This method is based on the variation in the X-ray ener- gy of the light needed to excite the atoms, which cor- responds to the height of the lift. Let us imagine that the atom is illuminated with a low energy, i.e. that the house has a small lift that goes only from the ground floor to the first floor. If both these floors are full, no electron from the ground floor will take the lift as there is no free space for it on the first floor. There is thus a condition that must be satisfied before an electron can take the lift (or an atom can absorb light): the lift height must be sufficiently large to enable the transition from low floors to higher, empty floors. For example, a lift that is higher than the height of the house will always lead to absorption. There is a critical case where the lift is just sufficient to lead electrons to the garret, or attic. In fact, electrons prefer to go to the garret rather than being completely thrown out of the house. So the probability of an elec- tron taking the lift to the garret is higher than the prob- A wall showing the heavy damage due to blackening of ability of it going outside. By measuring the cinnabar in the Poppea’s villa in Oplonti absorbance, we measure the probability that an elec- tron takes the lift. For each lift height (X-ray energy), showed that the chlorine distribution perfectly matched a the absorbance is measured. The reason that scientists grey debased patch. Chlorine was found to be associated are interested in electrons travelling to the garret (being with sodium and mercury, showing that chlorine has excited to the highest energy level without leaving the reacted with the pigment and that common salt (NaCl) atom) is that the height of the garret tells us about the was involved in the degradation process. chemical environment of the atom. Chlorine is known to cause cinnabar to darken in the presence of light. Researchers speculated that the chlorine In other words, let us consider a lonely house. We can in the paintings could originate from two sources of salt. identify this house using fluorescence. Now, let us sup- First, as Pompeii and Torre del Greco lie by the sea, the pose that this house is surrounded by other houses paintings were likely to have absorbed salt from the air. (atoms). Some connections will be created between Ironically, the second source of salt could be the ‘protec- them, such as footbridges, on top of the houses. To tive’ Punic wax, which according to Pliny the Elder was accommodate a safe footbridge, the house will be made using seawater. slightly rebuilt, changing the level of the garret some- what in each house. The result is that the garret height What does it all mean? depends on the surrounding houses (which houses are So far, the ESRF findings had confirmed the traditional in the neighbouring area, how far away they are, and explanation: that the red cinnabar was transformed to the so forth). By measuring the height of the lift to the gar- black metacinnabar. Analyses of another, darker, part of ret, we can deduce the nature of the footbridge, and the painting, however, revealed a high accumulation of consequently the chemical environment of the house sulphur in areas where chlorine was not present. The speciation, or chemical environment, of the sulphur was (what other atoms surround it, for example). This investigated to discover what the surrounding atoms process is called atomic speciation. were. This was important, because although cinnabar and metacinnabar have the same composition (Hg and

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Reprinted with permission from Cotte et al., 2006. Copyright 2007 American Chemical Society presence of chlorine to produce sul- VL CI max phur, which then (in the form of sul- phur dioxide), reacts with the calcite in the mortar to form calcium sul- phate. This reaction is favoured by the presence of HgS in the pigment, explaining why areas that were not painted with red cinnabar pigment were not discoloured.

Cross-sectional studies min The scientists looked further and Visible light (VL) microscopy image and atomic distribution of investigated the cross-section of one chlorine of one of the samples with moderate alterations (obtained of the samples to map the depth of by micro X-ray fluorescence with an exciting beam of 3.9 keV) alteration in the painting. A sample was embedded in resin and polished perpendicularly to the painted layer. VL Reduced sulphur Oxidized suphur max In this way, all the layers of the paint- ing, from the mortar to the surface, were accessible. The scientists realised that the degraded layer, containing oxidised sulphur species and sul- phates, was only around 5 µ thick and that beneath the surface, the cinnabar min Normalised images of the distribution of the reduced (intact) and had remained intact. oxidised (altered) sulphurs on the most degraded sample (8 x 7 mm2) These ancient paintings were fres- coes, in which the paint was applied to wet plaster, allowing the pigment S), they can be distinguished by their different atom arrangements. This analy- to sink in, giving a pigment layer of sis refuted the hypothesis that cinnabar had undergone a phase transformation around 100 µ. The cross-sectional into metacinnabar: no metacinnabar was detected at all. study, therefore, provides two types To the scientists’ surprise, they found another compound instead: calcium of information. First, it made it possi- sulphate, also known as gypsum. This was the sulphurous compound found in ble to distinguish those elements pres- the black regions where there was no chlorine. So, instead of a simple phase ent in the original painting (calcium, transition, sulphur had been subjected to a real oxidation, transforming from a mercury and sulphur) and those reduced sulphide (S(-II)) to an oxidized sulphate (S(+VI)) state. Most probably, which came from the environment

gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) resulted from the reaction of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in (potassium, silicon, aluminium, chlo-

the air with the calcite (CaCO3) in the mortar: rine and gypsum). This was impor-

1 tant, as gypsum itself was sometimes SO2(g) + CaCO3(s) + 2H20(g) + /2 O2 CaSO4.2H20(s) + CO2 used in the mortar; as it was detected This explanation is supported by the fact that chlorine can catalyse the link- only in the surface layers, it had clear- age reaction ly not been used in the mortar for these paintings. Second, the cross-sec- HgS Hg + S tions showed that the colour degrada- by which cinnabar dissociates into mercury and sulphur in the presence of tion was limited to a very superficial light, providing a source of sulphur for further reactions with in the air layer, offering hope that the paintings

and the subsequent formation of SO2. Thus although the second, darker, patch can be restored to their full, colourful contained sulphur without chlorine, the chlorine in other areas (such as the glory. first, grey, patch) had been sufficient to generate sulphur dioxide which “The research carried out at the degraded the pigment in other areas. ESRF has an extraordinary impor- Thus the synchrotron analyses cast doubt on the traditional theory, that the tance not only for conservation of red cinnabar pigment degraded directly into metacinnabar in the presence of wall paintings of Villa Sora, but in light, and supported the more recent theory that cinnabar dissociates in the general for preservation of Roman

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Cutting-edge science

wall paintings discovered in the most important Roman archaeological sites [such as Pompeii and Herculaneum],” This article is particularly suitable for teachers looking for new ideas explains Corrado Gratziu, a member to show their pupils the importance of chemistry and physics in dif- of the research team, and a professor ferent fields (e.g. archaeology, heritage conservation,…) and for sec- emeritus in geology at the University ondary school students fascinated by the study of antiquity. In a of Pisa, Italy, who specialises in plain style enriched by precise chemical information and illuminat- petrology of sedimentary rocks. ing metaphors on electrons’ behaviour, the reader can discover how modern investigators solve mysteries about 2000-year-old materials Future research and technologies. Despite having refuted the classical Recovering Pompeii can be used in the classroom to address differ- explanation of cinnabar blackening, ent science topics (chemistry: atomic and molecular structure, the research into the ancient red pig- redox, catalysis; physics: atomic structure, electromagnetic radia- ment is far from finished. The com- tion; earth science: meteorology, volcanism) as warm-up activity to plex pathway involving the reaction raise interest in the applications of scientific research. It can be of both chlorine and sulphur dioxide exploited as background reading before a visit to an archaeological has raised new questions. “The chem- site or to research facility like a synchrotron radiation plant. The arti- ical distribution of the samples is not cle is also suitable to test students’ comprehension of language and uniform, which means that atmos- scientific content. pheric conditions probably play a role For example, the following questions could be posed: in this change of colours,” explains Marine Cotte, one of the researchers. 1. The colours of the studied frescoes were: “The Sun surely influences this a) red, grey and green process, but the rain may possibly do b) red, brown and grey c) red, grey and black too,” she adds. “Sunlight accelerates d) red, black and brown some reactions, while rain can wash the painting and dissolve the more 2. Which of the following compounds does not contain sulphur? soluble compounds.” Atmospheric a) cinnabar contamination or bacterial activities b) calcite may also contribute to sulphation c) metacinnabar mechanisms. d) gypsum The next step for the team is to 3. Choose the correct statement about the study of frescoes by examine more samples, not only from means of X-rays: frescoes in the archaeological site but a) X-ray fluorescence measures light absorption and also from those already excavated and X- rays spectroscopy measures emission on display in museums. “In this way, b) X-ray fluorescence measures light emission and we have more data and can compare X- rays spectroscopy measures absorption the results between paintings exposed c) both X-ray fluorescence and X- rays spectroscopy to different atmospheric conditions measure light emission and better establish the causes for d) both X-ray fluorescence and X- rays spectroscopy their degradation,” explains Marine. measure light absorption Teachers could use the article to discuss; Resources - the role of chemistry and physics in different fields Cotte M, Susini J, Metrich N, Moscato (research, industry, heritage conservation,...) A, Gratziu C, Bertagnini A, Pagano - the importance of team work in research as well as in other M (2006) Blackening of Pompeian situations cinnabar paintings: X-ray - the interdisciplinary approach of modern archaeology. microspectroscopy analysis. Analytical Chemistry 78: 7484-7492. Finally this material could be very useful to start an interdisciplinary project linking science and humanities, to help students understand doi:10.1021/ac0612224 the underlying unity of culture. Giulia Realdon, Italy REVIEW

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Of Roman roads, train yards and inspectors: recent discoveries in RNA research

RNA is a crucial biological molecule that is seldom mentioned in detail in textbooks. In the first article in a series, Russ Hodge describes some exciting recent research on RNA.

Detlev Arendt, Peer Bork and Florian Raible looking for the fastest and slowest evolvers Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab 20 Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 www.scienceinschool.org SIS_6_20-40RZ 27.08.2007 14:09 Uhr Seite 21

Cutting-edge science

Often the same RNA can be spliced into alternative forms, creating messenger RNAs that will be used in the synthesis of different proteins. Splicing involves removing non-coding sequences called introns – sometimes also removing coding sequences called exons. The loss or Image courtesy of EMBL Photolab inclusion of an exon creates different forms of the protein that may have dramatically different effects on the cell

magine a Roman in ancient times, Roman roads, many deviations have lular parallels of the empty cars are Istanding on a summit, surveying been found on the route between called introns, large regions within the landscape as he plots the course genes and proteins. At first these genes that do not encode proteins. of a new road. Two thousand years seemed to be rare exceptions to the Protein-encoding DNA sequences are later his roads are still visible as they dogma; in the meantime, they have called exons. Often one exon contains cross European cities and the country- been recognised as common and cru- the recipe for one module within a side, as straight as if drawn by a ruler, cial in most biological processes in protein. Even these are not always deviating only in the face of the most complex organisms. Some of the find- used. A customer might not want all stubborn obstacles. In the 1950s and ings are so new that they have not yet the wares on a train, so some of the made it into textbooks and may be boxcars that contain cargoes may be 1960s, scientists mapped out a similar unfamiliar to teachers. This article is removed along with the empty ones. sort of route for biology as they the first in a series for Science in School And a cell might not need all of the described the connections between that will discuss some of this recent modules of a particular protein, so different types of molecules in the research. various exons might be combined to cell. Some of the most exciting findings produce different forms. Their plan is known as the central involve RNA, once thought to be little This process, called alternative splic- dogma of molecular biology: “DNA more than a means to an end in mak- ing, was discovered independently in makes RNA makes proteins,” as ing proteins. Over the last decade 1977 by Richard Roberts of New James Watson scribbled in one of his these molecules have come to be seen England Biolabs, USA, and Phillip notebooks when he and Francis Crick as crucial players in the cell’s control Sharp of the Massachusetts Institute began their assault on the structure of of the information in its genome. of Technology, USA (Berget et al., DNA. With the dogma, the two men Understanding how RNAs are han- 2000). The finding was so significant proposed a new relationship between dled has led to insights into disease that it earned them the Nobel Prize in the cell’s major kinds of molecule – a and powerful new kinds of biotech- Physiology or Medicine in 1993w1. At one-way flow of information from nology, including efforts to use RNAs the time splicing was thought to be nucleic acids to proteins. Soon after in therapies to counteract the effects rare; Sharp estimated that only about their discovery of the double helix, of defective genes. 5% of human genes were likely to Crick gave lectures in which he pre- undergo alternative splicing. The sented the dogma as a grand research Alternative splicing complete human genome sequence plan for molecular biology (Crick, The RNA of the central dogma is has revealed that the average gene 1970): scientists should devote them- messenger RNA, which serves as a contains 8.4 introns, all of which have selves to uncovering the exact cellular template for making proteins. In to be removed through splicing. mechanisms underlying the transfor- eukaryotes, the RNAs usually have to Although some human RNAs are mations. be processed before achieving the probably always spliced the same By the 1970s, the basics of how messenger form. Most freshly made way, scientists now estimate that at RNAs and proteins were created were RNAs are like long trains with many least 75% undergo alternative understood, but it was becoming boxcars (freight wagons), whose splicing. obvious that a single straight road cargo needs to be sorted to fit the Human genes have considerably could not describe the chemistry of needs of different customers. Empty more introns than those of most other the cell. Just as a score of modern cars are detached, and the cars in organisms; the average for flies and side-streets branch off those ancient front and behind are rejoined. The cel- other insects lies between 2.4 and 5.4

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introns per gene. (Even so, the current Once the cellular machinery Quality control world-record holder for alternative needed to carry out alternative splic- In 1979, Regine Losson and François splicing is a fruit fly gene called ing evolved, it could be put to use in Lacroute of the CNRS in Strasbourg, dscam, which can generate 38,016 many different ways. Mixing and France, discovered that the cell has a distinct proteins.) Some researchers matching modules produces proteins system to inspect RNAs and carry out believed that the high number of that behave differently. They help to quality control (Losson & Lacroute, human introns meant that genes were create diverse types of cells and figure 1979). Nearly three decades of becoming more complex over time. prominently in the development of research have shown that the system However, a recent study by the different tissues. Alternative splicing is not perfect, but it manages to pro- groups of Detlev Arendt and Peer of an RNA called Slo in the ear of the tect eukaryotic cells from the danger- Bork at the European Molecular chicken improves the bird’s hearing ous effects of most mutations. Defects Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidel- by giving it cells sensitive to different in genes that change the shape, struc- berg, Germany, shows that the ancient frequencies of sound. In flies, three ture or functions of a protein usually common ancestor of insects and ver- critical proteins are spliced differently have bad effects on the cell. Mistakes tebrates almost certainly had genes in males and females, creating impor- in splicing can also produce such mol- more like those of humans, with more tant differences between the sexes. ecules, so the inspection system – introns (Raible et al., 2005). Genes Although females have two X chro- called nonsense-mediated mRNA decay have become more streamlined over mosomes and males only one, females (NMD) – needs to be on alert all the the course of evolution in flies and don’t produce twice the amount of time. other quickly reproducing species. proteins from the genes on the chro- NMD takes place when an RNA There are also interesting differ- mosome, thanks to the differences in enters the cell cytoplasm, but scien- ences between species when it comes these proteins. Diane Lipscombe and tists have connected it to splicing, to the total length of introns com- her colleagues at Brown University which takes place before the RNA pared to exons within genes. In the (Rhode Island, USA) have found that leaves the nucleus (Sun et al., 2000). genes of the worm Caenorhabditis ele- alternative splicing is especially com- The cell attaches a cluster of proteins gans and many other species, introns mon in the brain of mice and other to sites where introns have been and exons contain about the same mammals (Lipscombe, 2005). Some of removed, like attaching a sign on a number of ‘letters’ (nucleotides). The the molecules are crucial to memory boxcar to show that some of the fol- situation in humans is very different: and learning. lowing cars are missing. The cluster introns in a single gene frequently Splicing is a factor in a wide range consists of at least six proteins and is total tens of thousands of nucleotides of diseases. Half of the people who called the exon junction complex (EJC). and are, on average, five times the suffer from neurofibromatosis, a severe This complex is placed at splice sites length of the exons. This may have an genetic disease in which tumours and its position has an important impact on the evolution of human develop alongside nerves and other influence on the fate of the RNA. genes, as revealed in a study by tissues, have mutations that change The translation of an RNA into pro- Cristian Castillo-Davis of Harvard the splicing of RNAs made from tein is carried out by a molecular University, USA, and Eugene Koonin the neurofibromin gene. Patients with machine called the ribosome which and Fyodor Kondrashov of the beta-thalassaemia suffer from docks onto a messenger RNA, reads National Center for Biotechnology anaemia as a result of non-functional its code and assembles a chain of Information, USA (Castillo-Davis et beta-globin proteins in their red blood amino acids that matches the al., 2002). Transcribing RNA is a slow cells; this severe disease is caused by sequence. Any EJCs on the molecule and energy-expensive process: mak- mis-splicing of the responsible gene. are simply moved out of the way. At ing RNAs from a single gene with Other examples are changes to the the end of the protein-encoding part huge introns can require several min- BRCA1 gene (linked to breast cancer) of the RNA, the ribosome encounters utes and thousands of molecules of and CFTR gene (leading to cystic a three-letter signal called the stop ATP. The authors found that the fibrosis). It is estimated that about codon and releases the finished pro- introns of frequently used genes are 50% of disease-related mutations tein. Mutations often alter the spelling on average 14 times shorter than in exons affect the way RNAs are of an RNA so that a stop codon those of rarely used genes. Their spliced. Tumours and neuro- appears somewhere in the middle of conclusion: natural selection has degenerative diseases are often the molecule. This creates a code been shortening introns in the most accompanied by unusually spliced within the RNA that doesn’t make common genes, saving time and RNAs that are not normally found in sense to the cell (the ‘nonsense’ in energy. healthy tissues. NMD) and may leave an EJC on the

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Cutting-edge science

tion of haemoglobin, which is needed to carry oxygen through the blood. The disease arises in people who inherit a mutant form of a gene called beta-globin; NMD catches the muta- tion and the body breaks down beta- Image courtesy of Ed Green globin RNA – removing an important molecule. In this case, an intended safety mechanism is actually attack- ing the body. Until recently, NMD was consid- ered to be little more than a means of trapping RNAs with errors; now it is known to be a more general tool that the cell uses to control the quantity and quality of certain molecules. This happens because the normal process of alternative splicing sometimes pro- duces RNAs with nonsense codons; for some reason, the cut-and-paste operation produces a bit of nonsense code in the middle of an RNA. In 2004, R. Tyler Hillman, Richard Green and Steven Brenner of the University of California, Berkeley (USA), carried out a computer analysis which showed that about one-third of the time, alternative splicing places a stop codon more than 50 nucleotides in front of a splice site. This activates NMD, which eliminates most of the RNA before it can be transformed into proteins (Hillman et al., 2004). The same year, Harry Dietz’s group at John Hopkins University School of Medicine (Maryland, USA) studied this effect in mammalian cells. They shut down the NMD machinery by removing a protein called Upf1, which is essential for the process. This changed the behaviour of a huge number of genes: about 10% of the RNA, which promotes NMD (see lead to disease. Even when NMD genes they studied became more pro- figure). To help prevent potentially works, the result may be disease, ductive, probably because spliced harmful proteins from being pro- because NMD may remove an RNA forms were slipping through that nor- duced, NMD recognises EJCs that are that is damaged but nevertheless nec- mally would have been caught by found more than about 50 nucleotides essary. In 1989, Lynne Maquat’s labo- NMD and destroyed (Mendell et al., after a stop codon. The process of ratory at the Roswell Park Memorial 2004). translation is interrupted, and other Institute (New York, USA) showed This means that NMD, like alterna- molecules come to carry the RNA that NMD contributes to beta-thalas- tive splicing, is a commonly used away and break it down. saemia, the most common genetic dis- side-street on the road between genes But some RNAs escape NMD and ease in the Western world. Beta-tha- and proteins. There are many more, produce harmful proteins which can lassaemia reduces the body’s produc- some of which will be discussed in a

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future issue of Science in School. If the petunia’s colour if you add a second Sun X, Moriarty PM, Maquat LE suspense is too great, here is a riddle copy of that gene to the flower? (2000) Nonsense-mediated decay of to keep you busy: the colour of purple glutathione peroxidase 1 mRNA in petunias is due to a single copy of a References the cytoplasm depends on intron particular gene. What happens to the Berget SM, Moore C, Sharp PA (2000). position. EMBO Journal 19: 4734- Spliced segments at the 5’ terminus 4744. doi:10.1093/emboj/19.17.4734 of adenovirus 2 late mRNA. Reviews in Medical Virology 10: 355-371 Web references Castillo-Davis CI, Mekhedov SL, w1 – The transcript of Philip Sharp’s Hartl DL, Koonin EV, Kondrashov Nobel lecture about alternative Advances in biotechnolo- FA (2002) Selection for short introns splicing, ‘Split Genes and RNA gy over the last 40 years in highly expressed genes. Nature Splicing’, is available online: have impacted on areas http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes such as agriculture, food Genetics 31: 415-418. doi:10.1038/ng940 /medicine/laureates/1993/ science and medicine. sharp-lecture.pdf Crick F (1970) Central Dogma of Turning our scientific A brief overview of Richard Roberts Molecular Biology. Nature 227: knowledge of the central and Philip Sharp’s work is given in 561-563 dogma of molecular biolo- the press release announcing their gy into useful applications, Hillman RT, Green RE, Brenner SE Nobel Prize: especially in research into (2004) An unappreciated role for http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes disease and medical treat- RNA surveillance. Genome Biology 5: /medicine/laureates/1993/press. ments, requires a more R8. doi:10.1186/gb-2004-5-2-r8 html detailed understanding of Lim S, Mullins JJ, Chen CM, Gross For more information about the the functions of the mole- KW, Maquat LE (1989) Novel Nobel Prize, including biographies cules of life. metabolism of several beta zero- of the prize-winners, see http:// This series will introduce thalassemic beta-globin mRNAs in nobelprize.org/ advances and new theo- the erythroid tissues of transgenic ries which may be too mice. The EMBO Journal 8(9): Resources recent to appear in text- 2613-2619 Many papers by Crick are freely books. It will also illus- Lipscombe D (2005) Neuronal pro- available on the Nature trate the international and teins custom designed by alterna- website: www.nature.com/nature/ universal quest to learn tive splicing. Current Opinion in focus/crick/ more about how the mol- Neurobiology 15: 358-363. ecules of life operate. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.04.002 This article provides Coming soon Losson R, Lacroute F (1979) excellent background In a future issue of Science in School: Interference of nonsense mutations reading and parts of it Invisible engineers: microRNAs, small with eukaryotic messenger RNA could be used to increase interfering RNAs, and other non-coding stability. Proceedings of the National and test students’ under- RNAs Academy of Sciences USA 76: standing of the central 5134-5137 dogma, RNA properties or protein synthesis. In par- Mendell JT, Sharifi NA, Meyers JL, Russ Hodge is a science writer ticular, the article would Martinez-Murillo F, Dietz HC (2004) at the Max Delbrück Center for be applicable to consider- Nonsense surveillance regulates Molecular Medicine in Berlin, a mem- ations of the uses of expression of diverse classes of ber of the Helmholtz Association of biotechnology, the impor- mammalian transcripts and mutes German Research Centres. He tance of ongoing research genomic noise. Nature Genetics 36: is the former head of the Office of and the recognition of sci- 1073-1078. doi:10.1038/ng1429 Information and Public Affairs at the entific endeavour. Raible F et al. (2005) Vertebrate-type EMBL in Heidelberg, Germany, and a Marie Walsh, Republic of intron-rich genes in the marine regular contributor to Science in School. Ireland annelid Platynereis dumerilii. Science REVIEW 310: 1325-1326. doi:10.1126/sci- ence.1119089

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Cutting-edge science

Oxyntomodulin: a new therapy for obesity? Image courtesy of Katie Wynne Katie Wynne and Steve Bloom from Imperial College London, UK, describe their work on a hormone that could tackle the causes of obesity.

he obesity epidemic has overtak- Ten Europe. It is estimated that 200 million of the 350 million adults Clinical drug trials living in the EU are overweight or New drugs must go through a series of trials, known as phases, in obese. In fact, the proportion of over- order to test whether they are effective and safe. weight and obese men is even higher PHASE I: Early trial in a small number of usually healthy volunteers in some European countries than it is to establish a safe dose and look for potential side-effects in the USA. Of greatest concern is the PHASE II: Larger group trial of volunteers (up to 100) with the illness fact that the number of overweight to be treated, to establish short-term effectiveness and safety. Both children in the EU is increasing by studies described in this article were early Phase II trials. 400 000 every year, a warning that the PHASE III: Large group drug trial in volunteers (up to several thou- obesity problem will be far worse in sand) with the illness, over an extended period of a year or more to the future. compare the treatment with an existing therapy or a placebo. Obesity increases the risk of heart disease, diabetes, stroke, respiratory PHASE IV: Drug trial usually performed after a treatment has been disease, arthritis and cancer. This dis- licensed, to establish the effectiveness of the treatment when it is used more widely and to investigate long-term risks and benefits. ease burden has a disastrous effect on health and costs 7% of the total EU This process is essential to ensure that the benefit of the treatment is health-care spending. The risk of greater than any possible side-effects, but it means that it can take developing obesity-related conditions several years for a new drug to reach the public. can be reduced by losing as little as Potential obesity drugs entering each phase of clinical trials between 5% of body weight. However, public- 1994-2007. Although many potential drugs are investigated, few reach health campaigns to promote healthy the market: only two are currently licensed in the USA. eating and exercise have not stopped Europeans becoming progressively Phase I II III IV fatter. Currently available drug treat- ments in combination with diet pro- Number 124 259 169 55 duce only modest short-term weight BACKGROUND loss and are limited by side-effects.

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Weight maintainance

Weight gain Weight loss Hypothalamus Brain Image courtesy of Katie Wynne Image courtesy of Katie

Blood-brain barrier

Food intake Energy expenditure Oxyntomodulin Circulation

L cell Small intestine

Food

Oxyntomodulin induces satiety The energy balance

Major gastro-intestinal surgery for gastric emptying in humans and its recently performed studies in healthy obesity can result in permanent role in the control of appetite has only overweight and obese volunteers to weight reduction, but the frequency recently emerged. Oxyntomodulin is investigate the effect of oxyntomod- of severe post-operative complica- released from the small intestine after ulin on food intake, energy expendi- tions limits its use to extreme cases. each meal in proportion to the calo- ture and body weight. Research groups worldwide are ries eaten. Early studies showed that A double-blind, placebo-controlled urgently searching for an effective administration of synthetic oxynto- study was performed in which 15 anti-obesity treatment. The Depart- modulin reduces appetite, suggesting healthy overweight and obese volun- ment of Metabolic Medicine at that natural oxyntomodulin signals to teers were trained to give themselves Imperial College London has led the the brain a feeling of ‘fullness’ or oxyntomodulin injections under the field in appetite research and has ‘satiety’ after eating (see above). skin, just before each meal, three recently published exciting work This research stimulated interest in times daily. Food intake and energy regarding the role of the gut hormone developing the peptide as a possible expenditure were measured over four oxyntomodulin as a novel therapy anti-obesity therapy, harnessing the days and compared with a similar for obesity. body’s own satiety signal in order to period during which the same volun- Oxyntomodulin is one of a group of reduce food intake. Body weight is teers administered a saline placebo. gut hormones: small molecules maintained by the balance between During the study, the volunteers and released from the gastrointestinal food intake and energy used, or ‘ener- investigators were unaware of the tract with several physiological gy expenditure’ (see above). Total identity of the administered sub- actions including effects on digestion energy expenditure can be divided stance. Food intake was recorded at a and appetite. Oxyntomodulin was into the energy used by the body for study meal in which food was provid- identified over two decades ago, metabolic processes at rest and that ed in excess and the volunteers ate when it was found to reduce stomach used during activity. Obesity occurs until they felt full. Activity-related acid and delay emptying of stomach when overeating and low levels of energy expenditure was calculated contents in rodents. However, the physical activity tip the balance in from combined heart rate and move- available data showed no effect on favour of weight gain. We have ment monitoring in the participant’s

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Cutting-edge science

AB 120

100

80 The hypo- Saline thalamus 60 40 OXM Oxyntomodulin acts on 20 the hypothalamus, an area % food intake 0 0 50 100 150 of the brain known to be Saline OXM % Daily activity-related important for the control of energy expenditure energy balance. Oxynto-

modulin and other circu- CDImage courtesy of Katie Wynne lating signals are able to

cross the barrier between Saline Saline the blood and the brain,

via a specialised area next OXM OXM to the hypothalamus. The

hypothalamus can then 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 receive and integrate these % Daily total energy expenditure % Physical activity level signals. Neurotransmitters are released, which send messages from the hypo- Effects of oxyntomodulin treatment. The error bars represent standard error of the thalamus to many different mean. Any difference marked with an asterisk is statistically significant: one asterisk brain regions and result in represents a significant difference when p < 0.05; two asterisks represent a significant changes in behaviour. difference when p < 0.01 Thus, an increase in the circulating levels of oxyn- tomodulin results in a feel- was markedly increased by 143 and levels of fat hormones in healthy ing of satiety and allows an Kcal/day or 26.2% during the period overweight and obese volunteers. In increase of activity levels. of oxyntomodulin treatment (see this study, 14 people gave themselves This may be a logical com- above, B). The increase in activity injections of oxyntomodulin and 12 bination of effects, as it resulted in an increase in total energy people administered saline placebo would allow a period of expenditure of 9.4% (see above, C), over a four-week period. During the intense activity to occur although resting energy expenditure study, the investigators and volun- when there is enough food was unchanged. These overweight teers did not know which participants

BACKGROUND to supply energy. and obese people started with expect- were receiving treatment. ed low levels of physical activity, but Oxyntomodulin treatment substan- oxyntomodulin administration tially reduced food intake and this increased physical activity back effect on appetite was still present at normal environment using a new toward normal levels (see above, D), the end of the study, without any loss biosensor. Resting energy expenditure resulting in more energy being used of efficacy. Most importantly, body was calculated using indirect each day. These findings suggest that weight was reduced by 2.3 kg in the calorimetry, which measures the oxyntomodulin could be an ideal oxyntomodulin group, compared amounts of oxygen consumed and intervention for the obese, as it has a with 0.5 kg in the placebo group (see carbon dioxide produced in each double effect of suppressing appetite above). Therefore oxyntomodulin breath by the volunteer. and concurrently increasing physical treatment resulted in an additional The results of this study showed activity toward normal levels. 0.45 kg weight loss per week, a that after an injection of oxyntomod- To investigate the effects of oxynto- greater rate than that achieved by any ulin, volunteers ate on average 128 modulin administration over a longer currently licensed anti-obesity drugs. Kcal or 17.3% less (see above, A) period of time, a further double-blind, Leptin and adiponectin levels were without altering their enjoyment of placebo-controlled study investigated also measured in the study volun- food. In addition, the participants’ the effects of repeated administration teers, as these markers of fat stores energy expenditure due to activity of oxyntomodulin on body weight are released in proportion to the

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 27 SIS_6_20-40RZ 27.08.2007 14:09 Uhr Seite 28 Image courtesy of Katie Wynne 1 Weight change in the two treatment groups. The error bars represent standard error of 0 the mean. Any difference marked with an asterisk is statistically significant: one aster- isk represents a significant difference when -1 p < 0.05; two asterisks represent a signifi- Saline cant difference when p < 0.01

weight (kg) -2 OXM

-3

012 34 weeks

amount of fat tissue. After four a reduction in body fat. Therefore, The obesity crisis is fuelled by the weeks of oxyntomodulin therapy, our data shows that oxyntomodulin easy availability of highly palatable, changes in the circulating levels therapy decreases body weight and calorie-dense food and a lack of phys- of the fat hormones leptin and fat stores in overweight and obese ical activity. Normal dieting tends to adiponectin were consistent with subjects. reduce the amount of energy each individual uses, making it particular- ly difficult for obese people to lose weight. Oxyntomodulin, by contrast, reduces food intake and also increases energy usage back toward normal Obesity, diets and healthy eating habits are of high interest to teenage levels, an effect thought to be mediat- and young adult students. This article provides solid scientific data on ed via the hypothalamus (see box). the central brain control of food intake and physical activity, and Appetite suppression is well main- opens many new topics for discussion: tained over a four-week period. 1. The control of protein synthesis and possible malfunctions During this time, we observed consid- within gut cells erable weight loss in the obese sub- 2. The circulation of oxyntomodulin and its feedback to the jects accompanied by changes consis- release of neurotransmitters via the hypothalamus, and the tent with a loss of body fat. information exchange between brain and body Currently, the only successful treat- 3. The hypothesis that a feeling of satiety can lead to higher ment for obesity is surgery, but its use physical activity is limited by the dangers of the opera- 4. The effects on hormone metabolism – both positive and tion and subsequent side-effects. negative – of injecting hormones Surgery which causes food to bypass part of the intestinal tract alters the 5. Current interest in anorexic and bulimic eating disorders, levels of circulating gut hormones, and the complexity of balancing body weight. including increasing the levels of In addition, this article is an excellent example of scientific and med- oxyntomodulin, which results in a ical research procedures for searching for cures for everyday health loss of appetite. The successful weight risks. The contents can be easily adjusted for middle-school students, loss observed after surgically induced whose interest will lie primarily in weight gain or weight loss. Older modulation of oxyntomodulin sug- students will be challenged by the brain-body interactions of food gests that drug treatment with oxyn- intake and physical activity, as well as by cellular control mechanisms tomodulin over many years may be of physiological functions. The detailed description of clinical drug- effective without the complications trial procedures can be used to enrich cutting-edge biology teaching. that restrict the use of surgery. Friedlinde Krotscheck, Germany Large clinical trials are now needed

REVIEW to confirm the therapeutic potential of oxyntomodulin over a longer period.

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Cutting-edge science

These Phase III trials (see box) would Department of Metabolic Medicine, involve testing the effectiveness of the Imperial College London website: hormone in hundreds and thousands http://wwwfom.sk.med.ic.ac.uk/ of volunteers over a period of several medicine/about/divisions/is/meta/ years. This large-scale research is International Obesity Task Force needed to be certain that the treat- Report on Obesity: ment will be effective and to look www.iotf.org/aboutobesity.asp carefully for any uncommon side- International Obesity Task Force effects that may not have been noted Report on Childhood Obesity: in smaller studies. Using the body’s www.iotf.org/childhoodobesity.asp own method of controlling weight The Wellcome Trust’s Big Picture may be a viable method of treating series provides teachers and stu- obesity without the serious side- dents (aged 16 and above) with up- effects caused by currently licensed to-date information on research drugs. In the future, this could pro- findings in biomedicine, and the vide a new way to tackle the obesity social and ethical implications of epidemic, with oxyntomodulin pro- this research. These resources can viding an effective weapon. be downloaded or ordered online. Resources A recent issue of the Big Picture focused on obesity: The research described here was www.wellcome.ac.uk/node5951. published as: html Wynne K et al. (2005) Subcutaneous Oxyntomodulin Reduces Body Weight in Overweight and Obese Subjects: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Controlled Trial. Diabetes 54: 2390-2395 Wynne K, Park AJ, Small CJ, Meeran K, Ghatei MA, Frost GS, Bloom SR (2006) Oxyntomodulin increases energy expenditure in addition to decreasing energy in- take in overweight and obese humans: a randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Obesity 30: 1729-1736. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803344

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Counting Buttons: demonstrating the Hardy-Weinberg principle sophon pan Pong pra ng

rtesy of Po Pongprapan Pongsophon, Vantipa

Image cou Roadrangka and Alison Campbell from Kasetsart University in Bangkok, Thailand, demonstrate how a difficult concept in evolution can be explained with equipment as simple as a box of buttons!

“The Hardy-Weinberg principle is the most difficult concept for me. I have not been clear about this topic since I started teaching it ten years ago. I know how to solve Hardy-Weinberg problems and can explain the procedures to students but…I really don’t see what we use it for and how it relates to evolution. To me, this topic is more mathematics than biology.” Mrs Karnika, a secondary-school biology teacher in Bangkok

he Hardy-Weinberg principle is This activity is appropriate for high- les of a given type as a proportion of Tone of the most difficult topics school and university students study- the total number of alleles for that in evolution for many teachers and ing evolution. The activity was origi- trait. In 1908, Hardy and Weinberg students (Mertens, 1992). They may nally developed by staff in the constructed a model of a population feel threatened by mathematics and Department of Genetics at Kasetsart that was not evolving, and laid out the quantitative aspects of population University in Thailand and later mod- the conditions in which such a popu- genetics, and may be unable to apply ified, as part of a PhD project, for use lation would exist (Abedon, 2005): a the principle to make sense of evolu- with high-school students. large population size with no migra- tionary phenomena. Many of them Evolution is a change in allele fre- tion, no mutation, no natural selec- wonder about the relevance of the quency in a population over a period tion, and random mating. If we track Hardy-Weinberg principle to under- of time (Skelton, 1993; Strickberger, allele frequencies in a population over standing evolution. To help Mrs 1996). A population is a group of indi- a succession of generations and find Karnika and other teachers who face viduals of the same species in a given that the frequencies of alleles deviate the same difficulties, I would like to area whose members can interbreed from the values expected from the introduce the Counting Buttons and hence share a common group of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, then activity. This is a simple demonstra- genes known as a gene pool. Each the population is evolving. tion of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibri- gene pool comprises all alleles for all The Counting Buttons exercise sim- um and how natural selection affects characteristics of all individuals. The ulates both a population in genetic the allele frequency of a population. allele frequency is the number of alle- equilibrium and a population under-

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Teaching activities

The Hardy-Weinberg principle in context

When, almost 150 years ago, Charles Darwin made “I am reluctant to intrude in a discussion concerning public his theory of evolution by natural selection, the of which I have no expert knowledge, and I idea had one serious weakness. Like most biologists of should have expected the very simple point which I his time, Darwin supposed that the characteristics of wish to make to have been familiar to biologists. parents were ‘blended’ in the offspring. Over several However, some remarks ... to which Mr. R. C. Punnett generations this would, however, lead to a reduction in has called my attention, suggest that it may still be variation, giving natural selection little on which to worth making....” operate. A chance encounter between a biologist and The ‘very simple point’ that Hardy went on to prove a mathematician on a cricket pitch some 50 years later was that in a relatively large population where there is played a crucial role in solving the problem. no migration, in which mating occurs at random and in The first steps were taken at the start of the 20th centu- the absence of selection or mutation, the frequency of ry, when Gregor Mendel’s work on inheritance in genes will remain the same. Variation would be pre- plants was rediscovered. It suggested that characteris- served over the generations. tics are discrete and do not blend. Mendel also ‘Hardy’s principle’ contributed towards the reconcilia- observed that although a characteristic may seem to tion of Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian vanish in a particular generation, it is merely hidden by genetics that developed gradually over the 1920s and a ‘dominant’ characteristic – thus it can reappear, 1930s to form our modern ideas about evolution. unchanged, in a subsequent generation. In 1943 the principle became known as the Hardy- Rather than bolstering Darwin’s theory, however, these Weinberg principle (or the Hardy-Weinberg equilibri- discoveries were taken by many to be incompatible um or law) when it emerged that the same idea had with natural selection. If the units of inheritance were been proposed independently in 1908 by a German discrete, how could the small, continuous variations physician, Wilhelm Weinberg.* observed by biologists be produced? And why, if Today the science of population genetics, of which it is Mendel was correct, didn’t the frequency of dominant part, provides the most important theoretical basis for characteristics increase in the population? evolutionary biology and can be used to test almost all Unable to solve this latter problem, the British biologist evolutionary ideas. Reginald Punnett asked G. Harold Hardy (with whom he Dean Madden, played cricket) to help. Hardy, a pure mathematician, National Centre for Biotechnology Education, UK generally treated applied mathematics with contempt. In * It was later discovered that an American, William Castle, had suggested a similar 1908 he wrote to the editor of the journal Science: idea in 1903. BACKGROUND

going natural selection. Natural selec- exercise. This is an activity for groups actually made from two buttons tion acts on organisms’ phenotypes: of four to five students, and should glued together (see page 34). physical traits, metabolism, physiolo- take three hours. 2. Tables 1, 2, and 3 for recording gy and behaviour, “and adapts a pop- parents and offspring, and calcu- ulation to its environment by increas- Objectives of the activity lating allele frequenciesw1 ing or maintaining favorable geno- After completing this activity, stu- 3. Plain paper, graph paper types in the gene pool” (Campbell dents will have simulated a popula- Each button represents one diploid & Reece, 2002). In a changing envi- tion at genetic equilibrium and exam- individual in a population. Each side ronment, natural selection favours ined the effect of natural selection on of the button represents an allele: any existing genotypes that have the allele frequency of a population black on black is an individual with already adapted to the new condi- over five generations. genotype RR, black on white is Rr, tions. and white on white is rr. Note to teachers: Teachers should Materials Each pair of buttons will produce review students’ understanding of 1. Three kinds of button: black on four offspring; the genotypes of the Mendelian genetics, especially mono- black, black on white, and white offspring are determined according hybrid crosses, before running this on white (50 each). Each button is to Mendel’s first law.

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Example tables The complete tables can be downloaded from the Science in School websitew1.

Table 1: Mating

No. Genotypes of parents Genotypes of offspring RR Rr rr 1 2 3 4 5

Table 2: Allele frequency (no selection)

Generations Number of each genotype Frequency Frequency of allele R of allele r RR Rr rr

0 (initial) 16 32 16 0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 5

Table 3: Allele frequency (selection)

Generations Number of each genotype Frequency Frequency of allele R of allele r RR Rr rr

0 (initial) 16 32 16 0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

32 Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 www.scienceinschool.org SIS_6_20-40RZ 27.08.200714:09UhrSeite33 www.scienceinschool.org CLASSROOM ACTIVITY Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Example results Example they reproduce),thefrequency oftheralleleinpopulationdeclinesover time(Table 6). there isaselective pressureagainstthehomozygousrecessive genotype(thatis,ifrrindividuals diebefore When thereisnoselectionpressure,thefrequency ofthetwo allelesfluctuatesslightly(Table 5). When Allele rfrequenciesoffive succedingpopulationsundernon-selectionandselection Generation 5 4 3 1 No. Generation Allele r freq. 2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 2D 5D 4D 3D 2D 4D 3D iiil 63 6050.5 0.5 16 32 0.5 16 0.5 1D 0 (initial) 16 32 16 1D 0 (initial) 5D 0 Allele frequency (noselection) Allele frequency (selection) eoye fprnsGenotypesofoffspring Genotypes ofparents 012345 RRr RR 1 5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 5 Generations 2 H = 21 H H = 16 H = 15 H = 16 H = 14 = 17 4 H H = 41 H = 36 = 30 RR Rr rr RR Rr rr 8H = 48 ubro ahgntp Frequency Frequency Number ofeach genotype ubro ahgntp Frequency Frequency Number ofeach genotype 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 2 R = 29 R = 33 R = 31 R = 32 R = 35 R = 34 1 R R = 12 = 17 R = 21 R = 24 RR rr Rr RR 20 22 1 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 5 4 1 .50.45 0.55 = 14 0.50 0.52 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.47 0.48 0.50 = 15 0.49 = 18 0.53 = 16 = 15 = 13 1 .20.28 0.35 0.72 0.65 = 17 = 10 no selection over time,underselectionand Changes inallelefrequency · · 408 0.19 0.23 0.84 0.77 = 4 = 6 non-selection selection fall ofalleler of alleleR fall ofalleler of alleleR Science inSchool Teaching activities Issue 6: Autumn 2007 R =recessive H =heterozygous D =dominant 33 SIS_6_20-40RZ 27.08.2007 14:09 Uhr Seite 34

Image courtesy of Pongprapan Pongsophon each colour group and multiply White on white Black on black Black on white each group by K (K = 64/N; N is the sum of the three genotypes) to make the population size of the next generation remain at 64 (its initial population). N and K values vary from genera- Three kinds of buttons tion to generation. In the first round, N = 96 and K = 2/3. Procedure R and r alleles and write them in Multiply the number of each geno- Experiment I: the appropriate columns in Table 2. type by 2/3. The sum of the out- a population at equilibrium 10. Put the buttons representing the comes should be 64. If multiplica- first offspring generation back into tion produces a decimal number, 1. Place 16 black/black, 32 the box. you can raise or lower a fraction to black/white, and 16 white/white 11. Repeat steps 2-10 four times to the next whole number to make buttons in a box. These buttons obtain genotype and allele fre- the sum of all genotypes equal to represent the initial population quency data from a total of five 64. Write the number of each (generation 0). generations. genotype in Table 3 in the geno- 2. Shake the box, randomly select 12. On graph paper, plot the frequen- type columns. two buttons at a time, and record cy of the recessive allele (r) against 9. Put the buttons corresponding to their genotypes in the ‘parent’ col- time. the numbers from the first genera- umn of Table 1. Put these pairs to tion row back into the box and do one side. Experiment II: not forget to remove white/white 3. Repeat step 2 until the box is an evolving population buttons from the box because they empty. You should have 32 pairs die before they are able to repro- of genotypes in the parent column. Suppose the individuals with geno- duce. 4. Use Mendel’s law of segregation type rr die out before they reproduce. 10. Repeat all steps above four times to calculate the genotypes of the You will need to eliminate to obtain R and r allele frequencies four offspring for all 32 pairs, and white/white buttons from each gener- over five generations. record their frequencies in the ‘off- ation after the first. 11. Plot the frequency of the r allele spring’ column of the mating table 1. Put 16 black/black and 32 over time and compare this with (Table 1). black/white buttons into the box, the graph from the first experiment. 5. From your spare buttons, find and shake it. Note: The students might find that, those that represent the genotypes 2. Randomly select two buttons at a in some rounds, there is a single of the offspring. These 128 buttons time and record their genotypes in unpaired button left in the box after represent the genotypes of the first a new copy of Table 1. selecting pairs of buttons. This offspring (generation 1) in a com- 3. Repeat step 2 until the box is remaining button must be removed munity. empty. You should have 24 pairs from the population because it does 6. Discard all of the parent buttons in in the parent column. not have a chance to mate with other the parent column. Sort the off- 4. Calculate the genotypes of all off- individuals. spring buttons into three groups: spring and write them in the off- black/black, black/white and spring column of Table 1. Discard Questions for discussion white/white. the parent buttons. Compare the graphs of allele fre- 7. Count the number of buttons in 5. Find the buttons representing the quency from the stable and the evolv- each group and divide this num- offspring genotypes. ing population. Do they differ? ber by two in order to maintain 6. Now you will have 96 buttons in How does natural selection affect the population size at 64. the offspring column representing allele frequencies of a population over Otherwise, your population will the genotypes of the first offspring time? grow exponentially! generation. Will a dominant allele of a trait 8. Write these numbers down in the 7. Sort the offspring buttons into always have the highest frequency in ‘genotype’ column of Table 2. three groups: black/black, a population and a recessive allele 9. Use the number of each genotype black/white and white/white. always have the lowest frequency? to work out the frequencies of the 8. Count the number of buttons in Explain your answer.

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Teaching activities

Teachers should be aware that stu- students to consider examples in Buttons is an example of how to teach dents may misinterpret the graphs, which the recessive allele is common, biology in an integrated fashion and focusing only on two or three points or the dominant allele is rare: type O to use mathematics to make sense of and not noticing that there are fluctu- blood is a recessive trait but the complex biological phenomena. ations from generation to generation. majority of people in some popula- “Counting Buttons helped me make The teacher should also emphasise tions have this blood type; sense of the Hardy-Weinberg principle. that in a natural population it usually Huntington’s disease is a dominant Now, I can explain to students what the takes more than five generations trait but only 4-10 individuals in principle is used for and how to link it to before we can detect any change in 100 000 have it. More examples of other topics of evolution meaningfully. I allele frequency. Evolution takes time. other kinds of natural selection are After conducting the second experi- described in O’Neil (2006). feel more confident and enjoy teaching ment, some students might conclude this topic. Obviously, the students paid that natural selection always increases Summary more attention to the lesson. They were the frequency of a dominant allele Counting Buttons is a simple and very happy to work hands-on and collabo- and decreases the frequency of a concrete way to demonstrate the ratively in this lab exercise.” recessive allele in a population. Hardy-Weinberg principle. By engag- Mrs Karnika, after running Counting Buttons However, not all selections would ing in this activity, students will gain result in a progressive decrease in a insight into a population at equilibri- References recessive allele. The allele – dominant um and into natural selection as a Campbell NA, Reece JB (2002) Biology. or recessive – that is selected out is force for biological adaptation. 6th Ed. San Francisco, CA, USA: determined by the environmental Students will have to apply Benjamin/Cummings conditions at the time. In order to Mendelian law and mathematical Mertens TR (1992) Introducing stu- avoid this misunderstanding, it is skills to make sense of the data and dents to population genetics and advisable for the teacher to ask the interpret the results. Counting the Hardy-Weinberg Principle. The American Biology Teacher 54: 103-107 O’Neil D (2006) Recombination. http://anthro.palomar.edu/ synthetic/synth_7.htm Skelton P (1993) Evolution: A Biological At any level, the Hardy-Weinberg principle is a difficult concept to and Palaeontological Approach. Milton grasp. It is virtually impossible to see how it acts and how selection Keynes, UK: Open University Press may affect the frequency of alleles. This ingenious idea for active Strickberger W (1996) Evolution. 2nd learning of a seemingly abstract concept simulates how the Hardy- Ed. London, UK: Jones & Bartlett Weinberg principle applies to both a stable and an evolving popula- tion. Buttons representing homozygous dominant and recessive, and Web references heterozygous, genotypes are used to review the understanding of w1 – All the necessary tables can be Mendelian genetics and then to investigate how allele frequency downloaded here: changes in stable and evolving populations. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ Three hours for the whole activity is a reasonable estimate. The activ- issue6/hardyweinberg/ ity would be ideal as two separate lessons: one for a stable popula- tion and one for an evolving population. This will prevent the students from becoming bored with pulling buttons out of bags or confused by the different mathematics required to model each population. The mathematics for the evolving population requires some concentration to understand and may take students a while to calculate. The questions for discussion should provoke some good exchange of ideas. The points made about allele selection would raise awareness of some dominant and recessive genetic diseases and could be used for further research, perhaps linking them into genetic engineering and genetic diagnosis and, if time permits, debates on the ethics of selection.

REVIEW Shelley Goodman, UK

Image courtesy of Pongprapan Pongsophon

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Monastic ink: linking chemistry and history

One of the many purposes of science is to support the humani- ties. With this in mind, Gianluca Farusi and his students set out to investigate and prepare iron-gall ink, a historically significant material for the transmission of knowledge.

to produce ink, but it was known: in his Naturalis Historia (Natural History), Pliny the Elder (23 AD – 79 AD) describes how to distinguish verdigris Image courtesy of www.pixelio.de . [Cu(CH3COO)2 2Cu(OH)2], used to process leather, from the cheaper . copperas (FeSO4 7H2O) with which it was often adulterated. He writes: “ …The fraud may be detected using a leaf of papyrus which has been steeped in an infusion of nut-galls: it immediately turns black when adulterated verdigris is applied …”. Although he could see the transfor- mation, he did not understand it. Now, we know that this ancient test relies on the reaction between the fer- rous cation (iron(II)) and gallotannic acid that is at the root of the iron-gall ink preparation (see below).

The educational context When one of my chemistry students asked me what kind of ink mediaeval The historical setting iron-gall ink was used from the 3rd monks used, I was inspired to devel- Many mediaeval miniatures of St. century AD onwards, by individuals op a project on monastic ink (see box). John of Patmos demonstrate the such as Leonardo da Vinci, Johann In addition to offering an instructive importance of ink: they portray the Sebastian Bach, Rembrandt van Rijn slant on science, it emphasises the Devil attempting to steal the saint’s and Vincent van Gogh. According to links between science and the human- precious ink. In the Middle Ages, two recent research, traces of iron-gall ink ities. kinds of black ink were generally have been found on the Dead Sea We decided to use the recipe listed used: carbon ink (a suspension of car- scrolls and on the lost Gospel of by the Venetian Pietro Canepario from bon, water and gum) and iron-gall ink Judasw1. his De atramentis cuiuscumque generis (obtained from oak galls). Carbon ink The reaction that forms the ink pig- (All Kinds of Ink; 1619). In rhyming was used as early as 2500 BC whereas ment was not used in the ancient world vernacular Italian, he describes the

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Teaching activities

Iron-gall ink ingredients Images courtesy of Gianluca Farusi Figure 1: Acorn gall Figure 2: Marble gall Figure 3: Cypress gall

The first certain reference to iron-gall ink is in Martia- All three types of gall can be found across Europe but nus Minneus Felix Capella’s book De Nuptiis anything containing tannins could also be used to pro- Philologiae et Mercurii et de septem Artibus liberalibus duce the ink; tea, for example. Alternatively, you could libri novem (On the Wedding of Philology and use tannic acid. Mercury and of the Seven Liberal Arts in nine books; Ferrous sulphate or copperas 420 AD), which mentions a mixture of galls and gum. In ancient times, copperas (FeSO ·7H O) was extract- Although other recipes have been preserved, all agree 4 2 ed by evaporating water from ferrous . Later, at on the basic ingredients: galls, ferrous sulphate (cop- the end of the 16th century, it was produced by adding peras), water and gum arabic. sulphuric acid to iron nails. We used ferrous sulphate, a common substance in the chemistry laboratory. Galls Galls are abnormal, induced growths found on the Water leaves, stems, flowers or roots of plants. The gall-form- Since tap water may contain impurities (such as chlo- ing agent, often a fly or wasp, deposits an egg into the rine) that alter the ink quality, we used distilled water. Historically, rainwater was probably used. young plant tissue, and the gall grows around the larva, which feeds and develops within the protective Gum arabic growth. Secretions from the larva, including saliva and Gum arabic, a natural gum extracted from acacia trees excreta, are believed to control the development of the and used as a food stabiliser, maintains the quality of gall. the ink in three ways: The chemical composition of galls varies depending 1. It keeps the iron complex (the pigment) in suspen- on the gall-forming agent and the plant in question. sion The Aleppo gall is particularly rich in tannic acid 2. It thickens the ink and prevents it from flowing too (65%) and gallic acid (2%); the Bassorah gall (also fast from the pen known as the mad apple of Sodom) contains 26% tan- 3. It reduces the speed at which the ink soaks into the nic acid and 1.6% gallic acid; whereas the Acorn gall paper, giving a better and longer-lasting stroke. contains 45-50% tannic acid. All three also contain high concentrations of gallotannic acid. In our project, we used acorn and marble galls (typical oak galls), as

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY well as cypress galls (Figures 1, 2, 3).

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Materials and method

· Galls, 3 parts by weight · Water, 30 parts by weight · Ferrous sulphate, 2 parts by weight · Gum arabic,1 part by weight Images courtesy of Gianluca Farusi

Figure 4: Crushed acorn gall Figure 5:Filtering the water and crushed gall mixture

1. Break the galls into pieces, then grind them in a coffee mill (Figures 4). 2. In a beaker, add the water to the ground galls. Leave the mixture to ferment in a sunny corner at room temperature for 3 days. 3. Filter the mixture (Figure 5) and add the ferrous sulphate to the solution. Stir well and leave for 3 days. 4. Add the gum arabic, stir the mixture and you have your ink (Figure 6). Time to start writing (Figure 7)! Images courtesy of Gianluca Farusi

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY Figure 6: The three inks Figure 7: The results!

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Teaching activities Images courtesy of Gianluca Farusi composition by weight of the ink: rather complex. This experiment Figure 8: Gallotannic acid consists of a “Una, due, tre e trenta a far la bona works well if younger students (ages glucose molecule, the hydroxylic groups tenta” (“with one, two, three and thir- 14-15) do the laboratory work, after of which are esterified by a mixture of ty parts try to do it well”). Now we which older students (ages 17-18) gallic, digallic and polygallic acids know that this ratio of gum arabic, explain to them the chemistry and gallotannic acid; R=A, B or C ferrous sulphate, galls and water is biology involved. not the best for iron-gall ink: because After the galls have been broken it is too acidic, it eats into the paper up, the reactions occur in two stages: over time. However, my goal was not the fermentation of gallotannic acid to to prepare the best possible ink, but gallic acid followed by the formation rather to encourage my students to of the ink pigment.

investigate history by using chemistry 1. Galls contain large amounts of gal- A=galloyl ester and to understand the cultural and lotannic acid (Figure 8) but rela- educational roles of chemistry. tively little of the gallic acid need- Next, the students investigated ed to make the ink pigment. In the C=digalloyl ester, B=digalloyl ester, galls, and set out to collect common fermentation stage, the galls release meta bond para bond types – oak (both acorn and marble) the enzyme tannase from the galls and cypress galls – to allow us to Aspergillus niger and Penicillium compare three different inks. glaucum fungi that are found in the We wanted to determine the best galls. Over three days, tannase Figure 9: Gallotannic acid is hydrolysed type of ink, but according to what cri- catalyses the hydrolysis of gal- to gallic acid and glucose teria? We decided not to stray too far lotannic acid to gallic acid and glu- from Canepario’s time, and referred cose (Figure 9). to De subtilitate (The Arcane Links 2. The ink pigment is formed in two fermentation Between Things) and De rerum varietate further stages: a Lewis acid-base (The Variety of Things) by Gerolamo reaction followed by a redox reac- Cardano (1501-1576). According to tion. gallotannic acid gallic acid glucose Cardano, a good ink flows well, and a) Gallic acid and ferrous sulphate is thick, black and bright. We tested form ferrous gallate (a colourless our inks, writing with both Pasteur water-soluble compound; Figure pipettes and pen nibs, and found that 10), plus , H O+ and SO 2-. 3 4 Figure 10: Gallic acid and ferrous acorn-gall ink best fitted these criteria. b) Almost immediately, the ferrous cations react to form ferrous gallate My personal favourite, however, was gallate reacts with oxygen to pro- cypress-gall ink: although it is less duce water and ferric pyrogallate, a black than acorn-gall ink, it smells black insoluble octahedral complex wonderfully of resin. in which the ligands of each ferric Of course, we ended with a discus- cation are two molecules of gallic sion of the chemistry: we considered acid (Figure 11). the reactions taking place at each The ink pigment is ferric pyrogal- + stage of our ink production, as well as late. Owing to the presence of H3O subsequent reactions between the ink ions, the solution is acidic. and paper, their significance for his- Figure 11: Ferrous gallate reacts with oxy- torical documents and how further Long-term damage gen to give ferric pyrogallate and water damage could be prevented. Iron-gall ink may have been used The students loved the project, par- for 1800 years, but it does not with- ticularly the interdisciplinary and his- stand the test of time well. Over the torical aspects. One student remarked course of centuries, the ink fades, and that chemistry “seems to be the clue discolours and damages the paper. to both modern and ancient puzzles”. This is due to an excess of ferrous ions: the 2:3 ratio of ferrous sulphate The chemistry involved to galls is stoichiometrically incorrect, Although the reactions are easy to with more ferrous sulphate than is perform, the chemistry involved is necessary to react with the gallic acid.

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Some of these surplus cations oxi- orthophosphate; Figure 12), a natural dise to form Fe3+ oxide which, as it is antioxidant in seeds, leads to the for- paler than ferric pyrogallate, fades the mation of an Fe2+-phytic acid complex This article provides a original black colour of the ink. Other (Botti et al., 2005). This inhibits the novel cross-curricular excess cations catalyse a damaging Fenton reaction, a step in the chain chain reaction: reaction described above, and pre- project linking chemistry 2+ + 3+ and history (with possible Fe + O2 + H Fe + HOO· vents further damage to the paper. 3+ + 3+ links to art, forensic sci- Fe + HOO· + H Fe + H2O2 2+ 3+ - ence and biology). The Fe + H2O2 Fe + HO· + OH Conclusion (Fenton reaction) “There comes a day when both the time idea of making historically accurate ink is interesting, RH + HO· R· + H2O and the painstaking study of many gener- and relies on relatively R· + O2 ROO· ations will reveal what is now hidden; one ROO· + R H ROOH + R · simple chemistry. 1 1 life would not be long enough to finish R1· + ….. Such a project could form such a boundless research… and so these where Fe2+ is a surplus ferrous cation, the basis of an investiga- phenomena will become clear over genera- O2 is atmospheric oxygen and R is a tion including, for exam- tions of researchers… There will come a cellulose moiety. ple, a comparison of mod- Furthermore, when an HO· radical day when our descendants will be sur- ern and/or traditional inks. attacks cellulose (RH) in the paper, prised that we were so ignorant of such The link to the prevention it breaks many bonds and holes obvious things. Many discoveries await of ink degradation could appear. In turn, the resulting cellulose the coming centuries when even the further extend any investi- radicals (R·) react, forming more memory of us has faded away. The world gation. Overall, this is an cross-links, so that the damaged would be a really trifling affair if each interesting article with paper is more closely meshed, less some useful ideas for hydrophilic, and consequently drier generation did not find matter to inquire exploring advanced chem- and more brittle. into… Nature doesn’t reveal its secrets in istry. one go.”

Conservation Seneca, Quaestiones Naturales, Book VII REVIEW Mark Robertson, UK One solution to this damage was thought to be ferrous cation chelation: This topical passage from Seneca surrounding the ferrous cations with (4 BC – 65 AD) still holds true. I like appropriate ligands markedly reduces to think that Pliny would be pleased Resources their oxidation to ferric cations, pre- to see how this generation is able to The Ink Corrosion website: venting further damage. However, figure out what he could not. www.knaw.nl/ecpa/ink/index.html finding a suitable chelating agent was References Figure 12: Phytic acid (myoinositol Botti L, Mantovani O, Ruggiero D This project was carried out with hexaorthophosphate) (2005) Calciumphytat zur Gianluca Farusi’s chemistry students Behandlung von Tintenfraß: at the technical school (Istituto tecnico Wirkungen auf das Papier (Calcium industriale) Galileo Galilei in Avenza- phytate, a natural antioxidant to Carrara, Italy, with the technical sup- counter paper corrosion caused by port of Luciano Dalle Luche. Gianluca iron-gall ink). Restaurator 26: 35-45 also teaches stoichiometry at the Faculty of Medicinal Chemistry, Web references University of Pisa, Italy. w1 – National Geographic website: www.nationalgeographic.com a challenge: EDTA, for example, does w2 – Netherlands Institute for not reduce the oxidation rate of Fe2+. Cultural Heritage website: Recent research at the Netherlands www.icn.nl Institute for Cultural Heritagew2, how- ever, offers hope. A treatment based on phytic acid (myoinositol hexa-

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Teaching activities

The Boy Who Would Be Good: understanding ADHD through a film-making project

An art teacher with a science degree? Karen Findlay put this unusual combination to good use with an ambitious film project. Image courtesy of Karen Findlay Art meets science ing bid through Big Screen Science, part As an art teacher with a science degree, of the UK Film Council’s First Light ini- I’m predisposed towards thinking up tiative which provides funding for film- exciting problem-based projects that draw makers up to 18 years old, which was together these two areas. I’m also the produced as a collaborative venture G&T co-ordinator at my school, which involving Ridgeway School in Plymouth doesn’t mean that I’m in charge of the and the Suited and Booted Film cocktail cabinet in the staffroom. Instead, Company. I have the responsibility of dreaming up Although it was a lot of hard work, it’s unusual activities, involving complex really satisfying to reflect upon a project concepts and principles, for gifted and tal- that, while mainly student-led, covered ented (G&T) students. One of my recent important issues of science and ethics in ideas led to me making a successful fund- an accessible manner, allowing schools across the UK to engage in this particular aspect of the debate. A dramatic approach to dealing with ADHD Securing the funding and support of a top-quality production company for this project gave G&T students at Ridgeway School the opportunity to research and produce a short film tackling the fraught field of bioethics. We chose the topic of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This is a condition charac- terised by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsive behaviour; it is also the subject of a great deal of attention in UK second- ary schools and a condition about which many of our students already had some (mostly anecdotal and incorrect) knowl- edge. The aim of the production was to stimulate debate and discussion among school children in general, prompting greater understanding of a condition that may affect others around them.

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Image courtesy of Karen Findlay

Image courtesy of Karen Findlay urally gravitated towards their own areas Environmental factors and prenatal influ- of interest, such as camera-work, organi- ences such as smoking and the consump- sation, or script-writing. tion of alcohol during pregnancy have We discussed possible topics for the also been linked to the condition. project but decided on ADHD because it Although Ritalin can help to control the was relevant to the group, several of symptoms, side-effects can include sleep whom had family members and fellow disturbance, weight loss and reduced students suffering from the condition. growth rate. In addition, the use of Ritalin ADHD is a topical subject in UK schools increasingly carries a stigma among UK and there is considerable debate about school children and it is this that the proj- whether it is a real medical condition or ect set out to address through promoting a Those involved were a core of 15 Year- simply a belief system. Nonetheless, the better understanding of ADHD. 9 students (ages 13-14), with others draft- prescription of Ritalin, the most common The Boy Who Would be Good is a ed in to perform roles such as extras. The drug used to control the condition, has drama in which the central character is an students were remarkably mature in their increased 20-fold between 2001 and ADHD sufferer. To those around him, approach to sharing the workload, operat- 2006. staff and students alike, his behaviour is ing as a single group for the most part but The scientific literature relating to irritating, anti-social and distracting; allocating specific tasks as they arose, in ADHD doesn’t provide conclusive evi- although he has been prescribed medica- accordance with each other’s strengths. dence of its cause, though studies have tion to alleviate the symptoms, he rarely All of the students worked on the story- identified factors such as genetic influ- takes it. Following a confrontation on the boarding (the scene sequence), for exam- ences, abnormalities in brain structure school bus, however, he goes back to tak- ple, but would research in pairs when a and chemical imbalances in the brain as ing his pills but begins to question particular focus was needed. Students nat- being potential contributors. whether they are changing his identity.

42 Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 www.scienceinschool.org SIS_6_41-54RZ 27.08.200714:05UhrSeite43 versial (themaincharacterthrowshis vide content. The endingis quite contro- to solvepracticalitiesratherthanpro- when absolutelynecessaryandgenerally the storyline,drawingonexperthelponly for useinclassroomdebates. set ofquestionsthataccompanythefilm This bioethicaldilemmaisthefocusofa www.scienceinschool.org The studentsthemselvescameupwith BACKGROUND The practicalities students who couldbeinvolved. Considerbringingin project; indeed,your own school may have older the chance togettheirstudentsinvolved inthiskindof courses atyour localcollegeoruniversity willjumpat for example,tutorsonmediaorbroadcasttechnology Looking closetohomemay bearfruitinthisrespect: neer andeditor)may notbeasexpensive as you think. Bringing inexperts(such asacameraman, soundengi- well. very cheaply, thoughittakessomepractice touse editing software, which cannow beacquired You willneedafewbasics–kids,videocamera and equipment butwould stillgive ameaningfuloutcome. This canbetackled inaday withtheminimumof two-minute newsitemonanequallycerebral topic. could betogetagroupofstudentsproduce A cheaper andlessstressfulversion ofthisproject on ahighroof! with sticks tofendoffaggressive seagullswhilst filming one pointinvolved uswearinghardhatsandarmed getting theall-importantriskassessments–which at My timewas mainlydevoted toorganisation,notfor- although thework was spreadover several months. one day ofactingmasterclassandfourdays offilming, The projecttookapproximatelythreedays towrite, vant fundingbodies. some keenstudents,andofcourseagrant fromrele- ment teamincollapsingthetimetableforaweekorso, sweat andtears)issupportfromyour school manage- ic ways. All that’s needed(asidefromyour own blood, one atalevel thatisdifficulttoachieve inmoreprosa- significant ‘wow’ factorthough,and canengageevery- taking foralready-stressed teachers. Itcertainlyhasa jumping throughalotofhoopsandit’s amajorunder- Getting aprojectlikethisoffthegroundinvolves natural actorsamongthestudents,but acting inthefilm. There were ofcourse who gavemasterclassestothestudents us toengagethreeprofessionalactors a veryeffective way. The fundingallowed work anditposesaquestionattheendin ending,butthiswasthestudents’ ‘classic’ would haveperhapsgoneforamore medication away)andasateacherI should bewellwithinyour capabilities. if you’ve managedtosortouteverything else,thisbit be somethingofachallenge toorganise locationsbut home, riskassessments,tonamebutafew. Itcanalso photographic release,permissionslips,rotas,letters there wereformstocompleteforjustabouteverything: associated withtheprojectwas alargeundertaking– so theycouldattendworkshops. The administration and gave mepermissiontotakestudentsoutoflessons ened headmaster, who was very supportive throughout could bedifficult.Iwas fortunatetohave anenlight- problems, thoughit’s clearthatscheduling thework I can’t say thatweencounteredany insurmountable now wants tobeasoundengineer. who startedoffwithaninitialinterestinactingbut aren’t partoftheschool curriculum;wehadonegirl related areastheymay nothave consideredandthat possibilities forthosewithinitialinteresttoinvestigate ‘gifted andtalented’groups? The projectopensup commitment sowhy notstartwithafter-school clubsor strengths andabilities.Naturally, you want adegreeof inclusive aspossible,drawing uponindividual of choosing studentsarises. The keyistotrybeas Once theexpertiseandhardware areinplace,thetask or departmentalbudget. there may befundingavailable fromyour own school years asateaching resource andinschool promotion, rior finishedproductandsinceitcouldbeusedfor a professionalfilm-makingoutfitwillproducesupe- involved alltheway through.Naturally, theservicesof mind thatfilm-makingprofessionalsdonothave tobe ing andthedrama departmentfortheacting.Bearin script-writing, theartdepartmentforstoryboard- your homecountry)departmentforhelpwiththe the English(orGerman,French, etc.,dependingon Science inSchool drafted intohelpasneeded. These involved, othermembersofstaff were for youngpeopleinsouth-westEngland. even wentontorunamediaworkshop career aspirations. Two ofthe students (editing, forexample)developednew elements ofthefilm-makingprocess, others, havingbeenexposedtodifferent Although Iwasthemainteacher Teaching activities Issue 6: Autumn 2007 43 SIS_6_41-54RZ 27.08.2007 14:05 Uhr Seite 44

Image courtesy of Karen Findlay

Anyone who has ever attempted to teach knows how Teachers of either science or social science/humanities difficult it is to make it fun and interesting, while at the can benefit from the film introduced in this article, by same time securing a high educational value. In this using it as a source of information about ADHD and to article, Karen Findlay describes her attempt to com- stimulate debate regarding the ethical issues that arise bine art and science by making a film about a medical from the application of specific medical practices. condition (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, The article could inspire other teachers to undertake ADHD), for which her students were mostly responsi- similar projects with their students. Alternatives to ble. film-making could be theatrical plays, songs and other Apart from the fact that the film production (and the art-oriented activities. Those who just don’t have the film itself) promotes interdisciplinarity and active stu- time for something like this can take advantage of the dent involvement, it also achieves several other edu- work of others and use it to make their teaching more cational goals, including awareness of a common fun and productive. For example, there are many films medical condition, debate and discussion, and col- involving science topics (such as natural disasters and laboration among teachers from different disciplines. disease outbreaks) that can easily be incorporated into Furthermore, this is a wonderful opportunity to give the teaching schedule. students the satisfaction of creating the kind of work Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus

REVIEW that is normally done by adult professionals.

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Teaching activities

included teachers from science and drama many disciplines and technical skills and This project was intended to help stu- departments. There was the obvious direct each student involved was able to find his dents appreciate how science is inextrica- link to drama, but a more subtle though or her area of strength within the team. It bly linked with their day-to-day lives and equally important link to science: how to was particularly encouraging to see stu- further, that it rarely produces totally con- use research, which points are relevant, or dents who had previously declared them- clusive answers. In pursuing the project how to express a scientific idea. selves to be ‘no good at science’ immers- and during the subsequent use of the film The film project was researched by ing themselves in scientific literature or in class, students begin to understand how reviewing the scientific literature, inter- trying to understand the physics of light scientific knowledge and its application viewing parents whose children are and sound as they relate to film-making. needs to be tempered by the application ADHD sufferers and discussing the con- In effect, the students were able to of moral and ethical judgement. The film dition with the local self-help group. In complete a mini-apprenticeship; operating also prompts consideration of the differ- addition, Dr Julian Partridge, a scientist the camera, and working out the best ences that may exist between medical from Bristol University, was assigned to angles, lighting and different takes neces- interventions intended to benefit the indi- work with the students on the project. Dr sary to create one simple scene. They also vidual and those designed for society at Partridge has considerable experience in gained experience of taking sound record- large. the field of bioethics and has worked with ings, how blue screen works, and even the BBC on a number of TV productions, the intricacies of film editing. Web references including the highly successful series, The finished ten-minute film can now w1 – Both the film and additional Blue Planet. He commented, “the stu- be used in both science and citizenship material can be downloaded from the dents were very imaginative – they came lessons, with students being given a set of Ridgeway School website: up with ideas that I would never have cards, each describing one effect of www.ridgeway.plymouth.sch.uk thought of.” ADHD medication. Both the film and the cards are available to download from the Resources w1 Time for a film review…. school website . Students should sort the For more information about ADHD, see: Film is a medium that students can cards into reasons for and against taking National Institute of Mental Health relate to very well, of course, but the idea the medication. Ultimately, individual stu- website: of using it as a powerful tool for educat- dents should assess the pros and cons of www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.cfm ing and prompting debate, rather than for using chemicals to alter a person’s behav- simple passive observation, was an edu- iour and arrive at a conclusion, providing Netdoctor.co.uk website: cation in itself for most of the students advice to a hypothetical person who has http://premium.netdoktor.com/uk/adhd/ involved. The making of the film covered been diagnosed as suffering from ADHD. childhood/index.jsp Adders.org, a website to promote awareness of ADHD: www.adders.org Image courtesy of Karen Findlay

Karen Findlay teaches at Ridgeway School in Plymouth, UK.

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Imagine... sharing ideas in the life sciences

With the help of enthusiastic school students and scientists, the Dutch school competition ‘Imagine’ supports the sustainable production of biodiesel in Mozambique, avocado oil in Kenya and the colorant byxine in Surinam. Daan Schuurbiers and Marije Blomjous, from the Foundation Imagine Life Sciences, explain what Imagine is all about.

Algae pond in Mozambique mg oreyo onainIaieImage courtesy of Foundation Imagine Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine dvancing sustainable develop- use. According to Joost Uitdehaag, ‘Ament by connecting life-science one of the participating scientists: research and education’ is the ambi- “Great initiative. It’s a pleasant chal- tious idea behind the Imagine school lenge to work on things other than competition organised in the Nether- your daily activities and it’s inspiring lands. The idea is quite simple: life to do something concrete for a devel- scientists are invited to submit pro- oping country.” posals for the application of a technol- ogy in a less-developed country. Making sense of science Groups of school students aged 16-18 The main challenge lies with the then turn these scientific proposals school students: it is up to them to Bram van Beek at the algae pond in into business plans during a national make business sense out of the scien- Mozambique school competition. The finalists pres- tific proposals. A competition manual ent their business plans before a pro- including the project descriptions is fessional audience at an international sent to the participants. It is their task conference. In the end, only one to work out the scientific, financial group wins the competition’s grand and social elements of the proposal in prize: the realisation of their business enough detail to convince the audi- plan and a visit to the country where ence that their project needs to be car- the project will be carried out. ried out. They are free to decide exact- Life scientists have contributed a ly how their action plan will look, but wealth of innovative applications of they need to incorporate their answers to the following questions: Dr Kariuki explains how to make life-sciences research for the benefit of avocado oil developing countries, such as using · What technology is being used? Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine fungi to attack malaria-carrying mos- · Where exactly will the project be quitoes, biological soil fortification or implemented? wastewater treatment through · How does this affect people in the nanofiltration. Deriving practical, developing country? low-cost applications from fundamen- · Who are you planning to tal laboratory research is not self-evi- approach? dent, but scientists see the challenge · What will it cost? in putting their research to practical · What problems could you expect?

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Projects in science education Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine

The Imagine school com- petition has been running School students visit a Masai Mara village in the Netherlands since 2003; the fifth round will start in September 2007. In addition to acquiring a thorough Ethnology in Leiden, students have The initiative originally understanding of the science and discussions with development-aid stems from the Kluyver technology behind the idea, the stu- experts to get an idea of what it is Centre for Genomics of dents are confronted with a range of like working in developing coun- Industrial Fermentation, a financial, political and social issues to tries and which problems they can Dutch research consortium solve. To help them with their ques- expect. employing microbial ge- tions, two separate activities are avail- nomics to improve micro- able over the course of the year: The final organisms for use in indus- 1. Hands-on experiments at the scien- A professional jury selects five busi- trial fermentation process- tists’ laboratories help the students ness plans for the grand final of the es. In 2005 the Foundation to understand the scientific back- competition, where the finalists pres- Imagine Life Sciences was ground of the project. After acquir- ent their plans to a professional audi- established in association ing information from the world- ence and jury during an international with Delft University of wide web and initial discussions conference. A promotional video Technology to ensure the with their science teachers, the stu- made in co-operation with an experi- continuity of the school dents perform relevant experi- enced movie producer is shown to competition and imple- ments and can pose their questions support each presentation. The stu- mentation of the winning to the scientists directly. dents are trained in advance for this projects from previous

2. During a special ‘knowledge day’ event: an instruction workshop brings BACKGROUND years. held in the National Museum of them up-to-date on presentation tech-

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Chitosan beads How to make chitosan beads

niques and PowerPoint tips and botanical garden in Delft, is bringing Making the ideas work tricks, preparing them to give a high- new life to a plantation in Surinam, The strength of this competition lies quality and attractive presentation. and plant researcher Johan Baars has in the unique combination of three After the presentations the jury con- developed a plan to grow oyster objectives: to encourage researchers venes to evaluate the reports and per- mushrooms to fight malnutrition in to implement their research for the formances and to choose the winning Ghana. benefit of society, to raise awareness group. Imagine supports the imple- mentation of the winning project. After a period of fundraising and establishing contacts, the scientist and the winning school students visit the country where the project is being put into practice. After returning from School competition Mozambique, Chang Liu, winning time schedule student of Imagine 2004, said “It was a lot more fun than I expected. I Until August: scientists submit proposals thought the contact with the scientists Until September: students register would be very formal. But we just had a great time together.” September: students are linked with projects October: students gather information Goal: development November: laboratory experiments Four Imagine projects are now December: interviews with development-aid experts being carried out: the Dutch engineer Bram van Beek has constructed a February: report submission and selection of finalists pond in Mozambique to produce March: workshop presentation techniques biodiesel from algae; Kenyan avocado April: final farmer James Kariuki is turning over- From April: the winning project is carried out

ripe avocados into oil for cosmetic CLASSROOM ACTIVITY products; Bob Ursem, director of the

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Projects in science education Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine

School students making chitosan beads

of development issues with school stand the challenges that teachers and students, and to implement useful students face. projects in developing countries. Finally, carrying out technical proj- But this strength at the same time ects in developing countries can pose Imagine poses a challenge: organising the problems. The history of development competition takes a lot of time and aid clearly shows the dangers of aims to: there are many potential pitfalls. If transmitting Western ideas to other you are interested in setting up a sim- cultures without adapting them: proj- · Make young people ilar competition in your own country, ects will not succeed if they do not fit aware of pressing issues you may find the following details into the local culture. The success of a around the globe and helpful. project is not necessarily determined encourage them to take First of all, good project proposals by its innovation, but by practical action are not easy to write. You will need to demand, cost-effectiveness, self-suffi- · Show them what role life find researchers who are willing to ciency and time constraints. sciences can play in alle- share their ideas and to put time and The key to addressing these chal- viating urgent problems effort into the project. Next, their pro- lenges lies in interacting with the rele- in developing countries posals should be checked for rele- vant networks. Cooperating with vance, cultural acceptability and con- organisations that already have well · Challenge life scientists to straints such as intellectual property established relationships with apply their expertise and rights. This is a case-by-case exercise, researchers, schools (for example the tackle those problems requiring continuous attention communication department of your · Turn the combined efforts throughout the year. university), or development organisa- of scientists and school Motivating school students to join tions will help you to avoid some of students into action in is another challenge. You need to the pitfalls. · Implement valuable proj- be aware of the national school sys- The organisation of such a competi- ects where they are most tem so that you can make the most of tion offers a steep learning curve and needed and build on opportunities for project work within requires determination and enthusi-

BACKGROUND existing capacities. the curriculum. Attending teachers’ asm from the organisers as well as conferences can help you to under- from all those volunteers who are

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 49 SIS_6_41-54RZ 27.08.2007 14:05 Uhr Seite 50 Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine willing to put in their time and effort. other countries. If you would But seeing the projects succeed is very like further information, email rewarding. By making these innova- [email protected] or tive ideas work in practice, Imagine telephone +31 15 278 6626. More encourages scientists, school students information on the Imagine school and people around the world to share competition is available here: their ideas in the life sciences. www.foundation-imagine.org

Resources The Foundation supports the estab- Presentation during the final lishment of similar competitions in

The finalists present their proposals during an international conference Image courtesy of Foundation Imagine

The article describes a current competition in the audience, but also to provide the audience with cost- Netherlands that encourages (senior) students to ings and other development issues. Students are also develop business plans for ideas to aid developing expected to create a promotional video with the assis- countries which have been proposed by life-sciences tance of a professional producer – again an amazing researchers. Obviously, the organisation of a similar experience for them. competition in another country would be a major Something that seems novel is that students actually undertaking but the benefits such a competition receive instruction on many of the skills they will would bring to all of those concerned are innumer- need during the completion, such as presentation able. skills. Such skills are extremely transferable and can- During the competition, students gain an understand- not help but increase the students’ employability. ing of real-world problems, as well as experience of As an added advantage, the winning students are working with professional life scientists to understand given the once in a lifetime experience of travelling to and develop practical solutions to specific problems. a developing country and seeing their work take Students also gain an understanding of the world of shape and have a real effect on a community or fam- business and commerce as they are expected not only ily; something that they will never forget.

REVIEW to explain the science behind the proposal to a lay Mark Robertson, UK

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Projects in science education

Science centres working with schools: using peer-to-peer teaching to engage students Sheena Laursen from Experimentarium in Denmark describes how the centre’s Xciter project helps students motivate each other to delve deeper into science.

he Danish ROSE (Relevance of The Xciter perspective actively involving the audience; TScience Education)w1 investiga- The Xciters projectw2 combines the school-teachers attached to this proj- tion shows that science is not popular experience of communicating science ect bring not only great experience in among 15-year-olds at school. Very in informal settings such as science teaching science but also an in-depth few students – particularly girls – see centres with the more formal knowledge of their students’ under- science as the foundation for a prom- approach that exists in school standing of science. ising career. If we wish to motivate settings. As a science centre, w3 young students to take a greater inter- Experimentarium has a long est in science subjects, we need to tradition of communicating look at new ways and new perspec- science by tives of teaching science in schools. Image courtesy of Experimentarium

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Comments on Xciters

From teachers Bente Kold-Christensen from Maglegaard School near Copenhagen has participated in Xciters with students from three classes. Bente is currently educating new Xciters in close collaboration with former Xciters. “It is a task I am looking forward to, as it will show whether we are able to give other children the same wonderful experience of passing science on to fellow classmates as the original Xciters had. It has to be cool to be good at science. All the students in my Year-8 class (age 14) are now experienced Xciters. The method is a great way of engaging students in science lessons. One of my colleagues recently saw my students in their role as Xciters and commented that if he hadn’t seen their concentration with his own eyes he wouldn’t have believed it! That’s when you realise what a pleasure it is being a teacher.” Foundation to continue for five more Jeppe Thygesen from Gorlev School in the south of Zealand in years. Denmark has just completed the full Xciters course. “It is a good way to work with science in school. It creates a broader How Xciters works focus and also a better environment for learning about science. The Three students (ages 13-14) from students’ own knowledge and confidence grows as they pass on their each science class and their teacher knowledge and experiences, which they do very well. apply to take part in a science com- Connecting science with everyday life also means that the facts are munication course at more easily remembered. The project has given the younger classes a Experimentarium. Those who are good insight into the world of science and many of the younger stu- selected take part in two three-day dents have asked if they can come back and see the ‘bigger children’ training courses run by science educa- performing their experiments.” tion experts and explainers from Experimentarium. The courses, which From students take place during school time, mix “You learn a lot when you have to teach others.” scientific knowledge, hands-on exper- “I didn’t think I would be so good at this, but I found out that I actu- iments and communication tools, pre- ally was quite good.” senting new methods of teaching to the teachers and students. “Our science subjects have become so wonderfully different, because As fully qualified Xciters, the young you can’t predict what is going to happen.” BACKGROUND science communicators return to their schools and share their knowledge with fellow students through a com- bination of experiments and dialogue. What is an Xciter? these students. Xciters are interested They lead workshops for fellow Year Xciters are young science communi- in science, like to experiment and 7 students, training all students in the cators in Year 6 (ages 13-14) who want to pass on their knowledge. The year as Xciters and sharing with them become catalysts for the project by Xciters course gives them both the their excitement about the project. spreading their knowledge and tools and the ability to achieve this. The Xciters then work in pairs on inspiring their peers. The overall goal In the long term, the Xciters project peer-to-peer presentations for of the Xciters project is to motivate could encourage more students to younger students (one or two years older school students in Denmark choose further scientific studies and younger): planning which experi- (ages 12-16) to become more interest- careers. Xciters is one of the activities ments to show and how to interact ed in science topics, and to increase in the PENCIL projectw4 and has with their audience of up to eight the status of science subjects among gained funding from the Egmont fellow students.

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Projects in science education

Image courtesy of Experimentarium

Over the course of the year, Peer-to-peer inspiration Experimentarium visits the schools Xciters is inspired by the ‘learning and stays in close contact with teach- by teaching’ strategy or ‘peer-to-peer’ ers. Teachers can read and download teaching often used in Danish schools PENCIL material on the Xciters websitew2 and when the focus is on emotional top- Xciters is one of the activi- contact Experimentarium staff if they ics. This approach helps young peo- ties in the PENCIL pro- have questions. ple to discuss openly on a level they w4 A series of scripts with detailed can refer to and understand. One ject (Permanent Euro- facts about the scientific topic sup- advantage of using peer-to-peer peaN resource Centre for ports the students in their mentoring teaching in science is that it puts the Informal Learning). PEN- efforts. Typical biology, physics or subjects into a context that is attain- CIL, co-ordinated by w5 chemistry topics include the lung and able and ‘cool to be a part of’. Ecsite and funded by the the body’s circulation, the physics of The pedagogical idea behind the European Commission as sound, and various states of water. A project is that working toward com- part of the NUCLEUS clus- ‘tips and tricks’ manual provides the municating science is more motivat- terw6, aims to strengthen students with good science communi- ing than just listening. Preliminary the operational relations cation advice and tools. In the results indicate that the Xciter stu- between schools and teacher’s manual, inspirational pieces dents become more interested in sci- informal science educa- demonstrate how to present the dif- ence. They also develop confidence in tion in science centres and ferent topics and how to communi- their communication skills, abilities museums. Fourteen sci- cate effectively. and their knowledge of science sub- ence centres and muse- Teaching materials on three topics jects. Whether the students taught by ums have developed pilot can be found on the Xciters website. the Xciters benefit is yet to be evaluat- activities in partnership For example, in the ‘eye’ materials ed. What we do know is that the stu- with teachers and schools; (available in English), students are dents taught by Xciters talk a great material is already avail- guided through the steps of an eye deal about what they have learned able online. Academic and dissection and are provided with the and about the experience afterwards, school partners are now necessary factual knowledge such as that the bond between the younger working to identify key the physiology of the eye and how students and the older Xciter students ways to transform informal lenses work. In addition, there are is strengthened, and that the younger science activities into suggestions for involving the audi- students look up to the older ones. innovative, high-quality ence, creating dialogue, and questions Many have asked their teachers if tools for science teaching. to ask. they could become Xciters when they BACKGROUND are older.

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Experimentarium

Experimentarium is a science communication and activity centre for nature, technology, health and the environment. The aim of Experimentarium is to promote interest in natural science and tech- nology. Since it opened in 1991, 5.6 million people have visited Experimentarium. Of the annual 350 000 guests, 110 000 are school visits. As well as housing science exhibits, Experimentarium develops a diversity of science communication and outreach projects, often in

BACKGROUND close collaboration with schools.

The Xciter method attracts both Web references girls and boys, and they inspire and w1 – For information about the ROSE learn from each other. It seems that study of students’ attitudes to the girls naturally employ a commu- science, see: nicative approach and boys seem to Sjøberg S, Schreiner C (2006) How learn from their enthusiasm, whereas do students perceive science and boys seem to be more confident in technology? Science in School 1: 66- their knowledge and plunge into 69. www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ experiments from which, in turn, the issue1/rose girls learn. and the ROSE study website: Qualitative and quantitative www.ils.uio.no/english/rose evaluations w2 – The Xciters website: The first annual evaluation of par- www.xciters.dk ticipating teachers indicated that the w3 – The Experimentarium website: project is fulfilling its primary objec- www.experimentarium.dk tive: to increase interest in scientific w4 – Information about PENCIL is subjects among the school students available on the Xplora website: involved as Xciters. This ongoing www.xplora.org evaluation by the Danish University w5 – The website of Ecsite, the of Education combines both qualita- European organisation representing tive and quantitative methods. science centres and museums: The beauty of Xciters is that the www.ecsite.net project need not be limited to school science – it can also be implemented w6 – Information about NUCLEUS is and employed within other subject available on the Xplora website: areas and educational fields. So the www.xplora.org opportunities it offers to the scholars of today and tomorrow are many and varied.

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Projects in science education

DNA labs on the road

Ever wished you could borrow a PCR machine for your lessons? And perhaps an expert to show your students how to use it? Marc van Mil introduces DNA labs that bring genomics directly to the classroom.

errianne and Marianne, bio- Gel electrophoresis is used to Gmedical students at Utrecht compare genes in healthy University, the Netherlands, are get- cells and tumour cells ting ready to leave for Amsterdam. They have just packed their vehicle with a PCR machine, gel-elec- trophoresis equipment and all the materials necessary to turn a class- room into a real DNA laboratory. The pupils of the St. Nicolaaslyceum in Amsterdam are excited. A few days ago, they started the module ‘Read the language of the tumour’ with an introduction to DNA and cancer. Today, during the practical part of the module, they will be real DNA researchers and compare DNA from cancer cells of a (fictitious) patient

with DNA of healthy cells. Based on Image courtesy of Marc van Mil their lab results, they must then advise a physician on the optimal treatment of this particular patient. This may seem like science fiction but it is business as usual in the Netherlands. Every weekday, univer- sity students travel in vans loaded with lab materials to secondary schools throughout the country to teach the latest in genomics research.

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rather isolated topic that pupils often perceive as complex and highly Mobile DNA labs abstract. By teaching DNA within a The DNA lab ‘Read the language of Spreading meaningful context as a starting the tumour’ is one of five mobile point, it becomes very clear why DNA labs travelling through the the idea… learning about this subject is so Netherlands. Five Genomics Centres If you would like to set up important. of Excellence from the Netherlands a similar project in your w1 Genomics Initiative each developed own country, the organis- University students a mobile DNA lab; they have been ers of the DNA labs would University undergraduate students offered free of charge to all secondary be happy to offer advice. play an essential role in this project. schools in the Netherlands since Contact the Education They are the ones who go into schools January 2006. The four-hour educa- to teach the practical part of the mod- Officer, Marc van Mil tional modules for secondary-school ule, serve as ‘ambassadors’ for science (M.H.W.vanMil@ pupils (ages 16-18) include a two- and provoke all sorts of questions UMCUtrecht.nl). hour practical lab taught at school by BACKGROUND from pupils about working in science university students with up-to-date and studying it at university. They genomics equipment and techniques. thus serve as young and inspiring Teacher and pupil manuals are specif- genomics are used to solve everyday role models. For the undergraduates, ically developed for each lab and pro- problems. For instance, to increase the this is a challenging job since it is vided in advance so as to optimise the number of people who survive cancer, often the first time they are actively learning experience. Teachers can we need to know about specific muta- involved in science communication obtain additional information and tions in DNA that turn healthy cells and education. This experience pro- register for the labs on the DNA lab into cancer cells. vides them with the basic communi- websitew2. cation skills essential for all scientists The university students bring all Developing the DNA labs

the equipment, from pipettes to PCR Developing the DNA labs was an Image courtesy of Marc van Mil machines and even a fluorescent initiative of the genomics research microscope. They turn the classroom centres in the Netherlands. Within into a real genomics laboratory. these centres, state-of-the-art knowl- The experiments in the five DNA edge about current genomics research labs differ, but in all cases the pupils is easily accessible. However, a good perform the real hands-on laboratory module for high-school pupils activities in their own classroom. requires more than just the latest They isolate DNA and use the PCR insights in research. Success of the technique to analyse it, culture yeast DNA labs has depended on a close in different conditions to measure the collaboration with high-school teach- production of ethanol, crystallise pro- ers and education professionals dur- teins and use bioinformatics tools to ing development and testing. look at protein structures. In current science education, there Pupils discuss how to isolate DNA from cow tissue is the belief that teaching science con- DNA research in context cepts using contexts makes them The five DNA labs deal with differ- more meaningful, i.e. starting from and equips them with the tools to ent topics in the life sciences: from science applications and implications inform the general public about their producing bio-fuels to plant breeding, in different practices, which in turn work in a meaningful way. By teach- from using bioinformatics in crime- can empower consumers, patients ing the DNA lab, students realise that scene investigations to improving the and citizens of a democratic society. teaching is not easy, but it is a very treatment of diseases like Alzheimer’s The DNA labs were developed in line inspiring task. and cancer. Although these subjects with the recommendations of the Before their first school visit, the may appear to be very different, they Committee for Innovation in Biology students receive three days of inten- all rely on genomics research. More Education on context-concept sive training. They are not only importantly, the DNA labs provide a approach. In the Dutch high-school trained in didactic skills and dealing context in which new insights in curriculum, DNA is an important yet with a classroom full of pupils, but

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Projects in science education

Only a very tiny amount is needed for DNA analysis Image courtesy of Marc van Mil

also taught to consider the role of sci- the pupils, it is a very motivating and edge, while high-school teachers and entists in genomics education and fun way of learning. International education professionals have the communication. peer-review committees of the experience to develop meaningful genomics centres have commented education and teach in a way that Evaluation of the DNA labs very positively on the DNA lab initia- suits high-school students. The DNA The goal of the DNA labs is to offer tive and have recommended expand- labs show that if these professionals relevant and up-to-date genomics ing it to other European countries. work together, science education can education in the Netherlands, based The DNA lab organisers hope to be innovative, challenging and excit- on new insights in didactics. After work with other interested research ing. more than a year of running the institutes in Europe to develop an mobile DNA labs, we can now con- international platform for sharing The practicalities clude that they are a great success. experiences and improving education Setting up the mobile DNA labs Pupils, teachers and university stu- projects. Ultimately, the goal is to cost a lot of money. The power of the dents are very enthusiastic. By July incorporate new insights into DNA project is that the equipment the uni- 2007, the heavily booked labs will research in the regular high-school versity students bring into the school have reached over 25 000 pupils in curriculum. Schools should not have is usually not available in a secondary 275 different schools in the Nether- to depend on projects like these to school. The equipment for the mobile lands. Furthermore, an independent gain access to new developments in DNA labs costs several thousand evaluation has shown that the DNA science; they should be part of the Euros, but it is used in more than 100 labs promote understanding of the curriculum. Research centres could different schools per year. If you possibilities that genomics research help to use the latest insights to wanted to set up a similar project at a offers for society and that they stimu- update the curriculum and have an lower cost, you could perhaps use old late a positive attitude towards important role in opening their doors materials that are no longer needed. genomics. to schools and sharing their discover- Taking the equipment to the schools For the students at genomics cen- ies and new developments in science. requires not only a van, but also good tres, the DNA labs are their favourite The mobile DNA labs are a good contacts with the schools and good outreach activity. For teachers, DNA example of how this task can be logistics. However, the alternative of labs offer a unique opportunity to get achieved through a collaboration inviting pupils to the research centres modern equipment and the latest sci- between all relevant parties. Scientists is less effective. By going to the entific insights into their schools. For in research institutes have the knowl- schools, the DNA labs can reach stu-

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After an hour and a half of hard Marc van Mil is the Education After reading this article, work, the pupils in Amsterdam exam- Officer at the Cancer Genomics I wished that I worked in ine the results of their DNA analysis. Centrew3, based in the University a Dutch school and had the possibility of having a In the next lesson they will reflect on Medical Centre Utrecht, the mobile genetic engineer- their results and write to the physi- Netherlands. After his degree in ing lab come to my class- cian with advice regarding the opti- biotechnology (specialising in educa- room. If you are teaching mal treatment of the patient. After tion), he developed and tested the biology to students aged packing up the lab, Marianne and DNA labs; he then moved on to train 15-18 and want to bring Gerrianne take a look at the notes the undergraduates to perform the DNA practical work with DNA pupils left behind. Comments range lab. to your students, I really from “Interesting!” to “Great fun!” Marc clearly loves his job: “I can recommend reading this and “Fascinating!”. Satisfied, they combine my knowledge of cancer and article. load the van to return to Utrecht, genomics with my passion for teach- ready to prepare for another day of ing. I really like training the under- Sølve Tegner Stenmark, DNA labs on the road. graduates. Before that, I performed REVIEW Norway the DNA lab myself more than thirty Web references times in different schools and in w1 – The website of the Netherlands workshops for teachers and the gen- dents all over the Netherlands (admit- Genomics Initiative: eral public. I hope that our enthusi- tedly a rather small country) and www.genomics.nl asm for the DNA labs will inspire the teachers do not have to arrange trans- w2 – English version of the DNA labs students and make the difference in portation and a whole day off for website: www.DNAlabs.eu the classroom.” their pupils. This makes the DNA labs w3 – The website of the Cancer a very accessible activity. Genomics Centre: A further cost is the money paid to www.cancergenomics.nl the undergraduates involved. An alternative, however, would be to Resources incorporate the DNA lab activities For more information on genomics for into the university curriculum, as part high-school students (in Dutch), of a science communication course. see: www.watisgenomics.nl

It worked: this slimy bulb is DNA Image courtesy of Marc van Mil

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Science topics

Image courtesy of Iris Hendriks, IMEDEA Why biodiversity research keeps its feet dry

Some biodiversity researchers do get their feet wet. For instance, in sea-grass meadows (with Posidonia) near the coast of Mallorca, Spain

iodiversity on land receives Marine ecologists Iris Hendriks, Carlos Bmuch more attention – and attracts much more funding – than Duarte, and Carlo Heip ask why – despite biodiversity in the oceans. This leaves 71% of the Earth’s surface unprotect- its importance – research into marine ed and relatively un-researched (Hendriks et al., 2006). The sheer biodiversity is so neglected. depths of the oceans are similarly undiscovered: according to the Census of Marine Lifew1, 95% of all water and on dry land, to study known species of ocean life are oceanic biodiversity – they may send recorded close to the water surface. a submarine to the depths of the By contrast, species observed below ocean in search of specimens, then 2 km account for fewer than 0.1% of analyse DNA samples in the laborato- known species. If you were to collect ry. They explore the extent, value and a fish or bacterium at this depth, it function of life in the marine ecosys- would very likely be a species never tem (see box), and investigate who before described! eats whom, and how this affects the Modern marine researchers use a nutrients in marine ecosystems locally wide range of methods, both under- and worldwide.

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Image courtesy of Ute Wollenzien & Lucas Stal, Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Images courtesy of Ute Wollenzien & Lucas Stal, Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Who said marine microbes are not attrac- tive? Together, the micro-organisms make up most of the ocean’s biodiversity and 90% of its biomass

Images courtesy of Iris Hendriks, Carlos Duarte & Carlo Heip Despite a valuable array of prod- If you take the ucts from biological sources, some number of scientif- of which have been used in the battle ic publications per 30 year as a measure, against infectious diseases and cancer the effort put into (Maris, 2006), commercial companies biodiversity are not yet enthusiastic about ‘bio- 20 research in terres- prospecting’. It is difficult to produce trial (green), fresh- high yields from invertebrate cul- water (white) or tures, and the biotechnology industry marine (blue) habi- claims that promising leads come 10 tats is clearly differ- faster and more frequently from a

Number of publications (%) ent. More people and money are combination of chemistry and syn- thetic techniques. 0 needed for sea 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 research! By contrast, interest in marine years micro-organisms – as a source of nat- ural compounds and potential bases

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Science topics

Biodiversity and ecosystem function

Trillions of organisms move hundreds of thousands of a species depends on external variables, such as cli- tons of chemical elements and compounds between mate, and cannot be predicted. the water, air and earth every year. This cycle ensures Experimental manipulation of oceanic ecosystems is the fertility of soils and the quality of water and air. not easy, so scientists test these hypotheses by using We are still learning how these organisms work mixed species of herbs and grasses instead. By grow- together to form an ecosystem, and what happens ing a small number of plant species and comparing when a species is introduced or lost. their growth and yield, the effects of the addition or There are three major hypotheses to explain how an eradication of a species can be studied. Although the ecosystem reacts when it gains or loses a species. interpretation of these grassland experiments and First, one species may compensate for the loss of their applicability to other ecosystems is not straight- another by taking over its role in the ecosystem. In forward, the investigations provide a model with this scenario, a new species would add nothing to the which to test and further develop ideas. ecosystem that was not already offered by the ‘flexi- Other ‘natural’ experiments can also provide valuable ble’ species present. In the second scenario, each insight: the warming of the Earth and increased ship species’ contribution is considered unique, and any traffic across oceans can cause species to shift; and loss or addition causes detectable changes to the ‘exotic’ species can invade ecosystems and out-

BACKGROUND ecosystem. Third, the effects of the loss or addition of compete local inhabitants.

Images courtesy of Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Marine biodiversity is huge

for future medicines, foods and tumour cells, and is now undergoing key functions to society – such as biotechnological products – is begin- clinical testing for efficacy against mangroves, sea-grass meadows, salt ning to grow. Microbes may not seem multiple myeloma, a type of blood marshes and coral reefs – are declin- as interesting as furry and feathered cancer. ing between two and ten times faster land animals and colourful plants, but than tropical forests. Excess nutrients, they are an important part of ecosys- A great loss sedimentation and contaminants are tems and food chainsw2. And unlike The marine environment faces leading to a widespread deterioration invertebrates, they can be grown in many problems, including commer- of water quality, promoting oxygen large flasks and produce much higher cial fishing, coral bleaching, invading deficiency and a loss in biodiversity yields. Marine researcher William species, ecosystem degradation and near coasts (Lotze et al., 2006). Fenical and his colleagues from the extinction. Over-fishing and hunting Another crucial problem is acidifi-

University of California, San Diego, of megafauna, such as large predatory cation caused by increasing CO2 emis- USA, for example, derived a com- fish (Myers & Worm, 2005), have sions. This is a global threat, as acidic pound from Salinospora, a bacterium removed much of the oceans’ fish bio- seawater can eventually dissolve or found in deep-ocean sediment. It mass. Key coastal habitats that nour- disintegrate calcifying marine life binds selectively to a protein found in ish marine biodiversity and provide such as coral reefs, mussels, and uni-

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Image courtesy of Netherlands Institute of Ecology al., 2006). Also, most protected areas Kidwell SM, Kirby MX, Peterson are isolated, whereas evidence sug- CH, Jackson JB (2006) Depletion, gests that food webs are connected degradation, and recovery potential across oceans. To design a network of of estuaries and coastal seas. Science protected areas that truly preserves 312: 1806-1809 biodiversity, we need to better under- Maris E (2006) Drugs from the Deep. stand the connections between Nature 443: 904-9054 ecosystems. Mora C, Andrèfouët S, Costello MJ, Kranenburg C, Rollo A, Veron J, Disconnected Gaston KJ, Myers RA (2006) Coral Although links between ecosystems reefs and the global network of are significant, it is important not to Marine Protected Areas. Science 312: overestimate the degree of connectivi- 1750-1751 ty. Conventional wisdom holds that Myers RA, Worm B (2005) Extinction, extinctions are unlikely in the oceans, survival or recovery of large preda- Small but perfectly formed because marine organisms can be car- tory fishes. Philosophical Transactions ried easily from place to place, replen- of the Royal Society of London. Series cellular planktonic organisms. This is ishing populations that die out. B, Biological Sciences 360:13-20 damaging not only to nature but also However, recent research indicates to the economy, as bivalves like mus- that marine species may not be as sels and oysters are important food widespread, populations might not be Web references sources. Healthy coral reefs are also as interconnected, and the marine w1 – The Census of Marine Life crucial, as they house many commer- environment is probably not as is a worldwide project, with cially important fishes and support resilient to extinction as was once educational information and links ecotourism. So how can we solve this thought. For example, recently dis- to outreach programmes at global problem? covered deep-sea habitats such as www.coml.org hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, brine w2 – The International Census of Effective? lakes and whale carcasses harbour Although more than two-thirds of specialised communities that are iso- Marine Microbes makes an invento- the Earth’s surface is covered by lated by hundreds or thousands of ry of the smallest life forms in our water, protected marine areas account kilometres of sea floor. oceans, with a large database at for only 2.1 million km2, compared Luckily, despite a bias towards ter- http://icomm.mbl.edu/microbis/ with 17.1 million km2 of protected ter- restrial research, studies on marine The micro*scope site at http:// restrial environment. Paradoxically, biodiversity have increased greatly starcentral.mbl.edu/microscope/ the major difficulty in creating marine over the past few decades. Scientists portal.php and Microbial Life at nature reserves is the fact that the must design effective marine reserves, http://serc.carleton.edu/ oceans are the patrimony of all elucidate food-web mysteries and microbelife/ are also useful sites nations: governments have been find new species before it is too late. for educators and their pupils. unwilling either to take unilateral But we can all look after our oceans to w3 – Fish Online lists species that are action or to co-operate in preserving preserve their biodiversity: be con- fished responsibly: w3 our marine heritage. Furthermore, scious of what fish we eat , value all www.fishonline.org/advice/eat/ evidence for extinctions in the ocean species, join conservation societies, w4 – The EU Network of Excellence is still scarce: demonstrating extinc- urge our governments to act (togeth- tions is difficult when much of biodi- er), and participate in sea and coastal MarBEF (Marine Biodiversity and versity of the oceans remains to be observations. It is time to get our feet Ecosystem Functioning) has an out- discovered. wet! reach section with information for Most protected marine areas are schools: www.marbef.org smaller than 100 hectares: far too References small to be effective. Only the Great Hendriks IE, Duarte CM, Heip CH Resources Barrier Reef in Australia (more than (2006) Biodiversity research still The EurOcean website includes an 2 345 000 km ) and a newly protected grounded. Science 312: 1715 overview of useful links: 2 area near Hawaii, USA (360 000 km ), Lotze HK, Lenihan HS, Bourque BJ, www.eurocean.org/categories.php? approach the effective size (Mora et Bradbury RH, Cooke RG, Kay MC, category_no=138

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Image courtesy of Netherlands Institute of Ecology

Showing the diversity of marine life to people is very important

SeaOnScreen at www.seaonscreen.org Society for Limnology and Oceano- (also ZeeInZicht at graphy (http://aslo.org). www.zeeinzicht.nl [in Dutch]), Carlo Heip is the director of the and Expeditie Zeeleeuw at Centre for Estuarine and Marine Although biodiversity is www.expeditiezeeleeuw.be Ecology at the Netherlands Institute considered within many (to be replaced by Planeet Zee of Ecology (www.nioo.knaw.nl/ curricula, it is frequently in 2008), are also useful. CEME), as well as a professor in restricted to the land. Oceanic biodiversity is The Marine Conservation Society is a Groningen, the Netherlands, and much greater and yet less UK charity dedicated to caring for in Ghent, Belgium. Since October explored; some of the our seas, shores and wildlife. It 2006, he has headed the Royal reasons for this are pro- provides links to many useful sites, Netherlands Institute of Sea Research vided here. including marine societies and (www.nioz.nl). He also co-ordinates initiatives in other countries. See: several international marine biodiver- This article can be used w4 www.mcsuk.org sity initiatives, such as MarBEF . in class to stimulate thought and conversa- tion, for example on the We would like to thank Froukje problems facing oceanic Rienks, science communicator at the research, how over-fish- Iris Hendriks and Carlos Duarte work Netherlands Institute of Ecology, for ing affects the environ- at the Mediterranean Institute for helping to write this article. ment, and how increas- Advanced Studies in Palma, Mallorca, ing sea temperatures Spain (www.imedea.uib.es). Carlos is affect habitats. also a research professor at the Shelley Goodman, UK REVIEW Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (the Spanish Research Council: www.csic.es) and is on the board of directors of the American

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Fusion in the Universe: when a giant star dies...

tational energy of the collapsing star. Péter Székely from the University of The infalling outer layers of the star Szeged, Hungary, and Örs Benedekfi absorb many of these neutrinos, giv- ing rise to extremely high tempera- from the European Fusion Development tures – hot enough to trigger the fusion of elements including gold and Agreement in Garching, Germany, investi- uranium (as described in Rebusco et al., 2007). A small proportion of these gate how a star dies and what a nearby neutrinos, however, escapes the supernova explosion would mean for us of the dying star and can be detected on Earth, in the silence on Earth. deep below the planet’s surface. A second type of stellar cataclysm occurs during the collision of a and a much larger t 7:35 in the morning of 23 and over billions of with an expanded atmosphere (hun- AFebruary 1987, a kilometre years, the core cools down to form a dreds of millions of kilometres in below the ground, the Japanese neu- white dwarf. diameter). If a white dwarf and a red trino detector Kamiokande II regis- More massive stars have a shorter giant orbit each other in a close rela- tered 11 neutrinos in 15 seconds. This lifetime and more violent destiny. tionship known as a , the does not sound very dramatic, but Whereas a star the size of our Sun can white dwarf can accrete material from neutrinos are hard to detect because live for billions of years, stars that are its companion and increases in mass they interact very weakly with matter. eight to ten times the mass of our Sun (see image). Once the white dwarf Normally, the detector registers only a last only millions of years because exceeds 1.44 times the mass of our couple of neutrinos per day from the they rapidly run out of fuel. When Sun (the ), it Sun, so this indicated a spectacular this happens, the equilibrium is lost becomes unstable, fusion reactions event somewhere in the Universe: a between two fundamental forces: produce heavy elements such as lan- giant star had died. , which tends to contract the thanum and ruthenium, and the matter of the stars; and radiation whole disintegrates in a giant explo- Size is everything pressure produced by sion: a Type I supernova (see image). Probably the single most important reactions in the core, which tends to Whether Type I or II, a supernova is property determining the fate of a star expand the star. The core contracts to one of the most powerful events in is its mass. As described earlier in this form a and the outer lay- the Universe since the Big Bang. In series (Boffin & Pierce-Price, 2007), ers of the star fall inwards and rebound the weeks after the explosion, the star stars with a similar mass to our own from the very dense core in a gigantic and its remnants emit more energy Sun die without any upheaval: they explosion: a Type II supernova. than our Sun does over billions of fuse helium into carbon and oxygen, Waves of particles, including neutri- years. This enormous explosion can then release their outer layers as a nos, leave the core, carrying the gravi- outshine all other stars in its host

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Science topics

Image courtesy of ESO

An artist's impression of a white dwarf (bottom right) Once the mass of the white dwarf has reached a critical limit, accreting material from a red giant star the star explodes as a

galaxy and the light can be detected fic vehicles (millions of cars, buses, Image courtesy of ESO from thousands of millions of light trains) we have here on Earth years away. Indeed, a supernova (Swinton, 2006). Due to conservation occurring anywhere in the Universe of angular momentum (the smaller will probably be visible with a power- the radius, the faster the rotation), ful telescope. neutron stars often spin very rapidly (hundreds of revolutions per second); The remains of a star this may cause beams of radio waves So what remains after this violent emanating from the magnetic poles, and dramatic event? In the centre of in which case we describe the star as the explosion of a star that is less than a pulsar. 20 solar masses is a newly formed An even more exotic kind of rem- neutron star, with the mass of the star nant than a neutron star or pulsar is a packed into a sphere with a radius of black hole, born when a star of at only ten kilometres – unimaginably least 20 solar masses explodes in a dense. The weight of one teaspoon of Type II supernova. When such a mas- Artist’s impression of a Type Ia supernova neutron star equals that of all the traf- sive star dies, the gravitational col- explosion

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EFDA education and outreach

Many of the fusion research institutes in the European To receive a free printed copy of the brochure, avail- Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA) have their able in English, Dutch, Spanish, French, German or own outreach programmes, which often include lec- Italian, send an email to [email protected], tures, and visits to schools and research facilities such including your name, postal address and the number as JET. Details of the individual research institutes are of copies you would like (up to five). The brochure available on the EFDA websitew2. Within the frame- can also be downloaded from the EFDA website. work of EIROforumw3, EFDA participates in Science in School, the Science on Stagew4 festival and other out- EFDA brochure for secondary schools reach and education projects. EFDA has a range of other educational materials available, such as a CD-ROM, ‘Fusion, an energy EFDA has produced a 60-page brochure for second- option for the future’, and a general poster on fusion, ary schools, ‘Energy, Powering Your World’, giving a both of which can be requested via the EFDA website. broad introduction to the world of energy. Topics The website also provides basic and more advanced include the ways we use energy in our daily lives, information about fusion science. where it comes from, and how we will deal with our energy needs in the future. BACKGROUND

lapse does not stop with the forma- galaxy is hard to miss. The earliest ’s host galaxy is, but also want to tion of a neutron star – instead, the observed supernova was recorded by characterise the individual supernova infalling matter produces a very curi- Chinese astronomers in 185 AD. itself. They therefore use two indirect ous phenomenon with a theoretical When the formation of the Crab nebu- methods: photometry and spec- volume of zero and infinite . la was detected in China some 800 troscopy. Photometry measures the Nothing can leave the black hole or years later, this ‘guest star’ was so diminishing brightness of the super- its close surroundings unless it bright that it could be seen in broad nova over time and the maximum exceeds the speed of light, but no daylight for weeks. brightness: this is the technique used light can escape the immense The maximum brightness of the to calculate the distance of faraway gravitational pull – hence the name. individual supernovae explosions is galaxies. Spectroscopy allows the As well as a neutron star or black very similar (we call them ‘standard chemical elements in the supernova to hole, we can often observe the rem- candles’) because the exploding mass- be deduced on the basis of their char- nants of the star’s gas clouds, which es are similar. By comparing the acteristic (as explained were blasted away by the supernova. expected brightness with the observ- in Westra, 2007). Usually astronomers One of these interesting objects is the able brightness, we can calculate how apply both methods to determine the Crab nebula: the remnant of the far away the host galaxy of the super- physical properties of the dying star, supernova that occurred around 5500 nova is. This technique is very impor- such as its mass, temperature and BC and was observed in 1054 by tant in the ‘’: it . Chinese astronomers. Like the other is so far the best method for measuring remnants, it will disperse into the the distance of distant galaxies. And of Nearby supernovae? interstellar space over thousands of course, it is one way to observe the So far, all observed supernovae years. early history of the Universe: by the have been a long way from Earth, but time we see a distant cataclysm, the what would happen if a closer star Learning from supernovae star itself has long since died. became a supernova? Fortunately, Even without the benefit of modern Of course, astronomers not only supernovae are fairly rare, with only telescopes, a supernova in a nearby want to know how far away a super- one supernova every 50 to 100 years

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Science topics

Image courtesy of ESO

Approximate position of SN 2002cv

SN 2002bo

The positions of SN 2002bo and SN 2002cv are marked in this picture of the spiral galaxy NGC 3190

in an ordinary spiral galaxy like the at the left shoulder of the constella- atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into nitric . The last supernovae tion Orion, is the best candidate, but oxide (NO) and other nitrogen oxides

observed in the Milky Way were in this is around 450 light years from us. (NOx) that catalyse the breakdown of 1572 and 1604, although vast and We think the safety zone is around ozone. dense dust clouds could have hidden 100 light years across: closer than this, Without the protective ozone layer, some explosions on the far side of our and a supernova could seriously rays from our own Sun galaxy. The most recent and relatively damage our planet. Of more concern would reach the Earth’s surface unob- close cataclysm was SN 1987A, is IK Pegasi – a binary star consisting structed and destroy phytoplankton which in 1987 ignited in the Large of a white dwarf and an ageing nor- (microscopic plants that live in the Magellanic Cloud, one of the smaller mal star about 150 light years from water column). As phytoplankton escort galaxies of the Milky Way, at a us. Whereas Betelgeuse could blow form a fundamental component of the distance of around 160 000 light years up at any time from tomorrow to food chain, their loss would have a (see image); this explosion was visible thousands of years hence, IK Pegasi devastating effect on most other to the naked eye. Further afield, will meet its fate sometime in the next organisms. High-energy radiation astronomers observe hundreds of few million years. would also damage living cells, caus- supernovae explosions per year in ing cancer and genetic mutations: other distant galaxies, sometimes two Effects on Earth rather like a very heavy dose of X- at the same time in the same galaxyw1. So what effects would a nearby rays. It is also possible that levels of Fortunately, there is no star in our supernova have on Earth? radioactive elements in the atmos- immediate neighbourhood (up to Supernovae produce vast amounts of phere could increase, with harmful about 12 light years) that will turn gamma radiation and particles such effects. into a supernova in the foreseeable as protons and electrons, all of which It may have been a supernova blast future, although further away, have very high energy and could that caused the Ordovician-Silurian astronomers have already identified destroy the Earth’s atmosphere by mass extinction approximately 450 some potential supernovae. degrading ozone and atomic oxygen. million years ago. More than half of Betelgeuse, the red supergiant For example, gamma rays dissociate marine life forms were eradicated in

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Image courtesy of ESO Image courtesy of ESO Supernovae, therefore, have shaped our Universe and our history. They created the conditions for life on Earth by producing elements, they affected evolution by causing mass extinctions and now, by examining supernovae, we can learn a lot about the Universe and ourselves.

References Boffin H, Pierce-Price D (2007) Fusion in the Universe: we are all stardust. Science in School 4: 61-63. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ issue4/fusion Rebusco P, Boffin H & Pierce-Price D (2007) Fusion in the Universe: where your jewellery comes from. Science in School 5: 52-56. SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud This bright, compact nebula (SNR 0543- (marked with an arrow) 689) is the remnant of a recent superno- www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ va explosion issue5/fusion Swinton J (2007) The neutron this event, believed to be the second Our supernova origins teaspoon. Science in School 3: 92. largest extinction event on Earth in Fortunately those giant explosions www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ terms of the number of genera that have positive effects as well. We prob- issue3/teaspoon died out. It is believed that the extinc- ably owe our existence to a nearby Westra MT (2007) A fresh look at tion was a result of both the destruc- supernova. The shock wave from a light: build your own spectrometer. tion of phytoplankton and the reduc- supernova compresses the surround- Science in School 4: 30-34. tion in global temperatures caused ing interstellar matter – a vast but www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ by the opacity of nitrogen dioxide thin cloud of dust, atomic and molec- issue4/spectrometer

(NO2). ular gas – and triggers star formation. It is also possible that Earth suffered So perhaps a supernova caused the Web references a close supernova explosion about 2.8 collapse of the enormous cloud from w1 – To discover when and where the million years ago. During its explo- which the was born. latest supernovae have detonated, sion, a dying star unleashes a wave of Furthermore, supernovae were the see the Supernovae website, where radioactive elements which can be origin of everything we know: scientists and amateurs hunt and deposited on the surface of planets. humans and everything from the register new supernova explosions: Characteristic radioactive elements, smallest bacterium to the highest www.supernovae.net for example iron-60, have been found mountain are made from the ashes of w2 – The European Fusion when deep cores were drilled from stars. A normal star can produce Development Agreement (EFDA) the sea floor. These may be evidence lighter elements, but the fusion reac- website: www.efda.org of a supernova, but the debate is tions forming heavier elements ongoing. More evidence of a recent require the enormous temperatures w3 – EIROforum website: www.eiro- and local supernova explosion is the and pressures prevailing in giant stars forum.org Local Bubble, a cavity 300 light-years (for more details, see Boffin & Pierce- w4 – Science on Stage website: wide in the Price, 2007; Rebusco et al., 2007). www.scienceonstage.net where our own Solar System is locat- These elements are formed and dis- ed. This bubble was created by vari- persed into interstellar space by ous supernovae explosions, which supernovae, enriching the clouds of pushed away the thin surrounding matter from which stars, planets and interstellar medium. life arise. In a sense, we are children of supernovae.

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Science topics

Small molecules make scents

Angelika Börsch-Haubold demonstrates the olfactory delights of organic chemistry.

“ hemistry is all bangs and Csmells.” Not all students of chemistry are drawn to the stenches and explosions in the laboratory. Fortunately, there are many organic molecules that actually smell nice. We experience these substances daily – using a perfumed shower gel, flavouring our meals with herbs, or burying our nose deep in a rose. Teaching the organic chemistry of nat- ural scents should motivate even those who despise the toxic and dan- gerous side of chemistry to look at structural formulae and functionali- ties. In order to be perceptible by our noses, chemicals need to be lipophilic, small (molecular weight < 300 Da) Classroom activity: and volatile. Fragrant molecules Experiment 1 escape from their fluid or even solid state into the air. The sensory tissue, called olfactory epithelium, is a mucous membrane which lies on the roof of the nasal cavity. Odorants reach this area (approximately 7 cm away from the nostrils) in the air we breathe; if something smells very faintly, we sniff two or three more times, forcing more air and fragrance towards the sensory membrane. There, the molecules dissolve in the Image courtesy of Angelika Börsch-Haubold Image courtesy of mucus and then couple to smell receptors that are expressed on the

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plasma membrane of sensory cells. (muscone), camphor, rancid (isovaler- whereas aromatic alcohols (phenols) The cells send nerve impulses to our ic acid, butyric acid) and pungent are components of smoked food. brain, which learns to associate the (formic acid, acetic acid) are often Most of the examples in Table 1 are smell with the original substance added to this list. By concentrating chosen from different types of food to (such as a rose), lets us recognise it more on chemical details, functional make the odours easier to demon- even when the object is hidden (such groups of fragrant molecules can be strate. You could randomly distribute as when entering a house and know- linked to characteristic odours (Table appropriate plant and food samples ing that a cake is in the oven) or clas- 1). The smells of n-aliphatic alcohols, on a large surface, and ask students to sifies it as unknown (such as when for example, range from herbal, rose group the exhibits according to their we go to an exotic restaurant for the and woody to orange. By contrast, n- smell (you could help by providing first time). aliphatic acids smell fatty, sour, rancid the attributes ‘floral’, ‘rancid’, ‘fruit’, or sweaty. Fruit scents are esters com- ‘vegetable’, ‘spicy’ and ‘smoke’). Similar chemical properties – posed of short aliphatic organic acids When the students are done, let them similar smells with alcohols. Subtle differences in compare their results with the chemi- Arranging smells into a limited the chemical composition lead to dis- cal classification given in Table 1. number of distinct classes is not as tinct scents, such as the pineapple Bearing the structural characteris- easy as defining the basic tastes aroma of ethyl butyrate and the apri- tics in mind, the next question is how (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter). Typical cot aroma of pentyl butyrate. we use smell to distinguish between smell attributes are flowery (jasmine), Vegetable smells often depend on these differences in functional groups, spicy (ginger, pepper), fruity (ethyl organosulphur compounds. A ring sizes and overall shapes of molecules. acetate), resinous (resin smoke), foul structure with nitrogen might smell of In many physiological processes tak- (rotten egg), and burning (tar). Musk roasted or fermented foodstuff, ing place at cell membranes, a recep-

Table 1: Classification of volatile organic compounds according to their functional groups and characteristic odours

Functional group Source Example Smell

Alcohol Plants Geraniol, linalool Fresh, floral -OH Menthol Mint Aroma-active alcohols > c3 Sweet or pungent

Aldehyde; ketone Fat Diacetyl Like butter -CHO; >C=O Milk products

Acid (C1-C12) Cheese Formic acid Pungent -COOH Capric acid Like goats’ milk

Ester, lactone Solvent (these chemicals Ethyl acetate Glue -COOR are used as solvents) Methyl/ethyl butyrate Pineapple Fruit Amyl/butyl acetateBanana Pentyl butyrate Apricot

Pyrazine Roasted, cooked, 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine Earth, spice, green aromatic =N- fermented foods pepper 2-acetyl-tetrahydro-pyridine Popcorn

S-compounds: Vegetables Diallyldisulphide Garlic aliphatic, aromatic 1,2-dithiolane-4-carboxylic Asparagus acid

Phenols (mono-, poly-) Smoked food Guaiacol Wood smoke Cresol Tarry

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Science topics

gelika Börsch-Ha tesy of An ubold our e c ag Im e os R tor is activated after a ligand binds to rose (1% essential oil in its extracellular domain. This princi- ethanol), lemon (10% essen- ple is often depicted as a key fitting tial oil in ethanol), cinna- into a lock – only the right key opens mon (5% cinnamaldehyde the corresponding lock – as the dock- in propylene glycol), a ing ligand has high specificity for its fruit aroma (5% in acceptor site on the receptor. propylene glycol) or bit- ter almonds (1% ben- Odorant receptors zaldehyde in propylene Some of the most fascinating fea- glycol) in such an exper- tures of the physiology of smell were iment. Either the student discovered by the 2004 Nobel Prize must choose from a list of winners Linda Buck and Richard about 20 odorants or he or Axel. In contrast to the simple but she is asked to describe and specific key-lock model that governs name the scents without the taste, smell is dictated by a whole set help of given attributes (see of sensory cells. One type of fragrant Experiment 1 in the classroom molecule interacts with more than activityw1). one receptor type, so the overall sen- An untrained person may correctly sation is created by the combination associate an odorant with its source or of activated receptors. When they something that contains it, but still the class recognised the smell of roses, tested a series of aliphatic n-alcohols fail to identify the original substance. some students associated it correctly on individual mouse neurons, Buck In a course on the sensory evaluation with similar flowers such as lilac or and co-workers found that clusters of of food that I recently taught, only melissa or with perfume, but others dours olfactory neurons were activated. For half of the students recognised the incorrectly suggested mint, medicine example, pentanol weakly stimulated aroma of oregano; a quarter of them and spice. Almost all students recog- a receptor called S3; hexanol strongly confused it with thyme or marjoram, nised bitter almonds, mint and cinna- activated S3 and S25; heptanol S3, S19 which are closely related herbs; and mon, but failed to identify sage and and S25; octanol S18, S19, S41 and others identified the scent as rose- coriander. When the solutions were S51; and nonanol S18, S19, S41, S51 mary, basil and parsley, which are less revealed, everybody immediately and S83. Thus, a single odorant is closely related herbs with quite dis- recognised the smells that had previ- recognised specifically by multiple tinct flavours. However, some stu- ously eluded them, demonstrating odorant receptors working in combi- dents correctly associated the odour that olfactory memory is far better nation. with tomato soup, which may be than our ability to actually name a Such a pattern of receptor activation flavoured with oregano. Two-thirds of particular smell. creates a vast repertoire of perceivable odours. Indeed, it is estimated that we can remember about one thousand odours and distinguish between an order of magnitude more, depending on our age, experience and natural sensitivity. Our linguistic ability to name scents, however, lags far behind our nose’s ability to discern them. The food industry trains experts to recog- nise subtle nuances of smells. For example, diluted essential oils or iso- lated compounds representing a cer- tain aroma are applied onto a strip of odourless filter paper and placed into

a screw-top glass vial (see right). You Angelika Börsch-Haubold Image courtesy of could offer your students oregano Sample presentation for a smell test. Glass vials contain filter paper strips that are (1% carvacrol in propylene glycol), soaked in diluted essential oil

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ing scent ntify s Im ide age s s c nt ou de rte u sy odorant of peach; inserting a St o f A n g e vinyl moiety (-CH=CH-) into l ik a B benzaldehyde (bitter almonds) ö r s c h yields cinnamaldehyde - H

a u (cinnamon). b

o

l d 2) Exchange of a functional group: replacing the aldehyde group of the vanillin molecule with an allyl

group (-CH2 -CH=CH2) gives eugenol, the fragrance of cloves. The alcohol 1-butanol smells pun- gent whereas the corresponding carboxylic acid (butyric acid) smells like rancid butter or vomit. 3) Addition of a functional group: adding a methoxyl group to ben- zaldehyde changes its smell from bitter almonds to aniseed. 4) Position of the functional group: Small changes in the chemical an odorant give rise to either com- carvacrol, which has an -OH

structure – distinct smells pletely different smells or at least dis- group next to a -CH3 group, smells The fine-tuning of our receptor tinguishable flavours (see illustrated like oregano, whereas thymol, machinery allows us to distinguish structures). The examples are sorted which has an -OH group next to a

between chemically similar mole- by the following chemical principles: -CH(CH3)2 group, smells like cules. Many fragrances are derived 1) Elongation of a carbon chain: thyme; 1-propanol smells ethanol- from plants, and plant products can adding two methyl groups like, whereas 2-propanol smells

be used to demonstrate how small (-CH2 -CH2 -) to the odorant of sweet (the numbers reflect the changes in the chemical structure of coconut, γ-nonalactone, gives the position of the -OH group).

Images courtesy of Angelike Börsch-Haubold γ-Nonalactone γ-Undecalactone Anisaldehyde Benzaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde

Vanillin Eugenol Guaiacol Carvacrol Thymol Menthol

(S)-(+)-Carvone (R)-(-)-Carvone (S)-(-)-Limonene (R)-(+)-Limonene Camphor Fenchone

Chemically similar compounds smell different

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Science topics

Image courtesy of Angelika Börsch-Haubold Image courtesy of Angelika Börsch-Haubold

Lavender Aniseed

5) Exchange of aliphatic and aromat- hexenal: green and black tea, fresh Acknowledgements ic rings: replacing the benzene tomatoes). Similarly, the alcohol cis-3- I would like to thank the students ring of thymol with cyclohexane hexenol (freshly cut grass), the C9 from the sensory training course produces menthol which smells aldehyde 2-trans-6-cis-nonadienal (Fachhochschule Weihenstephan, completely different. (cucumber peel), an aldehyde Winter semester 2006/07) for the 6) Stereochemical differences: usual- attached to a ring structure (the preparation of odorant samples and ly, one enantiomer of a chiral grassy-smelling ligustral) and even for stimulating discussion. flavour molecule elicits a strong some pyrazines (2-propyl-3- odour whereas the other is weak. methoxypyrazine: bell peppers) Web references Notable exceptions are (S)-(+)-car- have this ‘green note’. w1 – Experiment 1: Test your sense of vone (the aromatic ingredient of smell. The experimental protocol, caraway seeds) and (R)-(-)-carvone Plants are nature’s perfume including the necessary worksheets, (spearmint). (S)-(-)-limonene smells factory can be downloaded here: like turpentine (pine) but (R)-(+)- By using the wide range of odor- www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ limonene has the odour of oranges. ants contained in plants, you can issue6/scent/ However, there are compounds that combine organic chemistry with the w2 – Experiment 2: Sort a dilution are structurally unrelated but smell physiology of smell to demonstrate series of an essential oil. The experi- similar. Cyclooctane, camphor and how well we understand our environ- mental protocol, including the nec- 1,8-cineol all have a camphoric odour, ment without being fully aware of it. essary worksheets, can be down- although cyclooctane consists of an If you want to focus on training the loaded here: all-carbon single ring structure sense of smell, you could ask your www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ (C8H16) whereas camphor and 1,8- students to sort different dilutions of issue6/scent/ cineol are both bicyclic molecules one odorant by increasing intensity with a functional group containing (see Experiment 2 in the classroom oxygen . The so-called ‘green note’ of activityw2). These two activitiesw1, w2 Resources unripe fruit and vegetables, which is should stimulate students to link Buck LB (2004) Unraveling the Sense added to cosmetics for a scent of everyday situations with chemistry of Smell. Nobel Lecture, 8 Dec, ‘freshness’, comes from a group of and make them curious about the Stockholm, Sweden. http://nobel- closely related C6 aldehyde com- description of our world in terms of prize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/l pounds (cis-3-hexenal: fresh tomatoes; chemical compounds. cis-2-hexenal: green apples; trans-2- aureates/2004/buck-lecture.html

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Thyme

Students may be pleas- antly surprised to discov- er that chemicals not only are responsible for potentially dangerous and/or unpleasant effects but also give rise to Oregano delightful odours and tastes. The activities that Angelika Börsch-Hau-

d l o bold presents here may b

u a be used to demonstrate H -

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s that the realm of smell

r

ö

B resides in chemistry and a

k

i l

e Mint

g that our noses are exquis-

n

A

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o itely sensitive chemical

y

s

e

t sensors, able to detect r

u

o

c

s subtle variations in

e

g

a

m

i

l molecular structure. l A The article is applicable to organic chemistry in general, with specific rel- evance to food technolo- gy. It could be linked to a Lavender discussion of the use of (unnatural) food additives or of genetic modifica- tion of food crops. It would also be useful background reading for teaching lessons on the senses. Matthew Fletcher, UK REVIEW

Melissa

Busch-Stockfisch M (ed; 2005) Malnic B, Hirono J, Sato T, Buck LB Praxishandbuch Sensorik in der (1999) Combinatorial receptor codes Dr Angelika Börsch-Haubold, who Produktentwicklung und for odors. Cell 96: 713-723 is a trained pharmacist and pharma- Qualitätssicherung. Hamburg, Steinegger E, Hänsel R (1988) cologist, teaches regularly at the Germany: Behr’s Verlag Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie und Fachhochschule Weihenstephan in th Freising, Germany. Malnic B, Godfrey PA, Buck LB (2004) Phytopharmazie. 4 Ed. Berlin, The human olfactory receptor gene Germany: Springer-Verlag family. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101: 2584- 2589

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Scientist profile

Scientist profile: Nicky Mulder, bioinformatician

Nicky Mulder Image courtesy of the EMBL Photolab

Have you ever wondered what bioinfor- ecent advances in molecular Rbiology mean that we can now matics is? Or what a bioinformatician analyse DNA sequences easily and quickly, performing – in a matter of does? Sai Pathmanathan and Eleanor days – analyses that, not so long ago, would have taken years to carry out. Hayes talk to Nicky Mulder, a bioinfor- The result is an explosion in the amount of biological data available, matician at the European Bioinformatics but data alone do not confer knowl- Institute in Cambridge, UK. edge: we need ways to interpret it. That is precisely the purpose of bioin- formatics: the application of computer technology to the management and analysis of biological data. The European Bioinformatics Institute That may not sound very exciting, but bioinformatics is in fact an impor- tant and interdisciplinary research area at the interface of the biological and computational sciences. The ulti- mate goal of bioinformatics is to uncover the wealth of biological infor- mation hidden in the mass of data, to help us understand the fundamental biology of organisms and to use this information to benefit humankind. The results of bioinformatics research could assist fields as varied as human health, agriculture, environmental protection, energy technology and biotechnology. In molecular medicine, bioinformat- ics is already used to produce better and more customised medicines. In the field of environmental science, it Image courtesy of the EMBL Photolab

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Image courtesy of the EMBL Photolab

The European Bioinformatics Institute

is used to identify bacteria that are iments], I had to do some data analy- currently using computational tools to capable of cleaning up polluted areas sis on the computer. I found this part analyse the genome sequences of (bio-remediation) and in agriculture it interesting and was amazed to see pathogens such as Mycobacterium can be used to develop high-yield, how much you can find out about a tuberculosis (the bacterium that causes low-maintenance crops. These are just gene through computational tools.” tuberculosis) to better understand a few of the many benefits of bioin- This technological side of the biologi- how the pathogens work. “We still do formatics, now and in the future. cal sciences had grabbed Nicky’s not know the function of so many But surely Nicky didn’t know all attention. Following her PhD she genes in this organism, but among that when she was at school in South dived straight in and began work at them there may be some that are Africa? Of course not! In fact, she had the European Bioinformatics Institute important in causing the disease and planned to become a graphic design- (EBI) in Cambridge, UK. One advan- therefore have potential applications er, but always enjoyed science, even tage for Nicky was the lack of labora- in drug or vaccine design.” though she didn’t study biology at tory work, because she was uncom- By comparing the sequence of school. “Towards the end of my final fortable experimenting on animals . ‘unknown’ genes with the sequence year, our school guidance counsellor Nicky’s job has two different of genes in other organisms for which told me about the Bachelor of Science aspects. One involves providing a the function is already known, bioin- at university,” says Nicky, “and all the database and computational tools to formaticians can gather information subjects sounded so interesting that I scientists all over the world. It is a about the possible function of genes. decided to do it!” She specialised in real challenge to keep up with user This method is known as comparative microbiology and chemistry and then demands but it proves to be greatly genomics. The data come from public went on to do a PhD in medical rewarding too. “So many people databases that store genome sequence microbiology. access, use and quote the resource information; Nicky and her colleagues So how did she get involved in from all over the world for their take these data and perform their bioinformatics? “During my PhD, research.” The second part of her job own data manipulations and compar- after doing lots of bench work [exper- involves infectious diseases. Nicky is isons to try and make biological sense

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Scientist profile Images courtesy of the European Bioinformatics Institute

Code crackers – teaching materials from the European Bioinformatics Institute

of it. “So far we have found that some genes that are known to cause disease in other pathogens can also be found in M. tuberculosis, so we can investigate these further. We have also found some genes that are

unique to M. tuberculosis that may be Images courtesy of the European Bioinformatics Institute required for its survival in the host, and we can now study these further in collaboration with colleagues in the laboratory.” Nicky finds science exciting, as it deals with important problems. “For everything I do, I can see a real-life example or application of my work, would give to someone who wants to See www.ebi.ac.uk/training/schools/ so my results have the potential to do bioinformatics. “Try to get a good The EBI also hosts the 2CAN portal, affect other people and potentially basic grounding in both biology and which introduces bioinformatics help in the medical field.” What computer science, then apply for a and demonstrates how to perform about the drawbacks? “There is con- position or studentship in the field – bioinformatics analyses using EBI stant pressure to publish results, and the best way to learn is on the job.” tools: www.ebi.ac.uk/2can/ scientists often compete rather than Nicky is keen to encourage young The EBI, as part of the European collaborate. You can work on a prob- people to think about a career in sci- Molecular Biology Laboratory, lem for ages only to find suddenly ence, and has visited several schools offers workshops for teachers at the that someone else has published it to speak about career opportunities in European Learning Laboratory for before you!” bioinformatics. the Life Sciences: Are there other challenges? “The In the future, Nicky would like to www.embl.org/ells/ challenges are mostly in keeping up focus a bit more on research. “Until to date with the current literature and now, my main responsibilities have finding an appropriate research post,” been to keep the database and service

says Nicky. “Another challenge is the running efficiently for the public. I Image cou constant need to find funding for would like to have time to use all rtesy of t research.” the important data we store Being promoted to team leader at and generate, to answer he Eur the EBI was a particularly memorable interesting biological ques- opean Bi moment in Nicky’s career. “I had tions such as those in our

oi been running a project at the EBI for a research project on M. nformat few years but didn’t officially receive tuberculosis.” i credit for it until I was promoted to Institute cs team leader of the project.” She is Resources now responsible for day-to-day man- The European agement of the team as well as for Bioinformatics strategic decision-making on the Institute provides a direction and goals of the project. “It range of teaching has also been rewarding for me as a materials in bioinfor- woman, as the majority of team and matics, including a DNA group leaders at the institute are code-cracking quiz. You can male. I hope this encourages other also try translating your name women in science to be ambitious.” into DNA code and searching for We asked Nicky what advice she proteins with your name in them!

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Teaching on ice: an educational expedition to Antarctica Are there days when you long to get right away from the class- room? How far would you be willing to go? Eleanor Hayes talks to Phil Avery, one of four teachers who are taking a break from school to journey to the Antarctic. Image courtesy of Steve Bull (expedition leader) Image courtesy of Steve

The team training in the Lake District: left to right: Ian, Phil, Zoe (reserve), Ruth, Amy, Richard (reserve guide)

n 3 November 2007, four teach- The expedition is organised by the the thirst for knowledge. By targeting Oers from the UK will head to Fuchs Foundationw1, founded in hon- teachers, they hope to reach millions the Ellsworth Mountains of Antarctica our of Sir Vivian Fuchs, the Antarctic of students, working on the principle to camp for four weeks. The aim of scientist who completed the first-ever that each teacher will influence 10 000 the expedition is to inspire geography crossing of the continent in 1957/58. students over the course of their and science students with live reports The Foundation’s aim is to inspire career. from the ice and to conduct research teachers to change students’ lives, projects, the results of which will be challenging the idea that science and Research on ice turned into exciting and innovative geography are dull, and awakening a All four of the teachers have their teaching resources. sense of excitement, adventure and own projects, which they will then

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Teacher profile

convert into exciting lessons for their students within the framework of the national curriculum. For example, Phil Avery, a geography teacher at Funding Oxted School in the UK, is working Half of the expedition costs are covered by the Fuchs Foundation but with the University of Portsmouth, each participating teacher must raise £10 000 with the support of their UK, to discover how humans cope schools, friends and others. Additional donors and sponsors are very physiologically and psychologically welcomew2! with extreme cold. Before and after the expedition, the four teachers and Phil explains one of the positive side-effects of fund-raising: “I now two guides will undergo fitness tests, know a lot about the romantic nature of my school, after I ran a serv- anthropometric profiling (which ice with which members of the school could send flowers to each examines body shape) and psycholog- other. Year 8 [ages 13-14] are the most romantic year (about half of the ical questionnaires. students sent flowers) and teachers are the least romantic (obviously Amongst other activities, they will not all that staff-room gossip is true!). Year-8 students are also the be cycling inside a walk-in freezer ‘most desirable’ year (receiving the most flowers) with teachers being

(-20ºC) wearing swimming costumes! BACKGROUND the ‘least desirable’.” The point is to see at what core body temperature they start to sweat and then, once they have stopped cycling, shiver. The results will be compared before. And they have only just met Training before and after the expedition to see in training. All this adds a whole new, The teachers have already complet- if they are due to the harsh conditions ‘Big Brother’-style dimension. How ed two training trips in northern experienced (temperatures in will they cope with the stress? Will England, focusing on how to camp in Antarctica will be around -30ºC plus they argue? Will they (or the ice) a cold environment and how to move wind chill). crack up? This is one of the reasons on ice. All went well, except for when The selected teachers are neither that the University of Portsmouth they left their stoves behind…if they research scientists nor explorers and were so keen to test them mentally as repeat this mistake in Antarctica, they have never done anything like this well as physically. will die! Fortunately, training ensures that the teachers can learn from their mistakes before the real expedition begins. Image courtesy of Phil Avery Image courtesy of Phil Avery And of course, there are other types of training course, explains Phil. “I spent one weekend contemplating bones poking through legs, guts on the outside, scratched retinas, rotten toes, dislocated elbows, lacerations, collapsed lungs, swelling brains, heart attacks, spinal injuries and diarrhoea. This wasn’t TV – I was on a medical course for people who are going to be more than 24 hours from professional help. The list of injuries sustained while on expeditions made me won- der if this expedition was a sensible idea!” To check that they are ready for the rigours of the expedition, the teachers are currently undergoing tests to see Phil in the freezer getting cold (he’s not Phil undergoing a maximum oxygen how well adapted they are to the swearing, he’s got a thermistor on his uptake test (he has excellent endurance cold. Exactly how much fat do they finger!) and lactic acid threshold) have and where is it? How quickly do

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Image courtesy of Phil Avery Image courtesy of Phil Avery Image courtesy of Phil

Phil practising rescuing himself from a The team trying on their kit. Phil is in the foreground with his arms out crevasse

they start sweating and how much change, but also to a wide variety of his description of a vast continent sweat do they produce? How fit are interdisciplinary topics. For example, on the other side of the planet, they? What happens if they are sub- Antarctic tourism could be discussed the extreme conditions, and the mersed in cold water? How well do within the English geography syl- expedition itself: its educational their hands work in the cold? “It labus, travel and tourism syllabus or aims, the idea of untrained teachers could be quite demoralising,” worries citizenship syllabus (see Phil’s blogw2 pulling a sledge across the snowy Phil. “What if they say ‘you are for more details); and the history of expanses scrawny, unfit and incapable of operat- Antarctica spans geography, history and the very real danger involved. ing in the cold…enjoy the Antarctic!’?” and food technology (explorers’ diets). “With so much administration in As we go to press, the crucial train- Although the expedition hasn’t yet education,” he muses, “have we for- ing trip is still to come: in August begun, Phil is already using it to gotten that possibly the best teaching 2007, they will head for a week to excite his students. In a recent school tool is great stories – and giving Norway to camp on a glacier, com- assembly, he held 2200 secondary- teachers time to research them and plete crevasse rescue drills and learn school students spellbound with tell them well?” to cross-country ski while pulling sledges loaded with equipment.

Applications at school When the teachers return from Antarctica, they will use their experi- Competition ences and the results of their experi- ments to produce valuable resources Here is your chance to get answers to questions you have about for schools, available on the Fuchs Antarctica, the effects of cold on humans or other related topics. Send us your ideas for simple experiments to be performed during the expe- Foundation websitew1. The advantage dition; Phil and his companions will choose and carry out the best of sending teachers on an expedition one. They will send back the results live from Antarctica, for publica- instead of the more usual research sci- tion on the Science in School website. entists is that they have the experience and opportunity to really bring the Entries are welcome from science teachers across Europe and should Antarctic to life in the classroom. reach us ([email protected]) by 30 September 2007. Please The subject of the Antarctic lends include your school, country and the subjects you teach. itself not only to biology lessons on To get you thinking, here’s one of the questions sent in so far: Does physiology, geography lessons about your saliva freeze before it hits the ground? CLASSROOM ACTIVITY CLASSROOM ACTIVITY climate, or physics lessons about state

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Teacher profile

Many European countries are suffering from a lack of scientific vocations which might soon become a fun- damental problem. A common explanation is that the effort to become a scientist is not rewarded with social or economic success. However, the best reward in science is always the sense of adven- ture that any research involves. Phil Avery’s project brings into the classroom the Image courtesy of Phil Avery Image courtesy of Phil importance of effort and Phil being dragged by Ian and Zoe as they practise using a pulley system to rescue risk that is involved in any team members from crevasses research, and is a good tool to motivate students Phil is also keen to get younger Phil had to consider many of these to explore the world of children thinking about the Antarctic points himself recently, when buying scientific research. and what we can learn from such a kit for the expedition. As a possible application harsh environment. With some help “Do I really need this item, or will it of the article, teachers from teachers who contacted him via just be extra weight to carry around? could encourage their his websitew2, he is planning several What sort of spoon shall I buy? A students to design a workshops with local primary schools. metal one would freeze to my lips, research project for an · Penguin huddling. One of the ways but a plastic spoon will become brittle expedition to a national penguins respond to the harsh con- – I’d better get a wooden one. Is my or European region. The ditions of Antarctica is by grouping knife sharp enough to cut ropes easily students could use this together. “After showing the chil- and free me from my sledge if I fall article as a guide to dren lots of great pictures of down a crevasse? Is my first-aid kit design the training and Antarctic wildlife, I am going to able to support an injured person equipment necessary, and take the children outside, huddle who might not be rescued for days?” how to use their results them together and get them to Other teachers are also keen to hear Juan de Dios Centeno

measure temperatures on the out- about the expedition and its results. REVIEW Carrillo, Spain side and inside of the group to see In particular, they are interested in the difference that body heat how it could be included in climate- makes.” change projects, science careers Web references · Kit lists. By considering what evenings and a consideration of w1 – The Fuchs Foundation website, equipment they would take on an extreme environments. If you have including blogs: expedition to Antarctica, the chil- further ideas, why not check Phil’s www.fuchsfoundation.org blogw2 and leave comments. dren will start thinking about the w2 – Phil Avery’s website, including a conditions they would face. “To get blog, photos and an online donation When they return them started, I will bring along form: www.antarctic-teacher.co.uk some mountaineering equipment, When the teachers return at the end w3 – Phil Avery’s blog plus videos, and talk about old kit and modern of the year, they will be busy produc- podcasts and other materials on the kit. We can also have a scenario in ing teaching materials to share their website of Teaching Expertise, one which we get too tired and weak to experiences with colleagues around of the expedition’s sponsors: pull the heavily loaded sledges; the the world. But we hope they will www.teachingexpertise.com/ children should then consider have time to talk to Science in School blog/teachingonice which pieces of kit are most essen- so that we can let you know how the tial.” expedition went.

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The Talking Ape: How Language Evolved

By Robbins Burling

Reviewed by Bernhard Haubold, Fachhochschule Weihenstephan, Germany

Everyone does it everywhere all the into the acquisition and evolution of Sexual selection is the evolutionary time. I am not talking about Germans modern languages. pressure that is usually invoked to smoking, Americans eating burgers, Burling starts his exploration with a explain the emergence of traits that or adults having sex – although the simple but illuminating fact about the do not contribute to subsistence. The latter gets us thinking in the right nature of our linguistic abilities: we classic example is the peacock’s tail. A direction. But nothing beats talking as tend to understand more than we can male peacock might escape predation a universal human activity. We do it say. This is particularly true of small more easily with a scruffy tail, but if incessantly, whereas no other animal children, who go through a phase in females prefer showy-tailed mates, he engages in anything remotely resem- which they can understand quite won’t leave any offspring throughout bling our logomania. This begs the complex sentences, yet utter nothing his long life. question posed by the American lin- beyond exploratory babble. From In the context of language, sexual guist Robbins Burling in his book The extrapolating this insight into the evo- selection amounts to a ‘chatting up’ Talking Ape: “How did we get from an lutionary past, Burling concludes that theory of evolution. Yet in contrast to ordinary primate that could not talk it must have been comprehension birds’ plumages, which in many cases to the strange human primate that rather than production that drove the are markedly flashier in males than in can’t shut up?” evolution of language. It then females, men and women have equal This question alone is quite unusual becomes quite plausible that language linguistic abilities. Burling argues that in linguistics. In spite of the fact that evolved gradually from primitive this unusual symmetry in a trait William Jones discovered the related- early stages to the splendor of under sexual selection suggests a cor- ness of what became known as the Shakespearian rhapsody. responding symmetry in choosing: Indo-European languages more than But why is our language as com- males consider their choice of mate as half a century before Charles Darwin plex as it is, with its intricate syntax carefully as females do. Such a sce- published The Origin of Species, lin- and its vocabulary of many thousands nario implies that some form of long- guists have traditionally avoided the of words? The traditional explanation term partnership between parents has subject of how human language for language evolution is that it gave been the rule among humans for a evolved. The reason for this is simple: early speakers an edge in the struggle very long time. our present linguistic prowess is esti- for subsistence. Hunters needed to co- Burling writes lucidly for the lay mated to be at least 35 000 years old, ordinate their actions and language reader and since we are all expert whereas script was invented in the certainly helped. Yet this account is speakers of our native tongues, his late fourth millennium BC. In contrast not as convincing when we remember essay on the origin of this most to animals and plants, for which we that wolves and lions are expert human of traits will resonate with have a rich record of fossils docu- hunters without any language. The anyone who has ever wondered why menting earlier forms, there is whole idea that language drove tech- it is often so difficult to get a word in absolutely no record of early lan- nology is suspect because the inven- edgeways in class. guage. tion of language predates the inven- In spite of this rather dire dearth of tion of, say, agriculture, by many mil- Details data, Burling has a lot of very inter- lennia. Conversely, societies with a Publisher: Oxford University Press esting things to say about how lan- low level of technology have lan- Publication year: 2007 guage might have evolved. His histor- guages that are every bit as intricate ISBN: 9780199214037 ical scenarios are based on insights and subtle as English.

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Reviews

Experimental Design for the Life Sciences (2nd Edition)

By Graeme D. Ruxton and Nick Colegrave

Reviewed by Mark Langford, UK

Rather than being a book in which of bits of information and a pretty ered. The authors introduce questions one dips to search for the answer to a graph does not mean you have per- of balance that could cause a lot of particular question or for a desired formed a useful or valid experiment. discussion amongst suitably motivat- fact, Experimental Design for the Life A well-designed experiment will actu- ed students (such as, should a small Sciences is a book to read through in ally reduce the need for statistical number of animals be treated several its entirety: the student begins at the analysis. times, to reduce the total number that beginning and works through, learn- This is a good point for two rea- suffer, or should a large number be ing how to design a good experiment sons: it reduces the work that needs treated once per animal, to reduce the in the life sciences. to be done to reach a useful conclu- amount of discomfort that each ani- Although it is black and white sion, and it reduces the strain on the mal experiences?). throughout (something that is now organisms being investigated. To The book would be as useful to stu- almost unheard of in high-school enhance the text, several tactics are dents studying solely vegetable or texts), the book is clear and accessible. used: key points are highlighted and microbial subjects as to those permit- It is well written and uses unadulter- repeated, and extra details are out- ted to perform tests on animal or ated language to explain each point, lined in boxes. I found two parts of human subjects. and the authors make no assumptions the book particularly useful. Would I use this book? Yes. It about the knowledge of the reader. In First, throughout the text, the learn- would certainly be useful to A-level particular, they do not assume that ing experience is enhanced by careful- classes (ages 16-18) and undergradu- the student is a mathematician. The ly crafted questions. Referred to as ate students in the life sciences, even common-sense approach addresses ‘self-test’ questions, they would also if it is not on their official reading many of the mistakes we have all provide perfect stimuli for discussion lists. I would even consider using it to made (for example, “Keep more than and debate in small groups, or form extend more able GCSE classes (ages one copy of your data”!). the basis of essay topics. Answers are 14-16). The book’s main focus is on experi- provided, but they are sometimes mental design with living subjects, be deliberately vague, and, in one case, Details they mice, people or cabbages. There the authors admit we don’t know. Publisher: Oxford University Press are more examples that use animals There is plenty of scope for students Publication year: 2006 (2nd Edition) than plants, but the emphasis is on to go into greater detail, or even pro- the methodology involved in acquir- duce a completely different answer ISBN: 019928511X (paperback) ing data and its treatment. The that can also be correct. authors discuss experiments in con- Second, the idea of ethics is repeat- trolled environments, such as labs, edly brought to the fore. Life sciences and examples from the field, such as invariably involve living organisms, vets gathering data about pet diets and they are often capable of suffer- or samples collected from the ing. The suffering that experiments wild. cause – either directly or indirectly – One of the key points that the was not something that required authors are keen to put across is that much thought when I was at school in numbers – and statistics – are not the early 1980s, but is now something everything. Just because you have lots that, quite rightly, should be consid-

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Exploring the Living Cell DVD

By Véronique Kleiner and Christian Sardet

Reviewed by Friedlinde Krotschek, Internationale Gesamtschule Heidelberg, Germany

The Exploring the Living Cell DVD which includes many of the anima- Running time: 180 minutes includes a wide range of films about tions found on the DVD, is also a very Format: DVD 9 PAL, all zones, the cell, covering many topics and useful teaching tool. It offers a diver- format 4:3 providing background information sity of ‘real-life’ videos, short enough Menus and subtitles: English, French for lessons: the history of the discov- to repeat and discuss in the classroom and German ery of the cell, ethical debates about whenever related topics come up. stem cells and evolution/creationism, Watching these prize-winning movies and current research in cell biology. is very motivating, and makes the sci- Ordering For the school curriculum, however, ence of cell interaction more fun to Price: €35 (private use) or €45 (insti- the most useful part of the DVD is study. The whole webpage should tutional use. certainly the film Voyage Inside the win a prize! The DVD can be ordered from: Cell. Véronique Goret (Sales) This animation is breathtaking for Web references CNRS Images two reasons. First, it includes excel- w1 – A slower version of the Voyage 1 place Aristide Briand lent colourful representations of cell Inside the Cell film can be purchased 92195 Meudon cedex structures and a detailed close-up pic- ($24.95) here: France ture produced by an electron micro- www.sinauer.com/voyage/ Tel: +33 (0)1 45 07 59 69 scope, giving the viewer the feeling of video.php Fax: +33 (0)1 45 07 58 60 being in the middle of the action. w2 – On the Bioclips website, 90 Email: videotheque.vente@ Second, the film’s underlying expla- sequences of cells from the cnrs-bellevue.fr nations are so fast that one starts to Exploring the Living Cell DVD are Website: www.cnrs.fr/cnrs-images/ gasp for air, glued to the fast-chang- made freely available: ing scenery while still absorbing the www.bioclips.com/dvd/ information. Older school students with a good knowledge of cell biology will find Full contents the animation very useful for review- · The story of the discovery of the ing what they have already learned cell: 1 film and will enjoy the perfect visualisa- · Evolution and diversity of cells, tion. In teacher-training institutes, this stem cells, debates: 4 films film and the rest of the DVD would The world of biologists, laboratories be perfect for providing a wider and · and cells: 13 films updated perspective on teaching biol- Voyage inside the cell: 1 computer- ogy and cytology. · animated film For teaching the structure and func- tion of the cell to less advanced stu- · Explanatory notes, links to websites dents, there is a slower version of the animated filmw1. This could be used as Details a self-teaching tool for all levels of Publisher: CNRS Images, with sup- students across Europe – and should port from INSERM, Max Planck, be mandatory for bilingual schools! Zeiss The related Bioclips websitew2, Publication year: 2006

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Reviews

Fossils: A Very Short Introduction* and Dinosaurs: A Very Short Introduction+

*By Keith Thomson +By David Norman

Reviewed by Eric Demoncheaux, Battle Abbey School, UK

Fossils: A Very Short Introduction and of Earth Sciences in Cambridge, UK, resource for self-motivated students Dinosaurs: A Very Short Introduction and who was the advisor for David aged 14 and above, or for bright are both real tours de force and very Attenborough’s Lost Worlds Vanished younger students. engaging books. Their small size Lives, and Walking with Dinosaurs pro- makes them easy to pack and take grammes for the BBC, and Dinosaur! Details away to read during any spare for Granada TV/AE Network. His Fossils: A Very Short Introduction moments. book is more akin to a scientific inves- Publisher: Oxford University Press How did Darwin use fossils to sup- tigation in which the reader is taken Publication year: 2005 port his theory of evolution? This is through anatomy, genetics, forensics ISBN: 9780192805041 one of the fascinating questions that and engineering design to build a pic- Dinosaurs: A Very Short Introduction Keith Thomson has ventured to ture of what dinosaurs looked like. It Publisher: Oxford University Press answer in his book. He deals with also tackles their place in evolution- Publication year: 2005 issues surrounding fossils and more ary history with a chapter describing ISBN: 9780192804198 particularly addresses some of the how animal life evolved on Earth. The uncertainties that scientists faced book contains eight chapters and con- when trying to understand their ori- cludes with an insightful discussion gins. He successfully highlights the of the future of research on the past. impact of fossils on mythology, histo- For all of us who are fans of the film ry and philosophy while keeping the Jurassic Park, this book should provide reader grounded by tackling their some definitive answers about the important role in our concept of time appearance and whereabouts of and popular culture in a manner that dinosaurs. is easy to understand. The book con- Both books are well-written, contain tains ten chapters, a short introduc- a wealth of information and include tion and a final summary entitled many (black and white) illustrations. ‘Back to the future’. This all-encom- Although non-native English speak- passing explanation of fossils gives ers may struggle with the complicat- the reader a remarkable overview of ed language, they will find the defini- the field. Keith Thomson is Professor tions of keywords helpful. The books Emeritus of Natural History at the were not designed to be used as University of Oxford, UK. teaching aids but could be useful for Dinosaurs: A Very Short Introduction secondary-school teachers and a help- was written by David Norman, who ful addition to a secondary-school is Director of the Sedgwick Museum library. They could also be used as a

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The March of Unreason: Science, Democracy, and the New Fundamentalism

By Dick Taverne Reviewed by Alexandre Lewalle, King’s College, London, UK

The foundations of democratic opposition to GM crops, the fashion You might wonder, however, western civilisation are under threat, for organic products and the critiques whether Taverne himself is guilty of argues Dick Taverne. Since the of globalisation, lays bare the unscien- ‘unreason’. His statements are bold Enlightenment, material and social tific arguments (and sometimes even and his tone is passionate, and he progress in our society has relied to a factual untruths) used by the more occasionally lacks the restraint neces- large extent on the achievements of vociferous activists, non-governmen- sary to preach beyond the converted. science and on the freedom of scien- tal organisations and media, and His attempt at a philosophical argu- tists to question and experiment, free denounces their growing influence. ment is surely too brief to be entirely from dogma and ideologies; it is also Their basic concerns may well be convincing and his summary dis- this freedom to think and to challenge legitimate and their intentions laud- missal of the Enlightenment philoso- that has allowed democracy to flour- able, but these ‘new fundamentalists’ pher Jean-Jacques Rousseau as “the ish. Yet, some increasingly influential are uncompromising and dogmatic. enemy of reason who proved to be groups are only too happy to discard They demonise scientists as profit-ori- the inspiration of the reign of terror” the scientific method and evidence- ented and materialistic, feeding their begs for moderation. The book deals based arguments to further their own arguments on the fears and ignorance not so much with the technical cor- goals. Animal-rights activists force of the public. Driven by self-righteous rectness of scientific knowledge as universities to shut down laboratories moral heroism, their belief is that with the interface between science that do crucial research. Self-righteous “nature always knows best”. Need we and ethics, and in this realm reason ‘eco-warriors’ indiscriminately boy- be so alarmed by some people’s alone cannot provide a recipe for cott genetically modified (GM) crops. choice to use anodyne homeopathic truth. Unavoidably, the book invites Alternative medicine becomes estab- remedies, even if their benefits are controversy and many of Taverne’s lished alongside scientific medicine. clinically unproven? Probably not, but assertions read like debatable person- Many people not only do not know the rejection of proper medicine is a al opinions rather than objective about scientific evidence, but also do slippery slope that leads to aberra- truths derived from reason. not want to know or are even proud tions such as the denial by South All in all, The March of Unreason is a not to know. What causes this distrust African president Thabo Mbeki of the stimulating and accessible read, com- of science and scientists? How serious sexual transmissibility of HIV/AIDS. fortably within the reach of second- are its consequences? The refusal by some parents to give ary-school students. The issues it rais- The March of Unreason is Taverne’s their child the es should be the concerns of any well- war cry against what he calls ‘anti- measles/mumps/rubella vaccine, in rounded citizen. Its central thesis – science’, the systematic and deliberate the face of evidence of harm, has pro- that science is not only a body of tech- avoidance of evidence-based knowl- duced a health risk for society as a nical knowledge but, perhaps more edge in dealing with science-related whole. Likewise, the adamant oppo- importantly, a method of inquiry – issues in society. As a politician, he nents of GM farming and globalisa- certainly has the power to inspire. understands government policy mak- tion sometimes fail to appreciate all Irritation caused by the forthrightness ing first-hand. He considers in turn the adverse consequences of their and subjectivity of Taverne’s opinions the rise of pseudo-medicines, the campaigns. results only from the reader being

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Reviews

Science Magic: in the Kitchen and Science Magic: in the Bathroom

By Richard Robinson Reviewed by Mark Robertson, UK

challenged to define his or her own The Science Magic books are part of basic idea, have interesting approach- stance on the issues discussed. But a series of home-based practical sci- es that may interest the more this is probably the very kind of ence books that take as their unusual advanced students with a keen inter- engagement that Taverne is at pains theme the use of items typically est in science. As such, both books are to encourage. found in particular rooms of the good value for money (£3.99 each) house. These titles both seem to be and would be a worthwhile addition Details aimed primarily at parents who wish to a class/science-club library. Publisher: Oxford University Press to discover science with their children Publication year: 2005 but can be used by teachers to gain Details ISBN: 9780192804853 ideas for classwork or even to set as Science Magic: in the Bathroom practical homework. They are proba- Publisher: Oxford University Press bly best suited to the later years of Publication year: 2003 primary school or the earlier years of ISBN: 9780199111534 secondary school. As the title suggests, Science Magic: Science Magic: in the Kitchen in the Kitchen introduces experiments Publisher: Oxford University Press that use either everyday kitchen uten- Publication year: 2003 sils or food. The experiments range ISBN: 9780199111541 from standard bicarbonate/vinegar neutralisations, to heating plastic bot- tles to observe the effects of air pres- sure, to observing the decomposition of organic waste. The book provides good coverage of the three main sci- ences taught in most schools. Science Magic: in the Bathroom moves the focus of the experiments to the bathroom with many of the experi- ments involving water. In this book, it seems that physics is the main source of inspiration with experiments inves- tigating surface tension, refraction and sound. Many of the experiments described are well known but there are some that, although not original in their

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Resources on the web: ‘Ask a scientist’ websites

Halina Stanley from the American School in Grenoble, France, reviews some of her favourite ‘ask a scientist’ websites in English and French. Thanks to the help of many readers throughout Europe, we can also draw your attention to sites in Croat, Danish, Finnish, Hungarian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Russian and Serbian.

here is a surprisingly large number ers are so technically difficult that you what you already know and where you Tof ‘ask a scientist’ websites that rely need to be an undergraduate in the subject are unclear, and state who you are on experts to answer scientific questions to understand them. (teacher, or for students, age or grade submitted by students or teachers. These There is now a tremendous amount of level). Finally, consider approaching are a very useful resource for project information readily available on the web someone at your local university or tech- work when you don’t want to reinvent the and so when most people fail to find the nical college rather than an anonymous, wheel, but like much technology, they information they need it is because they remote website. Many research scientists need to be used correctly. Teachers are don’t know how to use a search engine are only too happy to help science teach- properly. The choice of keywords is cru- ers or students, so you may find a very generally unimpressed by (and wise to) cial. Google’s website on basic use of useful contact closer to home. University assignments cut-and-pasted from the search enginesw1 is definitely worth con- websites detail research areas and often worldwide web (or worse, pages printed sulting before you fire off your question. list email addresses. off in their entirety) and getting expert If your best search efforts and My favourite ‘ask a scientist’ websites replies to some homework questions Wikipedia fail you, choose your ‘ask a are those run by government agencies or could easily be construed as cheating. scientist’ website carefully, checking that universities. There are also sites associat- Some websites even refuse to answer it answers questions in your subject area ed with scientific publications and com- questions on subjects commonly covered of interest. The best websites give a list of panies. Here are a few examples. in general reference books or textbooks. instructions for those wishing to submit Asking a scientist should be a last, questions – read these carefully. Think rather than a first, resort. This is for your hard about the question you want to ask. own benefit as much as for reasons of If your question is long, rambling or principle. A website may receive a few unclear, you are unlikely to get the hundred or more questions a day, so not answer you want. Specific questions like all are answered, and, as with the web in ‘How are cirrus clouds formed?’ are general, the standard of the answers can much more likely to be answered than be very variable. Although most of the ‘How do you prepare a sample for elec- expert replies I have seen are excellent, tron microscopy?’ To maximise your some answers can be oversimplified to chances of receiving an answer at the the point of being misleading, while oth- level you need, include information about

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Resources on the web

English websites French websites The website run by Argonne National Laboratory answers La main à la pâte is a website for primary-school teachers: questions on subjects ranging from astronomy to zoology. Its www.inrp.fr/lamap/?Page_Id=31 expert scientists are volunteers from around the world who are Another site that is good for younger children is archi7.net, run registered with the site. It is aimed mainly at high-school by a science journalist with a PhD in physics. The explana- children (ages 16-18) and their teachers. See: tions are clear, but you may be lucky to get an answer as there www.newton.dep.anl.gov/archive.htm appears to be only one person working on the site. See: NASA runs a number of websites that answer astronomy http://archi7.ouvaton.org/phys/ and space-related questions: Excellent sites for secondary-school project work are run by the http://science.msfc.nasa.gov/faq/ask-a-scientist.htm prestigious Ecole Normale Supérieure in Lyon, in collabora- NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center answers questions relating tion with a great many registered professional research to astrophysics: scientists. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/ask_an_ · For life sciences, see Planet-Terre: astronomer.html www.ens-lyon.fr/Planet Terre/Site/Commun/Utilitaires/ POSERQUESTION.html. The European Space Agency runs a similar site: www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMGMZUZJND_index_0.html · For physics, see CultureSciences Physique: http://culturesciencesphysique.ens-lyon.fr/ and Scientific American has an ‘ask a scientist’ service: http://culturesciencesphysique.ens-lyon.fr/contactez-nous www.sciam.com/page.cfm?section=expertform. You can find answers to how GPS devices work or why it feels good to The Espace Jeunes of the CNRS (French national research scratch an itch here: www.sciam.com/askexpert_directory.cfm. organisation) also aims to help high-school students with their projects: www2.cnrs.fr/jeunes/222.htm As you would expect from a professional popular journal, their answers are both expert and well written. The French physical society has a team of professional scientists who answer physics questions at any level: For biology questions, you can try the Howard Hughes Medical www.sfpnet.fr/front_office/index.php?rubrique=point_science Institute: www.hhmi.org/askascientist/ Meteo France does the same: Arizona State University’s ‘Ask a Biology’ site is aimed www.meteo.fr/meteonet/decouvr/education/doctpe.htm specifically at biology teachers of students aged 3-18: http://askabiologist.asu.edu/ For chemistry questions, there is a chemistry resource centre designed specifically for teachers, which has answers to a The Cornell Center for Materials Research also answers every- great many frequently asked questions. See: day scientific questions. The answers are provided by many http://culturesciences.chimie.ens.fr/index.html different experts (ranging from a Nobel prize winner to young The Université Pierre et Marie Curie has a website aimed main- research associates) so their quality varies. See: ly at helping teachers of life sciences. Questions are answered www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/about.html by a team of professors. See: Cornell University also hosts the ‘Ask an Astronomer’ website, www.snv.jussieu.fr/vie/faq/1faq.htm where questions are answered by graduate students in astrono- my. The website particularly encourages teachers and students Croatian websites to send in questions. See: http://curious.astro.cornell.edu All ‘e-school’ projects by the Croatian Natural Science The Canadian science.ca site answers questions on virtually any Association offer a range of ‘ask a scientist’ websites aimed scientific subject and answers are helpfully organised in dif- principally at school students. Questions are answered by uni- ferent categories. There are some very interesting profiles of versity professors or scientists from science institutes. scientists too. See: www.science.ca · Biology: www.biol.pmf.hr/e-skola/ The Ask an Expert website forwards questions to experts in a · Astronomy: http://hpd.botanic.hr/ast/eastro.htm wide range of subjects – and also has links to many other · Physics: http://eskola.hfd.hr/ websites where answers may already be posted. See: Chemistry: http://eskola.chem.pmf.hr/ www.askanexpert.com · CERN, the world’s largest particle physics laboratory, invites Danish websites questions about particle physics from the general public: Dansk Naturvidenskabsformidling enables teachers, school stu- http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Content/Chapters/ dents and others to direct their questions to a panel of science AskAnExpert/AskAnExpert-en.html experts. Users can search through all previous questions and answers: www.formidling.dk

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Resources on the web

Spoergolivia (Ask Olivia) is a virtual girl who answers questions Portuguese websites from children on all topics, including science. The answers are These three sites are well suited for the general public, although provided by a panel of experts, as well as librarians from chil- the third example is dedicated more to children and to experi- dren’s libraries throughout Denmark: www.spoergolivia.dk ments that they can easily do at home, or to in-house phenom- ena like what soap is made of. Finnish websites · Via the Ciência Hoje website, members of the public can have The Bioteknologia Info website answers questions about their questions about science and medicine answered by biotechnology: www.bioteknologia.info university professors and other research scientists: Tiede, a popular science magazine in Finland, answers questions www.cienciahoje.pt from the public: www.tiede.fi/kysyasiantuntijalta/ · Researchers at the Lisbon Astronomical Observatory (Observatório Astronómico de Lisboa) answer astronomical questions from the public: www.oal.ul.pt Hungarian websites Particularly suitable for children is the Ciência em Casa The Hungarian science journal Természet Világa (World of · (Science At Home) website, which answers questions about Nature) enables university or high-school students to write in simple experiments to do at home, domestic phenomena, the with questions which are answered by high-school teachers or constituents of soap and other everyday questions in its university scientists: www.chemonet.hu/hun/teazo/miert/ Eureka section: http://cienciaemcasa.cienciaviva.pt/ For those interested in astronomy, the following website offers the public the chance to have their questions answered by a Russian websites scientist or amateur astronomer: http://hirek.csillagaszat.hu/olvasoink_kerdeztek.html The Russian version of Scientific American includes a section where the general public can have their questions answered by experts, mostly university scientists. Only the most interesting Norwegian websites questions are answered and published: www.sciam.ru A number of ‘ask an expert’ websites in Norway are aimed at the general public, including school students. Many of the Serbian websites experts work for Norwegian universities. Via the Serbian journal Mladi fizicar (Young Physicist), · Ask a biologist: www.bio.no/bio/enbiolog/ scientists answer questions from the public: · Ask an energy adviser: www.miljolare.no/tema/energi/sporsmal/ http://mf.dfs.org.yu/arhiva/modules.php?name=Feedback · Ask a meteorologist: www.miljolare.no/tema/luftkvalitet/ Web references kampanjer/regnsjekken/sporsmal/ w1 – The Essentials of Google Search: Ask an ornithologist: www.miljolare.no/fuglevennen/sporsmal/ · www.google.com/help/basics.html · Ask a meteorologist and oceanographer: http://web.gfi.uib.no/faq/

90 Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 www.scienceinschool.org SIS_6_82-92RZ 27.08.2007 16:08 Uhr Seite 91

Back in the staffroom

Results of the cover competition

By Alina Postu (aged 18)

By Raluca Barza (aged 13)

By Anca Gabriela Banea (aged 17)

n Issue 4, we challenged you and Congratulations to 13-year-old Raluca Sadly, we had only one entry in the Iyour students to design the cover Barza, the winner of the 10-14 age cat- teacher category. If we run this com- for Science in School and were very egory. Judging the 15-19 age category petition again, we hope more of you impressed by the quality of the was even more difficult. After much will find the time to put pencil (paint, thought, we chose as our cover pic- crayon, whatever) to paper and entries. Despite gloomy studies about ture Chemistry is where life starts by demonstrate your talents. decreasing interest in the sciences, Elena Pascal, aged 18. We also liked Congratulations to all the entrants. there are clearly a lot of very enthusi- Alina Postu and Anca Gabriela We enjoyed judging the competition astic and artistically gifted young Banea’s striking pictures. and I am sure our readers will enjoy scientists in Europe, supported by Particular congratulations are due the pictures we chose. inspiring science teachers. to Lidia Minza from Romania, who Selecting the winners from among encouraged her students to submit such talented artists was not easy. many very beautiful pictures.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 6 : Autumn 2007 91 SIS_6_82-92RZ 27.08.2007 16:08 Uhr Seite 92

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Autumn 2007 Issue 6

In this Issue: Eyes on the horizon, feet on the ground Nobel Prize winner Tim Hunt talks about his passion for science Also: When a giant star dies

Published by EIROforum: Supported by the European Union: Part of the NUCLEUS project:

ISSN: 1818-0353 Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research