University of Bradford Ethesis
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University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. CONFLICT COMPLEXITY IN ETHIOPIA Y. A. ADETO PhD UNIVERSITY OF BRADFORD 2014 Conflict Complexity in Ethiopia: Case Study of Gambella Regional State Yonas Adaye ADETO Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Peace Studies University of Bradford 2014 Yonas Adaye ADETO Conflict Complexity in Ethiopia: Case Study of Gambella Regional State Keywords: complexity, dynamics, Ethiopia, ethnic relations, Gambella, interaction, peace, violent conflict Abstract The causes of violent conflicts in Ethiopia in general, and in Gambella in particular, are complex. Critically examining and explaining the causes entails going beyond labelling them solely in terms of one variable, such as ‗ethnic conflict‘. The contestation of the study is that contemporary conflicts in Ethiopia have remained protracted, untransformed and recurring. This is largely because the past processes which gave rise to them were not properly taken into account and not properly comprehended, thereby giving rise to much superficiality in their explanations, inappropriate policies and a failure of efforts at apprehending them. The thesis identifies four major factors and two contrasting narratives which have framed the analysis of conflict complexity in Gambella. Qualitatively designed, the study focuses mainly on the structural causes of violent conflicts since 1991 and how their constituent elements were conceived and explained by different actors. First, asymmetrical centre-periphery relations entrenched in the state building processes of the imperial and military regimes, continued under the present regime rendering Gambella an object of extraction and repression. Consequently, competing claims of ownership of Gambella between the Anywaa and the Nuer ethnic groups evolved entailing shifting allegiances to the central government. Second, ethnic politics of the new social contract ushered in a new thinking of ‗each ethnic group for itself‘; it made ethnic federalism a means of consolidating the regime‘s political philosophy, depriving the local community of a genuine political representation, leading to broader, deeper and more serious violence. Third, land policy of the i incumbent favoured its political party affiliates and foreign investors, thus inducing more violence. Finally, external dynamics impacted on internal conflict complexity. The study has argued that single factor approaches are inadequate to explain what has constituted violent conflicts in Gambella since 1991; it has concluded that internal conflicts are complex, and their constituent elements are conceived of, and explained, differently by the local peoples and different levels of government. Nevertheless, given commitment and a political will, the local and national governments, as well as peoples at grassroots level, have the capacity to transform the present, and to prevent future violent conflicts in the region. ii Acknowledgements I praise the LORD for His never failing love in all walks of my life. My deepest gratitude and appreciation go to Prof. Donna T. Pankhurst, my PhD supervisor, for her empowering and insightful advice and supervision which enabled me to complete the thesis as planned. Her chapter by chapter critical reading and incisive comments on the draft and final versions of the thesis made me think that a PhD project is not a lonely activity. I would like to thank Addis Ababa University for funding my studies and research. I like to acknowledge Dr Jean-Bosco Butera, former Director of University for Peace, Africa Programme, Prof Andreas Eshete, former President and Prof Tsige G.Mariam, former Vice President for Graduate Studies and Research of the Addis Ababa University for their invaluable and professional cooperation while I was doing the research. Mrs. Michele Mozley, Research Administrator, School of Social and International Studies, University of Bradford, deserves special thanks for her support during my studies at Bradford. Col Sandy Wade, former Defence Attche of the British Embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, deserves a special mention for his material support throughout the PhD project. I am also grateful to the Gambella Peoples National Regional State leadership and the peoples for their cooperation, friendliness and ever- memorable assistance during the field data collection. Many people have helped me while I was doing the research; I am indebted to them all. Lastly, I owe a great deal to my wife, Wro.Tigist Gemechu and our children, Tinsae and Tsega Yonas for their patience, understanding, and lasting love. iii Table of Contents Title Page Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents iv List of Boxes xiii List of Figures xiii List of Maps xiii List of Tables xiv Timeline of Major Conflicts in Gambella xix PART I Chapter One 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 1 1.3 Research Questions 6 1.4 Research Hypothesis 7 1.5 Delimitation of the Study 7 1.6 Significance of the Study 8 1.7 Structure of the Thesis 9 Chapter Two Research Methodology and Methods 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Rationale for Using Qualitative Methodology 12 iv 2.3 Data Collection 14 2.3.1 In-depth Interviews 14 2.3.2 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) 16 2.3.3 Documents 18 2.4 Risks in the Field 20 2.4.1 Physical Dangers 21 2.4.2 Emotional Dangers 21 2.4.3 Professional Dangers 22 2.5 Handling Problems Related to Field Data Collection 23 2.6 Ethical Issues 25 2.6.1 Access to the Field 25 2.6.2 Informed Consent 27 2.6.3 Confidentiality/Anonymity 29 2.6.4 Reporting and Ethical Issues 30 2.7 Profile of Research Participants 31 2.8 Data Analysis 33 2.8.1 Description of the Process of Data Collection 34 2.8.2 Transcribing the Data 34 2.8.3 Classification and Identification Themes 35 2.8.4 Description and Analysis of Data 35 2.9 Summary 36 v Chapter Three Framework for Analysis 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Conceptual Definition of Key Terms 39 3.3 Theoretical Framework 46 3.3.1 Major Structural Factors 48 Political Factors 49 Ethnic Identity Factors 54 Economic Factors 57 External Factors 60 3.3.2 Conflict Triggering Factors 64 Elections 65 Political Elites 68 3.4 Summary 71 PART II 72 Chapter Four Political Factors: State Building Processes during the Imperial and Military Regimes 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 The Centre 75 4.2.1 The Centre-Periphery Relations 75 4.2.2 The Highland Peripheries 78 4.2.3 The Lowland Peripheries 80 vi 4.3 State Building Process during the Regime of Emperor Menelik II (1890 – 1913) 85 4.3.1 State building process in the highland peripheries 88 4.3.2 State building process in the lowland peripheries 90 4.4 State Building Process during the Regime of Emperor Haile-Selassie (1930s – 1974) 93 4.4.1 State building process before Italian occupation 95 4.4.2 State building process in the highland peripheries 96 4.4.3 State building process in the lowland peripheries 99 4.5 State Building Process during the Derg Regime (1974 – 1991) 102 4.5.1 State building process in the highland peripheries 104 4.5.2 State building process in the lowland peripheries 106 4.5.3 Change and Continuity 111 4.6 Summary 113 Chapter Five Political Factors: State Building Process during the EPRDF Regime 5.1 Introduction 116 5.2 Ideological Foundation of the EPRDF 122 5.3 State building process in the highland peripheries 128 5.4 State building process in the lowland peripheries 133 5.5 Continuity and Change 142 vii 5.6 Summary 151 Chapter Six Uniqueness of Gambella Conflict Landscape 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 Gambella and other Lowland Peripheries 155 6.2.1 Gambella 156 6.2.2 Afar 167 6.2.3 Somali 169 6.2.4 Boranaland 171 6.2.5 South Omo 172 6.2.6 Benishangul Gumuz 173 6.3 The Uniqueness of Gambella 174 6.4 Summary 177 PART III 179 Chapter Seven Ethnic Identity Factors in Conflict Complexity in Gambella 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Violent Conflicts during the Transitional Period (1991 –1995) 188 7.3 Ethnic Identity Conflicts (1996 – 2002) 196 7.3.1 Violent Conflict within the Anywaa 198 7.3.2 Violent Conflict between the Anywaa and the Nuer 200 viii 7.3.3 Violent Conflict within the Nuer 204 7.3.4 Violent Conflict between the Anywaa and the Majang 206 7.3.5 Violent Conflict between the Indigenes and ‗Outsiders‘ 207 7.4 The 2003 Violent Conflict in Gambella 210 7.4.1 Actors, Processes and Consequences of the 2003 Violence 211 7.4.2 Narratives of the Killil and Federal Governments 212 7.4.3 Narratives of the Local Peoples 216 7.5 Summary ` 221 Chapter Eight Economic Factors: Land Policies of the Imperial and Military Governments in Conflict Complexity in Gambella 8.1 Introduction 224 8.2 Land Policies of Emperor Menelik II 227 8.3 Land Policies of Emperor Haile-Selassie 228 8.4 Land Policies of the Derg 230 8.5 Summary 233 Chapter Nine Economic Factors: Large-scale Agricultural Investment in Conflict Complexity in Gambella 9.1 Introduction 235 ix 9.2 Large-Scale Agricultural Investment in Gambella 240 9.2.1 Investor-Indigenes Relations 240 Investment and Social Integrity of the indigenes 243 Ecological Consequence of Investment on the Local Community 245 Investment and Violent Conflict Nexus 248 9.2.2 The Anywaa Peoples and Investment 249 Political Representation of the Anywaa Peoples 250 The Anywaa Peoples‘ Response to Investment 252 9.3 Land and Land Related Resource Governance in Gambella 254 9.3.1 Large-Scale