ECONOMICS OF PROCESSING CASSAVA INTO GARRI AND PELLETS IN KOGI STATE, NIGERIA
By
INYADA, ALADI EVELYN PG/M.Sc/08/48699
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
DECEMBER, 2014 i TITLE PAGE
ECONOMICS OF PROCESSING CASSAVA INTO GARRI AND PELLETS IN KOGI STATE, NIGERIA
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS.
By
INYADA, ALADI EVELYN PG/M.Sc/08/48699
DECEMBER, 2014 ii CERTIFICATION
INYADA, Aladi Evelyn, a postgraduate student in the Department of Agricultural
Economics, with registration number PG/M.Sc/08/48699 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the award of Degree of Masters of Science (M.Sc) in Agricultural
Economics. The work embodied in this dissertation, except where duly acknowledged, is an original work and has not been previously published in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
------Prof. E. C. Okorji Date Prof. S.A.N.D. Chidebelu Date (Supervisor) (Head of Department)
------External Examiner iii DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to my father Elder Mark Amek-Ochani Inyada (of blessed memory) whose value for education has made me to come this far. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to Professor E. C Okorji who I am extremely fortunate to have as a supervisor and an academic father. I am not sure you know how much you have blessed my life. Thank you for encouraging me to think and spurring me to work.
I wish to sincerely appreciate the Head of Department Prof. S.A.N.D. Chidebelu,
Prof. C. J. Arene, Prof. N. J. Nweze, Prof. (Mrs) A. I. Achike, Prof. E. C. Eboh; Dr. A. A.
Enete, Dr. F. U. Agbo, Dr. Ben Okpupara, Dr. E. Amaechina and other academic staff of the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their constructive suggestions at proposal and seminar stage which had further helped a great deal to sharpen the focus of the study. I am indeed indebted to Ms Blessing, Mrs.
Romaine, Sister Ifeanyi and other non-teaching staff of the Department of Agricultural
Economics for their unalloyed cooperation and support at all times of need. The immeasurable contributions of my friends Francisca Okoye, Amusa Taofeeq Ade and my
M.Sc classmates too numerous to mention are sincerely appreciated.
To Pharm. Ken Oche Ameh and Mr. Sonnie Eleojo C. Ameh my husbands, I love you. To my beloved neighbour in whom I am well pleased and friends who went beyond the call of friendship, I am very grateful for being there all the time. To God Almighty who in his infinite mercy qualified me to be among the qualified, I am forever indebted.
Inyada Aladi Evelyn University of Nigeria, Nsukka December, 2014
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background Information 1
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 6
1.4 Hypotheses 6
1.5 Justification of the Study 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Importance of Processing 8
2.2 Cassava products 10
2.3 Cassava utilization 12
2.4 Cassava processing techniques 13
2.5 Gender roles in cassava processing 18
2.6 Constraints in cassava processing 20
2.7 Theoretical framework 22
2.8 Review of empirical studies 24
2.9 Analytical framework 28
vi CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 32
3.1 Study Area 32
3.2 Sampling Procedure 33
3.3 Data Collection 33
3.4 Data Analysis 34
3.4.1 Likert Rating Scale Technique 34
3.4.2 Gross Margin Analysis 34
3.4.3 Multiple Regression Model 36
3.4.4 Student t-test 37
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38
4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Processors 38
4.2 Technologies in Cassava Processing 42
4.3 Gender Roles/Involvement in Cassava Processing 47
4.4 Socioeconomic Characteristics Influencing Income of the Processors 51
4.5 Profitability of Cassava Processing into Gari and Pellet 54
4.6 Major Constraints Militating against Cassava Processors 57
4.7 Testing of Hypotheses 60
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 62
5.1 Summary 62
5.2 Conclusion 64
5.3 Recommendations 65
REFERENCES 67
APPENDIX A: Questionnaire for Data Collection 75
vii LIST OF TABLES
Tables 2.1 Frequency Distribution of Men, Women and others in Cassava Processing (COSCA Study, 1992) 19
4.1 Frequency Distribution of Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Cassava Processors 41
4.2 Mean Ratings of Various Traditional Technologies Used by Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria 44
4.3 Mean Ratings of Various Improved Technologies Used by Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria 47
4.4 Mean Comparison of Men and Women Involvement in Cassava Processing into Garri in Kogi State, Nigeria 49
4.5 Mean Comparison of Men and Women Involvement in Cassava Processing into Pellets in Kogi State, Nigeria 50
4.6 The Result of Multiple Regression Analysis on the Influence of Socio- economic Characteristics of the Cassava Processors on Income 53
4.7 Profitability of a Tonne of Cassava Tubers Processed into Garri 55
4.8 Profitability of a Tonne of Cassava Tubers Processed into Pellets 57
4.9 Mean ratings of the Major Constraints Militating against Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria 59
4.10 t-test statistics of the involvement of men and women in cassava processing into garri and pellets 61
viii LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
2.1 Infinite Elastic Demand Curve of the Cassava Processing Industry 23
4.1 Cassava Peeling by Women Using Kitchen Knife 43
4.2 Dewatering Using Heavy Stones 43
4.3a Cast Iron for Frying Garri 43
4.3b Cast Iron for Frying Garri 43
4.4 Sun-drying Products on Platform 43
4.5 Motorized Grater 45
4.6 Fermentation in Plastic Tank 45
4.7 Screw Jack for Dewatering Grated Cassava 45
ix Abstract This study was conducted to investigate the economics of cassava processing into garri and pellets in Kogi State. Data were collected from 100 cassava processors (22 males and 78 females) and analysed to describe socio-economic characteristics, identify and describe various technologies used in cassava processing, ascertain gender roles, estimate the influence of socio-economic characteristics on income of processors, determine profitability and identify constraints militating against the processors of cassava in the study area. Multi- stage random sampling techniques were employed in the selection of local government areas, communities and processors on who structured questionnaires were administered. Descriptive statistics, gross margin, rate of return on investment and multiple regressions were used for analysis. Results shows that majority of the processing fell within the middle age group (31 – 50 years) with an average years of processing experience of 22 years; mostly women with an average of 8 persons per household and 7 years of schooling. Traditional technologies were employed by the cassava processors with low level of men’s involvement relative to high involvement of women in cassava processing activities. Six out of nine explanatory variables were significantly related to income. These include; age, gender, education, experience, access to credit and number of labourers in the cassava processing enterprise. Processing cassava into garri and pellets were profitable, although processing cassava into garri was more profitable with gross margin of 22,700 and profitable index (PI) of 0.04 than pellets with gross margin of 13,100 with profitable index (PI) of 0.33. The major constraints facing the cassava processors in the study area include: poor storage facilities, high cost of processing inputs, poor road network for the transportation, bulkiness of fresh tubers, unstable weather and shortage of labour. The study therefore recommended that improved cassava processing technologies should be made available to the processors to enhance productivity and acceptability of their products, capacity building of the cassava processors for their improved profitability in the cassava processing enterprise, regular visits by agricultural extension agents for quick adoption of improved cassava processing technologies, stabilization of prices of agricultural commodities through the provision of a functional marketing channel and provision of storage facilities with good road network for improved production.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
The food problems in Nigeria and other developing countries can be reduced or even eliminated by intensifying agricultural production (Asiedu, 1989). It is based on this that emphasis of agricultural research for many years has been mainly on increased food production. One of the crops where considerable increased production level has been noticed is cassava. Nigeria is the world's largest producer with the total production of 38 Million tonnes in 2005 (Food and Agricultural Organization, 2006).
The major area where the crop is grown extends from the south coast to the middle belt (Ogbe, Dixon and Alabi, 2003). By zone, the North Central produces about 7 million tonnes of cassava a year thus ranking first on the per capita basis of 0.72 tonnes/person in 2002 (PCU, 2003). Within the zone Benue and Kogi are the largest producers of cassava in the country (IITA, 2004).
Cassava was introduced m the republic of Congo from South - America about
400 years back (Nweke, 2004) and it forms the staple part of the diet in many of the
African countries. Since its introduction, it has spread through Sub-Saharan African to become the dominant staples in the diet of the people. Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria,
Thailand and Zaire are the biggest producers, each producing over 10 million tones and together accounting for over 63 percent of World's production (CBN, 2004).
Among the root tuber crops, it ranks first accounting for about 55 percent in the Sub-
Saharan African (Hahn and Keyser, 1995). Cassava became popular with the introduction of SAP (Structural Adjustment Programme) in 1986. This programme made imported cereals to be more costly, making cassava a relatively cheap source of energy. Increasing trends in output has made Nigeria the World leading producer of cassava since the beginning of the 1990s with an estimated output of 40 million metric tones per annum and an average yield of 10.2 tonnes per hectare (Nigerian National
Report, 2006). Cassava is uniquely important as a reserve against famine (IITA, 1999;
Philip, 2005) it has gained advantage over yam to some extent due to its ease of cultivation, high resistance to drought, ability to grow in exhausted soils and its adaptation to wide range of ecologies (NRCRI, 1986). According to Enete (1995), cassava may in fact hold the key to land use intensification in Africa. Another of its comparative advantage over other crops is its efficient production of cheap food energy, its availability all year round as well as its high degree of tolerance to extreme conditions. According to Nweke, Dixion, Asiedu and Folayan (1994), these qualities contribute enormously to alleviating food crises in Africa.
After harvest, cassava roots are processed to stop physiological and microbial spoilage, reduce the cynogenic glucoside content and convert the roots to other products that are more acceptable (Asiedu, 1989). Major products derived from cassava are garri, akpu, starch, flour and abacha and other cassava based products.
Garri is one of the products of cassava consisting of gelatinized and dried cassava particles. It is creamy white or yellow depending on the type of cassava used or addition of palm oil. It is a convenient product because it has a long sheif life and it is in a form which is ready to eat. Garri may be soaked in hot or cold water depending on the type of meal desired and this makes it attractive to urban consumers.
Cassava pellets is obtained in two different methods. First the cassava roots are peeled, cut into small pieces and left to dry under the sun after spreading them on rafters or on gathered straws. The dried pieces are later stored in bags; these bags are often kept on rafters built over a fire place to prevent insect and fungal attack. When flour is required, the dried cassava pieces are pounded in mortars and taken to the mills for grinding. The flour so obtained is sieved and ready for use. Second, the fresh pieces are soaked to ferment and soften. The softened roots are collected and water pressed out. The fermented pieces are then sundried, collected and stored. When necessary dried pieces (pellets) are grounded into cassava flour.
There are as many as seventeen forms into which cassava may be processed in
Africa (Hahn, 1989; Gebremeskel, 1989) and the forms into which cassava is processed and consumed is said to be dependent on cultural food habits, tastes and preferences of the people.
It is believed that some crops are produced by men and some by women (Ajayi
1995). Over the years women have become a strong productive force in subsistence agriculture. They are involved in almost all phases of food production and they execute certain farm operations that are thought to belong to men (Okorji, 1985).
Adegeye, et al (1999) asserted that women are active in the cassava industry and that they are more predominant in the processing and marketing than the men folk.
Gender is a term associated with roles and responsibility of males and females in the society. It is the socio-cultural differences between males and females as against the biological differences (Sinkaiye, 2005). The interrelations of these roles produce a mutual understanding of each other's capabilities and constraints. The focus of gender analysis is on the experiences of men and women as the members of the society.
According to the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, it is a concept used in social science analysis to look at roles and activities of men and women (IITA,, 1996).
This study concentrated on the processing of cassava into gari and pellets
(flour) being the two most important commodities that are produced from cassava in commercial quantity in the study area. These two commodities are widely utilized for human consumption among the different socio-economic groups in contributing enormously to energy intake of the population of the study area. A survey conducted by the Kogi Agricultural Development Project (1999) on the processing and utilization of cassava showed gari and pellets as the most common among the various ethnic groups. They are consumed in various forms and are also known to be major source of income for the processors. Among the urban and rural poor these products are known to be consumed at least once a day. This is in line with Nweke (2004), that in Nigeria cassava is consumed daily and sometimes more than once a day.
1.2 Problem Statement
The most basic form of malnutrition in the developing countries is the under consumption of energy and protein known as the protein energy malnutrition (PEM) and it is a manifestation of household food insecurity (Cabal, 2000). Protein is more expensive than energy but studies over the last 30 years have showed that the deficiency in energy is a more serious problem than protein deficiency. A study by Food and Agriculture Organisation showed that almost all protein requirement are met while that of energy is lagging behind (FAO, 1999).
Furthermore, the deep population growth in the Sub-Saharan Africa exacerbates the problem. The sixth world food survey showed a very high population growth rate with only a slight increase in dietary energy supply (FAO, 1996).
This situation is further aggravated by food losses that occur as a result of inadequate storage facilities and poor processing technologies. According to the FAO
(1995), poor processing is the major cause of post-harvest losses in the world with special emphasis on developing countries such as Nigeria and poor processing has been shown to be associated with inappropriate technologies. Current research emphasis should therefore be conducted to assess appropriate technology for increasing food availability. Studies in which cassava processing technologies has been captured include that of Kolawole, Agbetoye and Ogunlowo (2010) and Odebode
(2008) but economic aspects of cassava processing into various forms were not captured. Also, Asogwa, Umeh and Ater (2006), Oluwasola (2009) and Ibrahlm
(2009) who carried out a survey on cassava processing excluded the technological aspect involved in cassava processing. It is also imperative to state that none of the empirical studies cited above captured gender contributions in cassava processing.
These economic issues constituted the gap that this study aims to fill to estimate economics of cassava processing into garri and pellets while identifying the cassava processing technologies in use in the area. Also, gender influence on cassava processing activities have not yet been analyzed to access involvement of men and women in the study area which is one of the major concern of this study.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The broad objective of this study is to investigate the economics of processing cassava into gari and pellets in Kogi State.
The specific objectives are to:
(i) describe the socio-economic characteristics of cassava processors;
(ii) identify and describe the various technologies utilized by cassava
processors;
(iii) ascertain the gender roles in cassava processing; '
(iv) estimate the influence of socio-economic characteristics of the processors
on their income.
(v) determine the profitability of processing cassava into gari and pellets;
(vi) identify constraints militating against the processors of cassava in the study
area;
1.4 Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between the mean contributions of men and
women in cassava processing activities.
2. There is no significant relationship between socio-economic characteristics of the
processors and their income.
3. Processing cassava into garri and pellets is not profitable.
1.5 Justification of the Study
This research work is necessary as it will guide processors and the potential processors in the adoption of processing techniques that will make for delivery of high quality and sustainable quantity of selected cassava products to the consumers. Knowledge of a more viable technology will also help in the proper allocation and re- allocation of resources which will enhance efficiency and productivity.
It is hoped that the findings would be a guide to agricultural engineers in the choice, design and fabrication of tools and equipment suitable and gender specific thereby reducing drudgery. This study will help processors to understand the costs and returns accrued to them, how the returns can be improved leading to a better standard of living thereby alleviating poverty. It will also bring into lime light health implications and dangers associated with various traditional techniques of cassava
processing.
Finally, the empirical findings and suggestions based on the study will be of help to policy makers and to interested research scholars as useful reference point.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Processing of crops into forms convenient and acceptable for use is as old as human history. The various methods of processing food crops came up as a result of necessity; mainly because some food crops cannot be consumed the way they are harvested nor be kept long. The dictionary of agriculture defined processing as one of the marketing services which deal with the conversion of produce into a more finished condition before sale or consumption (Somani and Tikka, 1994). For the purpose of this study, related literatures are reviewed under the following sub-headings:
(i) Importance of Processing
(ii) Cassava products
(iii) Cassava utilization
(iv) Cassava processing techniques
(v) Gender roles in cassava processing
(vi) Constraints in cassava processing
(vii) Theoretical framework
(viii) Review of empirical studies
(ix) Analytical framework
2.1 Importance of Processing
Harvesting is the final stage in the process of crop production and marks the beginning of the process of making the produce useful to individuals and the society. There are benefits associated with large diversity of processing techniques developed by the rural dwellers.
Processing permits the productive use crop residues and wastes (Bliek, Alders and Bayer 1993). Similar findings were reported by other researchers for instance use of millet stalks for mat making, roof thatching, fence making and even as piths for toys by children in Niger (Lamara and Feil, 1993; Hopskin and Reardon, 1989).
Increase in the value of crop residues have been reported in Nigeria as most crop residues are reserved for livestock. This according to Speirs and Olsen (1992) is due to the gradual loss of grazing ground.
The use of crops that require elaborate processing but have other advantages have been made possible. Long storage of farm products to provide a more balanced and diversified food supply through the period of scarcity have been observed (Bliek et al., 1993). Processing is strategic in expanding markets for perishables (Abott,
1988). For instance cassava processed into other products stores longer. According to
Williams (1979), it is a powerful engine of development as it allows for stability in the availability of food crops. Improvement in the nutritive value of farm products have been observed. It improves acceptability, palatability and digestibility of farm produces (Imo, 1990). This is confirms by Onabolu's (1989) observation that fermentation enhance riboflavin synthesis. Other benefits include increase in the market value of crops by refining and preserving them until market prices are higher. Post-harvest biodegradation and eventual losses have been reduced by processing (Chinsman and Fiagan, 1987; Akomas, 1989). Losses in this instance means any change in the availability, edibility, wholesomeness or quality of food that prevent it from being consumed by people (Bourne, 1977). Appert (1987) reported that losses may be quantitative: that which can be measured and evaluated; or qualitative: that which cannot be measured but renders the crop unfit for consumption.
Qualitative losses are subject to the consumers taste and the local traders' judgement about the appearance, taste, shape, smell, size, flavour and other impurities. The various processing methods have resulted in the reduction of pesticides residues in and on crops. Iu a study uuiiuucted by Amelia et al. (1990), chlorpyrifos used in storing corn and rice was greatly reduced as a result of parboiling the rice and soaking the corn. Reduction and removal of toxic substances in crops to a level that is no longer lethal to the consumers have been observed. Hemagglutinin present in soybeans was eliminated through processing (Coursey, 1973).
2.2 Cassava Products
Cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz) is one of the most important staple food
crops grown in tropical Africa. It represents the primary root crop of the Nigerian
rural women farmers and accounts for over 50 percent of carbohydrate intake when
processed into various foods products (FAO, 1989). There are about seventeen forms
into which cassava may be processed in Africa(Hahn,1989; Gebremeskel,1989) and
the forms into which cassava is processed and consumed is said to be dependent on
cultural food habits, tastes and preferences the people. Some cassava products in Africa include Chikwange (Central Africa), Ntuka (Zaire), Gari (West Africa),
Attieke, Plakali ,Konkonde, (Ivory Coast); Fufu (Nigeria,Ghana and Zaire) These
variety of products has made cassava to be either a primary or secondary staple
through the forest and transition zones of Africa (IITA, 2005).
Cassava pellets
This is obtained in two ways, fresh cassava roots are peeled, washed ,sliced and sun-dried and stored until when needed. Secondly, the peeled fresh roots are chopped and soaked in water for about 2-3 days to ferment and soften. The soften roots are dewatered, sundried and stored.
Gari
This is the most popular cassava product in West Africa. It is obtained by grating peeled and washed fresh cassava roots into a pulp which is dewatered by pressing using a screw jack or using heavy stones. It is left for 2-3 days to ferment, the fermented pulp is then toasted in a pan over fire.
Fufu
This is obtained by boiling peeled fresh cassava roots and pounding in Ghana.
In Nigeria, the peeled are soaked in water to soften for a day or two. The soften roots is filtered using a colander, water is then pressed out of the filtrate which is steamed and pounded (akpu).
Starch
Grated cassava pulp is put into a basket covered with a piece of cloth over a pan or bucket. Water is poured over the basket and starch is washed out through the cloth into pan.This is repeated until all the starch is removed by rinsing. It is left overnight and water is poured off in the morning after which is sundried
(Asiedu,1987)
Another method is to put grated pulp in bags and pour enough water over it to soak the contents. The bags are then sqeezed and a white liquid is expressed, which is poured into buckets.This process is repeated until the liquid is clear, it is then left to settle and the supernatant can be poured off. Starch is washed and sun-dried
(Asiedu,1987) and Kwatia (1986).
2.3 Cassava Utilization
Cassava is a very versatile crop with numerous uses. Each of its component is valuable (Ojekunle, 2010). In the Congo, Madagascar, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and
Zambia, the cassava leaves are consumed as vegetables (Haggablade and Zulu, 2003).
Cassava has numerous uses; the roots are processed for human and industrial consumption.
Apart from the chips and pellets for animal feed production and the native
starch and flour, other products include modified starch, ethanol. monosodium
glutamate (MSG), glucose, fructose, sorbitol, sago, citric acid, adhesives, syrups,
microbial enzymes, sweeteners etc. In Nigeria, there is high market potential for these
products (RMRDC, 2004). Garri, a roasted granule is the dominant product and is
widely accepted in both rural and urban areas. It can be consumed with or without
additives such as sugar, milk, fish, meat, stew and groundnuts. Cassava has been criticized in many ways: that it is a women's crop, consumed
only by poor households, depletes soil nutrients, lethal and nutritionally deficient food
(White, 1990). These stigmas are half-truths. The collaborative study of cassava in
Africa in her various studies has revealed that both men and women are involved in
cassava production, processing and marketing. Soils that have been under continuous
cultivation for at least ten years were found to be as fertile as soils of other crops.
Cases of cyanide poisoning from the consumption of cassava are rare. According to
Asiedu (1989), the cynogenic glucoside content are reduced or even eliminated by
processing especially fermentation.
The level of carbohydrate in cassava is an advantage in Africa as cassava plays a major role in efforts to alleviate the African food crises. The challenges ahead therefore, is to improve on the processing in order to drive down the best to consumers, especially the poor (Nweke, 2004).
2.4 Cassava Processing
Although cassava can be left in the ground for some months (six months or
more) Kwatia (1986), Etejere and Ramakrishna (1985), observed that there is need to
process cassava roots within 2-3 days because of its toxicity and perishability.
Onabolu (1988) remarked that only the sweet variety with low cyanide content can be
consumed without elaborate processing. Cassava with high cyanide content requires
3-14 days but most variety produced in Nigeria requires less number of days
(Karunwni and Ezumah, 1988). The forms into which cassava in processed has been shown to depend on cultural food habits, preferences, taste of the people, variety as
well as age of cassava tubers at harvest (Hahn, 1989; Okorji et al., 1989).
Cassava processing activities are mostly done by women depending on the
region. According to Karunwni and Ezumah (1988), 84 percent of the processors are
women and that gari in many cases is the major product. They further stressed that
cassava processing peak period is between November and March. This view is also
supported by Ekpere et al. (1986). All the processing technologies has fermentation,
grating and boiling as basic steps that notably reduces the HCN of the cassava roots.
Whether it is farinha de mandioca from Brazil, gari from the West and Central Africa
or attieke from the Ivory Coast, there is a clear uniformity existing in the techniques
of preparation and almost identical nature of edible forms.
2.4.1 Development in Cassava Processing Method
Despite the fact that traditional cassava processing methods and techniques
give end products that meet the consumer's quality demands, research on modern
techniques/technologies are still on with the aim of increasing output both in small
and large scale production, minimizing post-harvest losses, labour costs, improving
sanitary conditions (Chinsman and Fiagan, 1987) as well as increasing farm income.
In order to cater for a growing population, reduce the human costs of processing and
minimize the drudgery associated with cassava processing, modern technologies for
cassava processing have been developed for the most arduous and laborious
operations such as peeling, grating, grinding the dry chips and pressing or dewatering
of the grated cassava pulp. Mechanized peeling techniques have been studied and tested in Nigeria. A batch process abrasion peeling machine has been developed by
Odigbo (1979) and at National Food Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) Umudike.
Nwokedi (1983) reported mechanical cassava peeling efficiency of 80 percent. He also observed that the operation of the peeling machine requires manual cutting and trimming of the cassava roots.
Traditionally, it requires that the roots be peeled with knife and washed, with application of other necessary operations to arrive at the desired end products. These traditional operations have been criticized as grossly inadequate, inefficient, laborious, time consuming and only amenable to small scale operation (Odigbo, 1979;
Okanigbe, 1979; Ekpere et al, 1986).
The gari production process has received more attention than any other processing method (Kwatia, 1986) may be because garification is the most sophisticated traditional process and product from cassava (Ngody, 1988) and gari is also the most popular form in which cassava is consumed in West Africa. There are a number of mechanized cassava graters in many Nigerian villages. The graters may be owned by men or women but operated by men to whom women processors bring their cassava for grating.
According to IITA's report (1988), time required to grate 140kg of cassava tubers can be reduced from six hours (6hrs) to 20 minutes. Okanigbe reported that it costs about 7 times more to process a ton of cassava by manual methods into gari than by mechanical method. One processing hour on a machine saves women twenty- one hours work each week (Ikpi et al., 1986). Dewatering machines are also available in the market. Traditionally, the grated cassava pulp are packed into bags and heavy
stones and objects are placed on the bags for about 2-3 days during which period
fermentation occurs (Kwatia, 1986). The mechanized versions employ the srrew-tyne
or the hydraulic type press. Usually, the owner of the presses keep them side by side
with the graters in the case where the owners of the mechanical graters cannot afford
the "Jacks" (as the presses are called in the villages).
There are also continuous process gari frying machines. Despite the existence of metal oven equipped with chimneys and mechanical stiring systems, cassava processors are stuck with the traditional method of frying (tossing the dewatered pulp in an open pan), mainly because the frying machine are unaffordable. Women and children are responsible for almost all activities in cassava processing except for milling, grating and the presses that often involve the use of machines mainly operated by men. This is in line with COSCA's (1990) observation that mechanization of cassava processing activities increased men's participation in cassava processing activities.
2.4.2 Common Processing Methods
Processing of food into different food products may involve one or a
combination of the following:
i) Grating: This involves the rubbing of the crops being processed against very
rough and sharp surfaces. This produces pulp for further process as in the
processing of cassava into gari (Akomas, 1989) and in the extraction of
milk from coconut (Asiedu, 1989). Grating can also be accomplished
mechanically. According to Kwatia (1986); Chinsman and Fiagan (1987), mechanical graters are the most significant development in the cassava -
gari process. ii) Soaking: This is the soaking crops into water 10 soucn it. li is done mostly in
the processing of cassava into flakes (Onabolu, 1989). It is also used in the
process of soybeans into flour, paste, cake, and maize into pap/gruel. iii) Boiling: In this method, crops are cooked in water for some time as in the
parboiling of rice for milling and yams for yam flour preparation (Kay,
1973); Ihekoronye and Ngody, 1985). Boiling is engaged in the processing
of cassava into abacha. iv) Peeling: Traditionally, this is accomplished by hand. It involves the removal of
the outer covering of crops for further processes as in yams and cassava.
This also can be accomplished mechanically (Nwokedi, 1983). v) Roasting: This is a very common method in the cocoa/coffee processing and oil
and butter from peanuts. It involves dry heating the crops until the desired
colour and aroma is achieved. In Nigeria, yams, potatoes, cocoayams and
cassava can be roasted and eaten with palm oil (Asiedu, 1989). vi) Fermentation: Fermentation caught the attention of food scientists due to
subtle changes that take place in the food crops. These changes are induced by
microorganisms and they include increase in the vitamin content, improvement
of protein digestibility, development of desirable colours and flavours and
elimination of toxic substance (Dirar, 1989; Westby, 1990). This involves
soaking in water or keeping the food crops in warm, wet state for some days
averagely 1 - 3 days (Ugwu and Ay, 1990). vii) Sundrying: This is the exposure of crops to sun to reduce the moisture
contents to a level that is no longer detrimental to its storage. The process of
drying removes and separates free water from solid matter (Appert, 1987). it is
a key post-harvest operation and almost all processing operation are dependent
on it (El-Shiaty, 1988).
Efforts have been made to circumvent sundrying by mechanical means. The former, however, still depends on solar intensity and is affected by seasonal variations while the later though relatively more effective in the technical sense is expensive for the farmer (Kwatia, 1986).
2.5 Gender Relations in Cassava Processing
Gender relation refers to the social norm and practices that regulate the relationship between men and women in a given society. Gender relations determine household security, well being of the family, planning of agricultural activities and many other aspects of rural life (Frishmuth, 1997). Many studies have shown a clear departure and a distinctive place of women in all categories of farm operations. Mkpado and Arene
(2003) and Efifu (1999) stated that gender studies in agriculture should analyze the roles and activities of male and females by focusing on their experiences and not on their biological differences in a society. This agrees with Sinkaiye (2005) that gender is associated with roles and responsibility.
An understanding of gender relations in agriculture is necessary as this
understanding will make for efficient allocation of scarce resources (Onyemauwa, et al,
2008). This also is supported by Uzokwe (2009) that the ability to increase production in
developing countries has great gender implication.
In Nigeria, women are involved in agriculture although the range of their activities
varies among ethnic groups. It has been noticed that gender division of labour that concerns agricultural enterprises is becoming less distinct and women are increasingly
undertaking tasks previously done by men. Crops that are exclusively produced by men
or by women are fewer. The overall agricultural productivity of rural farmers has been
found to be represented by the agricultural productivity of women. Infact, they supply
60-80 percent of agricultural labour force (Okorji, 1993). Another area of women's
contribution to agriculture is post-harvest activities especially processing. Etejere et al.
(1986) estimated that women account for 100 percent of the labour in cassava processing
while COSCA (1992) and IITA (1995) showed that in cassava processing, women
contribute 82 percent of all the labour requirements.
Table 2.1: Frequency Distribution of Men, Women and others in Cassava Processing (Gender Roles in Cassava Processing).
Subprocess (A) _ (B) Men (C) A/A + B+ C B/A + B+ C Total Women Others %
Washing 273 2 24 91 1 % 299 Peeling 318 11 60 82 3 389
Soaking 88 6 6 88 6 100
Grating 48 35 16 48 35 99
Milling 44 24 6 59 32 74
Pounding 165 . 5 17 88 3 187
Sieving 187 5 23 87 2 215
Roasting 33 4 7 75 9 44
Sun-drying 179 13 21 84 6 213
Frying 52 3 5 87 5 60
Wrapping 25 0 1 96 0 26
Fermenting in 106 24 26 68 15 156 sacks
Total 1,691 141 232 82% 7% 2,064
Source: COSCA (1992), No 4. Gender-differentiated processing tasks for all ranked processed products are summarized in the above table. The table showed that 82 percent of the tasks are performed by women, with only 7 percent performed mainly by women. It is also shown from the table that women and children handled peeling, washing, pounding, roasting, and frying. Men only tend to assume significant responsibility only for tasks of milling, grating and fermenting in sacks - tasks which often involve the use of machines. Level of men's participation in cassava processing, is directly proportional to the level of mechanization (COSCA, 1990). The hypothesis that gender role in cassava processing tends to change as processing becomes mechanized was accepted at 0.01 level of significance.
Finally, the role of women in agricultural development has been unduly
acknowledged, implying that the focus of women in development has shifted to
agricultural productivity and efficiency. This justifies FAO (2004) recognition that
the empowerment of women is the key to raising the level of nutrition, improving the
production and distribution of food and agricultural products and enhancing the living
conditions of the rural population. This agrees with IJAERD (2008) that women are
likely to gain proportionally more if investment and development efforts are shifted
iri their favour and that their income reflect more en the quantity and quality of food
consumed by various households.
2.6 Constraints in Cassava Processing
Constraints in cassava processing in Nigeria could be economic, institutional,
socio-cultural, engineering, biological, environmental and agronomic.
2.6.1 Economic Constraints
Various economic constraints limit the processing of cassava in Nigeria.
According to Hahn (1988); Okorji et al. (1989), the constraints includes labour, capital, price fluctuations, marketing problems and processors' decisions and objectives.
2.6.2 Socio-cultural Constraints
Cassava is looked upon as food for the poor. On the social attachment of the
crop, Adebayo (1996) reported that not many would like to be identified with the crop
despite the statutory role it plays in the provision of energy in the households.
In a study by Nweke et al. (1992) on the demand for major food items in roots
and tuber based food system, it was found that among the high expenditure
households, elasticity of demand for cassava products combined was less than zero.
2.6.3 Engineering Constraints
The traditional processing techniques characterized by high energy demand,
time consumption and low productivity poses a great problem. According to Ekpere
et al. (1988) the traditional methods of processing consume a lot of energy and time.
2.6.4 Biological Constraints
Cassava roots are toxic and highly perishable. Cassava contains hydro cyanide
(HCN) which is toxic to man and livestock if not properly processed. It is perishable,
has poor storage potentials and deteriorate rapidly due to its high water content. The
irregularity of cassava shapes also poses a challenge in the use of a peeling machine
(Okanigbe, 1979).
2.6.5 Environmental/Agronomic Constraints
The climate differentials is a great challenge in cassava processing in the rainy season, sunshine and ambient temperatures are very low particularly in the humid area where cassava in mainly grown and utilized. Cassava roots are easily, harvested this period, water which is essential for cassava processing is available but the dry matter contents of cassava roots at this time is relatively low.
In the savannah zones, water becomes scarce, the soil becomes hard and
harvesting becomes difficult and result in loses of cassava roots in the soil.
2.6.6 Institutional Constraints
Inadequate functional extension services/institutions coupled with
poor infrastructural facilities (such as good roads network, dependable power supply
and adequate water supply source and so on) have hindered the increased processing
of cassava in Nigeria.
2.7 Theoretical Framework
The basic theory on which this work could be based is the perfect competition
theory. Processing is part of the production process and cassava processors are
producers of goods (cassava products) and operate under a competitive market
structure.
Perfect Competition Model
This model is characterized by the following:
(a) Large numbers of sellers and buyers. Cassava processing industry has large
members whose products are so small that it represents only a small fraction of the
total market supply. As such no processor can influence the market price of the
products, (b) The Products are Homogenous
The cassava processing industry is a group of firms that process cassava into
various products. The stages of production are the technical characteristics of the
various products and its sale and delivery are identical. This assumption implies that
processors are price takers. Their demand curve is infinitely elastic, an indication that
the firm can sell any amount of output at the prevailing price. The variations in an
individual firm output does not change the market price. And so the demand curve is
the marginal revenue and average revenue curves.
Price (N) Demand Curve
D = MR = AR
Prevailing
Prices P O Output Y Fig. 2.1 Infinitely Elastic Demand Curve of the Cassava Processing Industry
(c) Free entry and exit of firms: there is freedom of movement in and out of the
industry. This assumption is supplementary to the assumption of large numbers of
buyers and sellers.
(d) The goal of all the firms in the industry is profit maximization
(e) There are no government regulations in the market (like tariffs and subsidies etc)
(f) There is perfect mobility of factors of production (g) Perfect knowledge of the conditions of the market.
2.8 Review of Empirical Studies
Kaine (1985) in his study on economic analysis of alternative cassava
processing technology in Delta State, used descriptive statistics which is one of the
standardized analytical tools. He found that 40 percent of the respondents process
cassava for food for the household while 30 percent depended on cassava nrnressina
as means of livelihood. He also found that 60 percent of the respondents used family
and hired labour during process. The result further showed that 40 percent of the
processors were within the bracket of 41 - 50 years and 85 percent were married.
Literacy level was relatively high as 41 percent of the respondent had between 0 and
6 years of formal education. The mean household size was 7 persons and this
constitute the main source of unpaid labour for processing.
Similarly, Ifediora (1993) in her study on an analysis of the role of women in
cassava processing in Owerri Agriculture zone of Imo State also used descriptive
statistics. The results showed that only 18 percent of the women processors depended
on cassava processing as a means of livelihood, mean age of the respondents was 42
years and 95 percent of them were married. Literacy level was relatively low as 67
percent of the respondents had between 0 and 6 years of formal education. Average
household size was 11 persons and this constituted the main source of unpaid labour
for Cassava processing, only 20 percent used hired labour. Eighty five percent of
respondents financed their processing enterprise through personal savings. The average capital owned per respondent is small, usually less than N1.600. Women contributed upwards of 80 percent in each processing operation.
Furthermore Ayaru, et al. (1993) in their study used descriptive statistics to found out that 100 percent of the processors were males whereas 73 percent of the marketers were females, only 20 percent of the cassava processed were supplied from the processors owned farms. For manual processing techniques, 70 percent of the respondents were hired labour. In terms of age, sex, education, occupation, marital status and experience, the results showed that adult people of mean age of 43 years were involved in gari processing, female do not invest in gari processing and 92 percent adult females patronized gari processors as customers. Literacy level showed that 40 percent of the respondents had a minimum of primary education. Only 30 percent processed gari as their primary occupations. 90 percent were married with a mean number of 6.7 household members and 68 percent had done this processing business for less than 10 years. Generally, males constituted only 33.6 percent out of the all respondents who engaged in gari processing, distribution and marketing.
With respect to profit in cassava processing, various economics analysis carried out by researchers have indicated that cassava processing can be profitable.
For example, Kaine (1995), used net profit margin in his data analysis, by using
5,000kg of cassava tubers as computing quantity for estimating the costs and returns for one year's production of each product. The results of the net profit margin analysis showed a decreasing order of net revenue of ₦3,200.70, ₦1031.70 and ₦748 for abacha, akpu and gari/starch production, respectively. Generally the results showed that the return was encouragingly reasonable. He also used benefit - cost ratio to find out that for everyone naira invested in gari/starch, akpu and abacha production result to the sum of 3 kobo, 4 kobo and 9 kobo profit, respectively. He also estimated the economics of the different processing technology with partial budgeting technique.
Through the estimation, Kaine (1995) found out that labour cost of 200 naira was incurred by using the traditional processing technology while a total amount of 300 naira would be lost by using modern technology.
Ifediora (1993) used cost - return analysis for calculating the profit from the various products discussed using 200kg of cassava tubers processed into each product. The net revenue for the cassava products was 3,466.14 naira for tapioca,
883.13 naira for akara-akpu, 421.44 naira for akpu while gari/starch gave 240.07 naira. From the net revenue to total cost ratios seems that tapioca production was more profitable, followed by akara-akpu, gari/starch in that order. She used benefit cost ratio for sensitivity analysis and the implication of benefit-cost ratio (BCR) is that for every one naira invested in gari/starch production, akpu, akara-akpu and tapioca result to 6 kobo, 20 kobo, 3 kobo and 85 kobo profits, respectively. Tapioca had the largest margin of safety while gari/starch had the least when their net revenues and costs were subjected to sensitivity analysis. The cassava products were more sensitive to decrease in prices of their outputs than increase in their cost when their net revenue and costs were subjected to sensitivity analysis. The relatively low profit obtained from gan/starch production as well as akpu was probably a reflection of small capacity of processing cassava tubers. Similarly, Ayaru, et al. (1993) used cost-return analysis the profitability of gari
processing and marketing in terms of large and small scale industry. The result
showed that net revenue for large scale industry was higher than that of the small
scale firms. Also cost per kilogram (kg) of cassava tubers was higher in small scale
than large scale firms. Though revenue per kg was higher in large scale firms, this
only demonstrate that grater quantity of cassava tubers were processed in the large
scale firms. They discovered that as more quantities of cassava tubers were processed
in the small scale firms, the total cost decreased, thereby increasing the net revenue.
The gross revenue and total cost was also higher in the large scale firms than in the
small scale firms. This implies that as more money was invested into the processing
business in order to produce higher quantity of gari, more profit was made. Further,
profit per hour of labour was also higher in the large scale firms than the small scale
firms. This explains why it is more profitable to work in large scale than in small
scale firms.
However, the profit margin per naira invested in processing business was
higher in small scale than in large scale firms. This was due to the fact that large scale
firms enjoyed economics of scale where by their profit increased with increase in the
quantity of gari production at the least production cost.
Ibrahim (2009), in his study of the economic analysis of cassava in Kogi State found out that the cassava processing enterprise can be profitable. The mean output of flour and gari enterprises were 756.6kg and 737.9kg per month. On the average, both enterprises had an annual net income of ₦235,245 and ₦244,599 respectively. Even though there was a significant difference at 10 percent level of probability between the mean profits flour and gari, both enterprises were operating within the rational area of the profit function.
2.9 Analytical Framework
For exploratory studies, means, percentages, charts and frequency distributions may be adequate, but for case studies and sample surveys involving quantitative a more detailed analysis is required. Review of relevant literature for this study is limited to the gross margin, regression, likert rating scale and the chi-square test.
2.9.1 The Likert Rating Scale The likert rating scale even though it is not an analytical tool per se, Osuala (1992) observed that it is more likely that a researcher would report the mean score on a scale. Based on this, the contribution of men and women in cassava processing
(gender roles) was ranked using a weighted mean (X). All the rating scales can be classified into one of the following four classifications: the nominal, interval, ordinal and ration levels (Andrich, 1978). Sometimes a four-point scale is used; this is a forced choice method (Wuensch, 2005). In the case of this study where one of the major Interests is to estimate the levels of contribution of male and female cassava processors, an ordinal level of 4- point rating scale is adopted. At the ordinal level, numbers indicate the relative position of items rather than the magnitude of difference as in the case of nominal, interval and ratio levels. The 4-point rating scale indicating level of contribution of
men and women in cassava processing in this study is used and named as follows:
Very High Contribution (VHC) = 4
High Contribution (VC) = 3
Low Contribution (LC) = 2 Very Low Contribution (VLC) =
2.9.2 Gross Margin Analysis The Gross Margin of an enterprise is the difference between gross income (total revenue) and the total variable cost incurred (Olukosi and Erhabor, 1998). It is
expressed thus:
GM = TR-TVC...... (1) Where GM = Gross Margin TR = Total Revenue
TVC = Total Variable Cost Variable cost included cost of fresh tubers of cassava, firewood, labour and condiments while those associated with fixed costs include: frying pans, sieves, screw-jack, knife etc.
NR 100 RRI = X …………………………………………….. (2) TC 1
Where: RRI = Rate of Return on Investment NR = Net Return
TC = Total Costs Profitability index (PI)
NR PI= …………………………………………………….(3) TR Where : PI= Profitability Index NR =Net Return TR Total Revenue Operating Expense Ratio (OR)
TVC OR= ……………………….…………………………………….(4) TR Where : OR= Operating Expense Ration TVC= Total Variable Cost TC= Total Revenue Rate of Return on Variable Cost (RRVC)
TR = TFC 100 x ……………………………………………………….. (5) TVC 1 TR= Total Revenue TFC= Total Fixed Cost TVC= Total Variable Cost 2.9.4: Regression Analysis According to Koutsoyiannis, (2001), the primary objective of regression analysis is to determine the various factors which cause variations of the dependent variable. It is concerned with the study of relationship between one variable called the explained or dependent variable and one or more other variables call ed independent or explanatory variables. Several studies have used regression technique to evaluate the impact of socio-economic variables on profitability level of fresh clarias fish production in Egba division of Ogun State, Nigeria. Abang and Agom (2004), used regression technique to evaluate resource use efficiency of smallholder (cassava)farms in Crossriver States. Nigeria. Multiple regression model was fitted to test how a dependent variable Y (income) of the cassava processors can be explained by some independent variables Xjs
Y =f(X 1, X 2, X 3, X 4, X 5, +e) …………………………………. (implicit form) The explicit form of the model is,
Y=b0 + b 1X1 + b 2X2 + b 3X3 + b 4X4 + b 5X5 + e ………………..(explicit form) Where Y = estimated income of the cassava processors in (N)
X1-Xn = Independent variable e = Stochastic error term
2.9.5 The Student’s Test In studies where two sets of variable effects are to be compared and tested difference between their means, the student’s- test is often applied. The formula is given as follows:
− X t= 2 2 S1 S2
n1 n2
Where:
st X1 = Mean of 1 population
nd X 2 = Mean of 2 population
2 2 st nd S1 and S2 = Variance of the 1 and 2 population respectively.
st nd n1 and n2 = Sample size of the 1 and 2 population respectively.
CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study Area
The study area is Kogi State, North-central Nigeria. It has a population of
3,278,487 comprising 1,691,737 males and 1,586,750 females (National Population
Commission, 2006) with a total land mass of 13,937sq.km. The study was specifically
carried out in the Eastern Senatorial Zone of Kogi State. This is because, the
inhabitants are small holder farmers who major in cassava processing than any other
group in the state. In addition, the bulk of cassava processing into garri and pellets in
the State is carried out in the zone at economic scale. The East Senatorial Zone with a
total population of 1,449,091 (National Population Commission, 2006) lies on
latitudes 7°02N and 8°00'N and longitudes 6°45E and 7°42'E (KSADP, 1995). It is
bounded by River Benue on the North; River Niger on the West; Anambra and Enugu
States on the South and Benue State on the East.
The eastern senatorial zone consists of two Agricultural Zones. Zone D which
is made up of Idah, Ofu, Ibaji, Igalamela/Odolu Local Government and Zone B which
is made up of Ankpa, Omala, Dekina, Bassa and Olamaboro Local Government areas.
The people are mostly Igalas and Bassas with farming, trading and fishing as their
major occupations. Mixed farming is a very common practice among the farmers. The
major arable crops grown in the area are cassava, yams, maize, sorghum, millet,
pigeon peas, bambara nuts, groundnuts and beans. The common perennial crops are oil
palm, cashew, citrus and kola. 3.2 Sampling Procedure
Multi-stage and random sampling techniques were employed in the selection of respondents. First, five (5) Local Government Areas were randomly selected out of the nine (9) Local Government Areas within the two agricultural zones ( zones C and D; which made Eastern senatorial zone) Secondly, five (5) communities were randomly selected from each of the five LGAs.
Thirdly, two (2) processing units were randomly selected from each of the
communities giving a total of fifty (50)-processing units. From each of the processing
units, two (2) cassava processors (male and female) were selected for the study. Thus a
total of one hundred (100) processors were interviewed. In a unit where there are no male
processors, two female processors were randomly sampled since majority of cassava
processors in the study area are women.
3.3 Data Collection
Primary data were employed in this study. The primary data were generated by a team of two well trained enumerators consisting of two village extension agents of the
KADP who joined the researcher making three enumerators using structured questionnaire for obtaining data from the respondents.
The questions sought information regarding the socio-economic variables of
the respondents, various technologies employed in processing cassava into garri and
pellets, gender issues and problems encountered in the course of processing cassava.
Personal observation was also used as well to complement information generated
through the use of questionnaire.
3.4 Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, means and percentages were used in realizing the objectives. Objective i was achieved using frequency, percentage and mean, Objectives ii, iii and iv were achieved using mean and standard deviation with
4-point rating scale technique. Objective iv was realized using multiple regression analysis while Objective 5 was analyzed using Gross Margin analysis and Return Per
Naira invested. The student t-test was used to test hypothesis i, chi-square was used to test hypothesis ii while hypothesis iii was tested using profitability index.
Model Specification
3.4.1 Likert Rating Scale Technique
To ascertain the gender roles in cassava processing, four point likert rating
scale was adopted. The 4-point scale was graded as High Contribution = 4, Moderate
Contribution = 3, Low Contribution = 2 and No Contribution = 1. The level of
contribution was ranked using weighted mean (X).
The mean score is 4+3+2+1 = 10/4 = 2.5 (cut-off point). Therefore, using
the cutoff point value of 2.50, any item with mean value of 2.50 and above was
regarded as "High" while items with mean value of less than 2.50 was regarded as
Low.
3.4.2 Gross Margin Analysis The profitability of processing cassava into gari and pellets was determined by the use of Gross Margin Analysis and Return on Variable cost invested. The model is expressed as:
GM = TR-TVC ...... (1) Where GM = Gross Margin
TR = Total Revenue
TVC = Total Variable Cost
Variable cost included cost of fresh tubers of cassava, firewood, labour and condiments while those associated with fixed costs include: frying pans, sieves, screw-jack, knife etc.
NR 100 x RRI = TC 1 ……...... (2)
Where : RRI = Rate of Return on Investment
NR = Net Return
TC = Total Costs
Profitability Index (PI)
NR PI TR ...... (3)
Where : PI = Profitability Index
NR = Net Return
TR = Total Revenue
Operating Expense Ratio (OR)
TVC OR = TR ...... (4)
Where : OR = Operating Expense Ratio
TVC - Total Variable Cost TC = Total Revenue Rate of Return on Variable Cost (RRVC) TR −TFC 100 X ...... (5) TVC 1 TR = Total Revenue TFC = Total Fixed Cost TVC = Total Variable Cost
3.4.3: Multiple Regression Model
Multiple Regression analysis was adopted to analyze the relationship between the socio-economic variables of the respondents and output of processed cassava products in Naira (N). The functional form of the model can be stated implicitly as:
1 Y= f (X X2,X 3,X 4,X 5...... + e)..... (Implicit form)
Where Y = Estimated value of output in (N).
X1 = Age of respondents (in years).
X2 = Gender of household head (dummy, male = 1; female = 0.0001).
X3 = Formal education (in years).
X4 = Years of experience in cassava processing (in years).
X5 = Household size (number).
X6 = Ownership of grating machines (1, if owned; 0.0001, if otherwise)
X7 = Access to credits/loans (1, if yes; 0.0001, if otherwise)
X8 = Distance to market ...... in kilometres
X9 = Number of labour employed ...... in number
e = Stochastic error term
Three functional forms of the model (linear, semi-log and double) was tried and the best fit was the double log which represented the lead equation based on the R- square value and F-ratio. The forms are stated in equations 1 and 2 respectively:
Y = b 0 + b 1X1 + b 2X2+b 3X3 + b 4X4 + b5X5 + b 6X6 + b 7X7 +e …………………………1
Y= b 0 + b 1log X 1 + b 2log X 2 + b 3log X3 + b 4log X 4 +b 5log X 5 + b 6log X 6 + b 7log X + e….2
3.4.4: Student t-test
The test of significance between two means (t-test) was employed for testing hypothesis 1, (There is no significant difference between the mean contribution men and women in cassava processing activities).
The t-test is given by:
X m − X t = w S 2 S 2 m + w nm nw
X m -
Mean contribution of men
X w - Mean contribution of women
2 S m - Variance of men's contribution
2 S w - Variance of women's contribution
nm - Number of men respondents
nw -Number of women respondents
− XS m X w -Sample standard error of the means
0.05 - Level of significance CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter deals with the analysis, presentation of data and discussion of results.
4.1: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROCESSORS
The socio-economic characteristics of the processors discussed in this section include gender, age, marital status, level of education, years of processing experience and household size which are all presented in Table 4.1.
4.1.1: Gender
The result on gender of the processors in Table 4.1 showed that majority (78%) of the processors are women while only 22% are men who are mainly involved at grinding and milling stages of cassava processing in the study area. This agreed with the findings of Ibekwe, Chikezie, Obasi, Eze and Henri-Ukoha (2012) who found that about 73% and 27% of cassava processors in Owerri north local government area are women and men respectively.
4.1.2: Age of the Processors
As presented in Table 4.1, it is shown that majority (49%) of the cassava processors fell within 41-50 years age bracket while 24% of them fell between 31-
40years of age. Only 5% of the processors are within the age bracket of 21 - 30 years of age and 22% were above 50 years of age. The average age of the processors in the study area is 40 which still fall within the economically active age. This agreed with the results of the study of Odebode (2008) on appropriate technology for cassava processing in Nigeria where the author found out that a large proportion of the participating cassava processors fall within the age range of 31 to 50 years. The age- range can be regarded as the youthful age when farmers can make vital on impact in agricultural production and development in general.
4.1.3: Marital Status of Household Head
Table 4.1 shows that majority (61%) of the sampled cassava processors were married, six percent single, nine percent and 24% of them were divorced and widowed respectively. This trend conformed with the findings of the study conducted by Ibekwe, et al (2012) which showed that 80% of cassava processors in Owerri
North local government area of Imo state were married while only 20% were single.
4.1.4: Level of Education of the Processors.
As presented in Table 4.1, 22% of the cassava processors never attended school, that is, they had no formal education. Majority (46%) had primary education, while 24% and 8% of the processors had secondary and tertiary education respectively. The average years of schooling by the cassava processors as estimated in this study is about seven years. This implies that majority of the processors had primary school or its equivalents. The finding of this study on educational qualification of the processors corroborated that of Oluwasola (2010) who found that about 19.3% of the cassava processors in Oyo state Nigeria did not go to school at all,
64% had only primary education, 14.7% completed secondary education while two percent attended tertiary institutions.
4.1.5: Years of Cassava Processing Experience.
The result on years of cassava processing experience as presented in Table 4.1 showed that majority (44%) of the processors had within 21-30 years of experience,
36% of them had within 11-20 years of experience. 13% had within 1-10 years of processing experience while seven percent of them had above 40 years of processing experience. Average years of processing experience is about 22 years showing that majority of the farmers have acquired high number of years of experience in cassava processing enterprise. The finding of this study on years of processing experience agreed with that of Oluwasola (2010).
4.1.6: Household Size
On household size of the processors, the result in Table 4.1 showed that majority (52%) of the processors had within 6-10 persons in their households while
25% of them had between 11-15 persons. 16% of the processors had between 1-5 persons while only 7% had 16 persons and above in their households. The average household size of the processors in the study area is 8 persons. The trend in the household size as found out in this study seems to agree with the result of the study ot
Abah (2011 j on household size of tomato farmers in Abuja. Also, the average household size of 8 persons seems close to the findings of Oyekale (2008) who found out that the average number of persons per farm household in Nigeria is approximately 7 persons. Table 4.1: Frequency Distribution of Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Cassava Processors. (N=100) Gender Frequency Percentage (%) mean Male 22 22 Female 78 78 Total 100 100
Age (years)
21 -30 5 5.0 31-40 24 24.0 41-50 49 49.0 40.4 >50 22 22.0 Total 100 100
Marital Status of the Farmers
Single 6 6.0 Married 61 61.0 Divorced 9 9.0 Widowed 24 24.0 Total 100 100
Level of Education
Never attended school 22 22.0
Attended primary school 46 46.0 Attended secondary school 24 24.U 7.2 Attended any higher institution 8 8.0 Total 100 100 Years of Processing Experience
0-10 13 13.0 11 -20 36 36.0 21 -30 44 44.0 22.0 Above 30 7 7.0 Total 100 100
Farm Household Size
1-5 16 16.0 6-10 52 52.0 11-15 25 25.0 7.8 16 and above 7 7.0 Total 100 100 Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013.
4.2: Technologies in Cassava Processing
4.2.1: Traditional Technologies Utilized in Cassava Processing.
Table 4.2 presents some of the traditional technologies utilized in processing cassava by the processors in the study area. As presented in the table, nine out of the eleven identified traditional technologies had mean values that range between 2.58 and 3.89 which are all greater than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on a 4-point rating scale. This indicated that the identified nine (9) traditional technologies are utilized by the processors for processing cassava in the study area. The nine identified traditional technologies utilized with their corresponding mean values include: kitchen knife for peeling cassava (3.73), local calabash bowl for washing (3.63), covering of grated cassava cloth or nylon bag for fermentation (3.73), using kitchen knife or cutlass for chopping cassava (3.84), uses of heavy stones for dewatering (2.58), cast Iron pan over wood fire for frying (3.92), weaving basket for sieving (2.93), sun drying products on platform or road sides (3.89) and use of local jute bag for bagging product
(3.84). This finding is in agreement with the report of a study conducted by FAO
(1999) which identified some of the major traditional materials utilized in cassava processing in Nigeria to include: kitchen knife for peeling cassava, cutlass for chopping, heavy stones for dewatering and sun drying among others.
Figure 4.1: Cassava pelling by women with kitchen knife Figure 4.2: Dewatering using Heavy Stones
Figure 4.3a: Cast iron for frying garri Figure 4.3b: Cast iron for frying garri
Figure 4.4: Sun-drying products on platform
The results in table 4.2 further showed that the remaining two traditional technologies with their respective mean values were hand grater for grating peeled cassava (2.33) and rough stone for grating peeled cassava (1.98) which were in each case less than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on a 4-point rating scale. This implied that the two traditional technologies were not utilized by the processors for processing cassava to consumable commodities in the study area.
Table 4.2: Mean Ratings of Various Traditional Technologies Used by Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria.______(N=100) SN Traditional Technologies X SD Rmks 1 Kitchen knife for peeling cassava 3.73 0.650 Utilized 2 Local calabash bowl for washing 3.63 0.812 Utilized
3 Hand grater for grating peeled cassava 7. 33 0.955 Not Utilized
4 Rough stone for grating peeled cassava 1.98 1.164 Not Utilized
5 Covering of grated cassava cloth or nylon bag for 3.73 0.653 Utilized fermentation 6 Using kitchen knife or cutlass for chopping 3.84 0.644 Utilized Cassava 7 Uses of heavy stones for dewatering 2.58 0.951 Utilized 8 Woven baskets for sieving 2.93 1.160 Utilized
9 Cast Iron pan over wood fire for frying 3.92 0.746 Utilized
10 Sun drying products on platform or road sides 3.89 0.609 Utilized
11 Use of local jute bag for bagging products 3.84 0.845 Utilized Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013.
4.2.2 Improved Technologies Utilized in Cassava Processing. Table 4.3 presents improved technologies utilized by processors in cassava processing in Kogi state. As presented in the table, only five out of the fourteen identified improved technologies had mean values that are greater than the cut-off point value of 2.50. These technologies with their respective mean values include: aluminum or plastic tank for washing peeled cassava (2.76), motorized grater for grating peeled cassava into paste (3.93), batch fermentation in aluminum or plastic tank (3.60), screw-jack for pressing or dewatering (3.89) and parallel board for pressing or dewatering (3.00). This indicated that the identified five improved technologies are utilized by the cassava processors in the study area.
Figure 4.5: Motorized grater Figure 4.6: Fermentation in plastic tank
Figure 4.7: Screw jack for dewatering grated cassava
The results in table 4.3 further show that the remaining nine improved technologies had mean values that are less than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on 4-point rating scale. These technologies with their respective mean values include: abrasive peeler (1.29), mechanical peeler (1.20), mechanical pulverizer (1.25), hydraulic jack
(1.70), vibrating sieve (1.22), drum drier (1.37), solar dryer (1.37), kiln or oven type dryer (1.21) and scaled polythene bags for packaging (1.43). This showed that the nine improved cassava processing technologies were not utilized by the processors in the study area. In agreement with this finding, Davies, Olatunji and Burubai (2008) found that improved cassava technologies such as machines, peeler and fryer were abandoned for high operation cost. That some machines were equally abandoned based on old age, lack of good technicians (repairers), poor construction materials and non- availability of spare parts (mainly adulterated). The authors further found that, women were considerably engaged in manual operations instead cf improved system in cassava processing such as peeling, washing, sifting, drying and frying. Hahn (2008) stated that improved practices in cassava processing would help improves palatability, adds value and extends market especially to medium income urban consumers. Table 4.3: Mean Ratings of Various Improved Technologies Used by Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria. (N = 100)
SN Improved Technologies X SD Remarks 1 Abrasive peeler for peeling cassava 1.29 0.486 Not Utilized
2 Mechanical peeler for peeling cassava 1.20 0.471 Not Utilized
3 Aluminum tank for washing peeled cassava 2.76 0.995 Utilized
4 Motorized grater for grating peeled cassava 3.93 0.627 Utilized
5 Mechanical pulverizer for chopping cassava 1.25 0.575 Not Utilized
6 Batch fermentation in aluminum tank 3.60 0.696 Utilized
7 Screw-jack for pressing or dewatering 3.89 0.394 Utilized
8 Hydraulic jack for pressing or de watering 1.70 0.835 Not Utilized
9 Parallel board for pressing or dewatering 3.00 0.841 Utilized
10 Vibrating sieve for sieving garri and other 1.22 0.416 Not Utilized products 11 Drum drier for drying cassava products 1.37 0.485 Not Utilized
12 Solar dryer for drying garri and other products 1.37 0.630 Not Utilized
13 Kiln or oven type dryer for drying garri and other 1.21 0.409 Not Utilized products 14 Scaled polythene bags for packaging 1.43 0.624 Not Utilized
Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013
4.3 Gender Roles/Involvement in Cassava Processing
Table 4.4 presents the indices of variations in roles played by gender in processing cassava into garri in the study area. From the table, the result showed that the level of involvement of men in garri processing were low in 8 out of the 10 identified stages of cassava processing to garri as shown by their means which are less than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on 4-point rating scale. The identified stages with their corresponding mean values include: peeling (1.35), washing (1.58), fermentation (2.47), sieving/sifting (1.16), frying/roasting (1.07), drying (2.28), packaging/bagging (2.43) and storing (2.06). This indicates that the roles played by men in garri processing activities are low. However, the involvement of men was high in grating (3.88) and dewatering/pressing (2.53).
The involvement of women in processing cassava into garri was high in all the
identified stages of garri processing. These indicated that, the bulk of food processing
activities in Nigeria are in the hands of the women. The trend in the above findings is in
consonant with that of Arene and Omoregie (1990) that Nigerian women are frequently
in charge of processing, preservation and distributive trade of farm produce. In addition,
Sabo (2006) stated that women contribute between 46 and 65% of all hours spent on
traditional agricultural production and processing and also undertake about 60 to 90% of
the rural agricultural product marketing. Table 4.4 Mean Comparison of Men and Women Involvement in Cassava Processing into Garri in Kogi State, Nigeria. (N=100)
Men Women SN Cassava processing into Garri X SD Rmks X SD Rmks 1 Peeling 1.35 0.609 Low 3.50 0.643 High 2 Washing 1.58 0.741 Low 3.05 0.543 High 3 Grating 3.88 0.654 High 3.62 0.637 High 4 Fermentation 2.47 0.948 Low 3.59 0.494 High 5 Dewatering/Pressing 3.53 0.462 High 3.27 0.377 High 6 Sieving/Sifting 1.16 0.959 Low 3.85 0.435 High 7 Frying/ Roasting 1.07 0.856 Low 3.93 0.473 High 8 Drying 2.28 0.587 Low 3.83 0.378 High 9 Packaging/bagging 2.43 0.790 Low 3.66 0.597 High 10 Storing 2.06 0.708 Low 3.74 0.605 High
Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013.
From the result presented in Table 4.5, it was revealed that the level of involvement by men was low in 10 out of the 11 cassava pellet processing stages. These were revealed with the mean values of the 10 pellet processing activities which ranged from 1.14 to 2.37 which are less than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on 4-point rating scale indicating that men involvement in the 10 activities are low. The involvement of men in milling dried cassava pellet was high as indicated by the mean value of 3.87.
On the other hand, the level of involvement of women in cassava pellet processing were high in all the 11 identified cassava pellet is massing aciiviucs. This was shown by the mean values that ranged between 2.58 and 3.94 which are all greater than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on 4-point rating scale. This also clearly indicated that the processing of cassava into pellets is dominated by women. This findings agreed with the findings of Fresco (1998) also noted that women farmers play vital roles in food production and processing, accounting for about 80% of food producers in Africa. Anyanwu and Agu
(1996) reported further that women are responsible for at least 70% of the staple food production in Africa and are grossly responsible for household food processing, utilization and marketing.
Table 4.5 Mean Comparison of Men and Women Involvement in Cassava Processing into Pellets in Kogi State, Nigeria. (N=100) Men Women N=22 N=78 SN Cassava processing into Pellets X SD Rmks X SD Rmks
1 Peeling 1.35 0.609 Low 3.92 0.472 High 2 Washing 1.68 0.741 Low 3.85 0.592 High
3 Chipping/cutting into pieces 2.07 0.700 Low 3.74 0.441 High
4 Soaking/Fermenting 2.35 0.077 Low 3.89 0.473 High
5 Dewatering/Pressing 2.37 0.747 Low 3.69 0.875 High
6 Drying 1.28 0.273 Low 3.85 0.870 High 7 Pounding 1.21 0.409 Low 3.94 0.683 High 8 Milling 3.87 0.498 High 3.58 0.638 High
9 Sieving/Sifting 1.14 0.349 Low 3.85 0.809 High
10 Packaging/bagging 2.37 0.747 Low 3.64 0.623 High
11 Storing 2.17 0.256 Low 3.88 0.557 High
Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013.
4.4: Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Cassava Processors Influencing Income in the Study Area.
Table 4.6 presents the results of the regression analysis which shows that the double log functional form had the best fit, based on the values of R (0.93), the levels and number of significant explanatory variables and their signs. The F-value of
(128.431) indicated that the overall equation was highly significant at (p<0.01) while
Durbin-Watson (DW) of 2.664, showed the absence of autocorrelation. Out of the nine explanatory variables specified in the model, six were statistically significant; these were age, gender, education, experience, access to credit and number of labourers in the cassava processing enterprise.
Age of the cassava processors was positive and significantly related to income at p<0.05 level of significance. All things being equal, the increase in age of the processors may also coincide with increased year of experience in cassava processing enterprise which is expected to positively influence income. This findings agreed with the findings of Ibekwe, et al (2012) where the authors found that age of cassava processors significantly influence profit, although negatively related. Gender (male 1, female 0) of the processors significantly and negatively affected income at (p<0.05).
The negative significant relationship suggests that female processors perhaps have more income from cassava processing than the men. This conform with the findings of Okwor (2010) who found that gender in favour of women significantly affected processing of groundnut into groundnut oil in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
The coefficient of the educational qualification of the processors was
significant at p<0.01 and positively related with income. This conformed with a priori
expectation that educated farmers stand a better chance of increased productivity than the illiterate ones. The finding of this study on influence of education on income of the cassava processors is in consonance with that of Ibekwe, et al (2012) whose findings showed that level of education was significant at 1% and positively correlated to profit. Educated persons by implication have greater ability to understand and adopt new technologies and this helps them to enhance their proficiency in business. Years of cassava processing experience was positively correlated and significant at p<0.01 level. This is consistent with a priori expectation, as a person stays longer in a business, the more experienced and efficient he becomes in handling the operations (Chikezie, et al, 2010).
Access to credit was significant (p<0.01) and positively related with income of the processors. This was also expected because, improved access to credit will increase capital for the cassava processing enterprise. This finding is in line with the findings of Oluwasola (2010) who carried out a study on stimulating rural employment and income for cassava processing farming households in Oyo S'tate,
Nigeria and found out among others that capital outlay were significant determinants of the size of enterprise. The size of a processing enterprise could also relate to the profit or income from the enterprise, all things being equal. Availability of labour in the cassava processing enterprise was positively and significantly related to income at p<0.01 level. This suggests that processors with more and readily available labourers in the cassava processing farm enterprise are more likely to make more profit than processors who suffer inadequacy of labourers. Agricultural processing is labour intensive and therefore require more labour supply to be effective. In addition, this findings too agreed with that of Babatunde, Omotesho and Sholotan (2007) on socioeconomic characteristics and food security status of farming households in
Kwara State, North- Central Nigeria where household labour availability improved
farm productivity.
Table 4.6 The Result of Multiple Regression Analysis on the Influence of Socio- economic Characteristics of the Cassava Processors on Income. Variables Linear Semi-Log {a}Double-Log
(CONSTANT) 5.615 12.598 9.708 (6.967)** (0.240)*** (0.186)***
AGE 11.448 0.013 2.364 (3.763) (0.015) (0.130)**
GENDER -2.712 -0.471 -0.096 (5.260)*** (0.220)** (0.004)***
EDUCATION -2.985 -0.101 0.094 (0.858)*** (0.016)*** (0.003)***
PROEXPRIENCE 3.024 0.051 1.964 (0.068)** (0.024** (0.142)***
HHHOLD SIZE 0.014 1.187 0.238 (0.237) (0.020) (0.032)
OWNERSHPOFMACHINE 5.901 0.524 0.177 (1.549) (0.154) (0.015)
ACCESSTOCREDIT 4.094 2.551 0.191 (0.649)** (0.507)*** (0.055)***
DISTANCE -6.912 -1.242 -0.064 (0.060) (0.113) (0.017)
NOOFLABOURERS 1.527 1.051 0.139 (0.742)*** (0.020)** (0.017)*** 2 R 0.891 0.852 0.930 Adjusted R 2 0.880 0837 0.916 F - Value 81.850 57.506 128.431 Durbin-Watson (DW) 2.571 2.583 2.664 Observation 100 100 100
Note: Figures in parentheses are standard errors. *** denotes p<0.01; ** denote 0.05; while * denotes 0.05 4.5 Profitability of Cassava Processing into Gari and Pellet. 4.5.1 Profitability of Processing Cassava into Garri The cost estimated in the processing of a ton of cassava tuber into garri in the study includes cost of fresh cassava tubers, labour cost, depreciation on store, cost of grinding, cost of processing materials and other costs. The total estimated cost was ₦30,360. Labour cost accounted for 21% of the total cost while the cost of tubers accounted 59% of the total production cost and 65% of the variable cost. The study shows an estimated Gross revenue (GR) of ₦50,400 and gross margin (GM) of ₦22,700. The average net return (NR) as computed from the study has ₦20,040. The Profitability Index (PI) of processing a tonnes of fresh cassava tubers into garri was 0.40, suggesting that 40% of the total revenue generated constitute the net income. This reveals an appreciable level of profit from processing cassava into garri and shows that garri processing is a very profitable venture. The Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) of 66% indicated that processors of cassava to garri earn 66% profit on every naira invested. This also indicated the profitability of garri processing in the study area. The Operating Expense Ratio (OR) of 0.55 shows that the variable cost consumed 55% of sales. Also the Rate of Return on Variable Cost (RRVC) was 172 indicating that for every naira incurred as variable cost in garri processing N172 was generated. The findings of this study agreed with that of Afolabi (2009) who found a profitability index of 0.35 for garri. In addition, the finding of this study is in line with the findings of Ibekwe, et al (2010) whose findings showed that cassava processing into garri generated profitability index (PI) of 0.42, Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) of 73% and Rate of Return on Investment (RRIC) of 178. Table 4.7: Profitability of a Tonne of Cassava Tubers Processed into Garri. Items Value in (N) Variable Cost (VC) Cost of a ton of fresh cassava tubers 18,000 Labour cost 6,500 Cost of grinding 1,000 Cost of Firewood 1,200 Miscellaneous cost 1,000 Total Variable Cost (TVC) 27,700 Fixed Cost (FC) Depreciation on store (4 years) 600 Depreciation on frying pan (3 years) 300 Depreciation on washing basin (2 300 years) Depreciation on knife (2 years) 50 Depreciation of Screw jack (3 years) 1,250 Depreciation of measuring bowl (2 120 years) Depreciation of sieve 40 Total Fixed Cost (TFC) 2,660 Total Cost (TC) 30.360 Total Revenue (TR) 50,400 Gross Margin (GM) 22,700 Net Return (NR) 20,040 Profitability Index (PI) 0.40 Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) 66% Operating Expenses Ratio (OR) 0.55 Rate of Return on variable Cost (RRVC) 172 Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013 4.5.2 Profitability of Processing Cassava into Pellets As presented in Table 4.8, the cost estimated in the processing of a tonne of cassava tubers into pellets include cost of fresh cassava tubers, labour cost, depreciation on store, cost of milling, cost of processing materials and other cost. The total estimated cost was N24,170. Labour costs accounted for about seven percent of the total cost while the cost of tubers accounted for about 74% of the total production cost. The estimated Gross revenue (GR) was N36,000 and gross margin (GM) of N13,100. The Net return (NR) was Nil,830. The Profitable Index (PI) of processing a ton of fresh cassava tuber into pellets was 0.33, suggesting that 33% of the total revenue generated from pellets constitute the net income. This reveals an appreciable level of profit from processing cassava into pellet which shows that pellet processing is a profitable venture in the study area. The Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) of 49% which implied that the processors of cassava to pellets earn 49% profit on every naira invested. The Operating expense Ratio (OR) of 0.64 shows that the variable cost consumed 64% of sales. Also the Rate of Return on Variable Cost (RRVC) was 151 gave an indication that for every naira incurred as variable cost in pellet processing Nl51 was generated. The findings of this study agreed with that of Mohammed, Apata, Peter and Fidelis (2010) on factors declining cassava production in Ogori-Magongo L.G.A. of Kogi State where the authors found an estimated profitability index of (PI) of 0.37. the findings of this study as corroborated the result of the study of Emekaro, lluobe and Alufohai (2008) whose findings show an RRI value of 0.86. Table 4.8: Profitability of a Tonne of Cassava Tubers Processed into Pellets Items Value in ( ₦) Variable Cost (VC) Cost of a ton of fresh cassava tubers 18,000 Labour cost 1,600 Cost of grinding 2,300 Miscellaneous cost 1,000 Total Variable Cost (TVC) 22,900 Fixed Cost (FC) Depreciation on store (4 years) 600 Depreciation on fermentation bowls (2 years) 500 Depreciation on knife (2 years) 50 Depreciation of measuring bowl (2 years) 120 Total Fixed Cost (TFC) 1,270 Total Cost (TC) 24.170 Total Revenue (TR) 36,000 Gross Margin (GM) 13,100 Net Return (MR) 11,830 Profitability Index (PI) 0.33 Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) 49% Operating Expenses Ratio (OR) 0.64 Rate of Return on variable Cost (RRVC) 151 Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013 4.6 Major Constraints Militating against Cassava Processors in the Study Area. Table 4.9 presents the major constraints facing cassava processors in the study area. As presented in Table, 4.8 out of the 28 identified constraints facing cassava processors had mean values that ranged between 2.53 and 3.57 which arc all greater than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on a 4-point rating scale. This indicated that the identified 18 items in Table 4.9 are challenges facing the processors in their cassava processing enterprises in the study area. The mean values of the other 10 items in the table had mean values that ranged from 2.00 to 2.48 which are less than the cut-off point value of 2.50 on 4-point rating scale. This indicated that the other ten items in the tables are not challenges or constraints facing processors in their cassava processing activities in the study area. Hence, the findings of this study on the major constraints militating against cassava processors is in line with the findings of Odebode (2008) who found that the problems encountered by cassava processors in Oyo State of Nigeria include high cost of processing equipment, transportation difficulties, poor infrastructural facilities, shortage of labour, poor access to market, lack of fund and poor storage facilities. The report of FAO (2012) on a similar study in Ghana and Nigeria revealed that some of the major constraints of cassava processors in West African countries include financial resource constraints, the difficulties and cost of procuring large amounts of fresh cassava, the lack of mechanised processing technologies, and the impossibility of storing products for reasonable periods of time due to product perishability. In addition, the findings of this study on constraints militating against cassava processors also conformed with that of Oyebode (2002) who in another study found that the major problems encountered by v/omen processors in order of severity include shortage of labour, high cost of processing, poor access to market, lack of fund and poor storage facilities . Table 4.9 Mean ratings of the Major Constraints Militating against Cassava Processors in Kogi State, Nigeria. (N=100) S/N Constraints militating against cassava processors X SD Rmks 1 High cost of processing inputs 3.30 0.461 Serious 2 High cost of transportation 3.57 0.506 Serious 3 Increased taxes on processed cassava products 2.35 0.219 Not Serious 4 High household pressure for consumption of the 2.95 0.219 Serious processed cassava products 5 Poor storage facilities and techniques 3.51 0.522 Serious 6 High interest rate on borrowed money for the 2.48 0.219 Not Serious 7 Fluctuation in price of processed cassava products 3.04 0.281 Serious 8 Poor road network for transporting fresh and processed 3.55 0.520 Serious Products 9 Bulkiness of the cassava tubers 3.33 0.473 Serious 10 Low acceptability of the processed cassava products in 2.12 0.651 Not Serious 11 Unstable market for the products in the area 2.37 0.170 Not Serious 12 Lack of technical -know -how to adopt cassava 2.90 0.261 Serious Technologies 13 Unstable weather condition threaten cassava processing 3.18 0.487 Serious 14 Problem of labour shortage in cassava processing 3.32 0.394 Serious 15 Poor quality of processed products in the market 2.33 0.493 Not Serious 16 Pressure from close substitutes such as wheat, semovita 2.54 0.499 Serious 17 Lack of capital for business expansion 3.15 0.557 Serious 18 Lack of space to sun-dry cassava products during 3.36 0.482 Serious 19 Tedious nature of cassava processing 3.09 0.287 Serious 20 Old age of most of the cassava processors 2.00 0.288 Not Serious 21 Lack of access to supporting facilities such as 2,44 0.463 Not Serious extension services etc 22 Lack of access to market information by the processors. 2.46 0.551 Not Serious 23 Insufficient knowledge on sources of credit to support 3.31 0.320 Serious business. 24 Lack of collateral security required to secure loan for 2.53 0.559 Serious cassava processing 25 High perishability of fresh cassava tubers 3.08 0.411 Serious 26 Insufficient extension agents to teach new innovations 2.62 0.301 Serious Processing 27 Heavy weight of cassava processing equipment 2.34 0.651 Not Serious 28 Shortage of water for cassava processing 2.47 0.171 Not Serious Source: Field Survey, 2012/2013. 4.7: Testing of Hypotheses HO 1: There is no significant difference between the mean contributions of men and women in cassava processing activities. The result presented in Table 4.10 showed that nineteen (19) out of twenty one (21) major activities in cassava processing had t-calculated (t-cal) values ranging from 5.08 to 11.53 which were all greater than the t-table (t-tab) value of 1.96 at p< 0.05 level of significance. This indicated therefore that there are significant differences in the levels of involvement by men and women in the 19 identified cassava processing activities. The involvement of women in cassava processing is significantly higher than that of the men. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was rejected on the 19 processing activities. On the remaining two processing activities, specifically, items 3 (grating) and 18 (milling) the t-calculated (t-cal) values were 1.63 and 1.48 respectively which are in each case less than the t-table (t-tab) value of 1.96 at p< 0.05 level of significance. This implied that there are no significant differences in the levels of involvement by men and women in the two identified cassava processing activities. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was accepted on the remaining 2 processing activities. The result of the test of significance in presented in table 4.10 Table 4.10: t-test statistics of the involvement of men and women in cassava processing into garri and pellets. 2 2 S/N Cassava Processing into Garri X1 S1 X2 S2 t-cal t-tab Remarks 1 Peeling 1.35 0.371 3.50 0.413 9.23 1.96 Sig. 2 Washing 1.58 0.549 3.05 0.294 8.56 “ Sig. 3 Grating 3.88 0.428 3.62 0.405 1.63 “ Not Sig. 4 Fermentation 2.47 0.898 3.59 0.142 5.52 “ Sig. 5 Dewatering/Pressing 2.53 0.213 3.27 0.189 5.08 “ Sig. 6 Sieving/Sifting 1.16 0.919 3.85 0.223 10.16 “ Sig. 7 Frying/ Roasting 1.07 0.732 3.93 0.142 11.53 “ Sig. 8 Drying 2.28 0.344 3.83 0.356 7.87 “ Sig. 9 Packaging/bagging 2.43 0.624 3.66 0.345 6.89 “ Sig. 10 Storing 2.06 0.501 3.74 0.366 8.55 1.96 Sig. Cassava Processing into Pellets 11 Peeling 1.35 0.370 3.92 0.222 9.49 1.96 Sig. 12 Washing 1.68 0.549 3.85 0.350 8.53 “ Sig. 13 Chipping/cutting into pieces 2.07 0.490 3.74 0.194 6.62 “ Sig. 14 Soaking/Fermenting 2.35 1.159 3.89 0.223 6.83 “ Sig. 15 Dewatering/Pressing 2.37 0.558 3.69 0.765 5.95 “ Sig. 16 Drying 1.28 0.374 3.85 0.756 9.38 “ Sig. 17 Pounding 1.21 0.167 3.94 0.405 8.70 “ Sig. 18 Milling 3.78 0.248 3.58 0.407 1.48 “ Not Sig. 19 Sieving/Sifting 1.14 0.121 3.85 0.654 8.89 “ Sig. 20 Packaging/bagging 2.37 0.558 3.64 0.388 9.37 “ Sig. 21 Storing 2.17 0.465 3.88 0.310 10.52 1.96 Sig. 2 2 Note: X 1 = Mean of men, X 2 = Mean of women, S1 = variance of men, S2 = variance of women, level of significance = 0.05 and Table value i.e t-tab = 1.96. CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1: Summary The study investigated the economics of cassava processing into garri and pellets in the Eastern senatorial zone of Kogi State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study described the socio-economic attributes of cassava processors in the study area, identified various technologies utilized by cassava processors, ascertained the gender roles in cassava processing, estimated the influence of socio-economic characteristics of the processors on their income, determined the profitability of processing cassava into gari and pellets and identified constraints militating against the processors of cassava in the study area. Data for the study were collected by the researcher with the help of two well trained research assistants. Multi-stage random sampling procedure was employed in selecting one hundred (100) cassava processors that constituted the respondents for the study Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency tables, means and percentages for realizing objective 1. Objective2, 3 and 6 were achieved with means and standard deviation using 4-point rating scale technique. Objective 4 was realized using multiple regression analysis while, Objective 5 was achieved using Gross Margin analysis and Rate of Return on Investment. From the data analyzed, 78% of the processors were women while the remaining 22% were men, the study found that majority (49%) of the cassava processors fall within 41-50 years age bracket with an average age of 40 years which still fall within the economically active age. Majority (61%) of the sample cassava processors were married while 46% had primary education. The average years of schooling by the cassava processors as estimated in this study is about 7 years while the average years of processing experience is about 22 years showing that majority of the farmers have acquired high number of years of experience in cassava processing enterprise. The average household size of the processors in the study area is 8 persons. Out of the eleven identified traditional technologies in cassava processing, nine were utilized by the processors in processing cassava into garri and pellets. Some of the traditional technologies utilized include: the use of kitchen knife, local calabash, covering of grated cassava with cloth or nylon bag for fermentation, cutlass for chopping cassava and uses of heavy stones for dewatering among others. On the improved technologies used by the processors, only five out of the fourteen identified improved technologies were utilized. These include aluminum or plastic tank for washing peeled cassava, motorized grater for grating peeled cassava into paste, batch fermentation in aluminum or plastic tank and screw-jack for pressing or dewatering. The findings of the study on gender roles in cassava processing showed that the level of involvement of men in cassava processing into garri and pellet were low in 18 out of the 21 identified stages of processing the two products while on the other hand the level of involvement of women were high in 19 out of the 21 identified stages. This confirmed that the bulk of cassava processing activities in the study area are carried out by women. On the profitability of cassava processing in the study area, the result of the gross margin analysis showed that processing a ton of fresh cassava tuber to garri attracted a gross margin of N22,700 and profitability index (PI) of 0.40 while processing of the same quantity of fresh cassava tuber into pellet had a gross margin of N13,100 and profitability index (PI) of 0.33. This indicated that, processing cassava into garri is more profitable in the study area than processing into pellet. The results of the regression analysis which shows that the double log functional form had the best fit, based on the values of R 2 (0.93), the levels and number of significant explanatory variables and their signs. The F-value of (128.431) indicated that the overall equation was highly significant at (p<0.01) while Durbin-Watson (DW) of 2.664, showed the absence of autocorrelation. Out of the nine explanatory variables specified in the model, six were statistically significant; these were age, gender, education, experience, access to credit and number of labourers in the cassava processing enterprise. The study shows that, 18 out of the 28 identified constraints were the challenges facing cassava processors in the area. Some of the major challenges (constraints) facing the cassava processors as found out by the study include: high cost of processing inputs, high cost of transportation, poor storage facilities and techniques, fluctuation in price of processed cassava products, poor road network for transporting fresh and processed cassava products, bulkiness of the cassava tubers, lack of technical- know-how to adopt cassava processing technologies, unstable weather condition threaten cassava processing and problem of labour shortage in cassava processing. 5.2: Conclusion From this study, it was found that most of the respondents were women in their active working age, majority of who are married and experienced in the processing enterprise. The level of utilization of improved technologies by the cassava processors was very low. Processing of cassava into garri and pellets are still being carried out using traditional technologies. The processing of cassava in the study area is dominated by women while men play little roles. The profitability analysis showed that processing cassava into garri is more profitable with a profitability index (PI) of 0.40 as against that of pellet which has a profitability index (PI) of 0.33. Socio-economic attributes of the farmers such as age, gender, education, experience, access to credit and number of labourers in the cassava processing enterprise significantly influenced their income. The major challenges of the cassava processors include: high cost of processing inputs, high cost of transportation, poor storage facilities and techniques, fluctuation in price of processed cassava products and poor road network for transporting fresh and processed cassava products among others. Recommendations Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. The government should make the processors aware of appropriate technologies that can reduce labour bottlenecks and enhance processing and home activities in the state. Existing technologies must be relevant to the needs of the processors. 2. Efforts should be made by technology developers in making new processing technologies and devices as close as possible to the existing traditional ones. This will facilitate acceptability. 3. The income of the processors was significantly and statistically affected by their socio-economic characteristics, therefore there should be capacity building for the processors to improve their social and wellbeing for profitable cassava processing in the area. 4. The government through formulation of appropriate policies should help stabilize the prices of agricultural commodities to encourage fanners and processors in their respective enterprises. 5. 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I therefore solicit for your cooperation to respond as objective as possible to the questions/items in the questionnaire. It is purely academic work and all information supplied by you will be strictly treated in confidence and for the purpose of the research work. Thank you for your patience and cooperation. Yours faithfully, Inyada, Ladi. E (Researcher) QUESTIONNAIRE/INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 1. Agric Zone...... 2. Local Government Area……………………………………………… 3. Village/Town...... Section A: Socio-economic Characteristics of the Farmers 1. Gender of Household Head: ...... 2. Age in years:...... 3. Marital Status: Single Married Widow Divorced 4. What is your household size:...... 5. How many of your children are below 10 years of age ………………... 6. Level of Education: i. Never attended school ii. Attended primary school iii. Attended secondary school iv. Attended any higher institution 7. Number of people in your farming household...... 8. Years of processing experience ...... 9. Do you have any other occupation outside farming: Yes No 10. What is your estimated income per production period? (N...... ,...... ) 11. Do you have free access to farm credits or loans? Yes No 12. Membership of farmers' cooperatives Yes No 13. Number of labour employed in the processing business...... 14. Location of the household: Rural Urban 15. Ownership of grating/machine pressing machine: Yes No 16. Distance to market ...... kilometres 17. Your main processed products: i. Garri ii. Pellets iii. Both Section B: Description of Various Technologies adopted by the Cassava Processors S/N (A) Traditional Technologies Highly Moderately Less Not Utilized Utilized Utilized Utilized 4 3 2 1 1 Kitchen knife for peeling cassava 2 Local calabash bowl for washing 3 Hand grater for grating peeled cassava 4 Rough stone for grating peeled cassava 5 Covering of grated cassava cloth or nylon bag 6 Using kitchen knife or cutlass for chopping 7 Uses of heavy stones for dewatering 8 Woven baskets for sieving 9 Cast Iron pan over wood fire for frying 10 Sun drying products on platform or road sides 11 Use of local jute bag for bagging products (B) Improved Technologies Highly Moderately Less Not Utilized Utilized Utilized Utilized 4 3 2 1 1 Abrasive peeler for peeling cassava 2 Mechanical peeler for peeling cassava 3 Aluminum tank for washing peeled cassava 4 Motorized grater for grating peeled cassava 5 Mechanical pulverizer for chopping cassava 6 Batch fermentation in aluminum tank 7 Screw-jack for pressing or dewatering 8 Hydraulic jack for pressing or de watering 9 Parallel board for pressing or dewatering 10 Vibrating sieve for sieving garri & other products 11 Drum drier for drying cassava products 12 Solar dryer for drying garri & other products 13 Kiln or oven type dryer for drying garri & 14 Scaled polythene bags for packaging Section C: Gender Roles in Cassava Processing into Garri and Pellets The response options and the values are: Highly Involved (HI) = 4 Moderately Involved (MI) = 3 Less Involved (LI) = 2 Not Involved (NI) = 1 Men Women S/N A. Cassava processing into Garri HI MI LI NI HI MI LI NI 1 Peeling 2 Washing 3 Grating 4 Fermentation 5 Dewatering/Pressing 6 Sieving/Sifting 7 Frying/ Roasting 8 Drying 9 Packaging/bagging 10 Storing S/N B. Cassava processing into Pellets HI MI LI NI HI MI LI NI 1 Peeling 2 Washing 3 Chipping/cutting into pieces 4 Soaking/Fermenting 5 Dewatering/Pressing 6 Drying 7 Pounding 8 Milling 9 Sieving/Sifting 10 Packaging/bagging 11 Storing Section D: Profitability of processing cassava into garri and pellets Average returns per ton of cassava processed into garri 1 . What is the average labour cost for processing one ton of cassava into garri (N...... ) 2. The estimated cost of one ton of cassava tuber (N...... ) 3. Cost of grinding one ton of cassava tuber (N...... ) 4. Depreciated cost of processing equipment (N...... ) 5. Transportation cost (N...... ) 6. Cost of firewood for frying garri (N...... ) 7. Cost of storage of garri before sales (N...... ) 8. The estimated revenue on one ton of cassava processed (N...... ) Average returns per ton of cassava processed into pellets 1. What is the average labour cost for processing one ton of cassava into pellets (N...... ) 2. Cost of milling one ton of cassava tuber (N...... ) 3. Depreciated cost of processing equipment (N...... ) 4. Transportation cost (N...... ) 5. Cost of storage of pellets before sales (N...... ) 6. The estimate revenue on one ton of cassava processed (N...... ) Section E: Constraints militating against cassava processors S/N Constraints militating against cassava Very Less Not processors Serious Serious Serious Serious 1 High cost of processing inputs 2 High cost of transportation 3 Increased taxes on processed cassava products 4 High household pressure for consumption of the processed cassava products 5 Poor storage facilities and techniques 6 High interest rate on borrowed money for the processing business 7 Fluctuation in price of processed cassava 8 Poorproducts road network for transporting fresh and processed cassava products 9 Bulkiness of the cassava tubers 10 Low acceptability of the processed cassava products in the market 11 Unstable market for the products in the area 12 Lack of technical-know-how to adopt cassava processing technologies 13 Unstable weather condition threaten cassava processing 14 Problem of labour shortage in cassava 15 Poorprocessing quality of processed products in the market 16 Pressure from close substitutes such as wheat, semovita, semolina etc 17 Lack of capital for business expansion 18 Lack of space to sun-dry cassava products during processing 19 Tedious nature of cassava processing 20 Old age of most of the cassava processors limiting their production capacity 21 Lack of access to supporting facilities such as cooperatives, extension services etc 22 Lack of access to market information by the processors. 23 Insufficient knowledge on sources of credit to support processing business. 24 Lack of collateral security required to secure loan for large scale cassava processing 25 High perishability of fresh cassava tubers 26 Insufficient extension agents to teach new innovations in cassava processing 27 Heavy weight of cassava processing equipment 28 Shortage of water for cassava processing