Human-Environment Relationships Along the Mississippi Coast

J\USSISSIPPI JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES VOLUJ\IE III, NUJ\lllER I, 1992

Human-Environment Relationships along the Mississippi Coast

Klaus J. Meyt'.r-Arendt Mississippi State University

Introduction

he interaction of humans and the environment early European settlers avoided settling along the T has been an important aspect of geography shoreline because they recognized the potential since the days of the Greeks. The modern impor impact of narural processes of erosion and periodic tance of this human-environment (also known as devastating storms. This respectful attitude tmvard "land-human", and formerly as "man-land'') nature gradually disappeared as tourists and relationship is seen by its starus as one of the "four developers transformed rhe coast into a beachfront traditions of geography" (Pattison, 1964) as well as orien ted recreational landscape (Meyer-Arendt, one of the "tive fundamental themes in geography" 1991). By the mid-20th century, the Mississippi (AAG/NCGE, 1984). Our perceptions of the coast bad become strucrunilly reshaped, and little environment have changed dramatic,11ly since the of the natural environment remained. Seawalls, time of the Greek civilization: we used to think artiticial beaches, groins, bulkheads, and land that the environment determined how humans reclaimed from the ncarshore by filling with oyster could adjust to it and live in it, bur now we realize shells have largely replaced Mississippi's natural that humans not only can dominate and "tame" beaches (Figure l ). This process of shoreline the environment but also significantly modify and engineering has been described by some as "New even destroy it. Americans rediscovered Earth Day Jerseyization" in dubious honor of the state that in 1990, the United Nations sponsored Earth has experienced the most human-induced adverse Summit in June 1992, and ecotourisrn seems to be beach front modification ( Canis et al., 1985 ). In replacing mass tourism. Such ongoing changes in spite of devastating killer hurricanes such as Camille human-environment relationships will undoubtably ( 1969 ), which remind us of the vulnerability of tl1e keep this theme at the core, if not tl1e vanguard, of coastal environment, a highly engineered tl1e discipline of geography. shorefront is maintained in Nlississippi. One environment in which human attitudes This article describes the sequence of human toward nature have changed considerably ovt'.r the settlement along and resultant geomorphic alteration years is tl1e dynamic coastal environment, and in no of tl1e mainland beaches of Mississippi. It illustrates place arc such changes better illustrated than along tl1e dunging human-environment relationships that the mainland coast of Mississippi. The Indians and have created the modern coastal landscape.

l 09'00 El urban centers ,, seawall t Harrii;un N -·,, .... artificial beach "'(i;'l l""" ~ reclaimed land County ~ !~ ,Jackson !!l1~ ~ groins I\ bulkheads r., .. dredged ch.lnnel ~ i ~ \\ r"' ~ ~ .. 'P ~ 0 ];

Figure l Classes of hutmn alteration of the Mississippi shon:from. (map by Michele D. ,vk yer-Arendt)

Physical Setting lee of Ship Island). Although the initial settlement Until early this century, M.ississippi's three (Old Biloxi) was sited in present-day Ocean coastal counties largely were fronted by narrow Springs, it was moved to tl1c north (lee) side of the beaches. These beaches were naturally maintained Biloxi peninsula in 1720, and plans called for by \.vaves (especially storm waves) eroding construction of a beachfront fort (Prior, 1947; Pleistocene beach ridges or other Pleistocene Sullivan et al., 1985). No fort was ever constructed, uplands, which contained much sand (Mcyer however, as the importance of this French outpost Arend t & Gazzier, 1990). Geologically, Harrison quickly waned. Throughout rhe 18th century, tbc County consists of an extensive Pleistocene beach few mostly French-descended coastal inhabitants ridge complex (mulitiple lee Age sand dunes), and a engaged in fishing, farming, stock-raising, popubr narrow beach w:1s 111:iinuined ;it its sc:a\\':trd exploiting pine resources, and trading with the base (Otvos, 1985). Similarly, narrow eroding urban center of New Orleans (Alexander, 1980; beaches occupied the bases of the Pleistocene up Scholtes & Scholtes, 1985; Sullivan ct a.I., 1985 ). lands of Hancock and Jackson counties. In coastal Periodic incursion by marauding Indians pushed reaches without adjacent uplands where low wave the settlers offshore to the barrier islands ( especially energy conditions prevailed, shorelines were (and Cat Island and Deer Island), and periodic :ire) either muddy or marshy-such as near the hurricanes drove the surviving settlers back to the mouth of the Pearl River. mainland. Throughout the pre-Americ,rn period, human impacts a.long the shore.front remained rt:la· tivcly insignificant. Respect for Nature, 1699-1811 i\lthough Indians were known to have enjoyed the re sou recs- especially shellfish-of the A Shift toward the Seashore, Mississippi Coast, the French in 1699 were the first 18 11-186 1 to select the area for permanent settlement. The T he economic patterns established during the mainland coast was perceived to be protected from coloni.11 period-farming, stock-raising, lumbering, devastating hurricanes by the barrier isbnds, where fishing, and trading-continued into the 19th cen - a suitable ship anchorage was quickly found (in the tury, but :1 new form of economic activity-

2 MISSISSll'Pl JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCES recreation and tourism- was rapidly gaining impor With increasing coastal urbanization in the late tance. Even before admission into the United antebellum period, the extent of human impact States in 1811, the well-to-do of New Orleans upon the shore zone began to increase. Newly built made their way to the beaches of present-day ncarshore structures included wharves and private Hancock County, and, following statehood in piers, the latter often containing pavilions for 1817, this p,1rtern of summer sojomns at the coast fishing and bathing. Because the Mississippi shore increased in popularity (Claiborne, 1876; Hayden, front was dissected by bayous and marshy lowlands, 1950). The advent of the steam engine in the late the preferred development sites were the 1820s soon led to the introduction of steamboat Pleistocene beach ridges covered with live oaks service between New O rl eans and Mobile, and the (Q;tercus virginiana). Typically, a low scarp de 1840s and 1850s were characterized by more lineated the seaward edge of a beach ridge, at the visitors and more hotels and summer homes. base of which a gently graded, vegetated backshore Residents of nearby New Orleans fled summertime and narrow sand beach extended t<> Mississippi yellow ~ever outbreaks and Mississippi plantation Sound. Except for in the urban centers of Pass owners and their families escaped the oppressive Christian and Bi loxi, few residential or commercial summer heat (Hayden, 1950; Smedes, 1965 ). structures were built below the scarp. The beach Biloxi, historically the most important commercial w,ts occasionally used for short-distance horse or center on the coast, became popular for tourists carriage travel, but no true beach road was built from both New Orleans and Mobile, and several during th.is period. The main east-west connection hotels were built (including the Magnolia Hotel remained the Pass Christian-Port Cadet Road (Pass now renovated as the Mardi Gras 1\tluseum). The Road) along the spine of a dune ridge. Biloxi waterfront was modified to accommodate numerous wharves where steamships and sailing vessels docked. At nearby Old Biloxi, natural D evelopment of the Beachfront, springs prized for their alleged hydrotberapeutic 1865-1905 qualities stimulated a hotel-building and resort The incipient tourism boom was interrupted by development phase, and the town name was the Civil War, and although much of the South changed to Ocean Springs ( Schmidt, 1972). A few entered a nirbulent period of Reconstruction, the miles west o~· Biloxi, a new city was platted, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast benefited from a period of grandly named Mississippi City became the scat of affluence that clim:L~ed in the late century Gilded the ne\\'ly created Harrison County. Unfortunately Age (Sulli\·an ct al., 1985 ). Hotels re-opened ,tfler for the town boosters, plans to become the the war, and steam packets from New Orleans southern terminus of a rail hue from Jackson and to again deposited tourists at be,1chfront wharves. The house the state's first major university were rn:ver opening of tl1e Louisville & Nashville rail line be realized (Sulliv,111 ct al., 1985 ). Pass Christian, tween New Orleans and Mobile in 1870 stimulated however, being closer to New Orleans, became a a new boom not only by facilitating ease of access resort "equal to White Sulphur Springs, Saratoga, but also by expanding the tourist hinterland to the and Newport" replete with many grand hotels and rest of the nation. For a brief period, Northern the oldest yacht club in the South (Hayden, 1950). thcrmalists turned the Mississippi coast into a Because of the nMrowness of the sand beach, how winter recreation destination, but this changed as ever, the major factor that led to its tou risr railroads soon expanded southward into Florida development was the annual summertime evacua and into southern California (Hayden, 1950). tion of dise,1se-prone Nev,: Orleans (Hayden, Summer tourism again became dominant aJong the 19 50). Similarly, the muddy, shell-strewn tidal flats Mississippi coast, and more be,tch hotels, ranging of Pascagoula attracted wealthy summer residents fi:om modest to grand, were built in response 10 from 1vlobile ( Higgi nbotham, J.967; Wixon, scason,11 touristic demand, especially at Biloxi and 1982). Pass Chrisrian .

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIPS-NUSSISSTPPI COAST 3 All of rhese n ents kd co a luger 1:o.1sral A direct link ,, ith the interior o f Mis~issippi popubriu n .1ml ,\ 11 inl°rea~ingly co mplex 1: 0;1st,1I in finally came with the so u thward expansion of a rai l frastrm:lllre in t he 1870s. Although rhe prim.uy line from H Jttiesburg in the Lite 1880s ( 8 1::ick, e.1st·\\ e-,t tr.rnsport;llion link.1ges in I L1rrisun 1986 ). T he 1893 hurricane had dr.1wn artcntion to C ou1ll ~· - l'ass Road and the nn ,· r.1 il roJd-re - t he net:d lor .1 safi: r h.ubor, .111d by the mid 1890s a 111.1inni atop the highe r dune ri dges, the be.1d1 be ne,,· port-incorporated as Gultt1ort in 1898-was cune more popul.1r tor ,;trolling .111d riding in buih (Alexander, 1980). An .1r1iticial lurbor ,,·,is buggic~, e,·en tho ugh the l.irter freq 11 entl~· bernme n eatcd by ti ll dred ged from a ch a nnel ro Ship 111 ired in W<.: t sand ( Lrng, l 9 36 ). At the same time, Isla nd , and thl'. histori<.: Ship Island anchoragt: was Biloxi w.1s b<.:coming rhe center of .1 new se.1food rendered obsolete. As if to epitomize the opulence industry, b.1scd on r he can ni n g. of s h ri m p and of rht: Gilded Age, the g r.111dest beach hotd .tlong o~ srers, whid1 produced a ,aluahle byprod uct. th e J\.fosissippi coast, the G reat Sou.them Hotel, O ysrer ~hells, first put to 11se in I.ind redam.nion ,,·.1s built in 190:S, the s.,me year that the.: Gultport .1lo ng the Bi lc>.\ i w.1terfro11t, ,, i:n· found to be Y.Kht Club and b.nhing; p.wilion opened ( Rlack, s uit.1hlc rnJd hni in;irc rial / e s pe ci,dl y ,,·he n l 986; Cox & J\l,1rtin, 1905 ). F.kctricity' came ro crmheJ ). The mi: of oy~ter shdls .1s p.1,·ing m.ucrial the en.1st, the hl".Kh trolley Lx:twcen Gultrorr .111d ., long rhe soft be.11:h Jed ro rhe n.uning of the incip Riloxi \\'.ls compktcd, .rnd tourism \\·as ar .111 .111- ie nt bc.Khfront mad S/Jcll Rund ( Rbck, 19 86 ). In ti me h ig h . places rht' Shdl Road followed the b.Kkshore of the" beach, .ind in uther places it followed .1 course am idst the live o aks above 1he scarp. In spite.: o f a The Fight against Shoreline Erosion, st:riom 1893 hurricane ,, hich c.H1sed significrnt 1905-1951 d.rnugc, the segm<.:nrs of the Shell Road gr.1du.1lly R~· the early 1900s, .1ttirude~ iow.1rd the b l'. c 1m e exrended. Ry 19 0 0 , tekgr.1ph po k s and d yn.1111i,· coasta l e n viro nmc.:nl h cg:an ro l° h a n g e . board\\';1lks beg.rn ro be b uil t alongsid e thl'. Sh ell Peri odic hurric.111 es became reg..1rd<.: d .1s evib that Road, \\'hich continued ro bl· lengthened. could be fought and not r1:1rearcd from ,l!! in the A.It hough .1 190 I lw rric.1111: c.i used further damage p.1~t . W hen .1 l 9 09 h11r ric,111e c.w sed scriou ~ to Li1e b1:Jchfront, pl,11 h to build ,\ b <.:.1ch trollc~· tfam.1ge to the shd l hig.h\\'ay ,llld t he Ill'.\\' interur w..:n: intnrupied only 1empor.11ih- I Sulli,·an, 1985) b.111 1rolle,·, petitioning for st.ltl' inn>l\'ement in

I J..'.igurl· 2 , rro, in 11 co 11 m I I hl· p..1 n . :\ 111 o rt: s,:, t-rl'. h u rri ,.: ,\11 c.: i 11 19 l :i tk.\ t ruy,:d I1.1 I1 · of rill' L,,:.tch r11,1lhL1,· ,, Ii i..:h b~·

F(ff11 rr Z l:ilu~i i11 1h,· .1th:rm.11h .. rrh, 1901 h ll llh,111" ,nurt,SI 1\lr, 0 .i\l. ·J,k' -.1111 l11 .111d M, ..\lu r,'11:1 l-kb1: r1 !'111\l'II. l\ilt1\I t'11 h!i,· I j[, r.\f\ ,

,\IISSISSi l'l'I JOUR.'-'Al, FOR Till: SOCIAL SC'H:NCES Figure 3 West Beach, Biloxi from lighthouse, 1909-1911. (courtesy Ms. Murd la Hebert Powell, Bi loxi Public Library)

then was nearly continuous along Harrison County T he 1915 storm also directly stimulated sea,vall (Figure 3), and in 1916 the Mississippi legislature construction along the Mississippi coast. The great passed a law committing the state to protect the est feat of all was the construction of the 26-mi sand-and-shell "highway" (anonymous, 1930). (43-km) seawall fronting Harrison County, al Partly to ensure that the state commitmenr would legedly the second longest seawall in the world be honored, the coastal communities qurckly linked (Davis, 1988; MDWC, 1986). Funded by a state and improved the She ll Road. In 1918 it was tax on gasoline, the stepped-concrete seawall of rechristened the Old Spa.nish Trail as part of' a Durch design was built between 1924 and 1928. national tourism promotion effort. Rights-of-way Coinciding with the great land boom of tl,e 1920s, were obtained, low areas were filled, and the road the seawall imparted a fa lse sense of security to was graded and partially paved-a vast improve prospective homeowners and contributed to ment over the oyster shells, according to Model T extensive building of summer homes and hotels drivers ( Bergeron, 1991 ). This construction (Figure 4 ). The seawall did protect the highway re"ulted in wide'-pread alteration nf the entire :i nd cnaqal prn1,e rry under nornul '"-1,·c· Harrison County shorc:front, as many bayous conditions, but the Cronting natural beach soon became impounded and wetlands destroyed. disappeared because of scouring by waves,

1:ig111·e 4 W.:st 1kach, Bi loxi from lighu1ousc, b tc 1920s. ,i ( courtesy 1\!ls. Kar lkrgcron, ,, ·171c Su 11 Ht:rald) / '·... . .,.

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATTONSHIPS- MTSSTSSTPPI COAST 5 especially west of the Biloxi lighthouse. Hancock Coastal Mississippi was entering a post-World County, which began to build a seawall on a War IJ economic rejuvenatio n when a severe hurri piecemeal basis in 1915, modeled its 11.5-mi (19- cane stnick in 1947. T he first major storm sinct: km ) long stepped seawall (and adjoining Beach 19 lS, it destroyed much of the Biloxi watt:rfront, Bo uleva rd) after that of H arrison County. Follow but surprisingly the artificial beach at the ing its complerion in 1928, several g roins Broadwater Reach H otel sustained only minor (structures built extending into rhe nearshore to erosional damage (Sullivan, 1985). Many stretches trap longshore-rnigraring sands) were built to of seawall were greatly damaged, however, and protect a nourished sand beach, but this proved H arrison Count)' requested that the U.S. Army ineffective (SBPT, 1986). Pascagoula and Ocean Corps of Engineers asst:ss the damage. The Corps Springs also built concrete sca·walls in the late recommt:ndcd that artificial nourishment be used 1920s (Higginbotham, 1967; Kinser, 1982), which to protect the seawall and highway (Wilson, 1951). in places replaced older wooden seawnlls (Nk yer By 1951, 700 acres (285 hectares) of beach was Arendt ct al., 1992 ). created, 300 ft (90 m) wide and 26 mj ( 43 km) Altho ugh the Depression slowed the rate of long ( Escoffier & Dolive, 1954 ). This " longest growth on the Mississippi Coast, beach-oriented manmade beach in the world", although built as a tourism kept the economy afloat (Prior, 1947). storm buffer, also served as a recreational resource Biloxi's Buena Vista Hotel on Central Beach was and attracted increasing numbers of tourists to the grandest of the coast hotels dttring the 1930s H arrison County (anonymous, 1951). Meanwhile, (Figure 5 ), and its popularity stemmed in part from in spite of severe damage from the 1947 storm, no its ability to retain a natural sand beach. Along beach nourishment dforts were made in Hancock Biloxi's other beaches, the sands g raduall y County . disappeared from in front of the seawall. One of few hotels built in this period was the Broadwater Beach Hotel, which created its own sand beach by constructin g two groins and pumping sand between them. Bay St. Louis also (again) experi mented with beach nourishment in the early 1940s, but again the sands washed away (SBI'T, 1986).

F(tJm·e 5 Buena Visra Ho1d, Biloxi, t 93Y (courtesy M ~. ,vlun:lla I lcbcrt Powdl, Biloxi l'ut,lic Lihrary)

6 MlSSISSfl'PJ JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCES Maintaining an Artificial Beachfront, been necessary. At the more sheltered East Beach, 1951-present however, wetlands have naturally colonized the The effectiveness of H arrison Cow1ty's artificial seaward margins of the artificial beach. beach i.n protecting the seawall became apparent i.n T he newest reach of Mississippi shoreline to the 1950s and 1960s as the Mississippi coast was become modified is Bellefontaine Beach ) where struck by several hurricanes. Alt hough minor many vacation homes and permanent residences storms (Flossy in 1956 and Ethel in 1960) and a have been built along an eroding shoreline over the major storm ( Betsy in 1965) removed much of the past several decades (Meyer-Arendt, 1992). ln beacb sand, the seawall was little damaged response to erosion of beaches and property, local (Sullivan, 1985). Hurricane Betsy caused much landowners have built a total of 25 groins and 35 damage to the unprotected seawall in Hancock bulkheads (low wraparound "seawalls" constmcted County, however, ,U1d after the storm a 6-mi (1 0- to protect private property). Due to the relative km) long and 150-ft (45-m) wide artificial beach ineffectiveness of these structures in mainrainjng a fronting a repaired seawall was completed (Dixon beach or in protecting property from collapsing into the sea, local homeowners recently have re & Pilkey, 1991; SBPT, 1986). Hurricane Camille, quested stare assistance. In 1992, the Mississippi one of the most powerfi.tl hurricanes ever to strike the U.S. mainland, struck the Mississippi coast in Bureau of Marine Resources and the Office of 1969 and caused extensive destmction and heavy Geology o f the Mississippi Department of loss of life . The sand beaches were greatly eroded, Environmental Quality initiated a comprehensive but the seawalls withstood rhe storm relatively well study of the Bellefontaine region. No matter what (Sullivan, 1985; USACE, 1970) To restore the the outcome of the snidy may be, it is likely that human-modified coastal landscape, a major beach human modification of the Bellefontaine shoreline renourishment project in Harrison County was wiU conti1rne. completed in the early 1970s (Brown & Russell, Inc., 1972; Dixon & Pil key, 1991). Subsequent hurricanes continued to erode the artificial beaches, Swrunary: and Hancock County lost most of its sand in the aftermath of Hurricane Elena in 1985. In 1992 the Changes in Attitudes, county began dredging sands from offshore of Changes in Landscapes Henderson Point to restore its beaches to their The main land shoreline of 1\ilississi ppi has been forme r glory. H;u-rison County is presently g reatly mociitied si nce the first settlers arrived, experimenting with sand fencing, feeder dunes, especially since the onset of tourism in the 19th and planting of beachgrass and sea oats in efforts to centtll)'· The greatest shorefront impacts have taken preserve its beach sand from being removed by place at Biloxi and Gulfport where reclamation of winds and waves (MDWC, 1986). the intertidal/nearshorc zone has been extensive The shorefronts of Pascagoula and Ocean ( figure 6 ). Between urban nodes, beach front Springs arc also armored with seawalls, and, where development has resulted largely from hotel and fronting beaches have been created from dredged summer home construction and tourist-oriented sediments, erosion continues to be a problem. At commercial development. Such development early Pascagoula only a 3000-ft (900-m) long artificial in the centtuy stimula ted the evolution of a beach beach- Pascagoula Beach- fronts tl1e 2.3-mi ( 3.8- highway which, in turn, prompted construction of km ) long seaw,111, but two 1.1-rni (l.8-km) long the seawall as natural processes of erosion sections of seawall-protected shoreline ar Ocean continued. The beach and the sea air were the Springs have had sand beaches (Front Beach and prime tourist attractions, and after beaches were East Beach) in place si nce the early 1950s (Meyer· scoured away by waves ( especially during storms), A.remit et al., 1992). As at Bay St. LOl1is, however, artificially nourished beaches were introduced. tidal currents continually erode the sand from Typified by Harrison County's " longest manmade front Beach, and occasional renourishment has beach in L11e world", this scawalljarrificial beach

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIPS- MISSISSIPPI COAST 7 Fig111·,· 6 The Buen., \ 'i,t.1 Hotel , 1988. 1'.'ote .trtiti..:i.1l lw.1,h .1r kfr ,llld dc,·t:loprnenr o n rcdainH"d I.i nd . The poplllal' B,lricl'I ', R.:~t.1uc\\lll ,t.rnds .,c loll'<:!' ri~ht. ( phut" bv ,tu t hor,

Lrnd s<.: apt: diffused to Hamod. and Jackson Acknowledgments counties as wel l. Onl'.J Lht: mon.: rt:<.:t:ntly devclopni Bdkfom,1ine lka<.:h arc., rt:tains so111c !>embl.w.:c oF Th<: rc,earch upon 11·hich rhi~ .1rric lc is b .1setl 11·as natur.11 a>nditions, but this is rapidly dis.1ppearing nt,tlk pos~iblc lw .1 rl'.~C:.trch g r.rnt from Lhl· l' .S. ;1!> th<: ~horeli ne becomes i ncreasin gly cnginc1.:n:d. C rnlog ic.11 Sun\')' LO Lhc Ol'fic, of Geology, .i'l'li s~i~s ippi Dcp.1rtml'lll of Environmcmal Qu.1lity. 1\b111· th,111ks tu The prcsrnt l.'oast.tl bndsct~K of tl1c 1\lissi!>sippi Cragin K1wx, J,1c k t\lnodv, .rnd Ste\',· Oi1·,111k i o f ch<: nuinl,rnd is the result of n1.11w years of human ,\lississi~)pi Otfa:<: ui' c_;colog:\' li>r their ~up porL. Spc,i.1J .1d justment to .111d modificarion of .1 d~·namic shore th.inks .tre .tbo ntend,·d tn Lilt' 1·.trious i11di1 iduals that line. E,cr .si n.:1.: the coastal en,·ironmt'nt bei:amc a hd ped 111 e in 1111· rc.,c: .1 re h. p.1 n incl .1 rl ~- .1rd1 i1 ·i~t .\ h. pvpul.1r ::.i L..: li. >r !>1.:ttk1n..: 11L, li u111.111 ,ltlilll..lt:::. LU\\ .u·,l .\\1irdl.1 Hd,..:,T ('i,11,II ,,t· the llil,,·, i l'ubli,· I il,r.1n ,t1 lll ,\!~. K.it lkrgnon or J71<' S1!11·l-frmld in Bil,l\i . •\ 111' l'i,11~ pro<.:esses SLi-.: h a!, sho rcli nc erosion l,;11·c e,·o h ed, c:onr.1incd herein .ire sole!~· rho~e of the :111rhor. This from a respect fiw to do111i111iti011 of. P;1rt ly this m.\\' 111 :111uscri pr i ~ sub 111 i rred fo r p u b l i l .. ,iri on ll'i r h rh l' be ,\Ltributcd both Lo st.He and frdcr.,1 lcgisl,lti\'e undersr.111ding. thar rhc L.! ni red Sr.ires <_;on:rn111<:nr is poli<.:ies which rdlcctcd and rcinfi)rccd such d1,rngcs autlwriz<.:d co reprodu.:, .111d distribute reprint~ fo r .un· i11 ,lltirudcs (Me,·cr-Arendt, 1992, in press) ,111d ,1lso purpo~t· .md may authoriLc other~ to do the s.um·. to modt'1·n tt'ch nology m,1de possible ll'idcsprt:,,d engin eering mnditic.nions LO the co.1st.1l t:n\'i· ronment. In Mississ ip~1i , u1ilikt: in 1m1 111· <.: uastal SL;u es, such lwm.111 ,tl t<.: ration of the bc.1..-l1front .1eru.1 1J v h,1s slo\\'ed 11.11 ur.11 slion.:line rctre,1t rates. Hm1·evcr, such ,1 bndscapt: r,:quirt:!> 111aiutcnanl.'c such as posr-srorm rccon!>tructio11 a11 d pniodil· renourish menr of he~1e hes. >lot o nly Ii .is ,1 n.nur.11 Iandsc.1 pe been n:p laced b v a h u 111.111 • c re;t L eel J,1n dscape , bur a lso 11 .1r11r.il processes <>I° beach m a i n t e 11.1 n c e h .1 v e h c e n r c p I .1 cc d b I' h 11 111 a 11 prCS t >l° lX,1d1 111 ,lill tC ll.llKt'.

MISSISSTPPT JOURNAL FOR T H F. SOCIAL SCTE1'CES References Lang, J .H . ( 1936). History of Han·ison Coitnty, Mississippi: Gulfport, MS: Dixie Press. Association of American Geographers and Natio na l Meyer-Arendt, K.J., (1992, in press). H isrorical coastal Council on Geographic Education (AAG/NCGE). environmenta l changes: Human response to (1984). Guidelines for Geographic Edttcation. shoreline erosion, In L. Dilsaver & C. Colten Washington DC. (Editors), 'l'he American Environment: anonymous. (1930). Proceedings, Americ,111 Shore and Interpretations of Past Geographies. Savage, MD: Beach Preservation Association. TrcnlOn, NJ: Rowm.rn & Littlefield Publishers, lnc. MacCrdlish and Quigley Co. 1\lleyer·Arendt, K.J. ( 1992 ). Human Settlement of the anonymous. (1951 ). New sand beach: \Vorld's longest ,rlsland ofBellefontaine», Jackson County, Mississippi, man-made beach. Down South Mrigazine, Vol. 7, 25. unpubl. tech. report p rep. for Office of Geology, MS Dept. of Environmental Quality, Jackson. Alexander, M.E. ( 1980). Rosalie Mtd R..tidishcs: A Histo,-y of Long Be,ich. MissiJJippi. Gulfport, MS: Dixi<: Press. Meyer-Arendt, KJ. (1991). Human Impacts on Coastal and Estuarine Environments in Mississippi, in Berg<:ron, K. (1991 ). Auromobiles spur Coast into Coastal Depostional Systems in the Gitlf of Mexico: building roads. Riloxi Sun Hemld, May 19. Q;taternary Framework and Environmental Jsmes. Proceedings of the GCSSEPM Fo undation 12tl1 Black, H.W. ( L986). Gulfport: B1winnin.!fs and Growth. Annual Research Conference, Houston, TX, Dec. Bowling Green, KY: .RiverdeU Publishers. 8 ·11, pp. 141-148. Brown & Russell, Inc. ( 1972) Preliminary Design Phase Meyer-Arendt, KJ., and Gazzier, C.A. (1990). Shoreline Documents for Harrison County Shore Protection erosion and wetland loss in Mississippi. Projt'Ct-R..eplenishment of Stind Ben.ch. Gulfport, Tranmctiorrs, Gttlf Coast Association of Geological MS, Harrison County Devdopment Commission. Societies, Vol. 40, 599. Canis, W.F., Neal, W.J., Pilkey, O.H., Jr., and Pilkey, 0.H., Meyer-Arendt, K.J.; Kohn, P.A.; & W.E. Kelley. (1992). Sr. ( 1985). Living with the Alabarna-i'vfississippi Shore. Shoreline Changes at Ocean Springs, tvlississippi, Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 1900-1 992, Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Ch1iborne, J.f.H. (1876). Hirtorictil Account of Hancock Sciences (Proceedings of tl1c 56tl1 Arnrnal Meeting, County and the Sea Board of Mississippi. New Riloxi, Feb. 13-14), Vol. 37(1), 42. Orleans: Hopkin's Printing Office. Mississippi Department of Wildlife.: Conservation Cox, W.A., and Martin, E.F. ( 1905 ). Facts about the Gulf (MDWC) . (1986 ) Sand Beach Master Plan, Coast: Gulfport, Biloxi, Ptiss Christitm, 1md Others Harrison County, 1\,fississippi. Gulfport, MS: of its ThriJ1i11g Cities. G ul fport, MS: Harrison Bureau of Marine Resources. C...>llllty Publbhing; Co. OL\'OS, E.G. (1985). Constnl F11olutio11 of L1m,isia11a to Davis, D.W. (1988). USA - Mississippi and Ahlb,1ma. In NorthJPest Florid11: guidebook. New Orleans, LA : H.J. Wal ker (F.diror), Artificial Structures cmd New Orleans Geological Society. Shorelines. New York: Kluwer Academic Press, p. Pattison, W.D. ( 1964.). The f our T raditions of 615-628. Geography,J1mmal of Geography Vol. 63, 211-2 L6. Dixon, KL., :md Pilkey, 0 .H., Jr. (1991) . .Summary of beach Prior, R..A. ( 1947). Urban Land Use Alon..lJ Mississippi replenishment on rhe lJ. S. Gulf of Mexico shoreliJ1e. Soimd. Ph .D. thesis, U niversity of Chicago. ]01mtt1l ofComt11l Research, Vol. 7, 249-2:i6. Sand Beach Plonning Team (SHPT). ( 1986 ). Master Plan Escoffin, F.F., and Dolive, W.L. ( 1954). Shore for Shorej,wit Protection and Utilization, Hnncock protection in Harrison County, Mississippi. County, Mississippi. Biloxi, MS : M.ississippi Bulletin, Beach E1'11si11n Board, Vol. 8( 3), 1-12. Department of VVildlife Conservation and Bureau Havd..:n, J. J ., Jr. ( 19:iO). 71,c History of Pass Christian, of Marine Resources. Mississippi, 1699-1900. tvl.S. thesis, Mississippi Schmidt, C. E. {l 972). Ocean Sprinps: Fri:nch Beachhead. State University. Pascagoula, MS: Lewis Printing Services. Higginbotham, J. (1967). Pasrngonlti: SinginlJ Ri11tr Scholtes, C., and Scholtes, L. J. ( 1985 ), Biloxi and the City. Mobile::, AL: Gill Press. Mississippi Gulf Coast: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, Kinser, J. ( 1982). The C1111 st of Mississippi: Its P,ist and VA: The Donning Co. l'rogrcss. Baton Rouge: Moran Publishing Co.

H UM.AN-ENVIRONMENT RELATfONSHIPS-1\'11SSlSS1PPl COAST 9 Smedes, .S. D. ( 1965 ). 1\!fe1·1111rirs vfn Soudxrn Planter. New York: Alfred l\.. Knopf: [ origi.nall)' published 1887)

Sulli1·an, C. L. ( 1985 ). H.urrit:ancs of t/J1; Mis.l'issippi Gu~( Coast I 7 I 7 to Prcsi:m. Biloxi, 1\!S: Gulf Publishing Company, 139 p. S1 tll iva11 , C. L. , Powell , M. IC., and Har1·cy, N. A. ( 1985 ). T71l' Mississippi Gulf Const: Portrait 1f 11 People. Norrhridgc, Cr\: Windsor Publications Inc.,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE). 1970. Rrpon 1111 H11rricanc Cn111ilfr, 14-22 August 1969. i\ilobile: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Wilson, W. K. ( 195 l ) Bea.:h erosion problems i11 the Mobile Distri(t. Shore and Bench, Vol. 19 (2), 8 -10. Wixon,T.C. ( 1982 ) Jacluon Co1111ty, lvlis.1issippi: Plmtogmphs jhn11 chi: Past. P.1sc.1go11la, i\/lS: self published.

10 MISSISSil'l'l JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCES