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3 Contents President’s Report

Thema Praktikos Kritikos 4 58 70 The Persian Wars Theban Tomb Broken Nation: (480–479 BCE) (TT) 100: Trade, Australians in the and the Defence of Tribute and Great War Thermopylae Commerce in the by Christopher Matthew Egyptian Eighteenth 71 Dynasty Fighting Hard: The 14 by Greg Naylor Victorian Aborigines Understanding Advancement League Ancient Civilisations: 66 Honour and Shame in The Good Stuff: 73 the Roman Republic Resources for Anzac Memories by Frederik Juliaan Vervaet Teaching History by Ann Parry 73 23 The Censor’s Library Ancient Mesopotamia:

Discovering Civilisation by Andrew Jamieson 28 Education Between Artefact and Text by Annelies Van de Ven 38 The Rise and Fall of the Egyptian Empire by Richard Long 45 Ancient Greece: Philosophical Legacies by Andrew A. Pyrcz 53 Women in Ancient Rome by Nick Frigo Editorial Alan Tiller editor

All right, but apart from the sanitation, the medicine, education, wine, AGORA Vol. 50 No. 3, 2015 ISSN: 0044-6726 (print) © 2015 public order, irrigation, roads, the fresh-water system, and public ISSN: 1837-9958 (electronic) © 2015 health, what have the Romans ever done for us? (Life of Brian, 1979) Editor Although it could be argued that this satirical quote from the Monty Python Alan Tiller [email protected] team may not be entirely accurate in a historical sense, it does highlight the remarkable legacy handed down from ancient civilisations. Layout Alan Tiller The study of ancient history not only allows us to investigate the significant Agora is the journal of the History Teachers’ Association and inspiring achievements of ancient societies but it also assists us in of Victoria Limited. It promotes ideas, information and good classroom practice. It exists to help foster and developing a more detailed understanding of ancient cultures and how they improve the effective learning and teaching of History. have influenced Western civilisation and the modern world. The inclusion of It is published four times a year with the support of the Strategic Partnerships Program of the Department of Ancient History in the new Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) Study Education and Training. Design is therefore an exciting and welcome addition to the curriculum. In The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views this issue of Agora we introduce a number of themes and useful resources of htav or the Editorial Committee. While reasonable that will hopefully assist teachers seeking to introduce or extend the checks have been made to ensure the accuracy of statements and advice, no responsibility can be teaching and learning of ancient history within their schools. accepted for errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for any loss occasioned to any person In the Thema section Christopher Matthew explains how the fighting styles acting or refraining from action as a result of material in this publication is accepted by the authors, htav of the Greek and Persian armies (in particular the tactics of the hoplite) and or the Editorial Committee. their strategic planning influenced the second Persian invasion of Greece All reasonable attempts have been made to trace and the defence of Thermopylae in 480 BCE – where a small Greek force copyright holders of material published. Material contained in Agora is protected under the Copyright Act courageously held out the huge Persian Army for a number of days. (Cth) 1968.

Frederik Vervaet examines how honour, pride and shame in androcentric HTAV Executive Committee ancient Rome were strong and pervasive forces at all levels of social, political President: Ashley Wood, St Leonard’s College. Vice-Presidents: Agata Kula, The Grange P–12 College; and military life. In another examination of ancient Roman society, Nick Nick Frigo, Santa Maria College. Frigo reflects on the status of women and the significant roles they played Treasurer: Miriam Meehan, Yarra Valley Grammar in the social and economic fabric of society, despite being ‘restricted in their School. freedoms due to the Roman idea of the role of women.’ HTAV Non-Executive Directors Anna Adams, St Leonard’s College; Bianca Crawford, In his essay on ancient Mesopotamia, Andrew Jamieson outlines some Haileybury College; Heather Lewis, retired; Ian Lyell, Canterbury Girls’ Grammar School; Elisa Litvin, of the ‘ground-breaking developments’ – such as agriculture, writing, Assumption College; Dr Rosalie Triolo, Monash social complexity and the city–state system – that have contributed to University; Alexis Watson, John Monash Science School; Non-voting minutes secretary: Marion Mesopotamia being considered the ‘cradle of civilisation.’ He also argues Littlejohn, Sovereign Hill Museums. that the history of ancient Mesopotamia is ‘essential to our understanding of HTAV Patron past and present cultures.’ Professor Richard Broome

Annelies Van de Ven examines how museums, as traditionally object-based HTAV Staff institutions, can function as bridges between literary and material sources executive officer of knowledge. The Between Artefact and Text exhibition, which showcased a Ingrid Purnell number of fine pieces from ancient cultures at the Ian Potter Museum of Art senior manager, events, programs and marketing Meri Rametta (The University of Melbourne), is provided as an exemplar of an accessible manager, htav publishing and engaging museum space in which students develop skills through Georgina Argus practical experience and exploratory engagement. manager, education and consultancy services In an article particularly relevant to the new VCE Study Design, Richard Jo Clyne membership and events coordinator Long discusses some of the social, political and economic features of Myra Karantzas ancient Egypt from the New Kingdom to the Third Intermediate Period online learning coordinator and the Late Period. Andrew Pyrcz considers the pivotal role the ancient Matilda Keynes Greek world played in the development of rational thinking and the project editor, htav publishing beginnings of Western philosophy. His article outlines some of the key Shivaun Plozza figures and philosophical schools of thought from the period, and how they accounts administrator ‘revolutionised the way people tackled the problem of understanding the Adela Tamasoi world they inhabited and their place in it.’ publications editor and coordinator Alan Tiller In the Praktikos section, Greg Naylor outlines how students can study key finance officer aspects of social, political and economic life in early New Kingdom Egypt Sue Unwin through a visual analysis task based on a painted scene from the remarkable Rekhmire’s tomb, which includes meticulous depictions of different cultures presenting tribute to the vizier. In the final article of this section, Ann Parry reviews a number of websites that offer extensive resources and quality teaching material to support busy teachers.

2 Agora President’s Report Ashley Wood president

Sungraphô Give me a boy who is encouraged by praise, delighted by success and The Sungraphô section of Agora contains original pieces of research. This section of the journal is ready to weep over failure. not based on edition themes. Submissions are accepted from interstate and overseas. With these words, Marcus Quintilianus perhaps echoes the hopes of all All manuscripts submitted to Sungraphô will teachers. Of course, today we include all students, not only the boys of be reviewed by two independent experts. noble birth from the Roman Empire in the first century CE, and whilst it Manuscripts must be accompanied by a covering may be difficult to watch a student actually ‘weep over failure,’ the thought letter. The name of the author must not appear on the manuscript. Articles must not have that they may be ready to do so would not doubt have us somewhat pleased been published elsewhere. Items appearing in that they may be so inspired. Sungraphô are refereed articles that satisfy the C1 classification of the Department of Education Of course, in Roman times it would be more likely that a student would and Training. be weeping from the beating they may well have received for a wrong ‘Sungraphô’ means ‘I report’ in Ancient Greek. Thucydides uses this verb to describe the product answer. It was thought at the time that boys would learn more effectively if of his historical research. It reflects the aim of the they feared such a response. We can learn much from ancient history, but refereed section of Agora. perhaps their pedagogy and classroom management is not a legacy we want Sungraphô articles have endnotes rather than to embrace in the twenty-first century. footnotes and do not contain bibliographies. There is no Sungraphô article in this edition. Certainly pedagogy was a hot topic at the recent HTAA National Conference, which HTAV had the pleasure of hosting at the start of Sungraphô Editorial Board October 2015. Teachers from around the nation came together during the Anna Clark, University of Technology, Sydney school holidays to celebrate, educate and contemplate the craft of history Carmel Fahey, The University of Sydney Trudie Fraser, The University of Melbourne teaching. It was great to be able to meet with the members of our interstate Robert Guyver, The Historical Association affiliates and to share stories and ideas. Catherine Hart, Australian Catholic University Deborah Henderson, Queensland University of The three keynote speakers, Professor Sheila Fitzpatrick, Mr Bruce Technology Pascoe and Dr Stéphane Lévesque, provided a rich variety of topics and Adrian Jones, La Trobe University May Leckey, The University of Melbourne a performance from Alister McKeich and a presentation from Year 12 Robert Parkes, The University of Newcastle (Editor student Kade Alexander ensured each day began with a focus on the core in Chief) Ronald Ridley, The University of Melbourne practice of what we all do. The Wednesday evening conference dinner was Ruth Sandwell, Ontario Institute for Studies in a highlight of the conference as we came together to share food and wine Education, University of Toronto and hear from our guest speaker, the Honourable John Cain MP, Premier of Michael Spurr, Cengage Learning Tony Taylor, Monash University Victoria 1982–1990. Rosalie Triolo, Monash University Joseph Zajda, Australian Catholic University In all, a most successful conference was enjoyed by everyone who attended. Thanks must go to the HTAV team who put together such a rich and Thema: perspectives on the theme rewarding program, in particular to Meri Rametta and Myra Karantzas for Praktikos: teaching ideas their tireless efforts in ensuring the success of the conference. Kritikos: reviews As we draw towards the end of the year I’m sure you feel, as I do, that rather than winding down things seem to be only getting busier. Already HTAV is planning a range of events for 2016 that will help us deliver the new VCE History curriculum and prepare for the implementation of the new Victorian Curriculum in 2017. For those of you with Year 12 classes I wish you and them all the best for the examination period. I have no doubt that they have been encouraged by praise and hope that they will be delighted by success.

Front cover image: Giza Pyramids. Photograph by Ricardo Liberato. Used under CC BY-SA 2.0.

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The Persian Wars (480–479 BCE) and the Defence of Thermopylae

How did the Greeks plan to meet the Persian invasion of 480 BCE?

Dr Christopher Matthew, Australian Catholic University and Macquarie Universityy

In his study of the Battle of Marathon, Noah Whatley crests, to suit their personal tastes and budgets. The stated that, ‘you must understand the armies before hoplite may have also worn bronze body armour over a you can understand the wars.’1 Such a sentiment is simple tunic. This armour was hammered from single integral to the examination of any conflict in any time sheets of plate metal, one for the front and one for the period. In relation to the wars of the ancient Greeks, a back, held together with a series of straps and buckles proper understanding of the way in which the hoplite or via an elaborate pin and hinge system depending (the heavy infantryman of ancient Greece) fought is upon what the individual could afford. essential to understanding the advantages that the The stylised musculature commonly depicted on this Greek way of war gave them when fighting against the type of armour had several purposes. Firstly it was Persians during the two main invasions of the Greek a demonstration of wealth as it was quite expensive mainland in the fifth century BCE and the battles that to have made. It also made the wearer look more resulted from these incursions: namely the Battle impressive and frightening to an enemy (even if he of Marathon in 490 BCE, the defence of the pass of was not totally muscular underneath). Finally, and Thermopylae in 480 BCE and the Battle of Plataea perhaps most importantly, the easiest way for an attack in 479 BCE. Consequently, any examination of the delivered with a weapon like a spear, arrow or thrust Greco–Persian Wars must begin with an examination sword to penetrate armour is for the blow to strike the of the Greek hoplite. armour roughly perpendicular to its surface (thereby Herodotus calls the Greek hoplite a ‘man of bronze,’ delivering as much energy as it can directly into the and this is a perfectly accurate description of the type contact). However, the stylised muscles on the Greek of armour commonly worn by the ancient Greeks.2 armour meant there were very few flat areas on the The Greek hoplite wore a bronze helmet of varying front plate and most blows would have simply glanced styles which, depending upon its configuration, could off its curved surfaces.3 have cheek pieces which extended down to provide However, not all hoplites would have worn this kind of vital protection for the throat and neck while leaving armour. Some could not have afforded it (in many of very little of the face exposed. Individuals would have the militias of the Greek city–states an individual had bought helmets of different styles, and with different

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OPPOSITE: Leonidas at to supply his own equipment). Some could be supported on the shoulder Thermopylae (Jacques-Louis David, 1814). may have had pieces of older equipment when carried. This was an important handed down from their fathers, or even element of the shield’s design as it BELOW: Figure 1 – A side-on their grandfathers. Others would have weighed up to seven kilograms. With the view of two hoplites in close order with their weapons worn a different type of armour, known shield in place, the amount of exposed lowered for combat. as a linen cuirass or linothorax, which was flesh on the hoplite was reduced to only made from several layers of linen and/ five per cent of his total body area.8 or hide glued together to form a material Apart from their shield, the other thing similar to modern Kevlar, and which that all hoplites had in common was what provided a similar level of protection to 1 Noah Whatley, ‘On they fought with. The hoplite’s primary a bronze breastplate.4 Some may have the Possibility of weapon was a long thrusting spear worn no armour at all and only carried a Reconstructing (doru). The spear had an average length Marathon and Other shield and spear into combat. Ancient Battles,’ Journal of just over two-and-a-half metres. The of Hellenic Studies 94 On his legs, the hoplite may have worn average weight of the spear’s iron head (1964): 130. bronze greaves, or shin guards, mainly was 153 grams and the average weight of 2 Herodotus, Histories, to protect his legs from arrows and other the sauroter, a large bronze spike on the 2.152. missiles that could be fired at him and, rear end of the shaft, was 329 grams. Due 3 For the protective finally, some kind of footwear would to the difference in weight between the characteristics of the have been worn on the feet. Others spear head and the sauroter, the hoplite bronze breastplate, would have forgone greaves to lessen the spear had a point of balance around 89 see Philip H. Blyth, expense of putting their kit together. As centimetres from the rear end of the ‘The Effectiveness of 9 Greek Armour against such, a Greek army in the fifth century weapon. BCE would have been very diverse and Arrows in the Persian The hoplite spear was wielded in a colourful to look at. When wearing a full Wars (490–479 B.C.): couched position, with the spear held An Interdisciplinary panoply of equipment, approximately tucked into the armpit, much in the Enquiry’ (unpublished thirty-nine per cent of the total body same way that a medieval knight carried thesis, University of area was left exposed.5 Reading, 1977), 14–18, his lance. Due to its rearward point of 71–73, 81–85; Christopher This amount of exposed area was balance, a spear wielded in this couched A. Matthew, A Storm of significantly reduced when the hoplite position left almost two metres of Spears: Understanding picked up his shield. Carved on a lathe to the weapon projecting forward of the the Greek Hoplite at War 10 (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, create a solid wooden core, the hoplite bearer. The weapons held by the second 2012), 130–45. shield, or aspis, was approximately rank would also project well beyond 6 4 For the protective ninety centimetres in diameter. It was the front of the line when hoplites were characteristics of the a shallow bowl-like shape with an extra deployed in a close-order formation (see linothorax, see Gregory rim running around its outer edge, a Figure 1).11 S. Aldrete, Scott Bartell central armband (porpax) through which This large amount of shafted weapon and Alicia Aldrete, the left forearm was inserted, and a projecting forward of the man carrying it Reconstructing Ancient corded grip (antilabe) running around Linen Body Armor: is an important point to consider when the inner circumference of the bowl. Unraveling the Linothorax examining the advantage that the Greek Some were covered with bronze or hide Mystery (Baltimore: Johns style of fighting had over the Persians to provide an extra layer of protection, Hopkins University Press, and allows for many of the finer points 2013), 103–128. and most had some kind of design of the battles recorded in the ancient 5 Matthew, A Storm of painted on the front.7 The bowl shaped literary sources to be understood to a Spears, 94–96. concavity of the shield meant that it 6 See Tyrtaeus 1; level of detail not previously possible. Aristophanes, Birds, 484; Xenophon, Hellenica, 5.4.18. 7 Porpax: Euripides, Helen,1376; Euripides, Phoenecian Women, 1127; Euripides, Trojan Women, 1196; Sophocles, Ajax, 576; Strabo, Geography, 3.3.6; Plutarch, Moralia, 193E. Antilabe: Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 7.65; Strabo, Geography, 3.3.6. 8 Matthew, A Storm of Spears, 94–96. 9 Matthew, A Storm of Spears, 2–13.

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Such considerations have a great impact on one side by the mountains of the on the way a battle like the defence Kallidromos ridge, and on the other side 10 Matthew, A Storm of of Thermopylae in 480 BCE can be by the waters of the Malian Gulf, the pass Spears, 15–18, 71–92. understood. was chosen as a place where the superior 11 Arrian, Tactica, 12.3; Aelian Persian numbers and cavalry could not According to the ancient narratives, Tacticus, Tactics, 13.3. 12; be brought to bear.19 Herodotus, Histories, around 480 BCE, the Persian King Xerxes 7.184. launched a massive invasion of Greece The Greeks dispatched a force of 13 Diodorus Siculus, Library with an army drawn from every country approximately 7400 hoplites, and some of History, 11.5.2. of the Persian Empire. The two ancient light troops, from thirteen different 14 For example, N. G. sources we have which provide a detailed city–states to defend the pass under L. Hammond, ‘The account of this campaign differ in the the overall command of the Spartan Expedition of Xerxes,’ in size of the Persian forces that they give. king Leonidas.20 Within the pass of The Cambridge Ancient Herodotus, for example, writing just Thermopylae, the Greeks chose one of History – Volume 4: Persia, after the time of the events he records, the narrowest sections as the place to Greece and the Western gives an unbelievable figure of 1 700 000 mount their defence. At this point the Mediterranean c.525 to 479 12 BC, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: men for the Persian infantry alone. pass was crossed by an old wall, known Cambridge University Diodorus of Sicily, writing some 400 as the Phocian Wall – part of a series Press, 1988), 532, calls years after the events, provides a figure of old defensive works that the Greeks Herodotus’s figures an of 1 000 000.13 Most modern scholars rebuilt and encamped behind. The ‘absurd exaggeration’; estimate the size of the Persian forces historian Herodotus tells us that the Andrew R. Burn, Persia at around 200 000 combatants (with point where the Phocian Wall crossed and the Greeks (London: possibly the same number again in camp the Thermopylae pass was only fifty feet Edward Arnold, 1970), 21 319–30, places the size of followers and support personnel), which (15.25 metres) in width. Xerxes’s army at 200 000; is still a massive amount of assembled When they deployed for the actual J. A. R. Munro (‘Xerxes’ manpower.14 battle, the Greeks positioned small Invasion of Greece’, in The Cambridge Ancient The Persian army crossed the contingents of troops, usually only from History – Volume 4: The Hellespont, the narrow strait connecting one city–state at a time, in the narrow Persian Empire and the the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara, part of the pass in front of the wall. West, 1st ed. (Cambridge: now known as the Dardenelles, via a Consequently, there would only have Cambridge University bridge which they had constructed been several hundred Greeks engaged Press, 1960), 271–73, calls by tying ships together, marched at any one time while the rest waited in Herodotus’s figures a through Thrace and Macedonia and reserve behind the wall. These different ‘ludicrous account’ and provides a revised figure headed towards the plains of Thessaly contingents would then fight in relays – 15 of 180 000; see also John in northern Greece. The army’s as a group from one city–state became F. Lazenby, The Defence movements on land were shadowed by fatigued, they would withdraw during of Greece 490–479BC a massive Persian fleet which provided a lull in the fighting to be replaced by a (Warminister: Aris & various types of support, including fresh group from the reserve.22 Phillips, 1993), 90–96; resupply, to the massive host.16 Christopher A. Matthew, For the first two days of the fighting the ‘Was the Greek Defence When news of the advancing invasion Persians launched at least six massive of Thermopylae in 480BC reached Greece, delegates from many assaults against the Greek defences, a Suicide Mission?’ in city–states assembled in Corinth to including one attack by the 10 000 Beyond the Gates of Fire: discuss plans for their defence. Realising strong unit known as the ‘Immortals’. New Perspectives on the that they would not be able to defeat What is extraordinary is that every Battle of Thermopylae, eds. Christopher A. Matthew such a large army in open battle, the Persian assault for the first two days and Matthew Trundle Greeks decided to try and halt the was resoundingly beaten back with (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, Persian advance at the narrow Vale of substantial casualties.23 2013), 69. Tempe in northern Greece while a Greek On the second night Xerxes, the Persian 15 Herodotus, Histories, fleet waited to intercept the Persian navy 7.55-56, 7.108; see also king, learnt of a mountain path which in the strait of Artemisium.17 This initial Diodorus Siculus, Library would allow him to get some of his position was abandoned when it was of History, 11.3.6. forces behind the Greek position and discovered that there were other routes 16 For the interdependence effectively bottle them in the pass.24 that the Persian army might take which of the Persian army and Leonidas and the other Greeks, when fleet, see Herodotus, circumvented Tempe.18 The members they learnt of the Persians’ movements, Histories, 7.10, 7.25, 7.49, of the Congress of Corinth then chose sent the contingent from the city of 7.58, 7.177, 7.236. to follow the same strategic principle of Phocis to hold the path. However, the 17 Herodotus, Histories, meeting the Persians in a narrow pass, Phocians were dislodged from their 7.173; Diodorus Siculus, but moved the location of their landward position and, by the morning of day Library of History, 11.2.5; defensive line further south to the pass Isocrates, 12.49. three, Persian troops began to descend of Thermopylae while the fleet was again 18 Herodotus, Histories, from the ridge behind the Greek line.25 positioned at Artemisium. Bordered 7.173; Diodorus Siculus, Most of the Greek forces were sent back Library of History, 11.2.6.

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RIGHT: Greek historian Herodotus. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

19 Herodotus, Histories, 7.177; Frontinus, Stratagems, 2.2.13; Polyaenus, Stratagems, 1.32.1. 20 Herodotus, Histories, 7.202–03; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.4.5–6; Pausanias, Description of Greece, 10.20.2. 21 Herodotus, Histories, 7.175–76. 22 Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.8.2–3. 23 Herodotus, Histories, 7.210–12; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.6.3–11.8.3. 24 Herodotus, Histories, 7.213; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.8.4; Polyaenus, Stratagems, 7.15.5; Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3.4.8, 10.22.5. 25 For the issues we have from this point onwards in the two narrative accounts of towards Athens except for the Spartan point the Spartan king, Leonidas, was day three of the battle contingent (the famous ‘300’ plus about killed and a fierce struggle ensued over (Herodotus 7.219–25 and 700 light troops), 700 Thespians and the possession of his body as the Greek Diodorus 11.9.1–10.4), 400 Thebans. All up there would have forces were pushed back by the weight of see Christopher A. 29 Matthew, ‘Towards the been about 2000 Greeks left holding the Persian numbers. pass on the morning of day three.26 Hot Gates: The Events Eventually, the remaining Greeks Leading to the Battle of According to Herodotus, the remaining retired to a small hill, back behind the Thermopylae,’ in Beyond the Gates of Fire: New Greeks advanced further forward of the wall, where they desperately defended Perspectives on the Battle wall into a slightly wider area of the pass, themselves with any weapon available: of Thermopylae, eds. probably so that they could all engage broken spears, broken swords, even their Christopher A. Matthew the Persians at the same time.27 This was bare hands and their teeth.30 Finally, and Matthew Trundle an interesting move on the part of the after suffering many more casualties (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, Greeks, and has caused much scholarly in hand-to-hand fighting, the Persians 2013), 23–25. debate ever since. This is because there pulled back and surrounded the hill. 26 Herodotus, Histories, would have been now no reserve forces They then showered it with arrows and 7.219–22; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, for the Greeks – it was literally a ‘do or other missiles until every remaining 31 11.9.2. die’ situation. Greek was slain. The Greeks are said to have lost around half their number 27 Herodotus, Histories, The Persians assaulted en masse and a 7.219. over the two-and-a-half days of fighting, ferocious battle took place. Herodotus 28 Herodotus, Histories, approximately 3500 men. Casualty tells us that most of the Greeks had 7.223–24. figures for the Persians are estimated at broken their spears by this stage and 29 Herodotus, Histories, around 20 000.32 7.224–25. were using their swords, so it was a 30 Herodotus, Histories, very ‘in your face’ style of fighting on While ultimately a defeat, what was 7.225. day three of the battle.28 The Persians it that made the Greeks so effective 31 Herodotus, Histories, descending from the ridge above moved in battle against the Persians in this 7.225. into the back of the pass and began to particular engagement? We are told 32 Herodotus, Histories, 8.24. surround the Greek position. At this by Herodotus that one of the prime

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LEFT: Figure 2 – The effective reach of a Greek hoplite and a Persian infantryman with their respective weapons. BELOW: Figure 3 – How a hoplite in the second rank of a phalanx can engage an opponent while the front rank keeps him at bay.

causes for Greek success over the a hand-to-hand confrontation against Persians was the superiority of the Greek heavily armoured Greek hoplites. weapons.33 Diodorus describes the Greek Most importantly, many contingents deployment as being ‘like a wall,’ which of troops (even the elite 10 000 must be a reference to a close-order ‘Immortals’) are described as wielding phalanx.34 In the confined space of a fifty- weapons like swords or axes or short- foot-wide pass, a contingent of hoplites, shafted weapons with a central point such as the famous 300 Spartans, would of balance like javelins. This was have been able to deploy a formation of because the Persian spear (the paltron) approximately thirty-five men across was designed to be both a missile and and eight men deep. It is this formation thrusting weapon and was thus held in that would have allowed the first two an overhead position so that it could ranks to present their lengthy spears for either be thrown or used in a stabbing combat. Thus there would have been motion.37 seventy spear points projecting forward of the Greek position at Thermopylae. Due to the length and balance of the Diodorus states that the Persians at Greek spear, the hoplite had an effective Thermopylae found it difficult to find reach of about 2.2 metres when using openings in the Greek defences – no the underarm posture. However, the doubt a reference to how much of the Persian, wielding a shorter, centrally hoplite was covered by his shield and balanced weapon like a javelin in an armour and the strong defensive nature overhead position, had a reach of only of the close-order shield wall.35 a metre if he intended to use it as a stabbing weapon (see Figure 2). Onto this strong Greek position would have charged the Persians. Herodotus Persian contingents armed with short goes into great detail about the different reach hand-to-hand weapons such as types of arms and armour worn by the swords would have been at a similar different contingents of the Persian disadvantage, but would still have had army.36 Important for the understanding to face the seventy spears projecting of this encounter, Herodotus states that forward of the Greek formation once many Persian units were wearing only fighting had commenced. light armour (if any at all), while some Not only did the spears of the second were carrying wicker or hide shields rank project beyond the front of the which would have been inadequate formation but, we are told, the second against a strong spear thrust that could rank of the phalanx could also reach have been delivered by the Greeks. the enemy with their weapons. This Some Persian troops were equipped means that the first rank must not only as missile-bearing skirmishers who have engaged at the upper limit of their would have been totally outclassed in

33 Herodotus, Histories, 7.211. 34 Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.8.1. 35 Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 11.7.2–3. 36 Herodotus, Histories, 7.61–88. 37 See Matthew, A Storm of Spears, 87–92.

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reach, but allowed the enemy to get from reaching them with their shorter closer – probably to a range of around weapons. These differences in armament 1.6 metres (the amount that the spear and fighting style left the Greeks with projects forward when held in its ‘ready complete mastery of the field in most of position’). Essentially the front rank the engagements of the Persian Wars. hoplite simply presented his spear How was this style of fighting utilised forward, pressed the tip of his spear into in planning the defence of Greece his opponent’s shield and kept him at against the Persian invaders? Was it even bay while the opponent was engaged by considered? And why did the Greeks the man in the second rank of the hoplite choose to fight at places like the pass phalanx (see Figure 3). of Thermopylae? To understand the At this range, the spears of the second strategy behind this battle we must first rank can be thrust forward to engage look at the broader strategy the Greeks the enemy as is described in the ancient adopted to meet the Persian threat. The texts. Even at this closer distance, the pass at Thermopylae was not the first Persians would have still been unable to choice for the defence of Greece by the reach the Greeks with their spears unless strategic planners at the Congress of they threw them (which would have then Corinth. As noted, when Xerxes’s army left them with little means of offence). began to advance on Greece in the spring However, as a Persian at this distance of 480 BCE, 10 000 Greek hoplites was well within the effective range of were sent to hold the pass in the Vale the spear held by members of the first of Tempe to prevent the invaders from rank of the Greek phalanx, the hoplite gaining access to the plains of Thessaly at the front of the formation would have in northern Greece. The withdrawal had more than enough reach and power from Tempe meant that the strategic behind his attacks to easily penetrate the planners at the Congress of Corinth light Persian armour and dispatch any had to decide where to next attempt to opponent in either the first or second halt the Persian invaders. According rank of the Persian formation.38 to Herodotus, the ‘prevailing opinion’ was to halt the Persian advance at the These characteristics of the different pass of Thermopylae as it was ‘narrower weapons wielded by both sides in than the Vale of Tempe and was the battle account for not only the closer to home.’40 This description of descriptions in the ancient texts Thermopylae being only the ‘prevailing regarding the superiority of the Greek opinion’ indicates that the choice to spear over that of the Persian, but also defend the pass was not a unanimous the high number of casualties suffered decision among the members at the by the Persians at the hands of the Congress of Corinth. It is possible Greeks at battles such as Marathon, that some of the council members Thermopylae and Plataea, and the were in favour of defending southern comparatively small losses on the Greek Greece at a line across the Isthmus of side. This can be directly attributed to Corinth. However this would have left the inability of the Persians to physically Athens defenceless. To understand reach the Greeks with their differently why the Greeks chose to defend the configured weapons and is the basis for Thermopylae pass, and simultaneously 38 For a description of the descriptions of the superiority of the blockade the strait of Artemisium with a the power that can be hoplite spear found across the ancient combined Greek fleet, there are several delivered with an attack literature.39 made with the hoplite things which must be considered. spear, see Matthew, A As such, the Greek way of war gave The first of these is to understand the Storm of Spears, 130–45. them a distinct offensive and defensive type of engagement that the battle at 39 For example, see advantage against their Persian Thermopylae was meant to be. Herodotus, Histories, opponents. The nature of the Greek 5.49, 5.97, 7.211, 9.62; On this point the ancient sources are armour protected each hoplite to a Diodorus Siculus, quite clear. Herodotus states that the great extent and the shield wall of the Library of History, 11.7.3; decision was made to hold Thermopylae close-order formation made any Greek Aeschylus, The Persians, to prevent the Persians from advancing 240, 817; Xenophon, defensive line almost impenetrable when further south into Greece while Greek Hellenica, 7.6.1; Pindar, attacked front-on. The greater length and ships kept the Persian fleet in check at Pythian Odes, 1.72–80. rearward point of balance of the hoplite Artemisium.41 Isocrates states that the 40 Herodotus, Histories, spear meant that the first two ranks of Spartans were sent to Thermopylae ‘with 7.175. the Greek phalanx could engage while the purpose of checking the Persians in 41 Herodotus, Histories, simultaneously preventing the Persians 7.175. the narrow pass and to prevent them

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‘According to Diodorus, the Greeks were not seeking to engage the Persian army in a decisive battle, but to hold it in place (“forestall them”) – presumably for only a limited amount of time and/or until some predetermined criteria was met.’

from advancing any further.’42 Diodorus, have held the advantage due to their however, provides more specific weapons and armour. details about the battle by stating that Also, all states south of the pass were the strategy behind it was to forestall hostile to Persia, unlike at Tempe where the Persians and prevent them from many of the city–states south of the advancing further south.43 This is a key position may have submitted prior to the passage for understanding the Battle of dispatch of troops.47 As such, all of the Thermopylae. The important element states south of Thermopylae constituted is Diodorus’s reference to the strategy ‘friendly’ territory or, in the words of ‘to forestall’ the Persian invasion force. Herodotus, the Thermopylae position According to Diodorus, the Greeks were was ‘closer to home.’ not seeking to engage the Persian army in a decisive battle, but to hold it in place Choosing a position ‘closer to home’ (‘forestall them’) – presumably for only would have also meant that the relief a limited amount of time and/or until army mentioned in the sources would some predetermined criteria was met. have had less distance to travel from Herodotus confirms that this was the the southern states once it had been Greek strategy when he states that the assembled – meaning that the advance contingents sent to Thermopylae from force would not have needed to hold the states of Phokis and Lokrian Opus the Persians for as long a time as they were only dispatched after receiving would have needed to had the defensive a message that the troops heading to position been maintained at Tempe. the pass with Leonidas were only the Moving the defensive position further advance guard of a larger army that was south additionally bought the Greek 42 Isocrates, 4.90. following.44 Herodotus also states that forces more time to assemble as the 43 Diodorus Siculus, Library nobody (presumably the strategy makers Persian host moved southward. of History, 11.4.1. at the Congress of Corinth) had thought 44 Herodotus, Histories, From this point in the histories we start that the battle at Thermopylae would 7.203. to see legend encroaching upon the be over so quickly and that this was why 45 Herodotus, Histories, narratives. We are told that the Spartans 7.206. the city–states had only sent advanced were unable to muster their land forces 46 Herodotus, Histories, units.45 This further suggests that the in entirety due to the restrictions put in 7.175. purpose of the advance troops was to place for the Karneia festival which was 47 Both Herodotus (7.173) forestall the Persians (as Diodorus puts currently being observed.48 Herodotus and Diodorus (11.2.6) it) until the bulk of the Greek forces state that one reason also notes that the other states of arrived. why the Tempe position Greece were similarly restricted due was abandoned was Another point to consider is the ground to the Olympic festival which was also because some of the chosen by the Greeks for their defence. underway.49 However, there is evidence states in Thessaly had As mentioned, one of the stated reasons to suggest that these passages were not already offered tokens for the choice of Thermopylae was only inserted later as pieces of Greek of submission to the that, in the narrow pass, the superior propaganda to explain why they did Persians. Conversely, Plutarch (Themistocles, Persian numbers of infantry and cavalry not mount a more adequate defence at 7) states that not only could not be brought to bear. There Thermopylae, but also that there were had the city of Thebes were also other advantages in choosing no such restrictions on the mobilisation contributed 500 men to Thermopylae. Herodotus states that of troops in place. The Athenians, for the defence of the Tempe no one knew of the track the Persians example, with the help of the Plataeans position, but Thessaly used to move over the Kallidromos ridge and Chalcidians, were able to man 147 and Boeotia only and behind the Greek position prior to warships for the Artemisium blockade.50 submitted to the Persians 46 following the Greek the advance units arriving in the pass. This represents approximately 30 000 withdrawal from Tempe. Thus, unlike the earlier position at men being assembled to crew these 48 Herodotus, Histories, Tempe, it was believed that Thermopylae vessels – the bulk of the male population 7.206. could not be outflanked – meaning that of Athens of military age at this time. 49 Herodotus, Histories, the Persians would have had to engage 7.206. The thirteen city–states which the Greeks front-on, where they would 50 Herodotus, Histories, 8.1. sent troops in the advance force to

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Thermopylae were also clearly not What could a holding action, conducted restricted in the mustering and/or in so narrow a pass and by an army dispatch of their troops. This shows with inferior numbers, have hoped to that: (a) the passages relating to the accomplish against the massive invasion festivals and their associated restrictions force they were facing? Two of the on troop movements are most likely objectives are detailed in the ancient later propaganda; and (b) that the sources: to prevent the Persians from deployment to Thermopylae and advancing further into Greece; and to Artemisium was a full commitment of hold the Persian army in place until the Greek land and naval power deemed remainder of the Greek army arrived. An 51 For example, see Charles adequate for the task of holding the examination of the nature of the chosen Hignett, Xerxes’ Invasion Persian forces in place until the larger battlefield provides details of the other of Greece (Oxford: relief army could be fully assembled and strategic objectives of the position. Clarendon Press, 1963), sent to join the advance units. 115; John R. Grant, Even if the advance force had managed ‘Leonidas’ Last Stand,’ Despite the fact that the Spartans were in to hold out until the rest of the Greek Phoenix 15, vol. 1 (1961): command of the operation, and if there army arrived, a decisive battle could still 125; Burn, Persia and the were no religious-based restrictions not have taken place in such a narrow Greeks, 363; Walter W. How and Joseph Wells, A on troop movements in place, why did pass. It is highly unlikely that the fully Commentary on Herodotus: Leonidas only take 300 men with him assembled Greek army would have been Volume 2 (Oxford: to Thermopylae? To answer such a able to force 200 000+ Persians out of Clarendon Press, 1912), question, the historical narratives must the end of the pass into areas where both 85. be critically examined. Many modern sides could fully deploy for a larger scale 52 Herodotus, Histories, scholars suggest that Leonidas took battle. If the Greek army occupied the 6.56. the 300 men of his personal bodyguard narrow pass, hardly any of them could 53 Herodotus, Histories, with him to Thermopylae.51 This is have been used to fight the Persians 7.205. ‘romanticised’ legend replacing history. unless it is assumed that this vast Greek 54 Burn, Persia and the There are no references to Leonidas’s army would continue to fight in relays Greeks, 378. bodyguard in all of the main accounts for an indefinite period of time until the 55 For example, 300 Spartans fight the that we have of the engagement. Persian army was eventually defeated. Argives over Thyreae (c. Herodotus himself states that the However, in doing so, the majority of 546 BCE): Herodotus, Spartan Royal Guard was only one the Greek army would have been simply Histories, 1.82; Isocrates, hundred in number – a third of the size of occupying the pass without contributing 6.99. Three hundred the contingent of Spartans Leonidas took anything to the actual battle. This would Spartans escort with him to Thermopylae.52 Herodotus have had dire consequences for the Themistocles out of Spartan territory (480 further states that the men Leonidas took Greeks – consequences which they seem BCE): Herodotus, with him were selected because they all to have fully understood as they formed Histories, 8.124. Three had living sons.53 It has been suggested the basis for their entire strategy (see hundred Spartans that these men were chosen so that discussion following). fight at Thermopylae their families would not die out as they Nor could the assembled Greek army (480 BCE): Herodotus, were not expected to return from their have been ferried behind the Persian Histories, 7.205. Three assigned ‘suicidal’ task.54 hundred Spartans lines. In order to undertake such an fight at Stenyclerus (c. Herodotus himself does not elaborate on operation the Greek fleet would have had 465 BCE): Herodotus, why these men were chosen. However, to first defeat the much larger Persian Histories, 9.64. Three one benefit of selecting men with living naval forces. This would have then given hundred Spartans fight with Brasidas sons is that they would be somewhat the Greeks a clear passage to land troops in Thrace (425 BCE): older than those who had no children behind the Persians and essentially Thucydides, History of the (Spartan males could only marry after attack them from both sides. However, Peloponnesian War, 4.125. the age of twenty, and could not live with the smaller Greek fleet was used, much The elite Spartan hippeis their wives until thirty); constituting like the land army in the Thermopylae (who are most likely the some of the most experienced hoplites pass, to keep Persian ships in check in troops who made up the unit of 300): Xenophon, of the Spartan army for holding the strait of Artemisium rather than fight The Lacedaemonians, 4.3; Thermopylae. But why only 300 men? A a decisive engagement. This was done Plutarch, Ancient Customs unit of 300 appears to be the elite of the so that the Persian fleet would no longer of the Spartans, 4. See also Spartan military – a unit regularly sent be able to supply the massive land army. Matthew, ‘Was the Greek out on ‘special operations.’55 Other city– What the Greek army had on its side was Defence of Thermopylae states that sent larger contingents of time. Xerxes’s land army would have in 480BC a Suicide troops to Thermopylae may have relied contained vast numbers of pack animals Mission?,’ 72–73. upon ‘weight of numbers’ to make their and transport wagons – possibly around 56 See Matthew, ‘Was 56 the Greek Defence of units of less experienced hoplites deeper 75 000 animals in all. One thousand Thermopylae in 480BC a and with a greater depth of reserve ranks pack animals consume approximately Suicide Mission?,’ 76. in the narrow pass. 9 000 kilograms of fodder per day. This

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equates to a daily fodder ration for the been a conscious consideration made animals of the Persian army alone of by the Congress of Corinth in regards more than 540 tons. Added to this, all to both the selected sites for the land 200 000+ men of the army (plus camp defence and the naval blockade, and for followers and support personnel, which the numbers of men sent in the advance may have brought the figure up to as units. much as 400 000) would require their Another problem for the Persians own supplies of food and water. would have been disease. Two hundred Xerxes’s strategy was to have the fleet thousand-plus people produce a shadow the land army so that it could substantial amount of waste. As hunger, ferry in supplies. However, because the heat and thirst began to set in, keeping Greek fleet in the Artemisium channel so many people encamped in a single effectively removed this avenue of place would have caused illnesses, such resupply, the land army would have as dysentery, to spread through the been left to fend for itself. By conducting Persian army within a matter of days. a combined land/sea operation at Thus the Greek advance force would Thermopylae and Artemisium, the have only needed to hold the Persians in Greeks placed the Persian army in a place for about two weeks before most position where it would have quickly of the Persians would have been dead or stripped the position it was occupying of suffering from heat, thirst, hunger and resources. illness. If this then forced the Persians to withdraw, the main Greek army (which Rupert Matthews suggests that the would have arrived at Thermopylae Persian army would have run out of about this exact time) could have food within ten days, and would have pursued the retreating Persians to been forced to withdraw northward.57 either force them out of Greece or, in However, what would have affected the all likelihood, decisively defeat them Persian army more would have been their in open battle if the Persians choose to lack of water. Diodorus describes how stand and fight. Either course of action ‘rivers were drunk dry’ by the Persian would have resulted in victory for the army – possibly as a literary motif to Greeks and ended the Persian invasion. emphasise the size of the invasion force.58 The course of events, however, turned Herodotus similarly states that the rivers out differently. in Thessaly could not supply the Persian army with enough fresh water.59 Whether Following the fall of the Thermopylae the Persian army actually ‘drank the rivers position, the Greek fleet withdrew from dry’ or not is not the point. What is crucial Artemisium and returned to Athens. to understanding the strategic benefits of Herodotus states that this was done so the position at Thermopylae is how the that the city could be evacuated while surrounding area was unable to supply ideas for the next stage of the defence the large Persian army with sufficient were debated.61 Herodotus additionally potable water. states that this discussion was required as ‘their present circumstances, and With no resupply coming from the fleet, the frustration of their hopes, most a lack of fresh water in the mid-August evidently demanded’ such discussion.62 heat would have started to severely This statement makes it clear that affect the Persians within days. The no plans had been formulated for much smaller Greek force occupying the Thermopylae falling to the Persians. It pass, on the other hand, had gathered 57 Rupert Matthews, The can subsequently be concluded that the supplies (and presumably water) from Battle of Thermopylae: entire defence of Greece was centred the village of Alpeni at the eastern end of A Campaign in Context around holding the Persian army in a the Thermopylae pass.60 Furthermore, (Stroud: History Press, narrow pass (originally Tempe and then 2006), 102–03. if the position had to be held for longer Thermopylae) until circumstances 58 Diodorus Siculus, Library than anticipated, the small advance force forced the Persians to retire, rather than of History, 11.5.3. would have been able to be resupplied by confront them in a full-scale battle. The 59 Herodotus, Histories, ship from ‘friendly’ territory to the south Greek third defensive line established in 7.196. as the Persian fleet was kept in check by 480 BCE followed the same principles 60 Herodotus, Histories, the Greek ships at Artemisium. Thus 7.176. set down for the actions at both Tempe the supply lines to the Greek position at 61 Herodotus, Histories, and Thermopylae; that is, place both the Thermopylae were secure while those 8.40; see also Plutarch, land army and the fleet in narrow passes/ of the Persian army were considerably Themistocles, 9. channels to negate Persian numbers. interrupted. Such logistics must have 62 Herodotus, Histories, In this case, the army withdrew to (and 8.40.

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BELOW: Figure 4 – Location fortified) the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, of the different fighting styles of the of the Greek lines of defence in 480 BCE. while the fleet redeployed to the strait of Greeks and Persians, that the defence Salamis off Athens (see Figure 4).63 of Thermopylae in 480 BCE was based upon solid strategic planning to have During the desperate fighting on day the Persian army wear itself out and be three at Thermopylae, it is likely that forced to withdraw from Greece. This many of the Greeks may have realised planning considered the topography that this would be their last ever day. of the battlefields (both land and sea), However, it is unlikely that any of these the logistical requirements of both the men had thought similarly only a few men dispatched to hold the pass and the days before. It becomes clear from a massive Persian army, and the advantages critical examination of the ancient that lay in the Greek way of war. accounts, coupled with an understanding



63 Herodotus, Histories, 8.60, 9.8. Following the • defeat of the Persian fleet  at Salamis in 480 BCE, Xerxes withdrew to Persia leaving a substantial army under the command of Mardonius in Greece.  This army moved into more open country near Plataea where, if attacked, they would be able to employ their full numbers more effectively. However, by the time the two sides clashed in 479 BCE, the Greeks had amassed an army  Greek defensive line # 1 – 10 000 men sent to Tempe. Fleet sent to Artemisium. of around 110 000 men and ultimately defeated  Greek defensive line # 2 – 7200 men sent to Thermopylae. Fleet sent to Artemisium. the Persians even on this more favourable terrain.  Greek defensive line # 3 – Greeks fortify Isthmus of Corinth. Fleet sent to Salamis.

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Understanding Ancient Civilisations: Honour and Shame in the Roman Republic

How did honour, pride and shame impact on the social, political and military machinery of the most powerful Republic of the pre-industrial era?

Dr Frederik Juliaan Vervaet, The University of Melbourne

Introductory observations: The proportionally very small elite consisting of Rome’s aristocratic nature of the Roman polity long-standing landed aristocratic families. The Roman republican polity thus was a plutocratic outfit that As is well known, ancient Rome was very much an served the conservative interests of the happy few, androcentric society where, at least in terms of public the ‘less-than-one-percenters,’ to use a more recently law and social custom, all official authority resided coined colloquialism. with a limited number of adult male citizens. At the level of individual Roman families, absolute authority These observations warrant this survey’s distinct focus rested with the pater familias, the oldest living male in on Roman aristocratic honour as a socio-institutional any given family. At the level of state affairs, power was historical reality that mattered greatly in terms of concentrated in the hands of a small elite consisting of shaping the Roman elite’s collective mentality and the highest echelons of Rome’s landed aristocracy. individual behaviour. Though honour, pride and shame loomed large at all levels of Roman (and, for Although the Republic’s leading annual magistrates that matter, Mediterranean) social life, this discussion were indeed elected by the exclusively male citizen centres on three interconnected aspects. First, we will assemblies, only the truly wealthy had the economic scrutinise the concept and workings of honour and clout to run expensive election campaigns, as the shame at the level of the Roman family. Next, we will ranking offices were literally termed honores, or take a closer look at the Senate, the authoritative body ‘honours’, conceived of as a sort of distinct privilege of ranking nobles that dominated Roman politics for granted by the Roman people. This also meant centuries under the Republic. Finally, we look at how that those high stations could really only ever be honour, pride and shame impacted on the workings of occupied by men who had the equivalent dignitas, the Roman military at every level – at times altering the or dignity determined by social status – namely, the very course of Roman history.

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OPPOSITE: Cicero Honour and shame in avoid the stain of any public persecution Denouncing Catiline to the Roman Senate (Cesare the Roman family and preserve the good name and fame of his house. Maccari, 1889). Before discussing the impact of honour1, pride and shame on Roman family life, Whereas such political honour killings it is useful calling to mind how Roman were rare at that time in Roman history, social relations were entirely steeped in there are indications that women were authoritarian androcracy. As Dionysius more likely to suffer the wrath of slighted of Halicarnassus recounts: males. In keeping with behavioural expectations prevailing amongst many Romulus [the legendary founding contemporary Mediterranean cultures, father and first king of Rome] granted Roman citizen women were always to the Roman father absolute power expected to dress modestly and refrain over his son, and this power was valid from any non-authorised or extramarital until the father’s death, whether he liaisons so as to avoid offending society decided to imprison him, or whip him, and, in particular, the honour of their to put him in chains and make him male relatives. Conversely, Roman men work on a farm, or even to kill him. were expected to respect one another’s Romulus even allowed the Roman honour and pride. At the level of Roman father to sell his son into slavery.2 familial and social relations, this As the Romans were wont to trace back meant they had to steer clear from any some of their oldest and quintessential inappropriate liaisons with the wives or customary laws to the kings, the concept daughters of fellow citizens, as well as of patria potestas, or ‘power of the to abstain altogether from homosexual father,’ stands out as one of the moral engagements involving citizens. A few cornerstones of Roman society. notable incidents may serve to illustrate these points. The ancients amply attest to the paramount importance of honour and Around the middle of the first century shame, or loss of face, as pervasive drivers BCE, Pontius Aufidianus, a Roman eques of social interaction, expectation and (member of the equestrian order), found self-regulation. As Cicero implicitly that his daughter’s virginity had been 1 I would concisely define attests in De Republica 5.4, the quest for an betrayed by her slave tutor. He killed not Roman honour as the honourable reputation and fear of shame only the slave, but also his daughter, as accumulated private and significantly compounded the dread of he preferred an untimely funeral over public esteem in which 5 one was held by one’s penalties ordained by law. Under these a disgraceful marriage. Much earlier, peer community and circumstances, it should not surprise that another distinguished Roman citizen, wider society. Anything anything that would negatively reflect Egnatius Mecennius, reportedly clubbed that would diminish that upon the paternal or male honour would his wife to death because she had drunk measure of esteem could have serious repercussions, especially wine. Valerius Maximus emphatically be termed loss of face or if the individuals involved enjoyed records that none objected to his action disgrace, a process that considerable public esteem and stood to as all agreed that this severe penalty set could eventually result 3 in infamia, the socially lose more loss of face. Sons, daughters an excellent precedent since the use catastrophic condition of and spouses consequently had to play by of wine by women was widely believed being held in disrepute/ the rules, as any actions with the potential to set them loose.6 In another attested dishonour. to diminish the honour and dignity of incident, C. Sulpicius Gallus, who held 2 Dion. Hal. 2.26f. their fathers or husbands could trigger the consulship in 166 BCE, divorced his 3 As John Lendon puts it immediate and dire reactions. This was wife because he learned that she had in Empire of Honour: The especially true if these transgressions ventured out with her head uncovered. Art of Government in the took place in public, in the gaze of the He is recorded to have said the following Roman World (Oxford: OUP, 1997), 36: ‘A man’s collective citizen body that judged and words: apportioned the honour attributed to honor was a public To have your good looks approved… individual members. In 63 BCE, for verdict on his qualities the law limits you to my eyes only. and standing.’ example, a senator named Aulus Fulvius For them to assemble the tools of 4 Val. Max. 5.8.5. had his adult son executed because he beauty, for them to look your best, 5 Val. Max. 6.1.3. was involved in the so-called Catilinarian trust to their closer familiarity. Any 6 Val. Max. 6.3.9. conspiracy, a plot to overthrow the further sight of you, summoned by 7 Val. Max. 6.3.10. Law in government led by a number of needless incitement, has to be mired in this particular context bankrupted renegade aristocrats.4 By suspicion and crimination.7 denotes customary law, virtue of this pre-emptive action, a the behavioural code of conduct as enshrined in draconian application of patria potestas Indeed, in 62 BCE, Julius Caesar (the ancestral tradition, the rare enough to have merited mention in future dictator) even decided to divorce mores maiorum. the historical record, Fulvius wanted to his third wife Pompeia simply because

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‘...it should not surprise that senatorial interaction was marked by fierce rivalries, inside and outside the Senate-house.’

she was rumoured to have had an affair LEFT: The goddess Pudicitia. with P. Clodius Pulcher, famously declaring that his wife ‘ought not even to be under suspicion.’8 As the potential or genuine indiscretions of their women inexorably impacted on their own honour, such stories should not surprise. After all, legend had it that in 509 BCE the monarchy itself was abolished in Rome, and the Republic established, after Sex. Tarquinius, the son of king L. Tarquinius Superbus, had raped Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (cos. 509), one of the foremost aristocrats. Lucretia saved her own honour by stabbing herself to death after bitterly bemoaning her injury, after which her humiliated husband rallied his friends to expel the king and set up a Republic along aristocratic and oligarchic lines.9 justifiably killed by private C. Plotius That the honour of fellow male citizens because the tribune had dared to was likewise off limits is also well solicit the young man sexually.12 Quite attested in the extant source material: unsurprisingly, it was also not done Valerius Maximus alone lists an entire for reputable Roman citizens to be string of examples in his chapter De at the receiving end in homosexual Pudicitia (Of Chastity). C. Fescenninus, engagements with non-citizen males, one of the triumviri capitales,10 put regardless of their social standing. one C. Cornelius in chains for having In 81–80 BCE, during a stint on the debauched a freeborn youth, though personal staff of M. Minucius Thermus, Cornelius had served as a soldier with the proconsul of Asia, young Julius great bravery and had even four times Caesar, was allegedly amorously received the rank of primus pilus, or involved with Nicomedes IV, King of chief centurion. He vainly appealed Bithynia. Suetonius amply dwells on this to the tribunes of the plebs declaring allegation and intimates that this was the his readiness to wager that the young one ‘deep and lasting reproach, which 8 Suet. Diu. Iul. 6.2 and man in question had openly practised Plut. Caes. 10.9. laid him open to insults from each and prostitution and eventually died an 9 Livy 1.57–60. every quarter.’13 inglorious death in prison. As is clear 10 A minor magistracy in from Valerius’s clarification, the honour Honour and shame in charge of public prisons of society as a whole trumped that of the the Roman Senate and executions, typically war hero: held by aspiring junior Honour and shame likewise loomed aristocrats. For the tribunes of the plebs thought it large in the Roman Senate, the 11 Val. Max. 6.1.10. wrong that our Republic should strike predominant political institution in the 12 Val. Max. 6.1.12; see also bargains with brave men for them Roman Republic. The strong Roman Cic. Mil. 9 and Plut. Mar. to buy luxuries at home with perils bias towards seniority and senatorial 14.3–5. In § 6, Plutarch 11 adds that tidings of abroad. rank meant that debates and procedure Marius’s verdict boosted could not be more different from what In a more famous instance, the consul his popularity in Rome we are used to in the Western model of C. Marius in 104 BCE declared that the and contributed to his liberal democracy, where every elected election to his third military tribune C. Lusius, who also member at least theoretically enjoys consulship. happened to be his sister’s son, was equality within the elective deliberative 13 Suet. Diu. Iul. 49.1.

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body. As the learned Varro explained in a of Sulla and the most fluent orator of little manual he wrote for the relatively his generation.15 young and politically inexperienced In this conflict, two legitimate claims Cn. Pompeius Magnus in 71 BCE, the to honour and preferential treatment right to speak on a motion filed by the collided; namely, on the one hand, magistrate presiding over the meeting seniority and senatorial rank and, on the Senate was organised on the basis of other, lineage and nobility. Ultimately, a strict hierarchy defined in terms of seniority prevailed, though only after a seniority and honour; that is, gradatim ferocious exchange of oratorical fire in – ‘according to grade.’ Before the the Senate. disruptive power struggles that followed the dictatorship of Sulla, the one called Another powerful example of senatorial upon first invariably was the oldest living rivalry, if not outright enmity, over honour consular member of the Senate; that and glory can be found in the competition is, the oldest of those who had already between Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, held the consulship. The pecking order the famous Cunctator, and M. Claudius of those who followed was equally Marcellus. Not in the least because of defined by a mixture of age and rank. the exigencies of the Second Punic War Most senators would thus not even get in Italy, both men amassed no less than to speak their opinions in many debates, five consulships during their amazing instead simply siding with the most careers, though Fabius successfully prominent speakers in the event it came forced Marcellus to step down almost to a vote on different motions. immediately after his election to his second consulship in 215 BCE, as he had the As every individual senator strove to Augural College fabricate an unfavourable emulate and, if possible at all, outdo omen at the time of Marcellus’s election. their ancestors by winning more honour Quite unsurprisingly, Fabius himself was and prestige – intangible assets that elected in Marcellus’s place and thus could be accumulated and represented secured the supreme command of the big political currency – it should not Roman war effort in Italy in the critical year surprise that senatorial interaction was after their disastrous defeat at Cannae. marked by fierce rivalries, inside and Fabius and Marcellus indeed championed outside the Senate-house. In 21 CE, early two very different strategies. The former, in the reign of the conservative emperor who was at least some ten years the latter’s Tiberius,14 the Senate-house witnessed senior, wanted to wear Hannibal down in a bitter dispute over honour, rank and a war of attrition. Marcellus by contrast deference, a seemingly trivial quarrel wanted to continue the risky strategy of that escalated into an acrimonious direct confrontation and pitched battles – debate and had to be sorted out by 14 For Tiberius’s an aggressive policy that much endeared none less than the emperor’s own son, conservative sentiments, him with the vast majority of Roman see, for example, Suet. Drusus Iulius Caesar. As it happened, citizens, who had to bear the brunt of the Tib. 30. Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a senior senator fighting and were eager to see an end to the 15 Ann. 3.31.3–5. of praetorian rank, complained to the suffering and devastation.16 16 According to Plutarch Senate that the young nobleman Lucius Marc. 9.4 and Fab. 19.3, Sulla had refused to give up his seat to Some four years before the war, in Poseidonius recorded that Fabius was therefore him at a gladiatorial contest. As Tacitus 222 BCE, Marcellus had already gained called the shield and records with keen interest: immortal glory by slaying a Gallic chieftain in single combat at Clastidium. Marcellus the sword (of On Corbulo’s side were his age, Rome). As such, he earned the extremely rare national custom and the partialities 17 For an excellent start to distinction of dedicating the slain king’s of the older senators, whereas [such further reading on the armour as Spolia Opima (the kingly spoils) ranking aristocrats as] Mamercus issue of the Spolia Opima, to Jupiter Feretrius (the Smiter) on the Scaurus, Lucius Arruntius and some see Harriet Flower, ‘The Capitoline Hill, a ceremony that would Tradition of the Spolia other connections of Sulla were active have constituted the absolute highlight of Opima: M. Claudius on his behalf. There reportedly was his first public triumph.17 In the summer Marcellus and Augustus,’ a sharp exchange of speeches, with of 211 BCE, Marcellus, who staked his in The Roman Historical references to the example of the Tradition. Regal and entire career and reputation on military ancestors, who had censured youthful Republican Rome, eds. glory and conspicuous distinctions, irreverence in grave decrees. Drusus J. H. Richardson and F. confidently tried to secure the equally eventually made a calculated speech Santangelo (Cambridge: historic honour of what would have CUP, 2014), 285–320. to ease the tension, and Corbulo was been the very first public triumph of 18 Livy 26.21.2–10. accorded satisfaction by Mamercus, the Second Punic War. Indeed, having 19 Plut. Marc. 22.1. who was both the uncle and stepfather

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returned from Sicily, where he had honour, pride and shame in the Roman conquered the mighty and impregnable Republic; namely, the paramount city of Syracuse, Marcellus asked the social sphere of the formidable Roman Senate to grant him the honour of a military. A striking sample of an public triumphal procession into the outsider's appraisal of the pervasive City of Rome. Much to his surprise and importance attached to honour and measured annoyance, the Senate rebuffed military distinction by Roman soldiery his request, officially on the grounds that can be found in Polybius’s discerning the war in Sicily was not over yet. Instead, and influential digression on the Roman they granted him the right to celebrate republican constitution.21 After having an ovation, the so-called lesser triumph, described the key features of the Roman authorising him to enter the city on foot military system, Polybius in 6.39.1–11 only, and not in the usual triumphal dwells on how the Romans motivated chariot. Marcellus grudgingly accepted their men to deliver. The passage is so this verdict, but proudly staged his own insightful that it is well worth quoting in private triumphal procession on the full: Alban Mount, a sacred location in Rome’s They also have an admirable method Latin periphery.18 Thanks to Plutarch, of encouraging the young soldiers to however, we know that envious rivalry face danger. After a battle in which was the real cause of Marcellus’s failure, some of them have distinguished as many did not welcome the prospect of themselves, the general calls an a second public triumph for Marcellus.19 assembly of the troops, and bringing That Fabius would have been the main forward those whom he considers to instigator of the Senate’s refusal to grant have displayed conspicuous valour, Marcellus this rather well-deserved first of all speaks in laudatory terms of honour may be deduced from what the courageous deeds of each and of followed some two years later. In 209 anything else in their previous conduct BCE, Fabius asked for, and received, the which deserves commendation, and right to celebrate a full public triumph afterwards distributes the following on account of his capture of Tarentum. rewards. To the man who has wounded Just like Syracuse, Tarentum was a an enemy, a spear; to him who has slain formerly allied Greek city located in and stripped an enemy, a cup if he be in Italy’s southern periphery that had gone the infantry and horse trappings if in over to the Carthaginians in the early the cavalry, although the gift here was stages of the Hannibalic War. Just like the originally only a spear. These gifts are capture of Syracuse had not terminated not made to men who have wounded the war in Sicily, the capture of Tarentum or stripped an enemy in a regular did not push Hannibal’s forces out of battle or at the storming of a city, southern Italy. In all probability, Fabius but to those who during skirmishes had managed to convince the Senate or in similar circumstances, where that his victory nonetheless represented there is no necessity for engaging a decisive turning point in the war, in single combat, have voluntarily an argument they apparently had no and deliberately thrown themselves difficulty in accepting.20 Fabius, whose into the danger. To the first man to political clout continued to outclass that mount the wall at the assault on a of Marcellus, had thus managed to snatch city, he gives a crown of gold. So also the glory his rival had so eagerly sought those who have shielded and saved in 211 BCE as he, and not Marcellus, any of the citizens or allies receive was honoured with the first full public honorary gifts from the consul, and triumph of the war. As Fabius had already the men they saved crown their celebrated a full triumph in 233 BCE, preservers, if not under their own 20 Plut. Fab. 23.1. he could now also proudly outshine free will under compulsion from the 21 For the lasting legacy of Marcellus in that, unlike the bold captor tribunes who judge the case. The Polybius’s appraisal of of the Spolia Opima, he had been able man thus preserved also reverences the Roman republican to secure no less than two full public his preserver as a father all through polity, see Mortimer triumphs. his life, and must treat him in every Sellers, ‘The Roman way like a parent. By such incentives Republic and the Honour and shame in French and American they excite to emulation and rivalry the Roman military Revolutions,’ in The in the field not only the men who are Cambridge Companion to This intense triumphal rivalry between present and listen to their words, but the Roman Republic, ed. Fabius and Marcellus leads us to the those who remain at home also. For H. I. Flower (Cambridge: final aspect of this survey of the role of the recipients of such gifts, quite apart CUP, 2004) 347–64.

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‘Roman generals were acutely aware that honour, pride and shame were incredibly powerful drivers of behaviour in the Roman military – this explains why they regularly resorted to public shaming as a form of punishment rather than corporal punishment.’

from becoming famous in the army shame is, however, perhaps best told and famous too for the time at their through a series of striking incidents. homes, are especially distinguished In a particularly interesting passage in in religious processions after their Plutarch’s Life of Marius, we are treated return, as no one is allowed to wear with a rare insight into how C. Marius decorations except those on whom psychologically prepared his forces these honours for bravery have been to face the formidable tribal alliances conferred by the consul; and in their around the Germanic Teutones and houses they hand up the spoils they Ambrones. Often joining forces with won in the most conspicuous places, the Cimbri, these populous and warlike looking upon them as tokens and tribes had inflicted a series of crushing evidences of their valour. Considering defeats upon the Romans in 113 BCE, all this attention given to the matter of 109–108 BCE and 105 BCE, when some punishments and rewards in the army 80 000 Roman legionaries and allied and the importance attached to both, forces and some 40 000 camp followers no wonder that the wars in which the were destroyed in two consecutive Romans engage end so successfully engagements at Arausio in what is and brilliantly. now southern France.24 After learning that he had been assigned with the Conversely, Polybius also notes (in command against them, the Teutones 6.37.10–13) that fear of being accused and Ambrones swiftly marched against of unmanly or disgraceful behaviour Marius and, as explained by Plutarch, compelled men to remain at their posts took on the role of fearless and fearsome even when they were overwhelmingly challengers: ‘Their numbers were outnumbered, and that those who lost 22 For a brief but insightful limitless, they were hideous in their discussion of Roman any weapon on the battlefield would aspect, and their speech and cries were shaming punishments, often ‘throw themselves in the midst of unlike those of other peoples. They see Sara Phang, Roman the enemy, hoping either to recover the Military Service. Ideologies covered a large part of the plain, and lost object or to escape by death from of Discipline in the Late after pitching their camp challenged inevitable disgrace and the taunts of Republic and Early Marius to battle.’ Principate (Cambridge: their relations.’ CUP, 2008), 140–43. In a remarkable display of cool- Roman generals were acutely aware that 23 Val. Max. 2.7.9, also on headedness, Marius simply ignored honour, pride and shame were incredibly record in Front. Strat. them and kept his army inside their powerful drivers of behaviour in the 4.1.26. Both Valerius fortifications. As Plutarch’s subsequent Roman military – this explains why they Maximus (2.7.1–15f.) narrative suggests, he did so as he had and Frontinus (4.1.1–46) regularly resorted to public shaming as a to work the honour of both his officers produce many more form of punishment rather than corporal and the rank and file, albeit in radically striking examples punishment.22 In 133 BCE, for example, different ways. Privately, he bitterly of public shaming in the consul L. Calpurnius Piso ordered their lists of anecdotes rebuked those of his ‘officers and equals’ one of his cavalry prefects who had given documenting Roman who wanted to show off their courage way to fugitive slaves to: military discipline. and give battle without further ado, 24 On the staggering …stand on duty at headquarters going as far as to call them ‘traitors casualty rate at Arausio, throughout the period of his service to their country.’ ‘For it was not,’ he see Livy Per. 67; the numbers are quoted from daybreaks to nightfall, barefoot and reportedly said, ‘triumphs or trophies from the work of dressed in a gown from which the fringes that should now be the object of their Valerius Antias. Granius had been cut off and an ungirt tunic. He ambition, but how they might ward off Licinianus 33 ed. also forbade him human society and the so great a cloud and thunder-bolt of war Flemisch 1904: 12, which use of baths, and deprived the squadrons and secure the safety of Italy.’ While he records that according to of horse whom he had commanded of had to reign in the foolhardy sense of Rutilius Rufus (cos. 105) at least 70 000 regular their mounts and transferred them to the pride and lust for glory amongst his top 23 and light-armed troops units of slingers. brass, the prevailing sentiment among his privates was quite the opposite. perished on that fateful 6 The potentially incredibly effective and October 105 BCE. Indeed, they were cowering, filled with destructive character of honour and

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a deep fear of the unknown. In order to Carbo and [the proconsul Q. Servilius] ABOVE LEFT: Julius Caesar restore confidence and morale amongst Caepio, whom the enemy defeated (Clara Grosch, 1892). his men, as well as to manipulate their [in 113 and 105 successively]? But they ABOVE RIGHT: Decimation collective sense of shame and honour, were far behind Marius in reputation (Roman army). Etching by Marius craftily adopted the following and excellence, and led an army that William Hogarth (c. 1725). strategy. According to Plutarch: was far inferior to his. Surely it is better to do something, even if we …he would station his soldiers on perish as they did, rather than to sit the fortifications by detachments, here and enjoy the spectacle of our bidding them to observe the enemy, allies being plundered.’25 and in this way accustomed them not to fear their shape or dread their cries, By shaming his reckless officers and which were altogether strange and ensuring the rank and file’s sense of ferocious; and to make themselves honour and shame began to hurt, Marius acquainted with their equipment and managed to set the stage for two brilliant movements, thus in the course of time victories over the numerically vastly rendering what was only apparently superior Teutoni and Ambrones near formidable familiar to their minds Aquae Sextiae in 102 BCE. from observation. For he considered Roughly forty years later, in 58 BCE, Julius that their novelty falsely imparts Caesar and his legions faced an equally to terrifying objects many qualities dreadful and supposedly invincible which they do not possess, but that coalition of Germanic tribesmen under with familiarity even those things Ariovistus who had occupied large which are really dreadful lose their swaths of central Gaul. As Caesar moved power to affright. And so in the case to confront the Germans, reports came of his soldiers, not only did the daily in from both Gauls and Roman traders sight of the enemy lessen somewhat who asserted that the Germans were their amazement at them, but also, men of huge stature, of incredible valour when they heard the threats and the and practice in arms, dreadful in their intolerable boasting of the barbarians, countenance and fierceness of their eyes, their anger rose and warmed and set and paralysed officers and troops alike on fire their spirits; for the enemy with fear. Caesar immediately called for were ravaging and plundering all the a council and invited the centurions of all country round, and besides, often the companies – he severely reprimanded attacked the Roman fortifications with them on account of their unjustified great temerity and shamelessness, qualms about the proven superiority so that indignant speeches of his of Roman arms and the ability of their soldiers reached the ears of Marius. commander-in-chief. Most importantly, ‘What cowardice, pray, has Marius as Caesar himself testifies in the first book discovered in us that he keeps out of of his Commentaries on the Gallic War, he battle like women under lock and key? shamelessly played into the men’s sense Come, let us act like freemen and ask of pride and shame, ending his speech him if he is waiting for other soldiers with the declaration that: to fight in defence of Italy, and will use us as workmen all the time, whenever He would therefore instantly set about there is need of digging ditches and what he had intended to put off till a clearing out mud and diverting a river more distant day, and would break up or two. For it was to this end, as it his camp the next night, in the fourth would seem, that he exercised us in watch, that he might ascertain, as soon those many toils, and these are the as possible, whether a sense of honor achievements of his consulships which and duty, or whether fear had more he will exhibit to his fellow-citizens influence with them. But that, if no 25 Plut. Mar. 15f. These on his return to Rome. Or does he fear one else should follow, yet he would go events took place during the fate of [the consul Cn. Papirius] with only the tenth legion, of which he the period 104–102 BCE.

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RIGHT: Pompeius. had no misgivings, and it should be his Used under CC BY-SA 4.0. praetorian cohort. The tenth legion happened to be Caesar’s favourite, most valorous and trusted crack force. As Caesar goes on to recount, this calculated insult proved to have a stunning effect: Upon the delivery of this speech, the minds of all were changed in a surprising manner, and the highest ardour and eagerness for prosecuting the war were engendered; and the tenth legion was the first to return thanks to him, through their military tribunes, for his having expressed this most favourable opinion of them, and assured him that they were quite ready to prosecute the war. Then, the other legions endeavoured, through at Arausio in October 105 BCE was their military tribunes and the centurions entirely due to a poisonous conflict over of the principal companies, to excuse honour and pride between the Roman themselves to Caesar, [saying] that they joint commanders-in-chief, namely the had never either doubted or feared, or consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the supposed that the determination of the proconsul Q. Servilius Caepio (cos. 106). conduct of the war was theirs and not As both men had been charged with the their general’s. conduct of the war against Cimbri and Having accepted their excuse, Caesar Teutones in Gallia Transalpina, Roman marched against Ariovistus and won a constitutional custom dictated that crushing and decisive victory.26 the supreme command be held by the consul, as the Republic’s highest annually During his civil war against Pompeius elected official, and not the proconsul. and his allies, honour, pride and shame As it happened, however, the consul was continued to be critical catalysts of a new man of plebeian stock, whereas endurance and resolve amongst his the proconsul was a scion of one of the severely strained soldiers.27 After they 26 Caesar B.G. 1.39–41. Republic’s noblest patrician families. suffered a serious reverse against 27 The following two Despite the consul’s repeated entreaties Pompeius at Dyrrachium, Caesar’s examples have been for the proconsul to join their armies, sourced from Sara troops ‘out of shame’ demanded that the proud patrician refused to heed the Phang’s excellent 2008 they be decimated in the traditional supreme command of someone he felt monograph Roman manner. Caesar refused to do this and was socially inferior. As both Dio and Military Service, 126 (see reluctantly punished a few, demoting n. 22) on ideologies of Granius Licinianus record, Servilius was the standard bearers. His men imposed discipline in the late fully aware that Mallius’s consulship harsher tasks on themselves and were republican and early gave him superior ‘dignity’ (dignitas) and keen to confront the enemy in the hope imperial Roman military, could simply not stomach what he felt where they feature in of so wiping out their disgrace.28 On the would be a humiliating subordination. As an insightful chapter way back to Rome after their historic a result, both Roman armies were crushed on ‘Disciplina and victory at Pharsalia, Caesar’s famous Punishment.’ in separate engagements, in the course of tenth legion mutinied because he had 28 Caes. B.C. 3.74; App. B.C. which Mallius lost his two sons and one failed to pay them a donative or give 2.10.63; Suet. Diu. Iul. of his senatorial legates. Italy and Rome them their discharge. In a brazen show 68.3. were fortunate that another new man of defiance, Caesar merely declared 29 App. B.C. 2.92–94; Plut. would eventually save the day, namely C. that he would triumph with other Caes. 51; Suet. Diu. Iul. Marius, and that he and the much nobler 70; Dio 42.52.1-55.3 and soldiers, addressing his men as ‘citizens’ proconsul Q. Lutatius Catulus in 101 BCE Front. Strat. 4.5.2. (quirites) rather than ‘soldiers’ (milites), did manage an exemplary cooperation.30 30 For a full discussion, thus giving them their dishonourable see Frederik J. Vervaet, dismissal. His elite legion reportedly The fateful battle at Pharsalia of 9 August The High Command in begged to be decimated to blot out the (7 June, Jul.) 48 BCE offers another, the Roman Republic. The 29 Principle of the summum shame of this repudiation. even more compelling, example of how honour and pride can alter the course imperium auspiciumque In point of fact, it is no exaggeration to of history. After their near-catastrophic from 509 to 19 BCE say that the aristocracy’s own code of (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner defeat at Dyrrachium, Caesar and his honour at times shaped the very course Verlag, 2014), 157–62. men found themselves in a precarious of Roman history. The crushing defeat

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position. Pompeius’s control of the seas army in Thessaly, many senators had not only prevented Caesar from put Pompeius through the hoops by transporting about half his army to questioning his motives as commander- Greece, where they were consequently in-chief. Whenever any action on the greatly outnumbered by Pompeius’s part of Pompeius showed some degree vast forces, but also gravely impaired of slowness and deliberation, ‘they his provisioning. Both Caesar and declared that it was only a single day’s Pompeius knew perfectly that the task, but that he was making the most former was thus running out of time, of his supreme command and treating and that his only hope was to stake all on men of consular and praetorian rank as a quick and decisive battle. Pompeius, though they were slaves.’ however, suffered one formidable The notorious failure on the part disadvantage. As Appian records in of Pompeius’s senatorial equals B.C. 2.67, he ‘was surrounded by a great unreservedly to accept his position number of senators of equal honour with of supreme commander facilitated himself, by very distinguished equites, Caesar’s victory at Pharsalia, one of the and by many kings and princes.’31 Unlike watersheds in Roman history. Appian Caesar, he thus had to reckon with the explains in B.C. 2.67 that Pompeius, fully honour of a great many aristocratic aware of Caesar’s increasing want of peers, several of whom could boast a far supplies, initially tried to convince those more illustrious lineage and likewise who preferred quick action that it was held the rank of consular proconsul. better to wait and wear Caesar’s army They therefore deeply resented their out, arguing that he only pushed for temporary subordination to his supreme battle out of sheer necessity. Pompeius command. Indeed, Appian (loc. cit.) goes nonetheless allowed himself to be on to recount that, after the victory at moved from his own purpose and gave in Dyrrachium, these ranking senators to his senatorial critics. Instead of firmly ‘accused him of being fond of power standing on his dignity and rights as and of delaying purposely in order to commander-in-chief, Pompeius finally prolong his authority over so many decided to enter battle ‘against his will, men of equal honour and for this reason to his own hurt and that of the men called him derisively “king of kings” 31 My italics in the who had persuaded him.’ As is generally translation. and “Agamenmon,” because he also known, Pharsalia paved the way for 32 The italics in the ruled over kings while the war [against Caesar’s successive dictatorships and translation are mine. For Troy] lasted.’32 In B.C. 3.82, Caesar the establishment of an imperial new accounts very similar himself confirms that, after Scipio’s order at Rome. to that of Appian, see huge forces had reinforced Pompeius’s Plutarch Pomp. 67.2f.

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Ancient Mesopotamia: Discovering Civilisation

Ancient Mesopotamia is one of the most historically significant and archaeologically rich regions in the world. Known as the ‘cradle of civilisation,’ the history of ancient Mesopotamia is essential to our understanding of past and present cultures.

Dr Andrew Jamieson, The University of Melbourne

We should be aware of our indebtedness to the and cosmology; the first moral ideas; the first biblical central place Mesopotamia occupies in world parallels; the first epic literature; the first libraries; the history, not least because many of its achievements first law codes; and the first proverbs and sayings.4 By are germane to issues and themes that remain the same token, urbanisation, the wheel, astronomy, current and active in today’s world.1 mathematics, irrigation, agricultural developments, animal husbandry and writing all came from the land The relevance of ancient Mesopotamia can be simply between two rivers.5 stated: Mesopotamia produced the world’s first humanists – studying ancient Mesopotamia enables Today the region remains strategically and historically students to explore what it is to be human.2 important. The material culture (artefacts) and archival evidence (texts) of Mesopotamia are more While jihadists are looting sites, defacing ancient abundant than for any other civilisation of the ancient sculptures and decapitating statues in Iraq and world. These sources aid historical inquiry providing Syria, it is easy to forget that this region was once an unrivalled body of material for students to study the considered the ‘cradle of civilisation.’3 Ancient origins of civilisations. While the surviving material Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers Tigris and is highly informative, there is a great deal that is still Euphrates, is one of the most historically significant unknown. and archaeologically rich regions in the world, which makes the recent destruction and looting of sites and In 2016 the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment monuments in this area a catastrophe. Particularly Authority (VCAA) will reintroduce Ancient History since Mesopotamia gave the world some of its most into the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) enduring cultural traditions. Samuel Noah Kramer, a History curriculum.6 The first unit of this stream has leading Assyriologist, noted in his book History Begins been allocated to the history of ancient Mesopotamia. at Sumer that the Sumerians of Mesopotamia can be In a recent commentary on the curriculum revisions, credited with many inventions: the first cosomogony Nicholas Vlahogiannis describes the new

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Ancient Mesopotamia unit, noting that: that was readily available in the south PREVIOUS PAGE : Uruk archaeological site. of modern-day Iraq. It is estimated …students would begin with an UK Ministry of Defence, that half-a-million clay tablets from exploration of agriculture and the © Crown copyright 2010. Mesopotamia have been recovered; domestication of animals, and their many are stored in museums around contribution to the evolution and the world. The earliest texts were importance of the city–state, together simple lists of commodities or business with its inherent political, economic transactions, an early form of account and religious institutions during the keeping. The texts serve as a receipt or 1 Antonio Sagona, ‘The Early Dynastic Period down to the end Wonders of Ancient record of the exchange and sale of goods of Ur III. The rise of empire, beginning Mesopotamia,’ and give valuable information about the with Sargon I of Akkad, and continuing reCollections: A Journal economic structure of Mesopotamian down to the fall of Nineveh at the end of Museums and society. Over time more and more texts Collections 7, no. 2 (2012), of the Neo-Assyrian Period will focus were produced, including historical and http://recollections. attention on the nature and vagaries literary works. It is important to keep nma.gov.au/issues/ of empire, internal and external volume_7_number_2/ in mind that as with any other text, the threats. A key question would be what exhibition_reviews/ details of these records may not always constitutes civilisation.7 mesopotamia_wonders. be accurate or reliable and that there is 2 Samuel Noah Kramer, As this overview astutely suggests, the always a danger of bias. The Sumerians: Their history of Mesopotamia is long and History, Culture, and The Sumerian king list gives a complex, but it is also essential to our Character (Chicago and chronology of the reigns of early kings understanding of past and present London: University of of Mesopotamia from the beginning of cultures.8 Chicago Press, 1970). time to about 2000 BCE.9 The reign of 3 Charles Keith Maisels, This essay is part of a series of articles some kings represented on this list are The Near East: that aims to assist teachers prepare implausibly long, indicating elements Archaeology in the for the introduction of the new VCE of myth and legend were added, making ‘Cradle of Civilization’ Ancient History curriculum and suggest it difficult for scholars to separate (London and New York, Routledge, 1993); Charles some links to the content identified in fact from fiction. The most important Keith Maisels, The the Ancient Mesopotamia syllabus. It chronological texts from Mesopotamia Emergence of Civilization: discusses the many ground-breaking are the Assyrian king lists. These lists From Hunting and developments, still relevant today, that begin around 1800 BCE and continue Gathering to Agriculture, have contributed to Mesopotamia being until about 700 BCE, shortly before the Cities, and the State in the labelled the ‘cradle of civilisation.’ The Assyrian empire collapsed. Another chief Near East (London and New York: Routledge, essay begins with some comments about source are the limmu lists, which contain 1993). See also Bruce sources and texts. It then discusses the the years named after officials (Assyrian Trigger, Understanding various developments within the region Eponym List) who were appointed Early Civilizations: A – agriculture, social complexity, writing, annually to important positions. Lists Comparative Study temples, the formation of early cities and of these limmu officials (eponymous (New York: Cambridge the city–state system – giving context to magistrates) were used to identify the University Press, 2003). each one. The next two articles, which years during which the king held office. 4 Samuel Noah Kramer, will appear in future issues of Agora, The Assyrians used the name of the History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in will discuss the great cities and rulers of limmu for that year to designate the year Man’s Recorded History ancient Mesopotamia and the teaching on official documents. The limmu lists (Philadelphia: University resources available for those who desire help historians keep track of Assyrian of Pennsylvania Press, more extensive accounts of the region’s dates and are of prime importance 1981). See also the section history. in reconstructing the chronology of on Mesopotamia by Assyria. Thorkild Jacobsen in Sources and texts Henri Frankfort et al., With the discovery of new tablets, The Intellectual Adventure The surviving texts and inscriptions inscriptions and other artefacts of Ancient Man: An Essay from ancient Mesopotamia are recovered from archaeological on Speculative Thought plentiful. They provide a rich source in the Ancient Near East investigations, the history of ancient of information on the past and reveal a (Chicago and London: Mesopotamia is constantly being great deal about the lives of the people University of Chicago revised and updated. New techniques of ancient Mesopotamia. The texts, Press, 1977), 125–219. in scientific analysis, especially in the combined with the abundant artefacts 5 See Kramer, History area of dating, are also helping refine and Begins at Sumer on recovered from decades of excavation, modify Mesopotamian history.10 In fact, Mesopotamian provide a wealth of material that the chronology of Mesopotamia from the accomplishments. See enables historians and archaeologists to time of the origins of civilisation (first also Jane McIntosh, reconstruct Mesopotamia’s past. Ancient Mesopotamia: cities) down to the fall of the Assyrian New Perspectives (Santa Many of the texts from Mesopotamia empire (609 BCE) is relatively well Barbara: ABC-CLIO, were written on clay tablets – a material understood.11 2005), 265–304.

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RIGHT: Map of ancient Mesopotamia. By Goran tek- en. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0.

6 Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, Victorian Certificate of Education: History Study Design, Accreditation Period 2016–2020 (Melbourne: VCAA, 2015), http:// www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/ Documents/vce/history/ HistorySD-2016.pdf. 7 Nicholas Vlahogiannis, ‘VCE Ancient History,’ Iris: Journal of the Classical Association of Victoria 27 (2014), New Series 40. 8 The following texts provide detailed histories on Mesopotamia: Mario Liverani, The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy (London and Geography and agriculture principal elements of civilisation – cities, monumental architecture and New York: Routledge, Ancient Mesopotamia is located in 2014); Marc Van de writing – had fully emerged in southern that part of the world now referred to Mieroop, A History of Mesopotamia. the Ancient Near East ca. as the Middle East, primarily modern 3000–323 B.C. (Oxford: Iraq and parts of Syria and Anatolia Developing social complexity Blackwell, 2004); William (modern Turkey) (see map above). It The appearance of large cities and W. Hallo and William is also sometimes called the ancient complex social, economic and religious K. Simpson, The Ancient Near East (or western Asia).12 The term organisation are highly conspicuous Near East: A History Mesopotamia comes from ancient Greek (Fort Worth: Harcourt, elements attesting to the origins and signifies ‘between the rivers.’ Here 1998); and Amélie Kuhrt, of civilisation in Mesopotamia. it refers to the geographical area located The Ancient Near East The overabundance in agricultural in the region of the Tigris and Euphrates c. 3000–330 B.C., vol. 1 and supplies made possible by the unique 2 (London and New York: rivers. Mesopotamia was the home of physical environment of Mesopotamia Routledge, 1995). For more numerous peoples who either invaded contributed significantly to the origins of simplified accounts, see or migrated to the Tigris and Euphrates Julian Reade, Mesopotamia civilisation and the growth of urbanism region and settled in the area. These (London: British Museum (urban revolution) accompanied by main groups include the Sumerians, Press, 2006) and Michael developing social complexity. The the Akkadians, the Babylonians and the Roaf, Cultural Atlas of Sumerians developed an agricultural Mesopotamia and the Assyrians. Ancient Near Art (New irrigation system based on diverting the York: Facts on File, 1990). The flood plain of southern Mesopotamia water from the rivers via a network of 9 Thorkild Jacobson, was flat and fertile; the alluvial soil canals; thus controlling the water supply The Sumerian King List (silt deposited by the flooding rivers) and enabling the production of copious (Chicago:University of was ideally suited to the cultivation yields of crops. This could only occur Chicago Press, 1966); of crops. Agriculture was the first of under the development of a complex Kuhrt, The Ancient Near several significant changes that enabled social system whereby people were East c. 3000-330 B.C., civilisation to develop in Mesopotamia. organised (corvée labour) and worked 29–31. The domestication of certain plants together.14 The social conditions created 10 Techniques such as radio carbon dating (C14) and (emmer wheat and barley) and animals by cities stimulated technological Thermoluminescence, (sheep, goats, pigs and later cattle) developments and specialisation of tasks a technique used to date resulted in radical economic, social and and activities, resulting in differences buried objects that have technological changes for the people in wealth.15 The changes in social been heated in the past, of Mesopotamia. The production of an stratification created an inequality assist in reconstructing agricultural surplus allowed segments (ranked society) among the community the history of ancient of the population to be diverted to members that was previously unknown. Mesopotamia. On dating other areas or projects, leading to techniques, see Colin The emergence of writing Renfrew and Paul Bahn, developments in new industries (such eds., Archaeology Theories, as pottery production, stone carving Major building enterprises, such Methods and Practice and metalwork). 13 By the beginning of as fortification walls, temples and (London: Thames and the third millennium BCE the three palaces required the coordination Hudson, 2012), 121–66.

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and mobilisation of large teams of adapted for Akkadian, Babylonian and ABOVE LEFT: Ziggurat of Ur. workers. It also increased the demand Assyrian. A related innovation was ABOVE RIGHT: Early clay for materials. The rich alluvial silt of the cylinder seal used to roll across writing tablet. Used under CC southern Mesopotamia was highly soft clay leaving an impression.19 A BY-SA 3.0. fertile for agriculture but lacked other Mesopotamian invention, seals and resources. Hardwood and stone, seal impressions were used as a form of necessary for construction projects, identification. Seals were often made of 11 Liverani, The Ancient Near had to be imported. The demand for raw precious or semi-precious stones (lapis East, 9–16. materials stimulated trade and turned lazuli, steatite, hematite). The glyptic 12 For more on the Mesopotamia into a great trading region carved on seals included geometric geography of the ancient – with the Tigris and Euphrates serving designs, animals and mythological Near East, see Liverani, as primary corridors of transportaion. By scenes. The Ancient Near East, 17-22, and Kuhrt, The around 3600 BCE a network of traders The invention of writing was a pivotal Ancient Near East c. 3000– and merchants had developed. The development in human history. Because 330 B.C., 19–21. For a good organisation and administration of this Mesopotamia was a literate society, account on the country network required a communication and and its climate, see Daniel the texts offer a detailed knowledge recording system as well as scribes to T. Potts, Mesopotamian of the circumstances in which they keep track of the different commodities Civilization: The Material were written, sometimes far more and business transactions.16 Foundations (London: detailed than the knowledge available The Athlone Press, 1997), The earliest evidence of a recording for relatively recent periods in history. 1–42. system appears in the archaeological The invention of writing and surviving 13 Liverani, The Ancient record as small solid clay tokens. texts provide an unrivalled source for Near East, 34–39; Tokens were made in various sizes and exploring ancient Mesopotamia and Potts, Mesopotamian Civilization, 56–90. shapes: discs, oblongs and cones. These aiding historical inquiry. 14 Liverani, The Ancient Near shapes served as counters and were Temples and the formation East, 65–73. used to represent various objects or of early cities 15 Liverani, The Ancient Near commodities. East, 61–65. Temples also start to appear around The earliest writing in Mesopotamia 16 Hans J. Nissen, Peter 3300 BCE. Ancient texts and Damerow and Robert is found on clay tablets discovered in archaeological evidence indicates that K. Englund, Archaic a temple in the city of Uruk (modern the temple played a significant role Bookkeeping: Early Warka) dating to around 3300 BCE; in ancient Mesopotamia.20 Temples Writing and Techniques of corresponding with the Late Uruk Economic Administration were the first monumental buildings period.17 A reed stylus was pressed in in the Ancient Near East in Mesopotamia; stone was often used to moist clay, producing wedge-shaped (Chicago: Chicago in their construction. The temple was impressions that gave the writing its University Press, 1993). the religious and cultural centre of modern name, cuneiform, from the 17 Liverani, The Ancient Near all early Mesopotamian societies. It East, 73–79; Kuhrt, The Latin cuneus, meaning ‘wedge.’18 The probably acted as a central point for the Ancient Near East c. 3000- first known use of cuneiform writing distribution of the agricultural surplus 330 B.C., 23–27. was for official temple bookkeeping: produced by the farming communities. 18 C. B. F. Walker, Cuneiform administrative accounts recording Temples were centrally located, usually (London: British the transfer of produce such as grain, Museum Publications, slightly elevated and dedicated to a numbers of sheep and cattle and 1987). local deity. Priests maintained the allocations of rations to temple workers. 19 Dominique Collon, First temple complex. Over time, the wealth At first pictographic representations Impressions: Cylinder and influence of temples and priests Seals in the Ancient Near of animals or objects were inscribed increased. With growing competition and East (London: British on the clay but the signs soon became the consolidation of wealth there was a Museum Publications, simplified and stylised into impressed need to defend and fortify settlements. 1987); Dominique wedges. As the script developed, signs Collon, Near Eastern Control and access of precious raw could be used to represent sounds Seals (London: British materials contributed to protection (phonetic values) or convey abstract Museum Publications, and defence efforts. Boundary disputes ideas. The cuneiform script was used 1990). between city–states often led to conflict to write Sumerian language and later 20 Liverani, The Ancient Near or war. Once cities began to build East, 97–102.

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‘For the inhabitants of Mesopotamia everything that happened on earth was related to the gods.’

defensive fortifications, the residents of citizenry of the city–state each year. smaller villages moved to cities in larger Another title associated with the leaders numbers, seeking safety and greater of city–states was lugal (great man), who protection. Whilst the priests assumed is usually interpreted as a military leader spiritual leadership, rulers were needed called upon to defend cities and towns for political or secular activities, and the from their enemies in times of crisis.26 increasing threats of war. The spiritual Evidence indicates that agriculture, leader of the temple was given the title en, combined with the elements of meaning ‘lord’. Other leaders were given civilisation, came together for the first the title of ensi (priest-king).21 time in human development in the fertile For the inhabitants of Mesopotamia regions of the Tigris and Euphrates everything that happened on earth rivers, with the appearance of the first was related to the gods.22 Owing to this cities, about 3100 BCE (known as the belief system, building temples to the Uruk period, named after the city where gods was one of the main obligations these features first appeared). of Mesopotamian rulers.23 The religion Conclusion of Mesopotamia was closely bound up with its culture as a whole.24 Hence, Mesopotamia at first glance can appear most knowledge of economic activity remote, making it difficult to access and comes from the archives of temples, hard to comprehend. But people should which under royal or priestly patronage, not fear, ignore or overlook studying frequently monopolised industrial Mesopotamia. For many years I have activity and commercial life. delivered introductory courses on ancient Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia. The city–state system Students often comment that after The city–state was the system of completing these subjects they find political organisation used in southern Mesopotamia the more interesting. Mesopotamia during much of the third Ancient Mesopotamia resonates 21 Liverani, The Ancient millennium BCE (c. 3000–2000 BCE, strongly with students once they start Near East, 80; Kuhrt, known also as the Early Bronze Age). to become acquainted and familiar with The Ancient Near East The city–state originated during the the extraordinary textual and artefactual c. 3000–330 B.C., 34. Uruk period around 3500 BCE and evidence. 22 Jean Bottéro, Religion consisted of an urban centre with as This essay has attempted to demonstrate in Ancient Mesopotamia many as 50 000 inhabitants, which that knowledge of Mesopotamia is (Chicago: University of served as the administrative, economic Chicago Press, 2001). important for understanding the cultural and cultural core for the surrounding 23 McIntosh, Ancient environment that has shaped all our region.25 The city–state was surrounded Mesopotamia, 199–232. lives. The innovations developed within by a number of smaller towns and 24 Jeremy Black and this region, such as writing, agriculture villages. A typical city–state controlled Anthony Green, Gods, and urban living, has informed our own a land area within 5–10 km of the core Demons and Symbols of civilisation. Antonio Sagona, Professor Ancient Mesopotamia: city. There were several dozen such of Archaeology at The University of An Illustrated Dictionary city–states in southern Mesopotamia Melbourne, demonstrates this when (London: The British early in the third millennium BCE and he states that ‘…it is hard to imagine a Museum Press, 2004). sometimes they engaged in local warfare 25 On the city of Uruk, world without writing. The ability to over territorial disputes. Important city– see Gwendolyn Leick, record language, thoughts and ideas states of southern Mesopotamia include Mesopotamia: The using a flexible communicative system is the cities of Uruk, Ur, Eridu, Isin, Kish, Invention of the City fundamental to our daily existence, and (London: Allen Lane, Lagash, Nippur and Umma. The leaders it originated in Mesopotamia.’27 2001), 30–60. of city–states took the title en (lord) and 26 Liverani, The Ancient later ensi (priest-king). As these titles Whilst the lands of Iraq and Syria have Near East, 106–08. suggest, they carried out both religious suffered greatly in recent decades, 27 Sagona, ‘The Wonders of and secular duties. The ensi functioned research on the history and archaeology Ancient Mesopotamia,’ as the city god’s representative on is continuing, and progressively adding to 2012. earth and was chosen from among the our knowledge of ancient Mesopotamia.

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Education Between Artefact and Text

How can museums, as traditionally object-based institutions, function as bridges between literary and material sources of knowledge, specifically with regard to the relationship between history and archaeology?

Annelies Van de Ven, PhD student, The University of Melbourne

Combining text and artefact has long been a struggle The artefact and text debate defined in the fields of history and archaeology.1 Often this This paper will analyse the ways in which museum is attributed to the stunting effects of disciplinary exhibits can contribute towards bridging the chasm isolationism, but that is only the tip of the iceberg. that has formed between methodologies that are Beyond these academic barriers there are also the text-based and those that are artefact-based. This does problems of contradicting sources, institutional not mean that it will conflate the interpretation of dispersion of resources and variations in levels of the object with that of text. This idea of object as text preservation for literary and artefactual material. or reading objects has been discussed by a number of There is also a methodological disparity that exists. scholars, and extensively so by education specialists In the most extreme cases this juxtaposes radical Scott Paris and Christina van Kraayenoord in their materialism with purist text-based analysis. In the collaborative article on processes of constructing former the object is assumed to speak for itself as it is meanings in museums.2 Though elements of deemed to be objective in a way literature is not. The this theory persist, for example in the use of the latter suggests that the object can only function as expression ‘pottery reading’ to describe the critical illustration of what is known from text, which is after examination or interpretation of pottery, it has lost all more communicative in function. The ultimate much of the methodological supremacy it held in effect of these issues is a want of cross-disciplinary early museological studies. In recent years it has made knowledge and historical interpretation. For museums way for other theories incorporating elements of the contest between text and artefact has manifested phenomenology and praxeology in which difference in itself in the constant balancing act between the experience is emphasised. centrality of the object on display and the need for context. Too little context and the object becomes It is easy enough to follow Paris and van Kraayenoord a mere curiosity, too much and the object loses its in their assertion that objects like text are incorporated agency. How then can a museum reconcile these into a process of ‘meaning making,’ a process that differences in their displays to the public, and what is not neutral. The material to be exhibited has to methodologies can they suggest that could be applied be chosen by someone, by which means it becomes within a broader academic context? associated with that person. This is in addition to

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OPPOSITE: Roman glass the influence of the social conditions repeat this process over and over again. vessels from the first to third centuries CE from the in which it was originally created and Like a ‘choose your own adventure’ Between Artefact and Text that in which it is currently being story, each module code submitted in exhibition at the Ian Potter displayed. Finally as the writer develops part defines the parameters for the next Museum of Art. a relationship with the viewer through choice the student is able to make. For text, so too do the creator and curator of students who choose to continue in 1 For a discussion of the the object with its viewers.3 What such tertiary education their undergraduate relationship between an analysis fails to account for is the degree choices will ultimately dictate history and archaeology, simple physicality of the object. While the parameters of their research. Their see the Archaeology words can be transcribed, translated admission to research programs is, magazine debate held in 2000 on the ‘History and republished often without losing after all, often based on their assumed and Archaeology Bulletin the sense of authenticity attributed specialisation. This takes effect Board,’ last modified 30 to them, an object is qualified quite across the broad academic spectrum May 2000, http://archive. differently depending on its setting in choices of degree faculty – arts, archaeology.org/online/ and condition. There are methods of science, business, etc. – but also on a features/history/board/ analysis, techniques and technologies smaller scale within those faculties, index.html. that are applicable to objects and right down to individual disciplines 2 Scott G. Paris and Christina E. van not text. For example, analysis of like archaeology and history. The broad Kraayenoord, ‘Reading dimensions, chemical composition and spread of subjects from which students Objects,’ in Perspectives on archaeological context of rediscovery are allowed to choose is both extremely Object Centred Learning are all unique to objects. Though one liberating and slightly problematic. It in Museums, ed. Scott can postulate that a text can similarly allows students to sample a range of G. Paris (Mahwah, NJ: be approached through analysis of its subjects before having to decide on their Lawrence Erlbaum taphonomy as a physical piece of writing specialisation, but it also means there is Associates, 2002); Scott G. Paris, ‘How Can on a material like papyrus, velum, clay or a lack of standardisation in the skill set Museums Attract Visitors stone, these methods assume the text as that may be acquired through any one in the Twenty-first an object.4 degree. This plays out prominently in Century?,’ in Museum the rift between historical subjects with Ultimately, analysing objects requires Philosophy for the Twenty- text-based analysis and those that are a different skill set to traditional First Century, ed. Hugh H. material-based – modules being clearly textual analysis. Thus, perhaps the Genoways (Lanham, MD: divided between the two camps. Altamira Press, 2006), best approach to the interpretation of 258. objects in comparison to that of text It is important to acknowledge that 3 Paris and van is one that allows for overlap as well each university has a vastly different Kraayenoord, ‘Reading as distance. The two overlap in the departmental structure – in the United Objects,’ 223–24. subjectivity of engagements with the States, for example, archaeology 4 For an example of a materialistic and sources, yet are differentiated in the is often placed within schools of phenomenological nature of this engagement, the way we anthropology or art history while approach to text as use our knowledge and our senses to in Germany it is primarily divided material, Jason Adams create meaning. However, this requires into eras and taught in the school presented his paper ‘The a broader skill set than the one that is of its corresponding historical Res Gestae as “Stuff” or required of most students going through period. Here in Victoria it tends to be The Materiality of the Res academia and may necessitate a change counted with history or classics. At Gestae,’ at Amphorae VIII 2014 giving a case study in the academic system, one that could La Trobe University it is categorised from his own research in take its cues from the experimentation under the School of Historical and Roman Archaeology. His within museum education. European Studies,5 at The University abstract is available online of Melbourne it is part of the Centre Academic isolationism at http://amphoraeviii. for Classics and Archaeology,6 and weebly.com/ After entering university one of the at Monash University it is part of the uploads/2/5/6/4/25644883/ first hurdles every student must clear Centre for Archaeology and Ancient amphorae_viii_ is that of enrolment. Besides some Studies.7 8 As the faculty subdivisions programme.pdf . administrative work this stage of entry differ across the world, the degree of 5 ‘Archaeology,’ La Trobe University, accessed also requires the student to choose a cooperation between disciplines and 16 January 2015, http:// number of courses or modules. Though methodologies also varies. However, www.latrobe.edu.au/ not always appreciated as such, this the rift between text and object, courses/archaeology. decision is quite defining for the rest between archaeology and history, Those studying the of one’s university career. The student seems to be one that pops up across science of archaeology must take into account personal interest, vastly different institutions around the as well as a number of other subdivisions can employability, timetabling and often globe. So even within The University also find courses within external expectations. From that first of Melbourne, despite the seeming the Department of instance and throughout the rest of partnership between historical, text- Archaeology and Planning. their career, students are required to based subjects and archaeology in the

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Victorian academic framework, it is disciplinary-bound institutions, can difficult for a student to gain extensive provide guidance in this matter. Not knowledge in both fields during their only their material resources in stores of 6 ‘Classics and studies. Though technically in the same artefacts and text but also their specific Archaeology,’ The school, the disciplinary division within working methodology and educational University of Melbourne, our universities allows for a student potential can lead the way for a new School of Historical to gain an in-depth knowledge of say method of learning. and Philosophical Studies, accessed 16 the ancient Greek language and text Curators or educators? January 2015, http:// without ever coming in contact with shaps.unimelb.edu.au/ any ancient artefacts and vice versa. Museums have had a long, mutually classics-archaeology. There are no requirements to enrol in beneficial relationship with the 7 ‘Centre for Ancient an array of modules that cover language, academic fields of history and Cultures,’ Monash translation, textual interpretation and archaeology.11 Stemming from a similar University, accessed artefact interpretation, and thus due to antiquarianist drive, developments 16 January 2015, http:// time and module constraints, especially in either field were often quickly artsonline.monash.edu. au/ancient-cultures/. at honours level, students are forced mirrored by the other. The collection- Those studying the to confine themselves to one or two mania of early scholars was after all science of archaeology methodologies, with geographic and the main impetus for the creation of as well indigenous temporal frames depending mostly on museums. Their desire for artefacts of archaeology can also staff specialisation and availability. past and foreign cultures lead to the find courses within the creation of the ‘cabinet of curiosity,’ School of Geography and In recent years much energy has Environmental Science. a collection of miscellany chosen for been invested into altering the status 8 ‘How do I study to its aesthetic appeal or peculiarity, a quo. The coursework element for become an archaeologist project that could be designated as a postgraduates at The University of in Australia? (Victoria),’ type of museum prototype.12 In the Melbourne has been one such attempt Australian Archaeological later nineteenth century such higgledy- Association, accessed to broaden the frameworks of research piggledy accretions of objects gave way 16 January 2015, http:// students, especially now that they have to meticulously ordered object-filled australianarchaeology. been extended to allow the inclusion glass cases, reflecting what Conn has com/ of languages.9 The courses allow study-options/#VIC. termed an ‘object-based epistemology.’13 participants to engage with students 9 ‘PhD Coursework,’ The The taxonomical system that developed across the Faculty of Arts. However, University of Melbourne, became the basis of museum practice, students engaged in the program have Faculty of Arts, accessed the ‘language of museums’ if you will.14 run into much the same issues as those 16 January 2015, http:// This system allowed objects to carry arts.unimelb.edu. in honours, compounded by the fact meaning, an informed arrangement au/graduate-studies/ that these coursework requirements of objects based on inherent qualities research/commencing/ are often seen as a distraction from phd-coursework. Other creating a full narrative. Exhibits told research rather than an opportunity universities in Victoria stories of sociocultural progression, for enrichment. A more successful are also beginning to reflecting positivistic methodologies and method has been the development of incorporate coursework theories of sociocultural progression components, such as cross-disciplinary research centres. An popular within academic circles. Monash University, but example of this is La Trobe University’s Though now quite out of fashion, this this program is more A. D. Trendall Research Centre for orientation towards objects has lasted focussed on professional Ancient Mediterranean Studies, a centre development and in many museums, often in those with that brings in staff members from a academic skills, see permanent displays of large assorted number of different departments in ‘The Monash Doctoral collections and a long history of practice. order to facilitate projects involving Program,’ Monash The British Museum’s permanent University, accessed 16 various fields of expertise and research collection is one such example, as is that January 2015, http://www. methodologies.10 In such collaborations of our own Museum Victoria. monash.edu.au/migr/ the effects of disciplinary isolationism why-monash/phd/. can be reversed as academics from Emily Duthie has termed the British 10 ‘A. D. Trendall Research different disciplines share their Museum ‘an imperial museum in a Centre for Ancient knowledge, learning from one another post-imperial world.’15 She used this Mediterranean Studies,’ while simultaneously educating a appellation in regard to the British La Trobe University, new generation of interdisciplinary Museum’s contested acquisition and accessed 16 January 2015, http://www.latrobe.edu. researchers. Still, there is a lot of work repatriation policies, but it can also be au/trendall/. and negotiation to be done before a seen in the manner of exhibiting their 11 I state academic fields new system can be implemented that permanent collection. The inflexibility so as to distinguish accounts for the wide range of skills of curating such large collections them from pre-modern relevant to a humanities or social often means that the displays have practices that can be seen science degree. Museums, and other remained relatively static. This provides as forerunners of the less formal and more importantly less us with an interesting window onto modern disciplines of history and archaeology.

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‘The idea that visitors are mere passive audiences for museum exhibits has been abandoned as has the idea that objects independently impart meaning: communication is not a one-way process and neither is the display of artefacts.’

the transformation of museums and being the result of interpretation, has curation practices, allowing us to reflect been theorised by Falk and Dierking 12 Hugh H. Genoways back on past practices and envision as the Contextual Model of Learning.21 and Mary Anne Andrei, future developments. The model focuses on the museum Museum Origins: Readings in as experienced by the viewer in their Museums have come a long way Early Museum History and personal, sociocultural and physical Philosophy (Walnut Creek, from their utility as locations for ‘the context. It also traces the way knowledge CA: Left Coast Press, preservation and display of artefacts of is mediated from the initial motivations 2008); Juris Dilevko and archaeological and historical interest.’16 and expectations of the potential Lisa Gottlieb, The Evolution One of the main changes in museum of Library and Museum visitor, through the way people interact practice in the last century has been the Partnerships: Historical with the exhibit itself, to how their gradual ‘dethronement of objects from Antecedents, Contemporary experience of the exhibit affects them their traditional privileged place as the Manifestations, and Future and vice versa. In such a system each Directions (Westport, centre of attention in the museum.’17 person visiting a museum takes their CT: Libraries Unlimited, Much like the monopoly of text in the own prior knowledge into the museum 2004), 146. study of history, the object has dominated and makes sense of the exhibit through 13 Steven Conn, Museums museum methodologies, especially an interaction between that knowledge and American Intellectual those of archaeological and ethnographic Life, 1876–1926 (Chicago: and the displays, altering both the exhibits, with little regard to other factors Chicago University Press, possible meaning of the exhibit and his in the exhibit–visitor encounter. It is 1998), 4. or her own knowledge. The relationship however this encounter, the practice of 14 Conn, Museums and between visitor and museum is changed American Intellectual Life, visiting a museum and contextualising it, as is the relation between the visitor and 5. that imbues its contents with meaning. the sources of their knowledge prior 15 Emily Duthie, ‘The Museum staff have become more aware to the visit. Through this potential for British Museum: An of the importance of experience as transformation and the flexibility of Imperial Museum in a well as the wide range of functions that Post-Imperial World,’ museum practice, the infinite mutability museums encompass.18 They are regarded Public History Review 18 of collections to create a wide range of as spaces of leisure, places for daytrips (2011): 12–25. themed displays, curators and museum or touristic escapades that break the 16 Graeme Talboys, Museum staff are in an ideal position to allow the monotony of the workaday life. They are Educator’s Handbook development of a variety of skills. This (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, also social spaces, a place to meet friends was recognised as early as 1900 in the 2011), 1. or strangers, and aesthetic spaces, where works of John Dewey who attempted to 17 Leona Schauble, one can encounter artistic works, from create an ideal university with an ‘active ‘Cloaking Objects the building itself to the works inside it. learning network’ in which theory and in Epistemological Perhaps most prominent to this paper is Practices,’ in Perspectives practice, arts and science, and object the museum’s role in public education. on Object Centred Learning and text are combined to create an As stated previously the idea that visitors in Museums, ed. Scott ideal education system.22 In his work G. Paris (Mahwah, NJ: are mere passive audiences for museum the museum experience is central as Lawrence Erlbaum exhibits has been abandoned as has the it collects, channels and transforms Associates, 2002), 235. idea that objects independently impart knowledge, giving it applicability in the 18 André Desvallées and meaning: communication is not a one- outside world. Rather than describing François Mairesse, eds., way process and neither is the display Key Concepts of Museology the modernist museum as an elitist of artefacts.19 The objects in an exhibit (Paris: Armand Colin, bastion of absolute knowledge, his are meant to provide a springboard for 2010), 20–21. museum is one that is accessible, further investigation and a focal point 19 E. Margaret Evans, engaging and collaborative, qualities for discussion. They are not meant to Melina S. Mull and that are fundamental to the museums of Devereaux A. Poling, ‘usurp the visitor’s own sense of meaning today and are actively cultivated in the ‘The Authentic Object? making,’20 but rather give them the skills galleries and museums of Victoria.23 A Child’s Eye View,’ in to negotiate their own understanding of Perspectives on Object the objects on displays and the themes A case study in balancing the scales Centred Learning in that they represent. Museums, ed. Scott G. The Ian Potter Museum of Art is one Paris (Mahwah, NJ: This idea of learning being ‘situated,’ such institution. As an institution Lawrence Erlbaum engaged in the process rather than connected to Museums Victoria as well Associates, 2002), 58.

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as The University of Melbourne, the just view them.28 Most of the collection BELOW: The Epic of gallery fits Dewey’s description in its was obtained through donation, but Gilgamesh exhibit from the Between Artefact and Text integration of scholastic knowledge and a large portion of the collection was exhibition. practical learning. Though in this day acquired specifically for teaching and and age, it is not necessary for a museum research purposes. The development of to be connected to a university for it to the Classics and Archaeology Collection 20 Susanna E. Hapgood be a centre of learning and research, the allows students at a range of levels to and Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar, ‘Fostering an Potter benefits from its proximity to an engage with the material remains of Investigatory Stance: entire team of professional and student cultures they read about in classes, giving Using Text to Mediate curators, conservators and academics a new context to their knowledge. Inquiry with Museum who engage with its collections and Objects,’ in Perspectives on Recently the Potter launched an exhibit exhibits on a regular basis. Its practice Object Centred Learning that illustrates this sense of ‘object-based of producing directed temporary in Museums, ed. Scott learning’ in a very overt way.29 exhibitions rather than general G. Paris (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum permanent ones and experimenting On 28 October 2014, The University of Associates, 2002), 173. with exhibition spaces, composition, Melbourne’s own archaeology professor 21 John H. Falk and Lynn themes and tools further underscores the and curator Dr Andrew Jamieson D. Dierking, Learning museum’s position at the cutting edge of opened a new exhibition in the Potter from Museums: Visitor museum-education practices. In line with entitled Between Artefact and Text. The Experiences and the Making a number of other Melbourne museums, exhibition showcased some of the finest of Meaning (New York: its focus is on creating ‘learning pieces of the University’s Classics and Rowman & Littlefield opportunities that include emotional, Archaeology Collection in relation to Co., 2000), 135–48. The contextual model of 24 aesthetic and interactive experiences.’ A four great epics – the Epic of Gilgamesh, learning is revisited in the sleek, modern urban space, the Ian Potter the Tale of Sinuhe, the Iliad and the introduction to John H. Gallery houses a number of exhibits every Aeneid – and consequently four great Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, year ranging from ancient artefacts to cultures of the ancient world. The four The Museum Experience contemporary outsider art.25 Though each subdivisions – Mesopotamia, Egypt, Revisited (Walnut Creek, exhibit is carefully curated, of special Greece and Rome – were spread out CA: Left Coast Press, 2013), 23–34. interest to us is a modest space on the equally across the exhibition space, 22 George E. Hein, ‘John second floor of the building designated as each allocated to a separate quarter of Dewey and Museum the Classics and Archaeology Collection the room. Each culture’s material was Education,’ Curator: display. laid out in a combination of a central The Museum Journal 47, long case filled with figural pieces in no. 4 (2010): 418–20; As a self-proclaimed ‘laboratory for a number of different materials and a John Dewey, The School art and ideas,’26 the Potter has a very number of smaller stand-alone cases and Society (Chicago: hands-on, minds-on approach to that could be circled in order to get a University of Chicago museology.27 The archaeology collection Press, 1900), 100–07. more detailed understanding of the is used for more than museum exhibits 23 Des Griffin, ‘Introduction: object. This division between cultures – it is also used for teaching through Learning, the Visiting was reinforced by the fragments of allowing students to handle objects not Experience and the Art Museum as Educator,’ in Understanding Museums: Australian Museums and Museology, eds. Des Griffin and Leon Paroissien (Canberra: National Museum of Australia, 2011), accessed 12 January 2015, http:// nma.gov.au/research/ understanding-museums/ Museums_education_ introduction.html. 24 Janette Griffin, ‘The Museum Education Mix: Students, Teachers and Museum Educators,’ in Understanding Museums: Australian Museums and Museology, eds. Des Griffin and Leon Paroissien (Canberra: National Museum of Australia, 2011), accessed 12 January 2015, http://nma.gov.au/research/ understanding-museums/ JGriffin_2011.html.

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ABOVE LEFT: Collection text in each culture’s respective, most number of themes to allow a selection of Egyptian artefacts from recognisable writing system – cuneiform of interpretations and foci for the visitor the Between Artefact and Text exhibition. for Mesopotamia, hieroglyphs for to engage in based on their personal Egypt, the Greek alphabet and that of interest or research topic. ABOVE RIGHT: Egyptian the Romans – as well as the information alabaster bowl from the Early The museum pieces and the text panels interspersed throughout the Dynastic Period in Saqqara that accompanied them were ‘sites exhibit giving context to the pieces. from the Between Artefact and for interpretation and sources of Text exhibition. The visitor, by circling the room in a information rather than the information clockwise fashion, travelled from the BELOW: A set of Attic itself.’30 They were meant to show the great civilisations of Mesopotamia to Lekythoi dating from the process of reasoning that led to the sixth to fifth centuries BCE Dynastic Egypt, through the Archaic, creation of the exhibit, the ideas that from the Between Artefact and Classical and Hellenistic Greek poleis, inspired the assemblages on display. Text exhibition. to the world of the Roman Republic and Besides a number of quite familiar Empire. The oldest objects on display themes in the world of museology – dated back to the late fourth millennium periodisation, geography, iconography, BCE while the most recent piece, a 25 ‘The Ian Potter Museum material, manufacture and function – copy of a book entitled Gilgamesh, King of Art – The University the display also worked with language of Erech, was only sixty-seven years of Melbourne,’ The Ian and text, something less common in Potter Museum of Art, old. The wide spread and variety in archaeological exhibits. Scott Paris accessed 14 January 2015, objects, including Greek vases, alabaster stated in his edited volume on the exhibit http://www.art-museum. bowls, bronze arrow points, glass vials, that the object is ‘the starting point unimelb.edu.au. terracotta votive statues and papyri not the ending of a visitor’s museum 26 ‘About Us,’ The Ian fragments, even a number of published Potter Museum of Art, experience,’31 and in this case it is books, gave the visitor an appreciation accessed 14 January true in more ways than just the object of the variety of styles and forms that 2015, http://www.art- encouraging reflection. In the exhibit developed in the ancient world as museum.unimelb.edu.au/ any one object opened a nexus to a whole the-potter/about-us/. well as their interconnection with and range of sources and methodologies, 27 Joanne Cleaver, Doing influence on later cultures. As the title specifically engaging literature. The Children’s Museums: A suggests this interconnection is not collection itself is designated as the Guide to 265 Hands-On confined to objects but extends to text Classics and Archaeology Collection, Museums (Charlotte, VT: as well. The exhibit worked through a Williamson Publishing, and the exhibit truly did that name 1992). 28 Tim Caulton, Hands-On Exhibitions: Managing Interactive Museums and Science Centres (London: Routledge, 2006), 2. 29 Andrew Jamieson, ‘Review of “Storage Wars? Solving the Archaeological Curation Crisis?” by Morag M. Kersel,’ JEMAHS (forthcoming). 30 Robert Main and Kirsten M. Ellenbogen, ‘Placing Objects Within Disciplinary Perspectives: Examples from Hisory and Science,’ in Perspectives on Object Centred Learning in Museums, ed. Scott G. Paris (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), 161.

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justice. Based around four of the greatest format and title provided the viewer with literary texts to be transmitted to us from a lot of information. These could then the ancient world, the exhibit strongly be compared with one another and with engaged with text-based methods in contemporary texts and artefacts in the its conception and its interpretation. form of papyrus scrolls and inscriptions. As Jamieson states in the blurb for the Additional methods were used to exhibit, ‘the objects inhabit a realm open up the debate to a wider public created and reinforced by the unfolding not as well versed in ancient history, narratives represented in the literature.’32 archaeology or literature. More It is not just the literature that serves accessible in this case were the many as a background for the objects, as is allusions within the exhibit to biblical suggested by the snippets of text behind and specifically old-testament narratives each subdivision, but the objects equally that showed parallels to the narratives of contextualise the literature. Both provide other ancient traditions. This provided different insights into the practicalities of a lead in for comparative literary studies daily life and the prominent world views as well as a point of reference for a in the time of their creators – insights large percentage of the public with no that are essential to conducting research background in ancient epic but a basic about the ancient world. knowledge of biblical stories. The In the study of the ancient world both management of the collection in such a sources must be attributed equal way, with objects being contextualised 31 Scott G. Paris, ‘Children authority, and must work together to by more familiar texts, increased the Learning with Objects (re-)construct the past as accurately as significance of the exhibit not only in in Informal Learning possible. In the exhibit this cooperation reference to the use for which they were Environments,’ in was evident in the inclusion of text- created or the project within which they Perspectives on Object Centred Learning in based information provided in the were uncovered but also in reference Museums, ed. Scott G. text panels throughout the exhibit. to wider frameworks of research Paris (Mahwah, NJ: References were not just made to overlap and knowledge, ones not necessarily Lawrence Erlbaum between figural iconography and scenes located in the fields of archaeology and Associates, 2002), 44. of characters from literature, but an museology, but also in conventionally 32 ‘Between Artefact and attempt was also made to show the value more text-based disciplines.33 Text,’ The Ian Potter of textual analysis in understanding Museum of Art, accessed 14 Further bridging these two fields of January 2015, http://www. more practical details of the ancient knowledge in a manner accessible to art-museum.unimelb. world, areas typically attributed to wider audiences was the museum’s public edu.au/exhibitions/exhib- archaeological study. The panels on program. The program included the date/2014-10-25/exhib/ manufacture for example – bronze between-artefact-and-text. necessary tours and floor talks but also working, stone carving, vase painting and 33 Ilka Schacht, ‘Towards less conventional events.34 Popular events pottery – combined archaeological and a Thematic Research included an evening in the museum literary sources with text fragments from Framework for Australian exploring the food and wine of these the four great epics referencing these Historical Archaeology,’ historical regions as well as readings from Australasian Historical practices, the materials used and their the epics surrounded by the artefacts Archaeology 28 (2010): 61. symbolic meaning and function. These that informed, inspired and followed 34 ‘Floor Talk: Between types of panels emphasised the ways in them.35 Another great collaboration Artefact and Text. which the information obtained through was the masterclass centred on the Mesopotamia, Egypt, analysis of material artefacts, methods Greece and Rome in the collection entitled ‘Deciphering ancient like seriation, chemical analysis and University of Melbourne texts.’36 This was developed by the taphonomy, can be conjoined with that Classics and Archaeology literary and ancient language experts of text-based research, including skills Collections,’ The Ian Dr Andrew Turner, who also assisted Potter Museum of Art, such as epigraphy, grammar analysis and in researching some of the panels for accessed 14 January 2015, literary criticism. the exhibit, and Dr Sonya Wurster, in http://bit.ly/1VQLpqa. This mutual support between these two conjunction with Potter staff. This class 35 ‘An Evening of Food, Wine, Readings and fields spans well beyond the ancient engaged with the papyrus collections as Reflections,’ The Ian world, as both text and object then both objects and texts, allowing people Potter Museum of Art, influencing later literature, architecture to explore the ancient texts in terms of accessed 14 January and design. The exhibit included excavation, preservation and collection 2015, http://www.art- sixteenth to twentieth-century books, practices as well as great writers from the museum.unimelb.edu. the content of which was based on classical literary canon. In addition the au/public-programs/past- ancient tales. Though the visitor could masterclass engaged with methods in events/fromyear/2014/ toyear/2015/prgm- not read more than a page or two of these digital media, another method that has date/2014-11-20/prgm/ collections, the date, language, grammar, had difficulty breaking into humanities an-evening-of-food-wine- publication details, collection history, research and museum management. Such readings-and-reflections.

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events, rather than being the exceptions that new skills are learned and deployed within university education, should be to create new interpretations. However, 36 ‘Deciphering Ancient emulated within undergraduate and the museum is not the only space that Texts from Papyrus to Digital Media,’ The Ian postgraduate courses. Events that focus can facilitate such developments. A Potter Museum of Art, on transferable skills and cross-discipline university or school is equally capable accessed 14 January integration rather than rote learning and of creating a participation, practice- 2015, http://www.art- isolationism. based course alongside the more museum.unimelb.edu. traditional lecture-style seminars. By Turning the tides au/public-programs/past- engaging in activities such as reading events/fromyear/2014/ Rather than viewing institutions of groups and conservation workshops, toyear/2015/prgm- date/2014-10-12/prgm/ learning such as museums and schools students are required to make meaning deciphering-ancient- as business establishments accountable for themselves, negotiating different texts-from-papyrus-to- to students and ‘visitors as clients’ with knowledges and ways of knowing, and digital-media. ‘needs, expectations and wants that the different skill sets. In an edited volume 37 Zahava D. Doering, museum is obligated to understand and on twenty-first century museum ‘Strangers, Guests, meet,’37 or as ivory towers of knowledge philosophy, Didier Maleuvre argued or Clients? Visitor disengaged from the wider world, they quite fervently that museum exhibits Experiences in Museums,’ must be approached as collaborative should not be ‘information booths.’42 Curator: The Museum 38 Journal 42, no. 2 (1999): 74. projects. As Jamieson himself states, His idea of ‘performing’ the act of 38 Steven Conn, Do Museums ‘all too often archaeologists, object interpretation, not just ‘learning’ about Still Need Objects? specialists, registrars, collections it, is a significant one both in museums (Philadelphia: University managers, heritage representatives, and academia. If academics take on the of Pennsylvania Press, conservators, museum curators and same critique, suggesting links between 2010), 4. archivists work in isolation.’39 I am not various methods and sources, they could 39 Jamieson, ‘Storage Wars.’ arguing for a cessation of specialised create an environment where students 40 Tony W. Johnson training. Rather I argue for academics are stimulated to use their skills and the and Ronald F. Reed, and professionals to consider how networks of knowledge exchange across Philosophical Documents in Education (Upper Saddle a broader view on participation and disciplines and institutions to ‘make River, NJ: Pearson, 2012), skill-acquisition in education could their own histories’ as it were, rather than 278. enrich both disciplines. It would expecting one to be served up to them.43 allow for better grounded research 41 Mammad Aidani, Conclusions ‘Exhibition and Inclusion with more scope for collaborative in Public Space – Love and large scale projects. Such initiatives The question now becomes: how can Devotion: From Persia have after all become indispensable we turn the methods deployed in these and Beyond,’ Agora 48, no. as funding structures change to the exhibits into something that can turn 3 (2013): 34. exclusion of much individual enquiry. the tide of disciplinary territorialism? 42 Didier Maleuvre, ‘A Plea for Silence: Putting By constructing a model where The American Association of Museums Art Back into the Art knowledge is not passively received published a report in 1992 in order Museum,’ in Museum by learners, but rather constructed to help museums ‘expand their role Philosophy for the Twenty- collaboratively, we can create a more as educational institutions without First Century, ed. Hugh H. inclusive education model, inclusive of boundaries in order to reach broad Genoways (Lanham, MD: people from various disciplinary and audiences.’44 This aim does not propose Altamira Press, 2006), 175. professional backgrounds and inclusive the ‘dumbing down of exhibits’ but 43 Gaynor Kavanagh, 40 ed., Making Histories of a variety of methodologies. This rather the retainment of intellectual in Museums (London: active engagement in new methods standards while ‘sharing their resources Continuum, 2005). and with new people allows for a better for the advancement of knowledge 44 Ellen Cochran Hirzy, understanding of how we interpret the and the nourishment of the human Excellence and Equity: context and content rather than just spirit.’45 This implies that curators and Education and the Public focusing on absorbing facts. other museum staff are responsible for Dimension of Museums creating exhibits that allow the visitor As the case study has shown, museums (Washington DC: The to engage with the objects and texts as American Association of and galleries provide a public space, sources that can be interrogated in order Museums, 1992), 2. ‘open to the possibility of encounters.’41 to formulate an understanding of the 45 Committee on Education, Its spaces are dynamic not only in contexts being referenced.46 The viewer, Excellence in Practice: the flexibility of display, but also whether academic or not, is invited Museum Education the multivocality allowed in its Principles and Standards to ask questions, with the exhibition interpretation. Curators, through (Washington DC: providing the resources, skills and constructing their displays in certain American Association of tools to make informed interpretations Museums, 2005), 6. ways, are able to provide their and connect the displays with prior 46 Main and Ellenbogen, audience with tools and sources for the knowledge of objects, texts, people and ‘Placing Objects exploration of the collection. It is then in events. It is meant to work with and Within Disciplinary practice, through the act of exploration, Perspectives,’ 161. simultaneously expand the perspectives

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‘Knowledge is not just a fact or figure at the end of an inquiry, it is the practice and the experience that comes from engaging with sources, developing skills and communicating the process to others.’

held by the viewers, providing them that include the different sources and with the space to voice their ideas and media that a student will encounter, exchange them with others. In the Ian in order to allow students to research Potter Museum of Art this pluralism of and interpret for themselves. Though interpretation and method is fostered in resources may not be available within the encounter between people, objects a single discipline, by working with and text that occurs in the museum specialists across various disciplines, by space. It must be recognised that in this creating interdisciplinary electives and setting the encounter with the objects skills workshops or cross-disciplinary and texts of the exhibit does not just research centres and establishing change how museum staff see and enact projects that traverse institutions, you their role in society, but it also changes would be allowing students to engage the meanings of the objects and texts it with a variety of themes and methods references, and it changes the viewer. without being constrained by the faculty specialisations in their own disciplines An exhibition has the potential to alter or institutions. This is especially the the way in which the viewer identifies case in matters of text and object-based themselves, in relation to their disciplines studying the past where an former knowledge and perceptions, exploration of different methodologies their understanding of the past, the may actually provide a new and perceptions of their peers and their necessary viewpoint for a well-rounded expectations for future learning.47 Thus understanding of the period being by incorporating text and object into a researched. Focussing on providing single framework they transform the way students with an insight into the skills that visitors approach these sources. By available within their area of interest suggesting various methodologies to be will not only make them better problem- used in tandem in the interpretation of solvers and more employable, but will any given knowledge set, they broaden also give them an appreciation for the the scope of inquiry that the visitor is 47 Aidani, ‘Exhibition skills of other disciplines, meaning and Inclusion in Public able to make. that they in turn may seek out more Space,’ 33. Like museums, education institutions, collaborative frameworks for their own 48 James V. Wertsch, and especially universities, have the projects. After all, knowledge is not just ‘Epistemological Issues potential to ‘afford and constrain a fact or figure at the end of an inquiry, About Objects,’ in 48 Perspectives on Object certain interpretations.’ Rather than it is the practice and the experience Centred Learning in focussing on specific texts, dates, names that comes from engaging with sources, Museums, ed. Scott G. and events that are deemed paramount developing skills and communicating Paris (Mahwah, NJ: to history, centres of learning have the process to others. Lawrence Erlbaum the choice to focus on a set of skills Associates, 2002), 116.

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Agora 37 Thema

The Rise and Fall of the Egyptian Empire

Studying civilisations that lived thousands of years ago might be more relevant to the modern world than you think.

Richard Long, McKinnon Secondary College

The introduction of ancient Egypt into the Victorian This article aims to help teachers who are considering Certificate of Education (VCE) History curriculum introducing this subject. It is hoped it will provide in 2016 provides teachers with an opportunity to help a useful narrative of the relevant time frame for the students engage with this unique and often awe- Units 3 and 4 course, with a particular focus on key inspiring ancient culture. As one of the earliest and events, personalities, places and themes, as well as most enduring complex civilisations (lasting for over accurate terminologies and reliable resources. The 3000 years), the remnants of ancient Egypt, whether vastness of ancient Egypt may seem daunting, but like they be pyramids, temples, statues, papyri, mummies all engaging periods of history, it’s a fascinating story. or tomb paintings, have survived in astonishing quality Hopefully, you’ll find it enjoyable. and quantity, especially given their great antiquity. As Egypt: The gift of the Nile such, the legacy of this culture is unparalleled within human history. For this reason, the study of ancient All aspects of ancient Egypt were affected by the River Egypt is extremely well-suited to senior history. It Nile; in many ways, Egypt was the Nile. Geopolitically, allows students to examine one of the most influential the east and west boundaries were marked by the ancient civilisations, while at the same time providing extent of the river’s floodplain. The ancient name for them with a platform to develop and refine skills that Egypt was kemet, meaning ‘black land’, which described are essential to success in history: source analysis the silt-rich land ideal for agriculture. Anything beyond (both textual and visual), the evaluation of historical these fertile plains was the ‘red land’ (deseret), better interpretations, and the ability to consider the impact known to us as the vastness of the eastern Sahara of continuity and change over extensive periods of Desert. To the north, Egypt ended where the Nile Delta time. It is this last point that is probably the most flowed into the Mediterranean Sea, while the southern- important as the lives of the ancient Egyptians were most point was marked by the First Cataract, a series shaped by the timeless dilemmas that continue to of rocky outcrops that block passage along the river. affect our world today. Moreover, it is the recognition Moreover, the internal divisions of the country were of these issues, such as humanity’s relationship with shaped by the Nile. In antiquity the Egyptian kingdom power, wars, beliefs systems or even the environment, was known as the ‘Two Lands,’ referring to Lower that best helps us understand, and thus contextualise, Egypt, namely the Nile Delta, and Upper Egypt, which the ancient world. comprised the Nile Valley running from the apex of

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OPPOSITE: Figure 1 the Delta southwards until the modern- had been retaken by the natives of – Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el- day site of Aswan (the location of the Nubia, leaving the Egyptian royal court Bahri on the west bank of First Cataract). In addition to providing and government centred in Thebes, the Thebes. Photograph by Steve transport, food and water, clearly the main city of Upper Egypt. Despite being Cameron. Used under CC Nile was a key part of the Egyptian state. surrounded by their enemies, it was the BY-SA 3. Egyptian King Ahmose who, sometime Throughout its extensive history, Egypt’s between years eighteen and twenty-two most prosperous and thus successful of his reign, led conquests against his phases occurred when the ‘Two Lands’ opponents in both the north and south, were united under one ruler who held and reunified the Two Lands.4 This the titles ‘King of Upper and Lower marked the beginning of an extensive Egypt’ and ‘Lord of the Two Lands.’ period of political stability known as the During these times, the government New Kingdom, which was epitomised by was highly centralised, allowing for the wealth and influence of the pharaohs. maximum tax revenues, which ensured, among other things, significant The Theban origins of the new dynasty investment in religious building ensured the promotion of their city’s programs and military expeditions; main deity – Amun. Throughout the New according to the traditions of kingship, Kingdom, the god Amun would rise in these were just some of the ways the prominence dramatically as his cults and kings could demonstrate their power. temples were endowed by the affluent kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It was, The epitome of Egyptian dominance however, Amun’s amalgamation with occurred during the New Kingdom the great creator god Re that assured his (c. 1550–1069 BCE) when the wealth, dominance in the Egyptian pantheon as influence and military might of the he became Amun-Re (King of the Gods). Egyptian state was as its peak, with its The importance of Amun and his city, imperial territory ranging from Nubia Thebes, can be best demonstrated by in the south (modern-day Sudan) the large number of temples, funerary to Syria in the north-east.1 Spanning monuments and tombs that are situated almost five centuries, the New Kingdom on both the east and west banks of the can be neatly divided into two phases: river. These include the Valley of the the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1550–1295 Kings, the Valley of the Queens, the BCE) and the Ramesside Period (c. temples of Karnak and Luxor (see the 1295–1069 BCE). Both these phases, discussion following), as well as the together with the subsequent Third numerous royal mortuary temples Intermediate Period (c. 1069–664 BCE) and private tombs, all of which reveal and the Late Period (664–332 BCE), the unquestionable dedication to are included in the VCE History Study the worship of Amun-Re during the Design (2016–2020)2. During the latter New Kingdom. It is through the close two epochs, Egypt was greatly affected association with the god Amun-Re that 1 Betsy Bryan, ‘The 18th by foreign influences which thus the nature of Egyptian kingship is most Dynasty Before the provides an interesting comparison with clearly revealed. Amarna Period,’ in the New Kingdom. Each of these times The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian will be discussed separately to ensure a In ancient Egypt the king played a pivotal Shaw (Oxford: Oxford clear chronological account of Egypt’s role in the success of the country as a University Press, 2000), evolution between c. 1550 and 332 BCE. whole. Not only was the king responsible 233–34. for the actions of the government, Eighteenth Dynasty: The 2 Victorian Curriculum they were the chief priest and head of empire expands and Assessment the military; as such, they not only had Authority, Victorian The motives of the New Kingdom rulers to provide protection against foreign Certificate of Education: History Study Design, stemmed directly from the preceding enemies, but also ensure the favour of Accreditation Period phase of Egyptian history, during which the gods and plentiful harvests each year. 2016–2020 (Melbourne: the country was ruled by a foreign As far back as the age of the pyramids VCAA, 2015). dynasty known as the Hyksos. It is (Old Kingdom, c. 2686–2125 BCE), 3 Janine Bourriau, ‘The believed these people originated from the king had been presented as the Second Intermediate the Near East, possibly Syria, and over son of Re, the supreme sun deity. Period,’ in The Oxford time were able to establish settlements This myth, though, took on another History of Ancient Egypt, in the Nile Delta and gradually extend dimension during the New Kingdom ed. Ian Shaw (Oxford: Oxford University Press, their influence and gain control over as the amalgamated god Amun-Re 2000), 185–194. Egypt for approximately 100 years became directly involved in the divine 3 4 Bourriau, ‘The Second (between c. 1650–1550 BCE). At the conception of the king. This is recorded Intermediate Period,’ 185. same time, Egypt’s southern territory at two temples where the scenes have

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FAR LEFT: Figure 2 – The Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Karnak, built under Ramesses II. Photograph by Nadine Lee. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0. LEFT: Figure 3 – Hatshepsut’s obelisk in the Temple of Karnak.

survived from antiquity. Dating from the looked towards the Near East (namely reigns of the female King Hatshepsut modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Amenhotep III (the sixth and and Syria) with the aim of expanding ninth kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty Egypt’s borders and demonstrating his respectively), these temple decorations military supremacy. For some seventeen depict Amun-Re impregnating the years, Egyptian forces conquered these reigning monarch’s mother by offering lands as far north as Syria and reaped the her the ankh, or sign of life.5 These spoils of war. The lists of tributes and remarkable reliefs served to reinforce resources they acquired were extensive the power of the king and their direct and included large quantities of gold, connection with the gods. animals and other luxury items; these flowed into the Egyptian treasury and The case of Hatshepsut is particularly further enhanced the great riches of interesting because both her father the pharaoh.7 Much of this wealth was (Thutmose I) and husband (Thutmose dedicated to the great state gods of II) had ruled over Egypt. Following Egypt in the form of expansive building the death of her husband, however, programs that produced temples along the throne passed to her young the banks of the Nile. Of all the deities, nephew Thutmose III, as she had not however, none was worshipped more born an heir. Although she initially than Amun-Re, especially at the Temple acted as regent for the young king, of Karnak in his cult centre of Thebes. she eventually proclaimed herself 5 Barry Kemp, Ancient king and successfully fulfilled all the The Temple of Karnak, situated on the Egypt: Anatomy of a requirements of the Egyptian monarch, east bank of the Nile in Thebes, is one Civilization (London and New York: Routledge, including extensive royal building of the largest religious complexes in 2006), 262–64. 8 programs, especially dedicated to the world. The ancient name of Karnak 6 For a detailed account Amun-Re, as well as commissioning was Ipet-isut, meaning ‘the most select of Hatshepsut’s military trading missions to distant foreign lands of places,’ and it was dedicated to the expeditions, see Donald and military conquests.6 Accounts of Theban triad, comprising Amun-Re, Redford, History and these achievements, including her divine Mut (Amun-Re’s consort) and Khonsu Chronology of the conception, have survived on the walls of (their child). Although the earliest Eighteenth Dynasty of her impressive mortuary temple at Deir buildings appear to date from the Middle Egypt (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1967), el-Bahri on the west bank of Thebes (see Kingdom (c. 2025–1650 BCE), its boom 57–65. Figure 1). commenced during the New Kingdom 7 Bryan, ‘The 18th Dynasty when the power and wealth of the Following the death of Hatshepsut, Before the Amarna pharaohs reached their peak. Thutmose III, now a young man, Period,’ 243–48. assumed control of the Egyptian throne, It thus became the responsibility of 8 Richard Wilkinson, The Complete Temples of and like many new leaders both past and Egyptian kings to extend the Temple Ancient Egypt (London: present, immediately began to fashion of Karnak, a tradition that continued Thames and Hudson, his future legacy. In particular, he down to Roman times (30 BCE–395 2000), 154.

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RIGHT: Figure 4 – Decorated block showing Akhenaten, his wife Nefertiti and their children. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0.

CE). Nevertheless, the New Kingdom The final phase of the Eighteenth constructions were impressive and Dynasty, however, is probably the most despite having been ravaged, destroyed, interesting part of the New Kingdom rebuilt and renovated for millennia, (if not all of ancient Egypt), especially large parts of the temple still survive. from a historical and archaeological Amongst the numerous additions, perspective. Centred around the actions Thutmose I added two large pylons and beliefs of King Akhenaten, the (gateways), two obelisks over twenty Amarna Period, as it is known, saw a meters tall and a new enclosure wall, brief yet radical shift in many aspects of while Thutmose III created a great Egyptian life. During this phase of barely festival temple called the Akhmenu, and twenty years, the very ideals of Egyptian had his military expeditions recorded kingship and theology underwent drastic on the walls of a new building known changes.11 The god Aten (representing as the Hall of Annals. Other significant the sun’s rays) replaced all major deities, features include the Great Hypostyle including Amun-Re. A brand new capital, Hall, built under Ramesses II, which called Akhetaten (meaning ‘horizon of possesses 134 towering papyrus-styled the Aten’) was also established – it was columns, with the central group of twelve located halfway between the country’s standing twenty-one metres in height two main cities, Memphis and Thebes. (see Figure 2), and also Hatshepsut’s The art of the time also reflected these 29.2 metre obelisk, the tallest in Egypt. developments with styles breaking This particular obelisk is carved in sharply with traditional Egyptian exquisite low-relief hieroglyphs and bears representations of the king. In particular, scenes that describe both Hatshepsut’s the prominence of the royal family, 9 Regine Schulz and coronation and her intimate relationship including Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti and Hourig Sourouzian, with the god Amun (see Figure 3).9 their children, was unprecedented in ‘The Temples – Royal formal reliefs (see Figure 4). Gods and Divine Kings,’ The remainder of the Eighteenth in Egypt – World of the Dynasty saw Egypt maintain dominance Following the death of Akhenaten Pharaohs, eds. Regine over its neighbours through a in his seventeenth year as king, the Schulz and Matthias combination of military expeditions throne first passed briefly to an obscure Seidel (Cologne: and diplomatic missions. This period of figure named Smenkara, and then to Könemann, 1998), 153–160. success, characterised by the stability a young boy who happened to be the 10 Ian Shaw, The Oxford and wealth of the government, was last remaining male in the royal family. History of Ancient the result of many lengthy reigns, Originally crowned Tutankhaten, the Egypt (Oxford: Oxford including Thutmose III who ruled king changed his name to Tutankhamun University Press, 2000), for over fifty years (including fifteen and, upon the advice of his senior 481. with Hatshepsut) and Amenhotep ministers, began the process of restoring 11 Kemp, Anatomy of a III who ruled for thirty-eight years.10 the traditional religious cults, thus Civilisation, 268–69.

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ending one of the most enigmatic phases Turkey but expanded their influence into ABOVE LEFT: Figure 5 – in Egyptian history. Fortunately, the the Near East. Ramesses II was trying First Pylon (gateway) at the Temple of Luxor built under Amarna Period is treated separately to reassert Egyptian authority in this Ramesses II. Photograph by within the new VCE Study Design and is region and upon his advance on Kadesh Ad Meskens. Used under CC the sole focus of Area of Study 2. As such was unexpectedly met by the very large BY-SA 3.0. it will allow for a detailed exploration Hittite army under the leadership of the ABOVE RIGHT: Figure 6 13 of this unique and thought-provoking King Muwatalli. – Temple of Abu Simbel. interlude of Egypt’s past. Photograph by Francisco Despite the ensuing battle resulting in Anzola. Used under CC BY 2.0. Nineteenth and Twentieth a stalemate and the subsequent treaty Dynasties: The rise and fall of the some years later, the most interesting Ramessides (c. 1295–1069 BCE) aspect of this event is the way in which it was recorded upon Ramesses II’s At the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty a return to Egypt. In one of the great military commander named Paramessu, propaganda campaigns of the ancient who was not of royal birth, ascended the world, Ramesses II had his victory throne. Thus commenced the second against the Hittites recorded on the half of the New Kingdom, defined walls of all the major temples. According by the Nineteenth and Twentieth to these ‘official’ versions, the Egyptian Dynasties, which is often referred to as forces were in the midst of defeat when the Ramesside Period due to the many Ramesses II called for divine support kings who adopted the name Ramesses from his ‘father’ Amun. With Amun (Ramesses XI is the last!). This period responding to these pleas, Ramesses saw the continuation of Egyptian II almost single-handedly drove the influence throughout the region until Hittite troops back, while extra forces of the closing stages of the Twentieth Egyptian soldiers miraculously arrived Dynasty (see the discussion following). to turn the tide. The most complete Nevertheless, historical accounts of accounts of this battle were recorded at this period are often dominated by the aforementioned Temple of Luxor, as one ruler, namely Ramesses II, whose 12 The surviving pair for well as Ramesses II’s mortuary temple megalomania often epitomises modern- the obelisk shown in the the Ramesseum.14 The truth was by no day views of the Egyptian pharaoh. image now sits in the means the main concern for Ramesses II, Place de la Concorde in Ramesses II ascended the throne in with these large-scale reliefs promoting Paris, a gift to the French 1279 BCE and ruled for a lengthy sixty- his success and strength while at the King Louis Philippe in seven years (living into his nineties). same time reinforcing the divine nature 1829 from the Egyptian viceroy Mohammed Ali. During this time he embarked on a of Egyptian kingship. 13 Jacobus van Dijk, ‘The vast building program – indeed, a large During the Twentieth Dynasty, Egypt Amarna Period and the portion of the surviving monuments experienced a gradual decline in its Later New Kingdom,’ in Egypt were either built or modified influence throughout the Near East. in The Oxford History during his reign. Particularly impressive of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian This seems to have been the result of is the pylon at the Temple of Luxor (see Shaw (Oxford: Oxford reduced foreign trade, which affected Figure 5)12 and the temple at Abu Simbel University Press, 2000), government revenues and their ability in Nubia (see Figure 6), the latter of 297–99. to undertake military campaigns which comprises four twenty-metre- 14 William Stevenson abroad. Underlying these factors were Smith, The Art and tall statues of Ramesses II carved into widespread population migrations Architecture of Ancient a mountain (a sure sign of his healthy throughout the Mediterranean, which Egypt, 3rd ed. (New ego!). His reign also featured numerous were linked to a series of wars in Haven and London: Yale military campaigns, the most famous of University Press, 1998), Egypt. The prime antagonists were which being the Battle of Kadesh. This 209–11. the ‘Libyans,’ a term used to describe event was the result of Ramesses II’s first 15 These occurred during various groups of semi-nomadic military expedition into Syria and saw the reigns of Seti I pastoralists who resided in areas to the (sometime after Year 2), the might of the Egyptian Empire come west of the Nile. During the Ramesside Merenptah (in Year 5) up against the equally powerful Hittites, Period, Egypt experienced at least four and Ramesses III (in who had originated in modern-day invasions by these so-called Libyans.15 Years 5 and 11).

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According to the inscriptions and Dynasty, Egypt was divided into two reliefs, the objective of these invasions separate political entities: the southern was permanent resettlement with the domain under the control of a new surviving scenes showing the Libyan family of religious and military leaders forces accompanied by women, children from Thebes; and the northern domain and large numbers of grazing animals. ruled by the ‘official’ royal family, with Suggested reasons for these migrations their capital at Tanis in the Nile Delta. include famine, population increases in During this phase Egypt experienced the Libyans’ homeland, climatic factors a dramatic increase in the influence or even territorial expansion.16 of the Libyans, who had been arriving in large numbers since the late New Interestingly, during the invasion under Kingdom. This was especially the case King Merenptah, the Libyan forces in the Western Delta and is exemplified were accompanied by the ‘Sea Peoples.’ by the Twenty-second and Twenty-third This enigmatic group appears to have Dynasties, whose kings were of Libyan been a loose confederation of peoples heritage. To further complicate this from southern Europe, in particular phase, the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, which the Aegean, who, due to crop failures marks the end of the Third Intermediate and famine, among other theories, Period, again comprises ‘foreign’ kings, were involved in a series of widespread but this time from Nubia. Growing migrations across the southern political fragmentation and tensions Mediterranean region, including throughout Egypt were quelled by the Egypt.17 Predictably, the Egyptians first official Nubian pharaoh, Piankhi, proclaimed decisive victories in all four who conquered the capital at Memphis wars, although the fact that so many and reunified the country. His successors invasions occurred within a relatively maintained Nubian control over Egypt narrow time frame implies the Egyptian and made efforts to re-establish some military actions were still not enough to of the traditions of Egyptian kingship, discourage later Libyans from similar 16 Fiona Simpson, as well as focus on reviving aspects ‘Evidence for Late Bronze pursuits. In fact, as the influence of the of classical Egyptian religion, art, Age Libyan Culture Egyptian government declined during architecture and burial practices.18 at the New Kingdom the final years of the New Kingdom, the Fortress of Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham,’ in presence of the Libyans along the Nile The Late Period: In the shadows of Current Research in appears to have increased. Moreover, foreign empires (664 – 332 BCE) it is their contribution to the political Egyptology 2000, eds. By the late seventh century BCE, the Angela McDonald and and social make-up of Egypt that greatly might of the Egyptian Empire had Christina Riggs (Oxford: characterised the following phase, the waned, with other regional powers Oxbow Books, 2000), Third Intermediate Period. 98; Steven Snape, ‘The assuming its mantel. Initially, it was Emergence of Libya on The Third Intermediate the Assyrians who conquered Egypt the Egyptian Horizon’, Period: Political fragmentation and expelled the Nubian kings of the in Mysterious Lands, eds. in the aftermath of empire Twenty-fifth Dynasty. They installed David O’Connor and (c. 1069–664 BCE) an Egyptian named Psamtek as ruler, Stephen Quirke (London: although he governed as a vassal on University College The choice to include the Third behalf of the Assyrians. Over time, London Press, 2003), 99. Intermediate Period and the subsequent however, the weakening of the Assyrian 17 Ian Shaw, ‘Egypt and Late Period in the new VCE Study Design Empire meant Psamtek could establish the Outside World,’ in is certainly an interesting one by the The Oxford History of his own independence and formally Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian reunite Egypt. As with previous Authority (VCAA). The former, in Shaw (Oxford: Oxford periods, this resulted in a return to particular, differs quite markedly from University Press, 2000), prosperity, with the Twenty-sixth 328. the preceding New Kingdom, and is Dynasty experiencing a renaissance, 18 John Taylor, ‘The Third distinguished by foreign dynasties and with increased foreign trade, widespread Intermediate Period,’ decentralised government. This is in investments in building programs and in The Oxford History contrast to the stability and continuity of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Egyptian forces again campaigning in of Egyptian traditions during the New Shaw (Oxford: Oxford the Near East.19 Nevertheless, a return Kingdom – thus it will be interesting University Press, 2000), to foreign subjugation commenced to see how these post-New Kingdom 354–58. with the invasion of the Persian King phases are incorporated into the VCAA 19 Allan B. Lloyd, ‘The Late Cambyses II in 525 BCE. Period,’ in The Oxford examinations. History of Ancient Egypt, Apart from a brief return to native Nevertheless, by the beginning of the ed. Ian Shaw (Oxford: Egyptian rule under the Thirtieth Third Intermediate Period, which Oxford University Press, Dynasty, the powerful Persian Empire 2000), 371–82. commences with the Twenty-first

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maintained its control over Egypt undoubtedly engage both teachers and for the next two centuries, ensuring students alike. Ancient History certainly this important province remained provides a new perspective for senior subservient. Finally, Persian control of history and as such complements the Egypt, and with it the Late Period, came great range of historical periods that to a formal conclusion with the arrival are offered as part of the VCE. It is only of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. This through a detailed exploration of our pivotal event ensured the continuation distant past that we can fully appreciate of foreign dynasties in Egypt for the the antiquity of our most enduring next 600 years, as Macedonian and then concerns. How humans organise Roman rulers assumed the guise of the themselves, their beliefs and values, the Egyptian pharaoh and incorporated the desire for power and the way societies ‘gift of the Nile’ into their respective are shaped by geography all greatly empires. A fascinating story but one well influenced the world of the ancient beyond the VCE Study Design. Egyptians, as they continue to affect societies today. We can learn a great deal The time frame of the Units 3–4 Ancient from what happened along the River Nile History (Egypt) course may be vast, but more than 3000 years ago. the narrative, characters, events and themes of this unique civilisation will

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Ancient Greece: Philosophical Legacies

Centuries before the birth of Christ, a revolutionary new way of thinking flowered in parts of the ancient Greek world – the age of ‘rational thinking’ had arrived.

Andrew A. Pyrcz, Lyndale Secondary College

If we now speak about ‘philosophy,’ it is because the Henceforward, in anticipation of the Age of Greeks coined the word philosophia, which means Enlightenment two millennia later, inquiry through ‘love of wisdom,’ and because Greek philosophy was the application of reason – which contested what transmitted to the Middle Ages and thence to modern ‘knowledge’ or ‘understanding’ was – radicalised times.…[P]hilosophy is a historical phenomenon the process of making sense of the world. Under the which arose at a particular point in time and has critical microscope of reason, the possibility surfaced evolved up to the present. (Pierre Hadot) that traditional beliefs or certainties derived from hitherto socially constructed myths could be critically The ancient Greek philosophers, such as Epicurus, questioned and discarded if they failed to meet the Zeno, and Socrates, remained more faithful to demands of rationality. This notion – that reason the Idea of the philosopher than their modern should function as the guarantor of truth – irrevocably counterparts have done.…The point is not always changed the nature of human thought, steering it also to speculate, but also ultimately to think about in the direction of what ultimately would be called applying our knowledge. Today, however, he who ‘scientific methodology.’ lives in conformity with what he teaches is taken for a dreamer. (Immanuel Kant) Early philosophy and science actually enjoyed a symbiotic relationship. In the ancient Greek world From about the sixth century BCE, beginning on the over the following few centuries, a remarkable shores of the port city of Miletus, the ancient Greek proliferation of ideas ensued encompassing areas world emerged as the cradle of Western philosophy. ranging from epistemology to ethics. Extraordinary Nothing less than a qualitative intellectual leap elements of Greek society ushered in ways of looking occurred when a handful of thinkers among the at the world that would play a radically transformative so-called ‘pre-Socratics’ triggered the search for a role in the development of Western civilisation. rational explanation to questions concerning the nature of fundamental reality. Until then, religious The Pre-Socratics dogma or traditional myths featuring supernatural Thales of Miletus (c. 624–546 BCE) – honoured as one entities shaped the Greeks’ perceptions of the world of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece and credited as and its phenomena. a philosophical progenitor of the analytic tradition

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PREVIOUS PAGE: School of Athens (Raphael, c. 1509–1511). LEFT: Heraclitus (Johannes Moreelse, c. 1630).

– launched the philosophical crusade planet unsupported and suspended in by first plunging into metaphysical space.1 Whilst Thales had theorised that musing about what ultimately the Earth floated on a cushion of water, constituted the world. Startling even Anaximenes contended that the Earth, his contemporaries, he reasoned water which he considered axiomatically to be the defining primary constituent flat, floated on something resembling element. According to Thales’s a blanket of air. Whereas Thales’s hypothesis, the world itself floated on metaphysical speculation posited water water. Erroneous though his intuition as the ultimate constituent principle of may have been, it at least centred on material reality, Anaximenes deemed it a substance present in so many forms to be air. that its ubiquity led him to draw what As a trio, the Milesian thinkers – Thales, he deemed a rational conclusion. Anaximander and Anaximenes – could Certainly, he pioneered a new mindset, perhaps be best described as proto- one which challenged traditional philosophers, confirming Plato’s later explanations of phenomena based on observation that ‘philosophy begins the whims of mythological, typically in wonder.’ Distinguishing themselves anthropomorphic, supernatural beings. by tackling imposing metaphysical In opposition to Thales’s metaphysical questions without recourse to their monism, his pupil, Anaximander fellow Greeks’ reliance on mythological (c. 610–546 BCE), proposed the abstract tradition as the source illuminating notion of apeiron to conceptualise what truth, they trailblazed a new way of he perceived as the limitless, everlasting understanding the world through the and unspecified stuff from which the exercise of ‘rational thinking.’ This four elements – air, fire, earth and water proved to be a legacy which prodigiously – originated. Moreover, he advanced expanded the horizons of human the revolutionary theory that the Earth knowledge and revolutionised the was an object suspended or hanging in quest to deepen understanding of the space (though mistakenly likening its world and all entities associated with shape to a cylindrical drum). Arguably, it. In Hegelian parlance, it was a major he also prefigured Darwinian theory transitional episode in the triumphant when urging abstinence from eating fish march of Geist (mind/spirit) in human on the premise of their ancestral link to history, an embryonic but critical humanity. unfolding of reason in the process of the crystallisation of ‘absolute knowledge.’ Demonstrating that advances in knowledge do not necessarily In Ephesus, further up the same coast follow a forward linear progression, as Miletus, lived another influential pre- 1 Bryan Magee, The Story Anaximander’s student, Anaximenes Socratic; namely, Heraclitus of Philosophy (London: (c. 585–528 BCE), effectively scorned (c. 536–475 BCE). Labelled the ‘weeping Dorling Kindersley, his teacher’s hypothesis of Earth as a philosopher’ (his bouts of depression 1998), 13–14.

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were reputedly linked to his despair was achieved by Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) at the condition of human affairs), who retained what was of value in each he nevertheless conceived thought- and at the same time transcended the provoking ideas which, in surviving conflict with the revelation of a ‘higher fragments, have both puzzled and truth.’ Heraclitus’s concept of change inspired scholars ever since. In an was confined to the shadowy world of epigrammatic style which Nietzsche empirical sense perception. On the later mirrored, Heraclitus advanced other hand, Parmenides’s concept his doctrine that the universe was in a of the unchanging was confined to state of perpetual flux or transition with a transcendental realm of Forms, change the only constant. He famously eternal verities which could only be declared: ‘You cannot step twice into apprehended through logical thought the same rivers; for fresh waters are processes.4 Individual Greeks such flowing in upon you.’2 For fellow Greeks, as Plato were of world-historical the disconcerting implication was significance insofar as they played their that reality was inherently unstable role in propelling the advance of Geist. and therefore securing any sense of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle certainty was problematical. What – And Athens characterised reality, according to Heraclitus, was a process of becoming, The fifth century before Christ was a the driving force behind which was period of extraordinary activity and the dynamic of opposing tendencies. achievement in the Greek world. A Conflict or contradictions generated new spirit of enterprise…led to rapid change. Thus, one of the oldest concepts development and expansion in every in philosophy – the ‘dialectic’ – found department of life. This spirit had its expression in Heraclitus’s conception of focus in Athens…everywhere men’s reality. He also proposed that underlying minds were restlessly experimenting conflicts or contradictions was a unity of and reaching out for knowledge.5 opposites, illustrated by such aphorisms Plato’s mentor, Socrates, lived in as ‘The way up and the way down are an Athens which constituted a polis one and the same’ and – particularly (city–state). Balancing the celebratory pertinent and concrete for Greeks who view that in the middle of the fifth lived their lives in proximity of the century BCE ‘Athens took the final Aegean Sea – ‘The sea is the purest and steps along the road to a radical or impurest water. Fish can drink it, and it participatory democracy [and] was is good for them; to men it is undrinkable a political system without modern and destructive.’ Furthermore, the parallel’6 must be acknowledgement of apparent contradiction between day the reality that women and a substantial and night dissolved upon the realisation population of slaves suffered exclusion 2 Cited in James Garvey that together they constituted the same from the political decision-making and Jeremy Stangroom, twenty-four hour cycle.3 The Story of Philosophy: process of the polis. Aristotle’s oft- A History of Western In dialectical opposition to Heraclitus, quoted remark that ‘Man is a political Thought (London: Parmenides of Elea (c. 515–440 BCE), animal’ literally applied to males – but Quercus Publishing, another major Greek philosopher of only those men designated as citizens. 2012), 55. the fifth century BCE, challenged the Thus, no more than ten per cent of the 3 See Garvey and former’s claim that everything was population could exercise the right Stangroom, The Story of Philosophy, 57. in a process of perpetual change. On to vote on issues affecting Athenian 4 Thelma Z. Lavine, From the contrary, he asserted that nothing society. As a corollary, the male citizenry Socrates to Sartre: The changed; that change was in fact illusory monopolised political power. Moreover, Philosophic Quest (New and that Being or reality was one and whether aristocrat or commoner, the York: Bantam Books, eternal and changeless. status of citizenship also conferred legal 1989), 211. equality. By contrast, women – deprived Georg W. F. Hegel, the towering German 5 Hugh Tredennick, of political rights and legal equality – led luminary of nineteenth-century ‘Introduction’, in Plato, comparatively secluded lives occupied The Last Days of Socrates philosophy, perceived in the clash with domestic affairs. Slaves, who (London: Penguin Books, between Heraclitus’s and Parmenides’s shared social and political subordination 1966), 7. ideas the dialectical process of history at with women, also endured their lot as 6 Robert Garland, Ancient work – not only as a critical aspect of the objects of ownership (‘an animate article Greece: Everyday Life in history of philosophical ideas but also as the Birthplace of Western of property’), labouring to maintain ‘the rhythm of all reality.’ From Hegel’s Civilization (New York: the Athenian economy as a whole. In perspective, the synthesis of Heraclitus’s Sterling Publishing, Robert Garland’s words, they were the 2008), 21. ‘thesis’ and Parmenides’s ‘antithesis’

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‘ultimate labour-saving device’ and about the fundamental question of how BELOW: The Death of Socrates (Jacques-Louis David, 1787). ‘the possession of at least one slave was people ought to live. Rational reflection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, regarded as not only a necessity but also he believed, should shine its light on Catharine Lorillard Wolfe a basic right.’7 Aristotle (384–322 BCE), values or matters which Athenians Collection. lauded as one of the greatest minds of staked their life on. As Simon Critchley antiquity (in medieval times he was comments: ‘For Socrates, and for nearly simply called ‘the philosopher’), not only all ancient philosophers that came after endorsed the inferior status of women him, the wisdom that philosophy teaches in political life, but he also rationalised concerns what it might mean to lead a the institution of slavery as a natural good human life.…Philosophy should manifestation of social life. form human beings and not just inform them.’8 About 470 BCE, Socrates was born in the Athenian polis. Unlike the Resented by the authorities for perceived Milesian thinkers who preceded him, mockery of the Athenian establishment he switched the focus of philosophy and accused of the subversive corruption from metaphysical speculation about of its youth – his critical questioning of what ultimately composed the world traditional beliefs upset prevailing moral or cosmos to critical reflection on certainties – Socrates was convicted questions of real-life social consequence. and condemned to death by majority Socrates grounded philosophy by decision in 399 BCE. Unrepentant and turning its gaze on human experience refusing to relinquish his philosophical and challenging fellow Athenians crusade, he succumbed to his penalty – to question or reflect critically on suicide by drinking hemlock. assumptions orienting their life or way of The death of Socrates sparked Plato’s thinking. He was a kind of philosophical reaction of teaching in his mentor’s ‘serial pest’ in the Athenian marketplace, spirit regardless of the risk of incurring demonstrating or unveiling the similar official condemnation. From inconsistencies, contradictions or Plato’s perspective, fifth-century limitations of what people thought they Athenian democracy was a far cry from understood about key common concepts his vision of how society or the state such as courage, justice and friendship. should be rationally organised (and Through the argumentative process not only because a democratic majority of ‘elenchus’ – a form of the Socratic sanctioned Socrates’s execution). Plato dialectical method – he, by all accounts, challenged the status quo in his classic persistently questioned and refuted work entitled The Republic in which he his listeners’ claims by identifying articulated his theory of the ideal polis. inconsistencies or problems as a way of For a start, he considered political rule reaching out for a more rational truth. In based on majority decision-making to a famous quote attributed to him: ‘The be irrational. A democracy inevitably unexamined life is not worth living.’ degenerated into a socially dysfunctional Socrates thus pioneered critical thinking state. Given Plato’s rationalistic

7 Garland, Ancient Greece, 109–11. 8 Simon Critchley, Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 1.

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RIGHT: Aristotle. minds given the frequent warring between Athens, Sparta and the other Hellenistic city–states.’9 Whilst Aristotle did not subscribe to Plato’s epistemology (i.e. the Theory of Forms) and its social and political implications, he did, like Plato and Socrates before him, address the question of how people should live. For Aristotle, the city–state should provide the conditions making it possible for individual citizens to achieve eudaimonia – a concept arguably with no single, exact-fitting translation but one which embraces notions of ‘happiness,’ ‘flourishing’ and ‘success.’ Aristotle’s key assumption was that individuals universally seek eudaimonia in their lives. Put simply, they all want epistemology – that true knowledge and to ‘do well.’ According to Aristotle, understanding could only be achieved the telos or ultimate purpose of people through the exercise of pure reason centred on fulfilment of their essential and not the empirical senses – his nature as beings endowed with reason. conclusion was logical that philosophers Though eudaimonia was an individual rather than ‘the many’ should rule. achievement, it could not, however, According to Plato, people driven be secured by rational thinking or primarily by emotions or dominated contemplation in isolation. In Aristotle’s by acquisitive, material appetites (and eyes, a ‘flourishing’ or ‘fulfilled’ life had therefore vulnerable to corruption) a necessary social dimension. Rationally were incapable of exercising reason calibrated social interaction with others for the objective benefit of the state in the polis was a significant contributing as an organic whole. Objectively just factor to eudaimonia, not excluding or right political rule was a specialised other ingredients such as possession of craft. Only trained philosophers – the material assets and relationships with Guardians – could apprehend the Good. family and friends. For non-philosophers to appropriate the reins of government would spell What of women, slaves and non-Greek disaster because reason would end up races in ancient Athens? In their case, subordinate to empirical ‘appetites’ Aristotle appeared chained to the or ‘passions.’ Therefore, reason, as the cultural prejudices of his historical era highest or ‘divine’ faculty embodied in in effectively deeming them to possess philosophers, ought to govern the state a lesser rationality. By implication, and not the opinions of common citizens this meant that they were somehow who, by definition, failed to rationally incapable of the same level of potential discern the objectively right course for fulfilment as a free male Greek citizen. society to take. On this issue, Christopher Rowe argues that the ‘difficulty about Aristotle’s True to his epistemology, Plato position is that it ties his conclusions concluded that logically there had to to pre-existing patterns of behaviour. be an ideal way of organising society. Aristotelian man is a creature of fourth- His Republic amounted to his blueprint century Greece, in many respects for engineering social and political life incapable of being transported into any in such a way that it could be totally other cultural environment.’10 9 Philip Stokes, Philosophy: rationally justified (if his premises The World’s Greatest were accepted). On Plato’s terms, the The Hellenistic age – Schools and Thinkers (London: ideal state would be a harmoniously currents of philosophical thought Arcturus, 2007), 176. functioning system governed for the In the Hellenistic period of ancient 10 Christopher Rowe, good of all. Moreover, as Philip Stokes ‘Ethics in Ancient Greek history, Athens reigned supreme points out, Plato believed that such Greece,’ in A Companion as the centre of philosophical activity. a society would be ‘stronger than its to Ethics, ed. Peter Singer In addition to the major schools that neighbours and unconquerable by its (Oxford: Blackwell Plato (the Academy) and Aristotle (the Publishers, 2000), 129. enemies, a thought very much in Greek Lyceum) founded, there existed two

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that such a wondrous phenomenon LEFT: Epicurus. ought to inspire. Epicurus identified happiness – which he perceived as the ultimate good – with the experience of pleasure. In negative terms, this meant the absence of physical and mental pain or suffering. In positive terms, it meant, in particular, the feeling of eudaimonia derived from, say, philosophising among a circle of friends. A common misconception circulated that Epicurus advocated unbridled, orgiastic indulgence. In reality, his recipe for the good life focused on the pursuit of easily satisfiable moderate desires rather than preoccupation with ‘unnecessary,’ unattainable desires that upset or disturbed the mind’s tranquillity (‘ataraxia’). Still, as Rowe others in institutional form: Epicurus’s points out, ‘Epicurus alone among ‘Garden’ (his philosophy school featured the major figures [of ancient Greek a garden) and Zeno of Citium’s ‘Stoa’ philosophy] identifies eudaimonia with (that is, the portico of columns under pleasure….’11 According to Epicurus, which he conducted lessons). Although ‘I don’t know how I shall conceive of lacking an established scholastic, the good if I take away the pleasure of institutional structure, two other taste, if I take away sexual pleasure, currents of philosophical thought also if I take away the pleasure of hearing, rose to prominence; namely, Scepticism and if I take away the sweet emotions (also Pyrrhonism) and Cynicism. All that are caused by the sight of beautiful were concerned with the existential forms.’12 Such was the attractive force question of how people should live. of his ideas – his espousal of the value of Each, therefore, offered a kind of training communal friendship and the liberating for life based on their understanding of possibilities of an uncomplicated human nature or the human condition. lifestyle divorced from materialistic From their viewpoint, philosophy was pressures, for instance – that Epicurean more than an abstract, academic pursuit; communities soon mushroomed across it constituted a way of life engaged in the Hellenistic–Mediterranean world. In the real-life application of practically fact, says Stokes, ‘Epicurean philosophy oriented principles of ‘wisdom’. enjoyed almost six hundred years of Early in fourth-century Athens, popularity, remaining faithful to the Epicurus (c. 341–270 BCE), who fathered teachings of its founder throughout, Epicureanism, taught his ideas at his before being eclipsed by the Roman school and philosophical commune interest in Stoicism.’13 called ‘The Garden’. What made this Unlike Epicureanism, Stoicism exhorted institution remarkable – and radical – individuals to seek fulfilment through was that it welcomed both women and exercise of the rational faculty that slaves. Acceptance of those marginalised characterised their essential human in Athenian public–political life nature. Achieving true happiness challenged the social status quo and involved transcending the pursuit of antagonised its conservative adherents. pleasure in favour of a practical life Also radical was Epicurus’s denial of illuminated and governed by reason. immortality or an afterlife. Adopting Living in conformity with the revelations the atomistic metaphysics of Leucippus of reason, in turn, harmonised with the 11 Rowe, ‘Ethics in Ancient and Democritus, he believed that the underlying cosmic rational order which Greece,’ 123. human body and soul consisted of a all individuals inhabited together. 12 Cited in Alain de Botton, collection of atoms that death dispersed The Consolations of with no possibility of resurrection. Little What Stoicism also emphasised was Philosophy (London: wonder that early Christians, when they rational recognition or appreciation of Penguin Books, 2008), appeared, reviled Epicureanism. Far external events or circumstances beyond 50. from fearing death, however, Epicurus human control. More often than not, 13 Stokes, Philosophy: The counselled Athenians to meditate on it life’s vicissitudes were dictated by such World's Greatest Thinkers, as a means of living life with the intensity occurrences. Which individual could truly 92.

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be acclaimed as master of his or her own power to wipe out this judgement now’;17 destiny in the face of slander, betrayal, and ‘The happiness of your life depends sickness, sheer bad luck and life’s brevity? on the quality of your thoughts.’18 As French scholar Pierre Hadot puts it, the Another current of philosophical thought ‘Stoic experience consists in becoming which surfaced was Scepticism, which sharply aware of the tragic situation of advocated questioning or doubting the human beings, who are conditioned by truth of any knowledge claims. Nothing fate…for it is not up to us to be beautiful, was to be taken for granted. For one thing, strong, healthy, or rich…or to escape sensory perception could be misleading; suffering. All these things depend on causes appearances, deceptive. If the discovery which are external to us.’14 Therefore, of absolute certainties or unassailable Zeno of Citium (334–262 BCE) preached objective truths was an illusory endeavour, indifference to external events which were then this sounded the bell for a suspension themselves indifferent to human hopes of all judgement. Wisdom – and ‘ataraxia’ or plans. All that the individual could or peace of mind – lay in indifference to the control was moral intention in behaviour quest for absolute certainties. and the will to live in accordance with reason. Indeed, controlling one’s attitude Pyrrho of Elis (c. 365–270 BCE), as to circumstances in a rational manner the earliest proponent of Scepticism, pre-empted the emotions wreaking achieved legendary status by his havoc on one’s state of mind. Students of extreme application of its philosophical Stoicism in ancient Athens were taught principles. He reputedly teetered on the that although events happened beyond edge of doubting the reliability of the individual control, nevertheless they could empirical senses altogether which, in choose how to react. In this sense, Stoicism practical life, translated into indifference adumbrated what is nowadays referred to even to potentially hazardous or life- as cognitive behavioural therapy. threatening situations. One story cited to illustrate this point related to his Stoicism, in addition, perceived cyborg-like calm in the face of a hellish humanity as one with a rationally storm that terrified everyone else and intelligible Nature. Upon death, seemed certain to sink the ship on which moreover, the individual simply he was travelling.19 That he survived the dissolved back into the Nature of which ordeal vindicated his scepticism that he or she was an intrinsic element.15 a fatal consequence was an absolute Significantly, unlike the early Christians certainty in the circumstances. who emerged later, the Stoics, like 14 Pierre Hadot, What the Epicureans, did not postulate the Pyrrho’s scepticism had also been drip-fed is Ancient Philosophy? possibility of an afterlife or resurrection by his experiences as part of Alexander (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard in a transcendental realm. Nature was the Great’s army which conquered University Press, 2004), all there was and all the individual could the then known world as far as the 127. do was live life in congruence with it as Indian subcontinent. Along the way, he 15 Magee, The Story of a rational being. In the final analysis, encountered such a diversity of beliefs and Philosophy, 46. happiness was an earthly prospect only perspectives on reality that it fuelled his 16 Cited in Charles W. Eliot, and, according to Stoicism, the path to conviction that the rational or wise course ed., The Harvard Classics – its realisation was rational indifference to adopt was to suspend all judgement The Meditations of Marcus to external events. regarding what constituted ‘truth.’ Aurelius (Danbury: Grolier Enterprises Such was the influence of Stoicism as Scepticism’s intellectual case was further Corp., 1980), 297. a philosophical force in the Hellenistic reinforced by Pyrrho’s student, Timon of 17 Cited in Garvey and period that it subsequently spread to Phlius (320–230 BCE), who contended that Stangroom, The Story of all corners of the Roman Empire. The knowledge claims rested on assumptions Philosophy, 113. Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius, who or premises which themselves had to be 18 Cited in Jeremy Harwood, Philosophy: A governed from 161 to 180 CE, personally established first. Demonstrating the truth Beginner’s Guide to the identified with it. In fact, he famously of those premises meant relying once Ideas of 100 Great Thinkers contributed to the growth of the Stoic more on other undemonstrated premises. (London: Quercus tradition by writing the classic work Posing, thus, the problem of an infinite Publishing, 2010), 33. entitled Meditations. Among the lines regress, it followed that no knowledge 19 Nigel Warburton, A Little he penned were: ‘How ridiculous and claim could be pinned down as absolutely History of Philosophy what a stranger he is who is surprised certain or justifiable.20 (New Haven: Yale at anything which happens in life’;16 ‘If University Press, 2012), Interestingly, the spirit of Scepticism you are pained by any external thing, it 17. manifested itself even in Karl Marx, one is not this that disturbs you, but your 20 Magee, The Story of of the most influential philosophers of own judgement about it. And it is in your Philosophy, 42. all time. As certain as he was that he had

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grasped the key to understanding the Conclusion nature of historical change or progress, The rainbow of philosophical schools of he nonetheless subscribed to the maxim thought which emerged in the ancient De omnibus dubitandum – Latin for ‘You Greek world after the Milesian thinkers must have doubts about everything.’ made their philosophical debut proved Perhaps the most controversial to be a critical historical watershed in current of philosophical thought in the ascent of what could be termed homo the Hellenistic period was Cynicism. philosophicus. The intellectual jump to Hadot notes that the ‘Cynic way of life the plane of rationally calibrated thought was spectacularly opposed not only to revolutionised the way people tackled the life of nonphilosophers but even to the problem of understanding the world the lives of other philosophers.’21 Cynic they inhabited and their place in it. philosophy, personified notoriously Moreover, the various philosophies of by Diogenes of Sinope (404–323 BCE), Greek antiquity crystallised as ways of life embraced the radical repudiation of rather than merely academic exercises of social conventions. Cynics such as discourse. Metaphysical, epistemological, Diogenes perceived civilisational or social, ethical and other questions societal norms as obstacles to freedom which the ancient Greek philosophers of choice and natural happiness. wrestled with lingered as legacies that Diogenes himself was an archetypal would challenge all future thinkers in the counter-cultural rebel who scandalised progressive unfolding of history. In this fellow Greeks by transgressing the rules connection, it is worth quoting, at length, and constraints of civilised life and the impassioned, meditative observations flagrantly violating social expectations. of Thelma Z. Lavine: Which behavioural traits, then, provoked What is real? What can we know? What public condemnation of him as a ‘Cynic’ does it mean to be moral, to live a good (derived from the Greek word meaning life?...Does human history have any ‘dog-like’ – kynikos)? For a start, he slept meaning, pattern, purpose? These are… in a barrel and rejected ‘what most questions which the great philosophers people considered the elementary of the Western world have asked for rules and indispensable conditions over twenty-five hundred years, since for life in society: cleanliness, pleasant the days of ancient Athens in the sixth appearance, and courtesy.’22 Even more century BC. To be a human being is to shockingly for his contemporaries, he ask these questions. If we human beings flaunted his shamelessness by apparently are only material bodies, if we are only masturbating in public and defecating meaningless collections of atoms, it is in a theatre.23 Pursuit of the good life, nonetheless the case that we are the in Diogenes’s eyes, meant exercising only known collections of atoms in the freedom to live in a natural state of the universe that can reflect upon the self-mastery unconcerned with social universe and ask such questions as, what embarrassment and unencumbered by is real and what does it mean to be moral? material possessions. Can you imagine a world in which One of the most famous episodes in nobody any longer asked the Diogenes’s colourful life occurred philosophic questions, nobody was when an intrigued Alexander the philosophical? It would be a world in Great, conqueror of the known world, which nobody penetrated below the reportedly visited him and offered to facts of everyday life to think about provide material relief. An unimpressed what is real, true, valuable, just, and Diogenes simply asked the world meaningful in human life. It would be conqueror not to block his exposure to a world of mechanical men, women, 21 Hadot, What is Ancient the sunlight. On another occasion, he and children moving among physical Philosophy?, 108. voiced his disdain for the conventional objects, a world in which we would have 22 Hadot, What is Ancient Philosophy?, 109. distinction made between Greek and become hollow men going through 23 Garvey and Stangroom, foreigner. Instead, he declared himself meaningless motions and our speech The Story of Philosophy, to be ‘a citizen of the world.’ In doing so, would be empty chatter. Nothing would 106. according to Bryan Magee, he ‘coined the be questioned because it would have 24 Magee, The Story of single Greek word in which he expressed become pointless and hopeless to Philosophy, 41. that thought, “cosmopolitan”, a concept question anything anymore.25 25 Lavine, From Socrates to for which many have been grateful to Sartre, 5. him.’24

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Women in Ancient Rome

Despite being discriminated against in some aspects of life, women played significant roles in the social and economic fabric of ancient Roman society.

Nick Frigo, Santa Maria College

With the commencement of the new Victorian catch glimpses of Roman women; it is as if we are Certificate of Education (VCE) History Study Design1 snatching a quick chat with some guests at a half-open in 2016, a plethora of opportunities exist for teachers door through which the hubbub of a party can be heard and students who now wish to investigate ancient – and which we cannot join.’3 history. Throughout this article I will focus on some While history does record the actions of some of the key knowledge and skill requirements outlined significant women, the social history and stories of in Unit 3 Ancient History, Area of Study 1: Living in an many other remarkable women have been lost. In Ancient Society, and endeavor to offer some answers to recent decades, some details regarding the lives of two of the key questions raised: women in ancient Rome have emerged from findings What was it like to live in ancient Rome? and at the archaeological digs being undertaken at Vindolanda, a settlement near Hadrian’s Wall. One of What were the social, political and economic the many letters written on small, thin wooden tablets features of life [in ancient Rome]? allows the voice of a woman to be heard for the first In order to answer these questions, I will offer a time since the author walked the earth close to two number of brief vignettes that provide insights into the millennia ago. The tablet, containing a letter written lives of women in ancient Rome, and discuss how their by Claudia Severa, provides details of an everyday and experiences varied. sociable exchange in ancient Rome that has not been filtered by men: Any historical investigation into the experiences of women in ancient Rome needs to be mindful that Claudia Severa to her Lepidina greetings. On almost all of the information we have comes from male 11 September, for the day of the celebration of my sources.2 Compounding this is the knowledge that birthday, I give you a warm invitation to make while some women in ancient Rome could read and sure that you come to us, it will make the day write, the references to literary works by women are more enjoyable for me if you are present. Give my largely dead ends for historians as very few of those greetings to your Cerialis. My Aelius and my little son texts survive. The historical understanding of women’s send him their greetings. I shall expect you.4 experiences in ancient Rome has also been described Life for women in ancient Rome was dependent on as something quite fragmented, a belief that we ‘only a number of factors including their social status and

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PREVIOUS PAGE: House of the Vestal Virgins (Atrium Vestae), Rome. Photograph by Carole Raddato. Used under CC BY-SA 2.0. LEFT: Wooden tablet from the Vindolanda excavations containing an invitation from Claudia Severa to Lepidina. Used under CC BY-SA 3.0.

1 Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, Victorian Certificate of Education: History Study Design, Accreditation Period 2016–2020 (Melbourne: VCAA, 2015). 2 Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth and Esther Eidinow, eds., The Oxford Companion wealth, whether they lived in far flung were married it appears that they were to Classical Civilization parts of the empire and also when they able to experience a certain degree of (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), lived (e.g. under a particular emperor freedom and also some influence over 847. or in a particular period of time). the males in their lives. What can be 3 Anthony Everitt, SPQR: Universally, women in ancient Rome were stated quite categorically, however, was A Roman Miscellany idealised principally for their role in the that women were never fully citizens; (London: Head of Zeus, home – Roman women were expected to they ‘had no vote and could not stand for 2014), 221. be a ‘good housekeeper, a caring mother office….For most women, in all walks of 4 Katherine Hoare, V-Mail: and an obedient wife.…In theory, women life, opportunities remained defined by Letters from the Romans had very few rights, [but] most of them men.’8 and Vindolanda Fort near Hadrian’s Wall (London: had lots of power behind the scene.’5 However, recent historical research The British Museum In the following discussion we look at has illustrated how women were more Press, 2008), 14. some of the ways women in ancient active in ancient Rome society than 5 Fiona Chandler, Rome could assert themselves and also might have been initially evident. Encyclopedia of the Roman World (London: Usborne, how women were restricted in their According to Robert Knapp in Invisible 2010), 48. freedoms due to the Roman idea of the Romans, women in Roman life were 6 Catallus, Poems (62.63- role of women. not ‘child-producing drones, or mere 66) cited in Anton ornaments.’ Knapp argues that the The status of women Kamm and Abigail activities of women were in fact ‘woven Graham, The Romans – An According to the Roman poet Catallus, vividly into every inch of the cultural Introduction, 3rd ed. (New a woman in ancient Rome remained cloth.’9 At the same time, however, the York: Routledge, 2015), largely the property of her family – ‘Your reality in ancient Rome was that the location 3787. maidenhead is not entirely yours: a third more women stepped ‘beyond what was 7 Matthew Nicholls, ed., 30 Second Ancient Rome (East belongs to your father, and a third to considered decorum, the more likely she Sussex: Ivy Press, 2014), 6 your mother: You own the rest.’ This was to incur a male invective – be it in 44. 10 snapshot from Catallus highlights how history, satire, or even love poetry.’ The 8 Nicholls, 30 Second women were perceived under the law in experiences of women in ancient Rome Ancient Rome, 44. ancient Rome. In many instances their also varied depending on status and 9 Robert Knapp, Invisible lives were framed within the domestic familial wealth. Romans: Prostitutes, sphere and their legal existence was Outlaws, Slaves, Women and marriage generally linked to the male members Gladiators, Ordinary Men and Women…The Romans of the family. Like any society, however, As marriage in ancient Rome had that History Forgot the reality of how life played out many important financial and social (London: Profile Press, for women often varied greatly. For implications for the families involved, 2011), 95. instance, under the early Roman Empire very little was left to chance. Having 10 Paul Chrystal, Roman women remained under their ‘father’s said that, as with all contracts in ancient Women – The Women Who patria potestas and husbands had no Rome, marriage did have to be entered Influenced the History legal control over them.’7 Once women into consensually. In 18 BCE Augustus of Rome (UK: Fonthill, 2015), 11.

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RIGHT: Ancient Roman more freedom.’15 Marriage for women wedding ceremony. Used under CC BY 3.0. in ancient Rome meant a significant rite of passage. On the engagement of a woman, a party was held and the marriage contract was written out. At this point in the process the future bride was given a ring. Most interestingly the night before the wedding the bride had to offer ‘her childhood toys to the household gods…. The contract was signed…[and] the bride vowed to follow her husband wherever he went.’16 By the early empire married women remained under their father’s patria potestas and husbands had ‘no legal control over them; marriage was, in a sense, a source of empowerment passed a number of pieces of legislation and wives enjoyed a certain degree of aimed at ensuring marriage would be freedom. Women could own and inherit a stable institution of society. During property, write wills, and run businesses. this time ‘a marriage law was passed But they were never full citizens; they had which placed liabilities on those who no vote and could not stand for office.’17 did not marry (men, between 25 and While commitment was expected from 60, women, between 20 and 50); and a marrying woman, of equal import further consequences if the married were the traditional roles that they couple did not have children.’11 Punitive were expected to uphold; namely, the actions under the legislation for those dignified wife, the good mother and who were married but did not have the ruler of the household. Given this children included having ‘their property expectation: 11 Peter Jones, Veni, Vidi, automatically reverted to the state.’ Vici – Everything You Ever Alternatively, the ‘more children a …girls were only educated up to Wanted to Know About the man had the earlier he could stand for primary standard if at all. The degree Romans But Were Afraid office.’12 This plan, like many others that of freedom a woman enjoyed had a to Ask (London: Atlantic Books, 2013), 208. dabbled in a form of ‘moral’ legislation, lot to do with her wealth and status. 12 Jones, Veni, Vidi, Vici, 208. was a resounding failure. Wealthy women could enjoy a good deal of independence if they were 13 Brian Campbell, The The contractual approach to marriage widows. Wives of emperors and Romans and Their World meant that ‘when one partner withdrew (New Haven: Yale senators often had a lot of influence his or her consent, the contract was University Press, 2011), behind the scenes. At the other end overturned.’13 Brian Campbell explains 184–85. of the scale, large numbers of women that in this context, divorce in ancient 14 Campbell, The Romans were slaves, ranging from ladies’ maids Rome was a ‘reasonably simple matter’ and Their World, 184–85. to farmworkers.18 15 Anthony Marks, Romans which required formal notification by (London: Usborne, the husband. However, from the time of Within this context, one male voice from 2009), 48. Augustus the divorce process required: the time commented on the dependence 16 Marks, Romans, 48. men had on women: 17 Nicholls, 30 Second …seven witnesses. Easy divorce was Ancient Rome, 44. a way of ensuring that a man could Citizens, if we could live without 18 Simon James, Ancient get a legitimate male heir for the wives, we would all do without that Rome (London: Dorling transfer of property, for example trouble. But since nature has so Kindersley, 2008), 18. in circumstances where his wife arranged that we can neither live 19 Metellus Numidicus, one proves to be sterile. Divorces were comfortably with them nor manage of the censors in 102 BCE probably very common and in the without them, we should consider the attempting to increase Republic were related to politics as long-term advantage rather than the the birthrate by urging families maneuvered for position and pleasant convenience of the moment.19 men to marry, as quoted support.14 by Aulus Gellius at Attic This dependence upon women in the Nights, 1.6, cited in In the same way that divorce ancient Roman society was also evident J. C. McKeown, A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: requirements changed over time, in the important work that women Strange Tales and so too did marriage contracts. In undertook. republican times, ‘a woman’s money and Surprising Facts from the Women and work World’s Greatest Empire, possessions could become the property e-book (Oxford: Oxford of her husband’s father. Later, women While many images of women in ancient University Press, 2000), controlled their own belongings and had Rome reinforce the notion that they location 292.

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solely occupied the private sphere of was one of the activities in ancient Rome ABOVE LEFT: Glass cosmetic home and family, this was far from the that was more expectable for women; jar. truth for many women. Many simply in fact, in many ways it was a women’s ABOVE RIGHT: Bronze could not afford to stay at home and domain with only occasional sojourns cosmetic spoon. as a result they adopted jobs such as from male doctors. For the majority midwives or hairdressers, while a few of women, ‘the midwife would be the women worked as acrobats or dancers.20 person to call in for childbirth.’28 In addition to this some Roman women Keeping up appearances managed to ‘make their way in a male dominated world.’21 All in all women While many written sources from worked in an eclectic range of roles, ancient Rome provide insights and including those such as banking, descriptions of the role and activities pharmacy and shop keeping – some of women in society, archaeological of them had husbands and some who discoveries also serve to highlight the were not married worked to support ways in which Roman women (and also themselves.22 As Simon James notes: men, although they are not the primary concerns of this article) adorned Rich women could become themselves. In an uncannily modern priestesses, of whom the most parallel, some women in ancient Rome, important were Vestal Virgins. A few largely those from wealthy families, ran their own businesses; one was a were known to spend a great deal of lamp-maker. There were professional time being made up for the day by their midwives, hairdressers, and a few slaves. The height of female fashion female doctors, but men kept most 20 Chandler, Encyclopedia of was to have their face and arms as pale professions to themselves.23 the Roman World, 48. as possible, and as a result women used 21 Nigel Rogers, Life in A small number of women managed to powdered chalk to whiten their faces. Ancient Rome: People work as female doctors – one example In addition to this, cosmetics which and Places (UK: Anness being Asyllia Polla from Roman Carthage darkened the eyebrows, dyed lips red Publishing, 2012), 221. – although as time went on women and even moisturised the face (with a 22 Rogers, Life in Ancient appeared to be excluded from such cream made from crushed snails!) were Rome, 221. work.24 used by some upper-class women.29 23 Simon James, Ancient These cosmetics were kept in glass jars Rome (London: DK, While women participated in many 2008), p. 18. and were sometimes applied with the different aspects of ancient Roman 24 Rogers, Life in Ancient help of a range of bronze implements working life, they were traditionally Rome, 221. which were designed specifically for the praised for silence and invisibility.25 One 25 Hornblower, Spawforth purpose (see images above). job that was certainly not ‘invisible’ but and Eidinow, eds., The which cast women in a different light A 2003 archaeological excavation of Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization, 849. were those who worked as sex workers a Roman temple in London found a 26 Knapp, Invisible Romans, in ancient Rome. A range of studies metal jar of face cream that belonged 236. highlight how this work in ancient Rome to an ancient Roman woman – upon 27 Knapp, Invisible Romans, was ‘often involuntary, dangerous and opening it they found that there were 263. 26 degrading.’ According to historian fingerprints of the woman who applied 28 Knapp, Invisible Romans, Robert Knapp, walking ‘down the street the make-up 2000 years earlier. The 87. of any town, you would see the whores director of the company conducting the 29 Chandler, Encyclopedia of standing around the forum, beckoning excavation noted that, ‘It appears to be the Roman World, 63. you from a doorway, or soliciting you as a kind of cosmetic cream or ointment. 30 Cara Simpson and you were leaving the theatre. They were Creams of this kind do not ordinarily Oginia Tabisz, ‘Roman a familiar and popular aspect of the lives survive into the archaeological record, Fingerprints Found in of ordinary folk.’27 so this is a unique find.’30 Given that 2,000-Year-Old Cream, Guardian, 29 July 2003, many of the cosmetic creams used by By far one of the most common fields http://www.theguardian. women in ancient Rome contained lead of work for women throughout ancient com/uk/2003/jul/28/ or antimony, many of them suffered a artsnews.london. Rome was that of midwife. Midwifery rather extreme fate for their fashion. 31 31 James, Ancient Rome, 18.

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RIGHT: Bronze earring. untouched since yesterday, though in fact/It’s fresh combed. Art stimulates chance.’33 When it came to physical appearance, ancient Roman women of all classes adopted fashions that matched their status, whether it be gold jewellery for the wealthy or bronze for those on more limited budgets (e.g. see the bronze earring pictured left). Conclusion As historian Robert Knapp suggests, as with other pre-industrial societies, ordinary women in ancient Roman society ‘pulled a lot of weight, had a lot of difference, and were strong partners with their husbands or other males in making life choices.’34 While research In ancient Rome, hair was also an into the role of women in ancient Rome important statement of fashion for has been somewhat incomplete and women, and styles changed over time. fragmented, historians have been able During the Roman Republic many to gain greater insights through newly women wore their hair in a simple bun acquired and discovered sources, such as but in later times many began to wear the Vindolanda tablets. extremely elaborate hairstyles; they would have their hair ‘curled with heated It was Roman statesman and writer tongs and then arranged in an intricate Cicero who claimed the following: pile held in place by dozens of hairpins. 32 Chandler, Encyclopedia of Our ancestors wanted all women to be Some women cut off their slave’s hair the Roman World, 63. under the control of guardians because and had it made into a wig.’32 33 Everitt, SPQR: A Roman of their feeble powers of judgment.35 Miscellany, 243. The poet Ovid even offered an opinion Despite his views, as more work is 34 Knapp, Invisible Romans, on the fashion of hairstyles, encouraging done to understand the role and 96. ‘pretty girls to look in the mirror’ and actions of women in ancient Rome, 35 Cicero, In Defence of choose the hairstyle that matches their Murena 27, cited in it is evident that women of all classes appearance and personality. Ovid also McKeown, A Cabinet played significant roles in the social and wrote: ‘…the Neglected Look suits of Roman Curiosities, economic fabric of their society. location 270. many girls: quite often/You’d think it

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Theban Tomb (TT) 100: Trade, Tribute and Commerce in the Egyptian Eighteenth Dynasty

How can a Late Bronze Age Egyptian tomb help students understand economic history before currency?

Greg Naylor, The Geelong College

The new Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) of either Thutmosis III or Amenhotep II.2 One Study Design for Units 3 and 4: Ancient History scene, amongst other enlightening images, depicts (Egypt), Area of Study 1, requires students to: a procession of ‘foreigners’ bringing ‘tribute’ into Upper Egypt, most likely directly into Luxor (see …examine the social, political and economic image opposite). At this time, this southern Egyptian features of life during the New Kingdom, the Third Nile Valley-based city was the hub of the burgeoning Intermediate Period and the Late Period. They Eighteenth Dynasty. It is an excellent site study within also investigate the social, political and economic the new VCE Area of Study 1 time frame for ancient features of Egypt in the period 1550–332 BC. Egypt (either being utilised as a Unit 3 or 4 study), They examine causes and consequences of the being a key archaeological and visual source from the fragmentation of the state and war between Egypt early New Kingdom and from the time of the greatest and external powers [and investigate]…the Karnak extent of Egypt’s vast 2800 year time span. temple complex.1 Analysis of Rekhmire’s tomb – The big questions This is a vast spectrum of social, economic and political history for a significant and long-standing civilisation, The history of Egypt’s New Kingdom, Third but it can be addressed through activities such as the Intermediate Period and Late Period covers an following exemplar based, in this instance, around immense spectrum of time and Rekhmire’s tomb economic features. is from a period (approximately 1450 BCE) seen as ‘ancient’ even to the Romans and Greeks. Students The famous and well-preserved depictions in Theban can begin to grapple with the ‘big’ historical questions Tomb (TT) 100 were created for Rekhmire, the through this or other site analyses. governor of the town and vizier during the reigns

58 Agora Praktikos Paintings from the T the from Paintings Davies Garis de Norman from Reproduced tomb. Rekhmire’s from scene Tribute ABOVE: PREVIOUS PAGE: Slaves creating bricks, Rekhmire's tomb. Rekhmire's bricks, creating PAGE: Slaves PREVIOUS 1935). Art, of Museum Metropolitan York: The (New Expedition      omb of Rekh-mi-R of omb ēʼ at Thebes , The Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian Egyptian Art of Museum Metropolitan , The , Male and female slaves/‘human booty’. slaves/‘human female and  Male (Syrians);  Retenu  Aegeans;  Nubians  Punt; scene: (Africans); tribute the in Registers

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‘The amount of detail and effort lavished by the artists at, historians assume, the insistence of the tomb owner Rekhmire and the incredibly meticulous depictions of different cultures and their quite individual gifts in his “house of eternity” is significant.’

These questions could include: amongst other details, the importance of religious piety in this time frame and • Why are tomb paintings from this the type of political and economic power period still relevant to historians’ Egypt held at this period of the empire. understandings of Western Students may need to be reminded by civilisation? teachers that, at best, only five per cent • Whose history do historians see in this of the entire population were literate source? during this period of the New Kingdom and that as vizier, effectively the prime • What are the economic implications administrator in Egypt, Rekhmire had this that this visual can help to provide? remarkable record placed in his private • How can we evaluate economic history tomb and not in a more public space. prior to the invention of money? Analysis of Rekhmire’s • What values and limitations does this tomb – The tribute scene visual source provide in establishing a The five registers in the tribute scene point of view for historians attempting depict men from Punt, Aegeans, Nubians 1 Victorian Curriculum to understand the economic features and Assessment (Africans), Retenu (Syrians) and male of Eighteenth Dynasty Egypt? Authority, Victorian and female slaves/‘human booty’ Certificate of Education: In addition, the VCE History Study presenting gifts during either Thutmosis History Study Design, Design (Units 3 and 4: Ancient History, III’s (1479–1425 BCE) or Amenhotep Accreditation Period Area of Study 1) notes the following II’s (1427–1401 BCE) reign. Whilst 2016–2020 (Melbourne: specific questions: destined to be placed in a sealed tomb in VCAA, 2015). the Valley of the Nobles, the amount of 2 Jean Vercoutter, L’Égypte • What was it like to live in ancient detail and effort lavished by the artists at, et Le Monde Égéen Egypt, Greece or Rome? Préhellénique (Cairo: historians assume, the insistence of the Bibliotheque d’Etude • What were the social, political and tomb owner Rekhmire and the incredibly 22, Institut Français economic features of life? meticulous depictions of different d’Archéologie Orientale, cultures and their quite individual gifts 1956), 211–12; Bertha • Why were these features significant?3 in his ‘house of eternity’ is significant. Porter and Rosalind These questions must be at the forefront Some explanation of this detail, Moss, Topographical of the teachers’ and students’ minds as through the gifted and skilled work of Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic they progress through Area of Study 1, many archaeologists and historians, is Texts, Reliefs, and and a ‘virtual visit’ – a visual analysis provided below and will indicate the Paintings: I. The Theban task based around Rekhmire’s tomb value of this source for those studying Necropolis – Part 1. Private and specifically the tribute scene – can the economic features of ancient Egypt Tombs, 2nd ed. (Oxford: assist teachers and challenge students at this time in the New Kingdom. Oxford University Press, with a useful diagnostic and formative 1960), 206; Cyril Aldred, Trade in ceramics Egyptian Art, reprint assessment. (London: Thames and Students will immediately recognise All of the above questions could provide Hudson, 1993), 162. that while in the Egyptianised ‘style’ or an excellent series of ‘hooks’ or prompts 3 Victorian Curriculum canon, each register of the Rekhmire upon which Unit 3 or 4 students can base and Assessment tomb tribute scene displays very specific Authority, Victorian their in-depth analysis of the Rekhmire items: clothing, skin pigmentation, Certificate of Education: tomb source material. For example, the hairstyles, gifts and iconic animals. History Study Design. question of ‘Whose history do historians There has been an obvious effort to 4 Robert S. Merrillees, see in this source?’ will provide students portray the culture, ethnicity and The Cypriote Bronze Age with some notion of the scope and Pottery Found In Egypt, ‘tribute’ of each group. For example, range of both internet and book-based Studies in Mediterranean in 1968, Australian archaeologist Dr resources available for the Egyptian Archaeology, vol. Robert Merrillees4 noted the depiction New Kingdom and specifically the reign 18 (Lund: Studies of a Syrian in the fourth ‘Retenu’ register In Mediterranean of Thutmosis III and his successor carrying a (red) bottle on his shoulder Archaeology, Paul Amenhotep II. Students should quickly (supported by his left hand) followed Åströms Forlag, 1968), establish from this background task, 172.

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BELOW: Oxhide ingots by other tributaries in the same line a bow in his right hand and balances the recovered from the Ulu Burun 7 shipwreck. holding similar bottles by the handles oxide ingot on his other shoulder. In in their right hand.’5 The specific details their respective collection of tributes provided in these images has allowed being tallied by Egyptian officials, four some ceramicists and archaeologists additional ingots are already stacked in a to identify this as a particular type of neat row above very large and distinctive pottery called Cypriot Red Lustrous Canaanite jars.8 These jars are often Ware – a ceramic vessel of a peculiar likened to the shipping containers of shape and clay composition from the today as they could safely store grains, north-eastern Mediterranean island liquids or even more precious ceramics Cyprus. Whether or not this is the inside their utilitarian thick clay walls. correct interpretation of the vessels, The people of Retenu are not the only historians do agree that they were bearers of oxhide ingots in Rekhmire’s quite unusual in Egypt and actual Red tomb however. Three Aegeans, from Lustrous vessels are rarely found in any the second register of the same scene, New Kingdom excavations. also carry the distinctive oxhide shape Trade in metals and commerce upon their left shoulders while holding before currency distinctly Aegean vessels, such as rhyta, or handled vases. They are also wearing Balanced on the shoulder of the last very un-Egyptian styled kilts and are Syrian in the fourth Retenu register crowned with long, dark, curly hair. The holding this type of (red) vessel by style of rhyton seen in the tribute scene the handle is an ‘oxhide’ ingot6 (pers. is specific enough to be compared with obs.). Historians now believe that these archaeological examples recorded from copper oxhide ingots were the method the Late Mycenaean period in Greece. ancient societies such as Egypt traded, Three more ingots are stacked below and they were used to smelt copper and a bull’s head rhyton in front of the tin into the most important metal of Egyptian officials who are noting that the 5 Norman de Garis Davies, this period, bronze. Oxhide ingots are ‘gifts’ are from the ‘Keftiu and the people ‘Paintings from the Tomb shown on the shoulders of three men of the Isles in the Midst of the Sea.’9 of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Thebes,’ in the Retenu register. One of these in New York Metropolitan Indeed, Norman Davies, who was one of oxhide ingot carriers has a full beard, Museum of Art Egyptian the first historians to attempt to draw shaved head and also carries timber in Expedition, vol. 10, ed. and describe this tribute scene, observed his right hand. Another figure with a L. Bull (New York: that these three Aegean ingots were not Metropolitan Museum of headband and thatched hairstyle holds Art, 1935), plates XI, XII, coloured a uniform pink but included XXII and XXIII. blue and red specks – possibly to indicate 6 de Garis Davies, oxidisation or impurities by the artists of ‘Paintings from the Rekhmire’s tomb.10 (Interestingly, these Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at oxhide shaped copper ingots are seen in Thebes,’ plate XXII. Akhenaten’s talatat from Karnak and can 7 de Garis Davies, also be a topic for study in Area of Study 2.) ‘Paintings from the Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Students may note that while the ingots Thebes,’ plate XXIII. are depicted in the Retenu and Aegean 8 Norman de Garis Davies, registers, they are not depicted in the ‘The Tomb of Rekh- Punt, Nubians or slaves/human booty Mi-Rē‘ at Thebes,’ in New registers. It is now generally assumed York Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition, that like the identifiable red bottles, vol. 11, ed. L. Bull (New Cyprus was the source of these copper York: Metropolitan ingots, as it was during the later Roman Museum Of Art, 1943), 28. Empire.11 While it is acknowledged 9 de Garis Davies, that Egypt had created a vast empire ‘Paintings from the under the reign of Thutmosis III by the Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at time of these depictions, students may Thebes,’ plates XIX, XX. need to be reminded that there can be 10 de Garis Davies, ‘The no suggestion that Cyprus, Crete and Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Thebes,’ 21, note 28. Greece – the three cultures generally 11 The origin of the identified as either the Aegeans or chemical symbol ‘Cu’ and Retenu carrying these ingots – were name cuprum originate ‘vassal’ or controlled states to an from aes cyprium – Latin Egyptian monarch geographically so far for ‘metal of Cyprus.’ away. Therefore, students may want to

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debate whether this depiction actually acceptance of and the acclamation of represents ‘tribute’ or does it indicate the vizier’s role in this slave trade and ‘commerce’ between disparate societies the enforcement of ‘tribute’ appear to be located significant distances from each obvious conclusions from this image, but other? Does the relative stability of the is it the true picture? Students may wish empire constructed by Thutmosis III in to discuss whether a historian can ever the eastern Mediterranean and Africa be certain of this summation and what allow other cultures to seize economic could assist in reaching this conclusion. 12 C. Zaccagnini, opportunities that had presented ‘Aspects of Copper Discussion must also focus on the Trade in the Eastern themselves? gender imbalance within the tribute Mediterranean during The majority of oxhide ingots found registers – particularly when students the Late Bronze Age,’ in archaeological sites are from later will almost certainly note that of the in Traffici Micenei Nel Mediterraneo – Problemi periods and are located throughout the five registers of trade and commerce, Storici e Documentazione eastern Mediterranean. They are formed women are essentially only involved as Archaeologica, eds. M. from ‘blister’ copper paralleling the objects for tribute and, sadly, a product Marazzi et al. (Taranto: type of material produced by smelting of a slave-based economy. Does the lowly Istituto per la storia e operations in Cyprus. Some historians12 register position indicate an inherent l’archeologia della Magna suggest the depictions in TT 100 lack of economic ‘value’ these human Grecia, 1986), 413–15. indicate that a type of standardisation beings held for either the artists or the 13 Any conclusions was already being undertaken for the tomb owner? Does the depiction of regarding this possibility of the weight of ingots method of producing copper and of women and children being placed into is cautioned and not all ‘reckoning’ copper in ingots in the slavery at the bottom of the ‘inventory’ historians agree – for eastern Mediterranean markets by the indicate that, unlike the goods and example: Tamara Stech, time of Thutmosis III.13 The scenario peoples represented in the higher ‘Urban Metallurgy In of common metallurgical practices registers, this was an almost everyday Late Bronze Age Cyprus,’ throughout the eastern Mediterranean occurrence and less worthy of detailed in Acts of the International Archaeological to assist in uniformity of producing description? Symposium: Early and trading bronze is also supported Teachers should assist students in Metallurgy In Cyprus, in the arrangement and use of bellows comparing this source with other scenes 4000–500 B.C., eds. J. within another depiction in the D. Muhly, R. Maddin in the same tomb for context. Famous remarkable tomb of Rekhmire14 that and V. Karageorghis depictions of women and children are mirrors later archaeological sites in (Nicosia: Department observed elsewhere in TT 100, including Cyprus.15 Therefore, it can be concluded of Antiquities, 1982), three female musicians and a quite 106; or Karl M. Petruso, that whilst money was not existent at revolutionary and uncharacteristic ‘Prolegomena to this time of the New Kingdom, a very ‘naturalistic’ image of a serving girl Late Cypriot Weight sophisticated method of trade and (see image opposite). In the entire Metrology,’ American commerce around at least one key raw Journal of Archaeology 88 pictorial record surviving from this material’s purity and weight had been (1984): 293–6. period of ancient Egypt, this depiction introduced. 14 de Garis Davies, of the serving girl in Rekhmire’s tomb ‘Paintings from the Gender and slavery is unique in showing the ability of the Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Egyptian artist to convey individualism Thebes,’ plate XI. As L. P. Hartley noted, ‘The past is and thoroughly ‘modern’ notions of art 15 U. Zwicker, a foreign country: they do things in this girl’s portrayal. Historians of art ‘Investigations differently there.’16 When providing and ancient history have conjectured of Samples from this quote to students I then add, ‘and that her most unusual treatment in the Metallurgical Workshops I certainly wouldn’t want to live there.’ at Kition,’ in Excavations tomb may be a result of the impact the Students must debate the merits of a At Kition V-The Pre- tribute offering foreigners had upon culture, almost elemental in its legacy Phoenician Levels Areas the artist(s) and may indicate tensions I and II (Text): Part 1, and longevity, with the jarring, visceral to adapt accepted and codified artistic eds. V. Karageorghis and upsetting notion of a very limited conventions.17 and M. Demas (Nicosia: and codified role for women and of Department of vanquished peoples provided as slaves to Students will also note women are not Antiquities, 1985), 415. assist in the running of the Egyptian New depicted as scribes nor as administrators 16 L. P Hartley and Kingdom. In fact, detailed depictions of in the tomb, yet it is clear that Thutmosis D. Brooks-Davies, The male slaves creating bricks are displayed III’s coregent Hatshepsut had been an Go-Between (London elsewhere in Rekhmire’s tomb (see incredibly powerful ruler and leader in and New York: Penguin Books, 1997). the image at the start of this article). her own right. Indeed, historians argue 17 This may be a good Just as commerce at this time included that it was her legacy that paved the way interconnection to Area the exchange in base metals, it sadly for Thutmosis III’s successful Egyptian of Study 2 where the appears human beings were similarly empire. change to artistic styles is traded as marketable commodities. The best represented.

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RIGHT: Servant girls, Rekhmire's tomb.

18 Again, connecting Area of Study 2, Amarna Letter EA 40, lines 7, 12–15, also records Alashiya sending tusks to the Eighteenth Dynasty king Akhenaten and similarly requesting further supplies of them, see David S. Reese, ‘Shells, Ostrich Eggshells and Other Exotic Faunal Remains from Kition,’ in Excavations At Kition V – The Pre-Phonecian Levels Areas I And II (Text): Part 2, eds. V. Karageorghis and M. Demas (Nicosia: Republic of Cyprus Department Exotic trade and mixed cultural or Egyptian ebony, are an example of an of Antiquities, 1985), 402 (Appendix VIII). crews import from tropical Africa into Egypt. They are depicted in the tribute scene as 19 de Garis Davies, Rekhmire’s tomb also indicates that being brought by members of the third ‘Paintings from the there was a trade in what can be best Nubian register.19 Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at described as exotic products in their Thebes,’ plate XIX. raw form. This has been shown in the An abundance of ostrich eggs and 20 de Garis Davies, ‘The Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at archaeological evidence and pictorially feathers from the Libyan or African Thebes,’ 21. in the tribute scenes from TT 100 where region is also seen in the tomb painting 21 David Conwell, ‘On ivory tusks are presented to the Egyptian where the artists depict Nubian Ostrich Eggs and Libyans: vizier.18 Intriguingly, one ivory tusk is tribute or trade, and also included are Traces of a Bronze Age carried by an Aegean (Mycenaean Greek goods such as ivory, skins and, most People From Bates’ or Cretan) porter in addition to those importantly for Egypt, gold.20 These Island, Egypt,’ Expedition carried by the men of Nubia and Punt. depictions are recorded in the second 29, no. 3 (1987): 31. This may indicate an error on the part of and third registers. Historians such as 22 The use of the eggshells 21 as rhyta is observed in the artists or, given the incredible detail David Conwell suggested the ostrich the Dakhleh Oasis within seen elsewhere in these depictions, the eggshells were used as rhyta, or exotic the much earlier Sixth suggestion of mixed cultural crews of storage vessels, in the Aegean during the Dynasty governor’s tomb traders unloading and loading goods Late Bronze Age and for an ornamental at Balat. The example throughout the eastern Mediterranean. use in Egypt during the same period. there has a foot and This idea is possibly corroborated by Their depiction in Egyptian tomb reliefs spout of alabaster added the personal effects of sailors found such as TT 100 and in archaeological (information courtesy of the Director, Centre at the site of the Ulu Burun shipwreck sites throughout the eastern for Ancient Cultures, discovered off the coast of Turkey in Mediterranean suggest ostrich eggshells Monash University, 1982. Logs of Dalbergia melanoxylon, were an important indicator of trade Professor C. A. Hope). otherwise known as African blackwood between cultures in the region.22

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‘Egypt, as a consequence of an expanding empire, had access to raw and finished materials, slaves and exotica from as far away as Mycenaean Greece and Crete, Syria, Nubia and Punt. These imports and the peoples who traded them are all portrayed in Rekhmire’s tomb in striking detail.’

Economic conclusions Bendigo. Even today gold stocks and the price of gold is studied by historians, Egypt cannot have simply been a economists and stock traders as a key passive partner in the vast eastern indication of a country’s economic Mediterranean trade network nor health. Historians believe, and the simply the repository or hub of ‘tribute’ sources from Rekhmire’s tomb confirm, from all other cultures in the region. that gold was coming from the annexed This is not to discount the military and African territory of Nubia (southern commercial power Egypt could and did Egypt and Sudan) at this time. The fact yield at this and at other times during that Egypt did have access to substantial the New Kingdom and Late Period, quantities of the precious metal during which is abundantly evident during the Eighteenth Dynasty is unequivocally the reign of Thutmosis III. Egypt, as a attested in the famous tomb of consequence of an expanding empire, Tutankhamun. While this particular had access to raw and finished materials, funerary deposit is unique due to a range slaves and exotica from as far away as of factors, including the renewal of the Mycenaean Greece and Crete, Syria, established religious practices by King Nubia and Punt. These imports and Tut (again, a good link to Area of the peoples who traded them are all Study 2), it is an important indicator of portrayed in Rekhmire’s tomb in striking the significant supplies of the precious detail. These goods are also observed metal available during this period and a in the cross-cultural archaeological key reason why such a range of materials, records of these societies where they exotic goods and peoples arrived into were likewise highly prized and/or the Nile Valley capital and not just to the required. Cyprus, for example, had Mediterranean ports in the Nile Delta. access to copper, the base metal vital Access to gold in the Eighteenth Dynasty, for the development of the eponymous as it does today, generated a flurry of Bronze Age. Students should conclude economic activity and assisted in the that this metal was of such importance establishment of an economic network. that even the highly gifted and skilled Egyptian artists tasked with depicting Answering the big questions Rekhmire’s ‘house of eternity’ have made Students may establish a ‘yes, but’ significant efforts to depict the shape response to many of the ‘big’ questions and possibly even the composition of raised earlier. It is true that while this raw material in a distinctive and TT 100 does not depict the ‘everyday’ uniform oxhide shape. Through African life of Egyptians, in some ways the and Libyan sources, Egypt had access insights provided from a political figure to ostrich eggs and other exotica that of very high standing on issues such as could be traded further afield or offered slavery, for example, is more valuable as a token of friendship between allies. to the notions of economic history. Items as diverse as cheetah skins and Like all history, the answers are not Aegean rhyta are also observed in the always clear-cut, and conjecture is at cosmopolitan inventories on the TT 100 the heart of many historians’ views and tribute wall. Furthermore, Egypt had their subsequent theses. This topic is access to a resource coveted more highly no exception. Notwithstanding this by the rest of the eastern Mediterranean position, I believe Year 12 students will than any other – gold. establish that this period and TT 100 The importance of this remarkable in particular are relevant to historians’ commodity is reflected in our own understandings of Western civilisations, Victorian history and best observed in even without the utilisation of currency, the legacy of fabulous civic buildings a concept most likely developed in Lydia such as those in Melbourne, Clunes, and Euboea approximately 800 years Stawell, Beechworth, Ballarat and after these paintings were created.

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Students will also likely conclude that • Cline, E. H. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: trade and commerce in Egypt and, it is International Trade and the Late Bronze assumed, the eastern Mediterranean Age Aegean. BAR International Series empire was based upon respective 591. Oxford: Tempus Reparatum, 1994. cultures’ resources and their demands • Davies, N. De Garis. ‘Paintings from for slaves, exotica and finished/raw the Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Thebes.’ materials to enhance their technological, In New York Metropolitan Museum of military, social or political positions. Art Egyptian Expedition, vol. 10, ed. L. Certainly, students will conclude that Bull. New York: Metropolitan Museum some of the gifts and tribute observed of Art, 1935. in this tomb are in fact just that – tribute from vassal states or conquered regions. • Davies, N. De Garis. ‘The Tomb of However, the grandiose claims that all Rekh-Mi-Rē‘ at Thebes.’ In New York items depicted in Rekhmire’s tomb were Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian part of ‘tribute’ or ‘gifts’ and that their Expedition, vol. 11, ed. L. Bull. New porters were members of subjugated York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, societies are not borne out by other 1943. evidence, including geographical • Gale, Noel H. ‘Copper Oxhide Ingots: realities. It is indisputable that the Their Origin and their Place in the registers in tomb TT 100 provide a Bronze Age Metals Trade in the snapshot into a world, its economic Mediterranean.’ In Bronze Age Trade features and a lifestyle that historians in the Mediterranean – Papers Presented would otherwise be much less certain at the Conference Held at Rewley House, about. The debt we owe to these Oxford, in December 1989 (Studies in unknown and meticulous painters is Mediterranean Archaeology), ed. Noel therefore far greater than any of the H. Gale, 197–239. Jonsered, Sweden: tribute that is actually depicted. Paul Åströms Forlag, 1991. Useful resources • Parkinson, R. B. The Painted Tomb- • Aldred, C. Egyptian Art. Reprint. Chapel of Nebamun. London: British London: Thames and Hudson, 1993. Museum Press, 2008. • Bass, G. F. ‘Oldest Known Shipwreck.’ • Van Den Boorn, G. P. The Duties of the National Geographic 172, no. 6 (1987): Vizier- Civil Administration in the Early 639–732. New Kingdom. New York: Routledge, 1988. • Carney, T. F. The Economics of Antiquity: Controls, Gifts and Trade. Kansas: • Watterson, B. Women in Ancient Egypt. Colorado Press, 1973. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1991.

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The Good Stuff: Resources for Teaching History

A number of useful websites provide a wide range of teaching resources to support busy teachers.

Ann Parry, ACT History Teachers’ Association

Teachers lead exceptionally busy lives. As a quick introduction to the websites. While most of the consequence they are always on the lookout for sites are Australian, I have also included two from the good quality teaching material, from both primary United Kingdom because the overlap in curriculum and secondary sources, and successful ideas for the content makes them relevant for Australian schools. classroom. This is not always an easy process – finding Scootle resources can be time-consuming and, when searching online, some websites are difficult to use efficiently. It First on my list would have to be Scootle. Scootle is an is entirely possible to spend hours searching with an enormous national digital learning collection of more end result that is of little value. The aim of this article is than 200 000 items gathered from both Australian and to give you a brief rundown on some of the most useful international cultural institutions. Items include: and wide-ranging websites that I have discovered while • interactive multimedia resources both teaching and writing educational material. Some are more applicable for the primary years, while others • audio, photo and video resources have practical value for secondary or senior levels. All • open-ended tools for teachers and students to create of them deliver resources relevant to several sections learning resources of the Australian Curriculum: History, and all contain material that can bring your lessons to life by adding • interactive assessment resources detailed personal perspectives. Importantly, several of • work samples these sites have an online community function, where teachers can exchange ideas and post examples of • collections of curriculum resources work. • teaching ideas and units of work. In each example, I have outlined the types of material The items are searchable via categories based on the available on the site, and at the end of the article I have Australian Curriculum, matching quality-assured included web addresses and suggested paths for a items with particular content/depth studies. You

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can select a particular item from the been tested in classrooms and checked content descriptions and be supplied by experts. Although it is produced in with all relevant available resources. the United Kingdom, it is still relevant Teachers can extract pictures, activities, to the Australian Curriculum. The site audio/video clips etc. to make their own includes activities to explore topics such learning path for students to work with. as ancient history, medieval history and Students can post their work securely World War I and II history, with each in return, which can then be accessed set of activities outlined in a poster for for assessment by the teacher. Teachers quick reference. Full lesson plans and can also browse the learning paths other worksheets are also offered. teachers have created. Sign up using your AC History Units education email address and join the online community. This site has been developed by the History Teachers’ Association of Teacher Librarian Help Australia. The first unit, ‘Teaching Teacher Librarian Help is a more limited History,’ is an introduction to the site in the breadth of its content, but discipline of history, historical skills, and goes into considerable depth within concepts and approaches to teaching the areas provided. The blog includes history – it is of great practical use to subject guides for the investigation of teachers at all stages of their careers. explorers in Year 4 and for depth studies Another practical offering is a set of in Years 7–9, such as Shogunate Japan planning diagrams which makes the and the Industrial Revolution. More process of developing a unit of work both are in the pipeline. Each guide contains clear and focussed. Subsequent sections a huge range of websites and material on this website contain complete units as well as links to print material and for Years 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Each unit film, with descriptions and helpful has a learning sequence, resources and comments on their content. The site assessment suggestions written to also contains a great deal of helpful the Australian Curriculum. It is hoped advice on researching and using web that the missing primary years can be tools. Teachers can sign up to the blog addressed in the near future. and receive notifications by email of new Trove content and discussions. Trove, part of the National Library The British Museum of Australia website, both collects This is an enormous site that can information about resources and hosts be tackled in different ways. It is a collection of digital resources itself. particularly useful in studies of the One of its most heavily used assets is a ancient and medieval world for Years collection of digitised Australian state 7 and 8. Try selecting ‘Explore’ on and territory newspapers from the first the home page and then choose a one in 1803 until the 1950s. Searchable culture, such as ‘Ancient Egypt’ (under by either date or topic, they provide a ‘Cultures’), to investigate. Each culture wonderful source of primary materials, is linked to objects, themes, galleries even if some newspaper stories have and online tours enabling you to take their obvious limitations! (You may your students to one of the world’s need to fix the electronically translated greatest museums effortlessly. From text for students to use.) There is also the Explore page you can also select an excellent range of maps, pictures, ‘Young explorers’ and then the ‘All diaries, articles and data sets available about’ section. This provides some very in digital form to bring history studies useful, straightforward information to life. Maps can be viewed in a ‘zoom in’ for students who need a quick, simple format which gives an astonishing level outline of such topics as ‘Inside a of detail. mummy’ or ‘Roman treasure.’ The Pandora British Museum also runs a detailed separate website entirely based on Pandora, another part of the National ancient Greece, with some great Library of Australia website, is an archive interactive games. that contains a range of past online exhibitions, websites, documents and The Collaborative Learning Project information sheets. This is the place This is a teacher-developed site with a to go if you have ever come across a range of ready-to-use materials that have wonderful online exhibition, only to

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‘There is nothing quite like reading the transcripts of meetings and trials, personal and official letters and documents to develop a feeling of being there, in the past, watching as events unfold.’

find the next year that it has disappeared in with the Australian Curriculum. The from view. Choose ‘History’ under section on ‘Indigenous arts, culture and ‘Browse subjects’ to see over 2000 heritage’ is also useful. different titles, including material on Public Records Office Victoria Indigenous history, local and military history, Federation and explorers. Select The Public Record Office Victoria the date archived to access the material (PROV) has now stored their wonderful – not every link is still active; it is worth collection of primary source documents trying the ‘Publisher’s site’ if there is in a Wiki site. Some of the most useful something you really want that is not topics coved are women’s suffrage, Ned available through the archived material Kelly and the Eureka Stockade. There is links. nothing quite like reading the transcripts of meetings and trials, personal and Australian Dictionary of official letters and documents to Biography (ADB) develop a feeling of being there, in The Australian Dictionary of Biography, the past, watching as events unfold. produced at the Australian National Governor Hotham’s reaction to the University, is probably the most miners’ representatives use of the word detailed and reliable set of biographies ‘demand’ in the Eureka Stockade section available online. The profiles describe is a great example. the lives of deceased persons who National Archives of have made significant contributions Australia (NAA) to the Australian nation; it is currently selecting entries for those who died The National Archives of Australia is between 1991 and 2000. It is searchable an enormous site containing records by name, date or occupation. It also of all sorts of government activity includes essays on such topics as since Federation. Although tackling colonial women and Melbourne crime. the whole site can be a little daunting, the archives staff have done a lot of Australians at War the work for teachers by extracting This site is an excellent resource to documents relevant to the Australian accompany the eight-part television Curriculum and posting them in the series of the same name, and is Virtual Reading Room (Vrroom) section relevant across many year levels. The of the site (see http://vrroom.naa.gov. site examines the effects of wars on au/). International relations, labour Australians and how the country has and economics, democracy, and people been shaped by those experiences. It and society are just some of the topics provides an extensive collection of available. Going to ‘The collection > primary source materials covering a Popular research topics’ will also give hundred-year period from the Boer War you access to topics like ‘Migration and to peacekeeping operations in 2000. citizenship’ or ‘Defence’. Australia.gov.au There are many other sites, of course, that are worth a look. State libraries and This government produced site contains museums have extensive collections and a range of simply written, illustrated online exhibitions that are well worth items on colonial history, war and exploring (see, for example, ‘Collections conflict, and modern history. Go to & Research’ at Museum Victoria, http:// ‘About Australia > Australian Stories’ to museumvictoria.com.au/). find articles on dozens of issues that tie

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URLs and suggested • Select ‘Pictures, photos, objects’ from site introductions the home page. Type Adela Pankhurst in the search box and tick ‘Available Scootle online.’ http://www.scootle.edu.au/ec/p/home Pandora • Select ‘Browse resources by > http://pandora.nla.gov.au/ Australian curriculum > History.’ Scroll down to the year level required • Select ‘History’ and explore the and choose the relevant content ‘Subcategories’ section, for example description. ‘Centenary of Federation > Federator’ and select an archive. Teacher Librarian Help http://teacherlibrarianhelp.com/ Australian Dictionary of Biography View the subject guides on the right. http://adb.anu.edu.au/ The British Museum • Insert a name in the search box, for https://www.britishmuseum.org/ example Peter Lalor. • Select ‘Explore > Cultures’ and choose • Select ‘Essays > Melbourne Crime: a culture. From War to Depression, 1919–1929.’ • Select ‘Explore > Young explorers > Australians at War All about’ and choose a topic, such as http://www.australiansatwar.gov.au/ ‘Inside a mummy.’ Select ‘Enter Australians at War > Also try http://www.ancientgreece. Through My Eyes’. co.uk/. Australia.gov.au The Collaborative Learning Project http://www.australia.gov.au/ http://www.collaborativelearning.org/ • Select ‘About Australia > Australian stories’ and explore. • Select ‘All Activities Here’ and scroll down to choose a theme. PROV AC History Units http://prov.vic.gov.au/ http://www.achistoryunits.edu.au/ • Select ‘Wiki > Other feature content: Eureka on Trial.’ • A range of tabs give you quick access to year-level materials. NAA Trove http://www.naa.gov.au/ http://trove.nla.gov.au/ • Select ‘Visit us > Education > Resources for students and teachers > • Select ‘Digitised newspapers and Vrroom online classroom’ and explore. more.’ Type Adela Pankhurst into the search box and select ‘Search • Select ‘The collection > Popular articles.’ Refine the search by selecting research topics > Migration and ‘New South Wales > Sydney Morning citizenship.’ Herald.’

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believed, correctly in my view, that Rabaul in 1914, which includes the a comprehensive and integrated mystery disappearance of our first account of Australia’s military submarine AE1 with its 35 crew. effort in the Great War had never From Rabaul she follows the path of been succinctly articulated. Broken Australian involvement in the war to Nation successfully combines Egypt, to Gallipoli and on to France accounts of the battles involving in a sequential and chronological Australian forces, the home front, manner. At times she diverts to diplomacy – mainly with the British the Eastern Front, which is largely and later the United States – and the unknown in Australia. The scale way the war has been remembered. and losses of these battles are, in Broken Nation switches between their own right, substantial and, like battles, politics, the home front and the Western Front, they were often memory without any detriment to fought for little or temporary gains. the overall quality of the account. Throughout this account Beaumont Broken Nation is structured around maintains a remarkable clarity in her six core chapters, each being a descriptions of the battle events as year of 1914–1919 in sequence. In well as a mindfulness of the greater addition there are illustrations, significance in the overall war. Broken Nation: many are photos that are not well Beaumont continues with events up known, some clear tables of vital to the battle of Mont St Quentin in Australians in the data and many wonderfully clear September and October 1918. One of Great War maps relating to specific battles and the many strengths of her narrative troop movements. Broken Nation is is the regular clear and incisive Joan Beaumont 554 pages with appendices, chapter evaluation of events that unfold in Allen & Unwin, 2014 notes, a substantial bibliography and battle. an index. Joan Beaumont’s Broken Nation Beaumont’s choice of title is is a wonderful, compelling and One of the many attractive features instructive. No doubt many of us comprehensive addition to of this work is that it provides are familiar with Bill Gammage’s Australia’s Great War literature. comprehensive and clear accounts The Broken Years and many of us It will sit with the works of Bean, of all of the major campaigns that have seen war memorials that use Robson, Gammage and Carlyon as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) a broken column to symbolise the essential reading for understanding were involved in. At times, the death, loss and damage caused by Australian society and its role in the account is compelling in its horror the Great War. The broken nation, as Great War and, just as importantly, and the unmitigated stupidity of Beaumont uses it, refers to the loss the impact of the Great War the battles of 1915, 1916 and 1917. It of the pre-war energy and optimism on Australia. Broken Nation is a is hard not to come away from the and the social experimentation comprehensive and accessible text without dismay – if not anger that existed from the 1890s modern account of the way the – at the haste and indifference to through the Federation years and war is, and has been, understood in loss of life in many of the battles up until the Great War. During the Australia. Joan Beaumont manages mounted in the earlier years on war Australia was deeply riven by to pitch her narrative so that it is the Western Front. Haig’s record shameful recruitment practices, immensely interesting without speaks for itself. The mystery is hysterical conscription debates, a drowning the reader in complexity why wasn’t he replaced? Time mass unrequited grief for the dead and overwhelming detail. The and time again Joan Beaumont is and missing, and an authoritarian result is an eminently readable but able to list concisely and clearly and reactionary government. After thoughtful, sober, challenging and the reasons for the failures that the war, the wounds did not heal. clear-eyed account of Australia’s resulted in the unspeakable Mistrust, enmity, sectarianism and participation and role in various massacres of the Western Front. In anger remained. Australian society theatres of war. I am in agreement the face of massive tragedy she is was profoundly changed. The Great with Marilyn Lake when she wrote able to remain concise, precise and War was, in modern language, a that if you only read one book about objective. Her clarity of military slow train wreck for Australia. In the Great War, it should be this one. explanation far outstrips anything this sense Australian was a broken else I have read in this field. nation. The world Australia and Joan Beaumont, in her Preface, Britain had sought to defend had says that she set out to write Beaumont’s accounts of battles that changed profoundly. Australia a comprehensive account of Australians were involved in begins gained little if anything from the Australians and the Great War. She with Australia’s military action in war. Yet 60 000 or more were dead.

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It must have been worth it. It had to curious to read. He seems to have limited to school-based education. have been worth it. lost political capital in Britain and in Anyone interested in any aspect the United States, and again at the of the Great War will benefit from Beaumont continually analyses the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. By reading and studying this work. way memory is constructed. She the end of the conference Hughes There is much to contemplate in is alert to the deliberate myth- is seen as a liability and perhaps as Broken Nation. It throws light on making of C. E. W. Bean and his a crank. His passion for Australia’s our modern Australian society peddling of the egalitarian bushman interests is unquestionable. and it provides an explanation and soldier myth in what was in reality objective analysis of one of the a very highly urbanised Australian Another of Beaumont’s themes is the dominant discourses in our society. society. She draws attention to issue of myth-making and selective the belief that Australian soldiers memory. In a simple reversal of oft- Reviewed by Jim Caine, Santa Maria were better soldiers than those quoted figures, Beaumont says that College of other countries. This belief is seventy per cent of eligible Australian evaluated against the immeasurable men never volunteered. This gives complexity of battle and the a rather different complexion to immense scope of the war and, with our understanding and memory of her trade mark clarity, she relegates the war years and it contrasts with Australia to the minor player that we the conventional understanding surely were in the scope of the whole of Australia’s response to the war. war. Another aspect of selective memory can be demonstrated in the fact that Diplomacy, or more precisely the in 1919, 6150 people were deported. lack of it, is woven through Broken Many of these – 5414 of them – had Nation. It comes as a surprise that been interned during the war. The the Australian government was mass deportation was as arbitrary, never consulted or asked about the capricious and ruthless as the earlier use of troops in the British war effort. internment process. Beaumont is The Australian government wasn’t strong on the idea that national told when, where or how they were memory is selective and collective. to be used. Prime Minister Hughes, She points to glaring omissions from at least sometimes, found out about popular memory of the war. Australian troop actions from the media. In past years the Australian military death toll from the war was said to Broken Nation offers insights into be approximately 59 000 in line with Fighting Hard: The what might be best described as published figures, such as those the antics of Billy Hughes. At the Victorian Aborigines from Bean. In more recent times outbreak of war, Billy Hughes that number has been increased Advancement League wanted to suspend elections for to 60 000 and is now thought to Richard Broome the duration of the war! Through be around 61 000. Beaumont says the use of the War Precautions Act Aboriginal Studies Press, 2015 ‘many thousands more died shortly and the Unlawful Associations Act, after the war’ (p. 527). How long This review is dedicated to a man I powerful forces were lined up by does ‘shortly after’ mean? What does deeply respected, Dr Alf Bamblett, the Hughes federal government ‘many thousands’ mean exactly? President of the Victorian Aborigines against freedom of expression Several thousand could be two or Advancement League from 1996 till and association. At one point in three thousand more? Does ‘many his passing away in March 2015. Alf 1917 the federal government and thousands’ mean 4–10,000 more was a steadfast warrior for his people Queensland Premier Ryan almost than are usually acknowledged? and a great Australian. came to armed confrontation over Surely we should know this. publication of materials relating to When I told my daughter I was the conscription debate. It is easy Broken Nation is an indispensable going to review this book, she to view these types of actions as reference for any teacher of looked at Richard Broome’s name authoritarian overreach by Hughes. Australian history, culture or society. and proudly told me that she always Joan Beaumont rightly compares the It is particularly useful as a resource used quotes from his books in her erosion of freedoms at home to the for teaching middle secondary VCE Australian History essays idea that the AIF was fighting for the school Australian History and would and exams. She did very well, I’m freedom and justice that Hughes was constitute compulsory reading for sure like many other students busy denying. Hughes’s behaviour VCE students of Australian History who quote his work, and it is an in various diplomatic scenarios is Units 3 and 4. Its usefulness is not acknowledgement of his numerous

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books and articles that we VCE As the ALP, other left-wing people which Broome carefully explains, teachers use in our quest to educate and the Tribune supported the the League has assisted a number our students in this subject. Here, Warburton Aboriginal people, of Indigenous organisations to Broome tackles a difficult area for a ASIO began to take an interest emerge, including the Victorian historian, research into the history in the League and a number of Aboriginal health service, legal of a particular organisation. How its members. The League was service, housing cooperative, child to keep the reader interested is a branded as ‘radical’ by them and and family welfare agency and land great challenge. Geoffrey Blainey Doug Nicholls was considered to council. Broome quotes an undated pulled it off with Gold and Paper, be working for a secret communist policy document which states a history of the National Bank, agenda! As Broome dryly notes, that the League is ‘the mother and so does Broome. His history ‘Nicholls’ file was long on allegation organisation of all Aboriginal of the Aborigines Advancement and short on evidence – and in organisations of Victoria’ and League (AAL) is an informative retrospect rather ridiculous – but concludes ‘this was an oft-used niche history tome, presented in this was the Cold War era.’ The metaphor that still exists today.’ a comfortable writing style. I say work of Nicholls for the League Ironically, these same Aboriginal ‘niche’ history, but a concern for and other Aboriginal groups is bodies that it has nurtured and Aboriginal issues and an interest meticulously recorded by Broome, developed now compete with it for in the development of Aboriginal but he also records the hard work funding. self-determination is widespread of many others, including Bill Onus The League, like any organisation in the Australian community and and Bruce McGuinness. with such a wide brief, has I am sure the book will find many Bill Onus taught me, when I was a experienced controversy and academic and non-academic thirteen-year-old new chum Pom, dissent – Aboriginal politics readers. The title of the book is apt, to throw a boomerang in 1965 at his are as complex as any other and for since its formation in 1957 the souvenir business in Belgrave. A Broome does not shy away from AAL has often had to fight hard for thriving business which employed this. However he does note that its existence and it is a great credit six Aboriginal people, it was sadly ‘The League’s internal governance to its members and leaders that it finished off by imported Japanese- has been more settled since the has lasted so long and achieved so made boomerangs. Bill appeared mid 90s under Alf Bamblett’s long much. to me then to be a most impressive Presidency (1996 to the present) Paradoxically, the League was man and my admiration for him has and the daily running of the League, formed as a result of funds flowing grown since reading this book. He guided by Deidre King, manager into a group called ‘Save the was often on TV and well known in (1997–2006), Phil Cooper (2007) Aborigines’ committee from a the wider Victorian community (as and Esme Bamblett now the CEO controversial film that exposed was Sir Doug) and I used to proudly (2008–current).’ As Alf Bamblett, the living conditions of Aboriginal relate my boomerang-throwing the now recently deceased people in the Warburton Ranges and experience with him. President of the League, graciously other Central Australian areas. Doug acknowledged: ‘we stand on the I knew Bruce McGuinness at Nicholls (later Sir Douglas) was then shoulders of the people who went Monash University in the early Assistant Curator at the Northcote before us.’ Broome has introduced 1970s and he certainly was a Black cricket ground and took extended us to some of these people and Power advocate, an ideology which leave ‘to publicise what he had seen their work for the League, a Broome points out rocked the in Warburton. This work was to take fitting salutation to the ‘mother League from 1969 and resulted in it place within a new organisation… organisation’ and another book being brought under full Aboriginal that emerged from the “Save the from him which I hope readers, control, a crucial stage in its Aborigines” committee.’ The AAL including students, will quote from development. Broome also points was modelled on a black–white in a multitude of contexts. out that in 1969 the word Koorie coalition founded in Sydney became a new self-descriptor – a Reviewed by Tony Ward, Mount called the Australian–Aboriginal traditional word for ‘people’ Alexander College, Flemington Fellowship and included in its name originally from the Newcastle area. the word ‘advancement.’ This has He also explains the meanings always puzzled me (and others I am of some other Aboriginal words: sure), but Broome points out that gubbah – a ‘non-Aboriginal’ (from it was included because it was ‘used Governor?) and gubbariginal – an by the “National Association for the ‘honorary Aboriginal.’ Advancement of Coloured People” formed in New York in 1910 to fight Besides its own important and for equal rights for Black Americans.’ extensive economic and cultural programs for Aboriginal people

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Thomson uses the example of his own paternal grandfather to explore the issue of soldiers’ mental health – a story he did not know about when he was growing up as it was not talked about in the family. His grandfather’s story highlights the difficulty that returned service personnel with mental health problems had with their own family doctors and the ‘Repat’ doctors, and the red tape they and their families had to go through to have their problem recognised as being a result of their war service – and whether a pension would be provided. Through interviews the author has examined in detail the lives of Anzac Memories three veterans and also included The Censor’s Library the story of his grandfather. Alistair Thomson Nicole Moore The book includes personal Monash University Publishing, 2013 information about all the men the University of Queensland Press, (2nd edn) author interviewed, footnotes, a 2012 comprehensive bibliography and The author, Alistair Thomson, is If you are a history buff, you will an index. It also includes some a Professor of History at Monash be excited by the blurb of The black and white photographs of University with a special interest Censor’s Library. A hidden world of the veterans before or during in oral history. In the 1980s he books censored by the Australian their war service, and some taken interviewed a number of World government, for what reasons? after their return or when they War I veterans and recorded What were these books and how were interviewed by the author those interviews. After some time long were they kept under lock as old men. There are also a few overseas working with other oral and key? The Censor’s Library is wartime cartoons and a copy of his historians, he returned to Australia about the hidden library of books grandfather’s service record. and re-interviewed some of the banned by the censorship board veterans. He used his meetings I would recommend this book to from around 1927 to as late as 1998 and interviews with the veterans, anyone interested in oral history – although the banning of books who were of course old men by the or how a soldier’s experiences can mostly stopped in the late 1970s. 1980s, to form his ideas on how the change and shape his life forever. Nicole Moore’s detailed research so-called ‘Anzac legend,’ the way we is evident from the outset, and the Reviewed by Heather Lewis, commemorate Anzac Day and the wealth of information she provides Educational Consultant ways in which we treat our veterans is astounding. have developed and changed It took a while to get into the over time since World War I. He book – it felt like swimming in has written about how the men’s mud, so rich was the information perceptions of their own worth as a it was hard to get through. The soldier, their wartime experiences, lack of chronological order also their ability (or inability) to played havoc with this reader – fit back into family life and although further into the book this Australian society, opportunities order made more sense. Nicole for employment after the war and Moore groups the banned books through the Depression, their according to their ‘offence’ – such ongoing health issues and ‘battles as sedition, anti-religion, obscene with the Repat’ (the Repatriation language, sexual choices (especially Department) have all shaped and homosexual) and expression, modified their memories of their pornography, pulp fiction, race wartime service. and birth control – rather than in date order. These groups can and

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do overlap, so some books, such the country, and to seize them if post-war Australian authors and as Lady Chatterley’s Lover, are they were already in the country. their descriptions of the larrikin mentioned in numerous chapters. Books were even impounded from nature of the Australian bushman; This jumping back and forth can people returning from overseas – an extract from the poem 'The be confusing and sometimes leave one famous example being a copy Bastard from the Bush' is provided the reader feeling lost. Once you of Another Country that was taken as an example of censored material. get further into the book and from Gough Whitlam at customs Even the novel We Were the Rats understand the writing style, the (p. 239). Books on a number of was banned for its language and reading does become more fluid topics were censored, including portrayal of the famous Australian and one can then enjoy the depth of those about birth control and battle/siege (p. 170). Chapters research provided about the books abortion – these things were not eight and nine concentrate on and why, according to the law at the to be discussed, written about or sex and pornography as well time, they were on the censor’s list. ever done. It was seen as ungodly. as the pulp fiction books that Sedition, of both a sexual and started to infiltrate the market. The Censor’s Library is broken political nature, was also a major The last chapters cover racism, down into sixteen chapters with reason for the banning of books. pornography and newly emerging subheadings provided within these All Quiet on the Western Front was views on sexual freedoms and chapters. Some photos of old books, even banned due to its reference feminism. The censorship board catalogue cards and various other to the inner workings of the was losing power in a world moving items supplement the text. Being stomach (p. 76). Nicole Moore also too fast. In the last chapters, able to see a book which has been discusses the censorship of the the author discusses modern banned because its front cover was new wave of books coming into censorship and how it has changed ‘unfit for public display’ helps shed Australia, some of the most famous over the years – books censored light on how the censorship board of which included Moll Flanders, today promote hate and speak of was thinking (p. 208). Ulysses, Brave New World and Lady extremism. Chapter one provides an overview Chatterley’s Lover. These books When reading this book as a teacher of the books banned and touches on were seen to be literary works and of history, I wondered how I might the reasons for their censorship. It while other nations had no qualms use it for teaching purposes. The introduces the author’s themes, but with them, Australia did. As the issues that the book discusses are not very well – it would have been author notes, ‘…Australia banned very relevant today; for example, better if more detail was provided some of the most respected books government control and how a at this stage. As a consequence, this and writers in the world’ (p. 105). select few may chose the rules introductory chapter can leave Chapter six discusses the wide for many. The subjects discussed, the reader feeling very confused range of books banned on the however, may not appeal to many – only in later chapters does the grounds of homosexuality and secondary school teachers. Talking information come together. pornography. The Well of Loneliness, about issues such sedition, rape Chapter two, ‘Shipping, air and banned for its homosexual content, and masturbation, and reflecting parcel post,’ discusses the role of is one of the many titles covered. on the nature of the language the censorship board, how it was Homosexuality was seen as bad used, may not be appropriate in a appointed, how censors came moral behavior and was a topic that classroom with young teenagers. about books and what processes the general public could not handle. Alternatively, at a university level, were applied. The author describes James Douglas, editor of the Sunday the issues discussed would lead to how most of this was hidden from Express, when commenting on The a healthy debate about the control the general public and explains, Well of Loneliness, said, ‘I would and freedom of speech, and the shockingly, that many of the first rather give a healthy boy or a freedom of choice. people to act on the board had no healthy girl a phial of prussic acid literary training. Both chapters, Nicole Moore explores both than this novel. Poison kills the along with the foreword, establish the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ reasons for body, but moral poison kills the the writing style used by the author censorship in this book. The soul’ (p. 135). and provide the background obvious control the government information you need to read the The idea that Australia is built on had over its citizens is alarming, rest of the book. the back of hard workers and rural but the author handles the people is strong even today. We information with respect and Chapters three to thirteen discuss have a proud history in which the grace. The undertones of Nicole the various themes or groups of likes of Ned Kelly and Ben Hall are Moore’s issues with censorship offences that books were banned raised to hero status. In the chapter can be read throughout the book; for. The laws gave the censorship titled ‘Bastards from the Bush,’ however, she very much leaves it to board the right to prohibit the sale Moore explores the censorship of the reader to decide how they feel of books or stop their entry into

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Reviews about the government’s censorship Apparently, it was the government’s this gift of knowledge is passed on laws and control, and provides the job to save us from ourselves. and she has left no stone, or book, information and research necessary unturned or untouched. People Nicole Moore uses her research to form your own opinion. This of the day fought for the freedoms to not only look at Australia’s reader, being young enough to miss that we now enjoy and the author censorship but how it compared the strict censorship era, was left reminds us of this. What one can with that of the rest of the world, feeling cheated by the government now read for pleasure, knowledge and Australia looked somewhat and somewhat overprotected. or interest is no longer under the foolish. Her skill at passing on her Censorship was based on the control of mother government – or research leaves the reader with no government’s fear that books such is it? questions at the end of the book. as Forever Amber would cause moral You close the pages not only in Reviewed by Kara Taylor, Irymple disorder, crime, sexual freedom relief but also in wonderment. The Secondary College or, God forbid, free thought. author’s delivery makes sure that

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