1 Concepts of Europe in a Polish Political Tradition

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Notes

1 Concepts of Europe in a Polish political tradition

1. 3 May 1791 Constitution. Prepared by J. Kowecki, Warszawa, 1981, pp. 81–101. 2. The manuscript of this plan can be found in the Nancy library. Stanisl/aw Leszczyn´ski was elected king of the United Republic 1704–1710 and again in 1733 when he was driven out by the Russians. He was strongly influenced by the Enlightenment and advocated the cause of reform in Poland. 3. E. Cie´slak, Stanisl/aw Leszczyn´ski, Wrocl/aw–Warszawa–Kraków, 1994, p. 214. 4. S. Leszczyn´ski, Inédits, Plans de paix, Nancy de L’Eglise, Nancy, 1984. 5. S. Skrzetuski, Projekt czyli ul/o˙zenie nieprzerwanego w Europie pokoju, Warszawa, 1775. 6. S. Staszic, ‘My´sli o równowadze politycznej w Europie’, in Dziela Stanisl/awa Staszica, Warsaw, 1816, pp. 1–28. 7. M. Kukiel, Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861, Westport, CT, Greenwood Publishers, 1981, 1st pub. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1955, p. 45. 8. A.J. Czartoryski, Essai sur la diplomatie, Paris, 1830, pp. 407–19. 9. Kukiel, p. 45. 10. S. Kalembka, O nasza˛ i wasza˛ wolno´sć. Studia z dziejów polskiej my´sli politycznej doby romantyzmu, Olsztyn, OBN, 1997 pp. 77–8. 11. B. Urbankowski, Filozofia i codzienno´s. My´sl romantyczna, Warsaw, 1995, pp. 113–14. 12. ibid., p. 115. 13. S. Buszczynski, Ameryka i Europa. Studium historyczne i finansowe, Kraków, 1876. 14. A. Molska, Pierwsze pokolenie marksistów polskich. Wybór pism i materialów zródlowych z lat 1878–1886, Warsaw, 1962, p. 83. 15. ibid., pp. 76–7. 16. B. Limanowski, ‘Jaka˛ droga˛ doszedl/em do socjalizmu ?’ in Socjalizm, demokracja, patriotyzm, Kraków, 1902, pp. 85–7. 17. B. Limanowski, ‘Naród i pan´stwo’, in B. Limanowski, Socjalizm jako konieczny objaw dziejowego rozwoju, Wybór pism by J. Sztumski, Warsaw, 1989, p. 433. 18. B. Limanowski, Historia demokracji polskiej w epoce porozbiorowej, Warsaw, 1946, pp. 2, 358. 19. Roman Dmowski founded the National Democratic Movement in 1897 and in 1919 headed the Polish Delegation to the Peace Conference. He wanted a Poland for the Poles, rejecting expansion after the war into the ethnically non-Polish territories of the former Rzeczpospolita. Pil/sudski, first a socialist then a nationalist, was accepted as President and then Commander in Chief in the Russo-Polish war 1920–21. His idea of Poland was an extensive federation of Poland, Lithuania and Ukraine. 20. J. Pil/sudski, Pisma, Mowy, Rozkazy, vol.V, Warszawa, 1937, p. 390. 21. M. Niedzial/kowski, Demokracja parlamentarna w Polsce, Warsaw, 1930, p. 12; J. Pil/sudski, Pisma, Mowy, Rozkazy, vol.V, p. 390.

235 236 Notes

22. B. Urbankowski, Józef Pil/sudski marzyciel strateg, vol.2, Warsaw, 1997, p. 390; M.K. Dziewanowski, ‘Pil/sudski’s Federal Policy, 1919–1921’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.10, no.2, July 1950, Part I, pp. 119–22. 23. M.M. Drozdowski, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Zarys Biograﬁi politycznej, Warsaw, 1981, p. 133. 24. That is, the expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Jagiellonian dynasty, 1385–1572. 25. During the 1930s he published a magazine called Przeglad Wschodni entirely devoted to the problems of the Soviet Union. 26. J. Grzegorzewski, Ku czarnomorzu. Zarys bal/tycko – czarnomorskiej dynamiki ludów, Kraków, 1979, p. 19. 27. J. Lewandowski, ‘Pierwsze próby integracji Europy Srodkowej´ po i wojnie ´swiatowej na tle rywalizacji polsko-czechosl/owackiej’, in R. Gerber ed., Studia z dziejów ZSRR i Europy Srodkowej´ , vol.II, Wrocl/aw – Warsaw – Kraków, 1967, pp. 147–8. 28. ibid., pp. 153–5. 29. ibid., pp. 156–7. 30. Emmanuel Malynski, How to Save Europe, London, Cecil Palmer, 1925, ﬁrst pub. France, 1922. 31. Feliks Gross and M. Kamil Dziewanowski, ‘Plans by Exiles from East European Countries’, in Walter Lipgens ed., The European Idea 1914–1932, Chapel Hill and London, University of North Carolina Press, 1983, p. 158; John Pomian ed., Józef Retinger: Memoirs of an Eminence Grise, London, Sussex University Press, 1972, p. 72. 32. Vojtech Mastny, ‘The Historical Experience of Federalism in East Central Europe’, East European Politics and Societies, vol.14, no.1, Winter 2000, p. 79; ‘News from Invaded Nations’, New Europe, vol.1, no.8, July 1941. 33. For an extended discussion of Retinger’s career see, for example, Thierry Grosbois, ‘The Activities of Józef Retinger in Support of the European Idea: 1940–1946’, in Thomas Lane and Marian S. Wolan´ski eds, Poland and European Unity: Ideas and Reality, Wrocl/aw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocl/awskiego, 2007. 34. ‘O polska˛ teze˛ bezpieczen´stwa’, Kurier Warszawski, 29 March 1936.

2 A ﬁne idea

1. Józef Garlin´ski, Poland in the Second World War, London, Macmillan, 1985, p. 25; John Erickson, ‘The Red Army’s March into Poland, September 1939’, in Keith Sword ed., The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces 1939–41, Basingstoke, Macmillan in assn. with SSEES, 1991, pp. 20–2. 2. Keith Sword, with Norman Davies and Jan Ciechanowski, The Formation of the Polish Community in Great Britain, 1939–1950, London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, 1989, p. 37; Malcolm J.Proudfoot, European Refugees 1939–1952: A Study in Forced Population Movement, Evanston IL, Northwestern University Press, 1956, p. 35; Michael Hope, Polish Deportees in the Soviet Union: Origins of Post-War Settlement in Great Britain, London, Veritas Foundation Publication Centre, 1998, p. 6; Garlin´ski, p. 55. Notes 237

3. Sword, with Davies and Ciechanowski, p. 37; Garlin´ski, pp. 55, 88; Hope, pp. 6–8. 4. Hope, p. 8; Keith Sword, Identity in Flux: The Polish Community in Britain, London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, 1996; Jerzy Zubrzycki, Polish Immigrants in Britain: A Study of Adjustment, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1956, p. 54. 5. Sword, with Davies and Ciechanowski, pp. 40–50; Proudfoot, pp. 65–6; Zubrzycki, p. 55. For a broad overview of the exodus of Polish combatants and civilians to Britain see Thomas Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler: The Exodus of Poles and Balts to Britain, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 6. J. /Laptos and M. Misztal, ‘American Debates on Central European Union 1942–1944’, in Documents of the American State Department, Brussels, PIE-Peter Lang, 2002, p. 19. 7. Wiadomo´sci Polskie, 15 November, 1940, quoted in Walter Lipgens ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, vol.2, Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1986, VIII ‘East European Plans for the Future of Europe: The Example of Poland’, p. 627. 8. Thomas G. Masaryk, The New Europe (The Slav Standpoint), Lewisburg, Bucknell University Press, 1918, p. 77. 9./ Laptos and Misztal, p. 28. 10. Polish Library and Cultural Institute (henceforth POSK) London, Retinger Papers 1280/Rps, no.24a, ‘My Part in the Movement for the Unity of Europe’, p. 8. 11. Feliks Gross and M. Kamil Dziewanowski, ‘Plans by Exiles from East European Countries’, in Walter Lipgens ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, vol.2, Plans for European Union in Great Britain and in Exile, 1939–1945, Berlin, New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1986, p. 359. 12. Gross and Dziewanowski, p. 357; Lawrence L. Barrell, ‘Poland and East European Union 1939–1945’, The Polish Review, vol.III, nos. 1–2, Winter–Spring 1958, p. 101; the original and extended title of New Europe was New Europe and World Reconstruction, which indicated its initial universalist aspirations. 13. Gross and Dziewanowski, pp. 358–60. 14. Gross, Crossroads, pp. 25–6; Gross, ‘Views of East European Transnational Groups on the Postwar Order in Europe’, in Lipgens ed., Documents, vol.2, 1986, pp. 754–5; Barrell, p. 94. 15. Files of the Central and East European Planning Board, New York, 14 January, 1942; the civilian organisations were complemented by an organisation made up of ofﬁcers and men of the Polish Second Army Corps in Italy called Intermarium, a precursor of a post-war organisation of the same name. This too called for a federal union of all countries between the four seas, the Baltic, Black, Aegean and Adriatic, Gross and Dziewanowski, p. 360. 16. Gross, ‘Views’, p. 775; Gross, Crossroads, pp. 40–1; Stephen Borsody, The Tragedy of Central Europe: Nazi and Soviet Conquest and Aftermath, revised ed. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1980, p. 104. 17. See for a brief discussion of this topic Oscar Halecki, ‘The Problem of Federalism in the History of East Central Europe’, The Polish Review, Summer 1960. 18. Dov Biegun, ‘A Mid-European Confederation’, September 1943, in Lipgens ed., Documents, vol.2. 238 Notes

19. Ilia Neustadt, Regional Understanding and Federalism (rept. From the Czechoslovak Year Book of International Law, 1942), London, Czechoslovak Branch of the International Law Association, 1942, p. 141. 20. In a speech to the Central and East Europe Planning Board, 27 November 1942, the Public Record Office London (now National Archives, henceforth NA), NA FO371 34560 C231/231/55, 1 January 1943. 21. Lipgens ed., Documents, 1986, 2, VIII, pp. 628–9. 22. Gross, Crossroads, pp. 35–6. 23. Feliks Gross, ‘United Europe or Spheres of Influence?’, New Europe, vol.IV, no.10, December 1944; Adam Zól/towski, Germany Russia and Central Europe, Free Europe Pamphlet no.4, London, March 1942, pp. 6–9. 24. A. Suha, Economic Problems of Eastern Europe and Federalism, Cambridge, Galloway and Porter, 1942; Zól/towski, p. 25. 25. The Polish Review, vol.III, no.1, 4 January 1943; Gross, Crossroads, p. 20. 26. Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum, London, (henceforth PISM), Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/19, ‘The Problem of Central and South-Eastern Europe’, memorandum of Polish Government to Anthony Eden, December 1942, pp. 1–2. 27. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, ‘The Doctrine and the Practical Aspects of a Central and East European Union of Nations’, lecture by Jan Wszelaki to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 17 March 1943, pp. 5, 22. 28. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, Report of a Special Meeting of the Polish and Russian Sub-Committee of the RIIA, 5 March 1941, p. 15. 29. Wszelaki, ‘The Doctrine’, p. 21. 30. Milan Hodˇza, ‘Central European Federation’, The Contemporary Review, no.910, October 1941, p. 234. 31. Lipgens ed., VIII ‘East European Plans’, p. 634. 32. ibid., p. 637; Jan Stanćzyk, ‘Speaking to Poland...’, The Polish Review, vol.14, December 1941. 33. Wszelaki, ‘The Problem of Central and South-Eastern Europe’, pp. 2, 4. 34. M. Szerer, Europe: Federalism–Leadership–Organization, London, Macdonald & Co., nd., p. 5; Wszelaki, ‘The Problem of Central and South-Eastern Europe’, p. 4; see also Ladislav Feierabend, ‘A Plan for Central Europe’, Polish Review, vol.14, December 1941. 35. Otakar Odloˇzilík, ‘Twilight or Dawn for the Small Nations?’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.1, no.1, April 1941, pp. 46–54. 36. Alexander S. Kohanski, ‘Problems of Minority Rights in East Central Europe’, New Europe, October 1943. 37. Independent Central European Federal Association in London, Commonwealth of Central Europe, London, 1943, pp. 5, 9. 38. Feliks Gross, ‘Destruction and Rebirth’, in Lewis Corey ed., Democratic Postwar Reconstruction in Central Eastern Europe, Yellow Springs, Ohio, Antioch Press, 1943, p. 12; for a definitive discussion of cultural autonomy see John Hiden, Defender of Minorities: Paul Schiemann, 1876–1944, London, Hurst & Company, 2004, Chapter 7. 39. Lewis Corey, Democratic Postwar Reconstruction in Central Eastern Europe, Yellow Springs, Ohio, Antioch Press, pp. 61–3. 40. Gross, Crossroads, p. 36. 41. Vojta Beneˇs, ‘The Mission of Small Nations’, in Lipgens ed., Documents, vol.2, p. 373. 42. Kohanski, New Europe, October, 1943. Notes 239

43. Szerer, p. 5. 44. Rudolf Schlesinger, Federalism in Central and Eastern Europe, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd., 1945, pp. 440–1, 478. 45. Polish Government, ‘Memorandum’, December 1942, p. 2. 46. Report of Special Meeting RIIA, p. 12. 47. Eduard Táborsk´y, ‘A Polish–Czechoslovak Confederation: A Story of the First Soviet Veto’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.9, no.4, January 1950, p. 380; Polish Government, ‘Memorandum’, p. 2. 48. W. Kulski, ‘Poland and Central Europe’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.2, no.4, January 1943, p. 369; Neustadt, p. 144; Zól/towski, p. 31; PISM, KOL414/7, Speech of Zygmunt Sl/awinski, Central European Federal Club, January 1950. 49. Gross, Crossroads, pp. VII, 16. 50. PISM KOL 414/1, Central European Federal Club, n.d. 51. Kulski, pp. 369–72. 52. Zól/towski, p. 30. 53. These two confederations will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. 54. Ladislav Feierabend, ‘Czechoslovakia and Central Europe’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.2, no.4, January 1943, pp. 359–63. 55. Jan Ciechanowski, ‘The Need for New Statesmanship’, New Europe, vol.1, no.9, August 1941, p. 220; Report of Special Meeting RIIA, p. 13. 56. Gross, ‘Destruction and Rebirth’, p. 12; Polish Freedom Movement ‘Independence and Democracy’ (Polish acronym NiD), Charter of the Free Man, December 1947. 57. Gross, Crossroads, pp. 1, 16. 58. Ben Pimlott ed., The Second World War Diary of Hugh Dalton 1940–45, London, Jonathan Cape in assn. with the London School of Economics and Political Science, 1986, p. 781. 59. NA FO 371 26376, Kennard to William Strang, 15 January 1941. 60. NA FO 371 26376, Letter from Savery to FO, 12 January 1941. Though Savery was generally a supporter of Poland, this was an example of the Polonoscepticism of the Foreign Ofﬁce. 61. NA FO 371 C5959/6/12, Dormer to Strang, 30 May 1941. 62. NA FO 371 26376, Strang, 19 January 1941; Roberts, 30 January 1941. 63. NA FO 371 C1132/6/12, Lockhart to Eden, 31 January 1941. 64. NA FO 371 31091 C13064/464/55 Dormer to Eden, 24 December 1942. 65. Lipgens ed., VIII East European Plans, pp. 611–28. 66. Lipgens, p. 614; Barrell, p. 91. 67. Lipgens, p. 612; Stefan Ropp, ‘General Sikorski’s Political Creed’, New Europe, July–August 1943; Wl/adisl/aw Malinowski, ‘Polish Labour Faces World Problems’, New Europe, January 1944; Polish Ministry of Information, The Polish Fortnightly Review, no.80, 15 November 1943. 68. Malinowski, pp. 13–14. 69. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, lecture to RIIA, 17 March 1943, pp. 6–7. 70. Wszelaki, loc.cit.

3 A predicable failure

1. This chapter is an amended and enlarged version of Thomas Lane’s ‘Integrating East–Central Europe: The Polish–Czechoslovak Plans and the Opposition of the Great Powers, 1939–1945’, The Central and East European Review, vol.I, 2007. 240 Notes

2. Józef /Laptos, ‘Józef Retinger, “le père d’ombre” de l’Europe: le rôle de Józef Retinger et de ses réseaux personnels dans les débuts de la construction européenne’, in G. Bossuat, ed., Inventer l’Europe: Histoire nouvelle des groupes d’influence et des acteurs de l’unité européenne, Brussels, PIE-Peter Lang SA, 2003, p. 181. 3. Polish Social and Cultural Centre, Polish Library (henceforth POSK), Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, Box file II, Nr.24a, ‘My Part in the Movement for the Unity of Europe’; /Laptos, p. 181. 4. Ben Pimlott ed., The Second World War Diary of Hugh Dalton 1940–1945, London, Jonathan Cape in association with the London School of Economics, 1986, pp. 130, 488. 5. Wiadomo´sci Polskie, 15 November, 1940, in Walter Lipgens ed., Documents on the History of European Integration, vol.2, Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter 1986, VIII, ‘East European Plans for the Future of Europe: The Example of Poland’, p. 626, fn 4. 6. Public Record Office London, now National Archives (henceforth NA), FO 371 24480, C1972/1972/55, 2 February 1940. 7. See Chapter 1. 8./ Laptos, p. 181; J. /Laptos and M. Misztal, American Debates on Central European Union, Documents of the American State Department, Brussels, PIE-Peter Lang, 2002, p. 30. 9. NA FO371 31091 C464/464/55, 11 January 1942. 10. The Polish Fortnightly Review, no.80, 15 November 1943, Speech of Polish Prime Minister S Mikol/ajczyk to the National Council, 27 July 1943. 11. NA, FO371 26376 C5959/6/12, Letter from Sir C. Dormer to W. Strang, 30 May 1941. 12. Stephen Borsody, The Tragedy of Central Europe: Nazi and Soviet Conquest and Aftermath, revised ed., New Haven, Yale University Press, 1980, p. 103; Stephen E. Medvec, ‘Poland and Czechoslovakia: Can They Find That They Need Each Other?’ The Polish Review, vol.XXXVI, no.4, 1991; Piotr S. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation and the Great Powers 1940–1943, Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University Publications, 1956, pp. 40–1; Helen Lawrence Scanlon comp., ‘European Governments in Exile’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Library, Washington, DC, 25 January 1943, p. 4; Lawrence L. Barrell, ‘Poland and East European Union 1939–1945’, The Polish Review, vol.III, nos.1–2, Winter–Spring 1958. 13. Barrell, p. 91; The Polish Review, vol.II, no.35, 5 October 1942; Ladislav Feierabend, ‘A Plan for Central Europe’, The Polish Review, vol.I, no.14, 1 December 1941. 14. Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (henceforth PISM), Wszelaki Papers, KOL 39/35, 5 March 1941; The Polish Review, vol.III, no.1, 4 January 1943; Tadeusz Kisielewski, ‘The Problem of a Polish–Czechoslovak Confederation’, Polish Western Affairs, vol.XXXIII, 2, 1992; Kisielewski, ‘Project Federacji Polsko- Czechosl/owackiej i Idea Federacji Srodkowoeuropejskiej’,´ in Jery Kl/oczowski and Sl/awomir /Lukasiewicz eds, O nowy ksztal/t Europy, Lublin, Instytut Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej,´ 2003, p. 149. See also Kisielewski’s Federacja Srodkowoeuropejska.´ Pertraktacje polsko-czechosl/owackie, 1939–1943, Warsaw 1991. 15. Edvard Beneˇs, ‘The New Central Europe’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.I, no.1, April 1941. Notes 241

16. Vojtech Mastny, ‘The Historical Experience of Federalism in East Central Europe’, East European Politics and Societies, vol.14, no.1, Winter 2000; PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, 5 March 1941; NA FO 371 30827 C961/151/12 broadcast by Ripka 23 January 1942; NA FO 371, C12587/6/12, article by Beneˇs in Daily Telegraph ‘One Pillar of Future Peace in Central Europe’, 11 November 1941. 17. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, p. 36. 18. ibid., p. 36; NA, FO 371 30827 C961/151/12, broadcast by Ripka, 23 January 1942; PISM Polski Ruch Europejski, KOL 408/218, ‘The Basic Principles of the Confederation between Poland and Czechoslovakia’ – draft presented by Czech delegates end 1941. 19. The Polish Review, vol.III, no.1, 4 January 1943; /Laptos and Michtal, p. 50. 20./ Laptos and Michtal, p. 35; Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, pp. 41–2, letter from Sikorski to Beneˇs, 3 December 1940, and p. 87; NA, FO 371 24292 C13276/8531/12, 7 December 1940. 21./ Laptos and Misztal, pp. 51–2; Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, p. 109; PISM KOL 30/III/5, ‘The Future of Central-Eastern Europe’, Polish Fortnightly Review, 1 January 1943; Kisielewski, ‘The Problem...’, For Beneˇs too the fear of a communist revolution breaking out in Germany after the war was a major consideration. Hence Poland and Czechoslovakia should cooperate with the Soviet Union to dissuade the Soviet Union from backing a German revolution and sending the Red Army to its aid. 22. NA FO 371 32918, 7 February 1942. 23. NA FO 371 32918, 7 February 1942; FO 371 34564 C2296/258/G55, 22 February 1943. 24. Richard A. Walawender, ‘The Polish Question during World War II – A review of recent literature’, The Polish Review, vol.XXX, no.2, 1985; Sarah Meiklejohn Terry, Poland’s Place in Europe: General Sikorski and the Origin of the Oder-Neisse Line 1939–1943, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1983, passim. 25. Walawender, pp. 217, quoting from a document in Anthony Polonsky ed., The Great Powers and the Polish Question, 1941–1945: A Documentary Study in Cold War Origins, London, London School of Economics, 1976; also p. 221. 26. Edward Raczyn´ski, In Allied London, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962, p. 46; NA FO 371 34334 C1020/206/12 12 January 1943, letter from Leo Amery on conversation with Beneˇs. 27. Borsody, p. 107. This was a reference to the proposed expulsion of Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia after the war. 28. NA FO 371 32918 7 February 1942; FO 371 30827 C5813/151/12, 8 June 1942; Wandycz, ‘Recent Traditions’, p. 51. 29. NA FO 371 30827 C5813/151/12 8 June 1942. 30. Wl/adysl/aw W. Kulski, ‘The Anglo–Polish Agreement of August 25th, 1939: Highlight of My Diplomatic Career’, The Polish Review, vol.XXI, nos.1–2, 1976; Wandycz, ‘Recent Traditions’, p. 51; /Laptos and Michtal, p. 49; NA FO 371 30827 C6731/151/12, 3 July 1942. 31. NA FO 371 30827 C6731/151/12, 3 July 1942; Barrell, p. 34. 32. Edvard Beneˇs, ‘The Organization of Postwar Europe’, Foreign Affairs, XX, no. 2, January 1942; Wandycz, ‘Recent Traditions’; Borsody, p. 108. 33. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, pp. 33–4. 34. Kisielewski, ‘Project Federacji’, p. 149. 242 Notes

35. NA FO 371 30827 C151/151/12, 6 October 1941, minute by Frank Roberts. 36. NA FO 371 30828 C12165/151/12, 3 December 1942. 37. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, address of Wszelaki to the Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA), 8 March 1941, pp. 3–4; Eden’s comment in reference to the inclusion of Lithuania was that ‘Sikorski is wiser than most Poles, but doesn’t learn much all the same’, NA FO 371 31091 C12329/464/55, 9 December 1942. 38./ Laptos and Misztal, p. 50; NA FO 371 31091 C12329/464/55, 9 December 1942. 39. NA FO 371 26376, Lockhart to Eden, 19 January 1941. 40. Barrell, p. 114. 41. Beneˇs, ‘The Organization’, p. 233. 42. NA FO 371 30828 C9648/151/12, 6 October 1942. 43. NA FO 371 30828 C11494/151/12, 19 November 1942; FO 371 C6578/6/12, 16 June 1941; FO 371 30827 C4835/151/12, 8 May 1942. 44. NA FO 371 30828 C10145/151/12, 23 October 1942. 45. Polish Fortnightly Review, no.10, 1 December 1940. These included a senior minister, Dalton, a senior civil servant, Harold Nicolson, Kennard, the British Ambassador to Poland, Victor Cazalet, Churchill’s liaison man with Sikorski, General Bridge, and Frank Savery, a Foreign Office Polish expert. 46. PISM Polski Ruch Europejski, KOL 408/218, article by T. Komarnicki ‘Modern Projects for the Union of Central Eastern Europe’. 47. ‘Joint Declaration of the Polish and Czechoslovak Governments favoring closer political and economomic association’. 48. Wandycz, ‘Recent Traditions’, pp. 45–6. 49. PISM, Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, lecture to the RIIA, 17 March 1943; NA FO 371 C13252/6/12, 26 November 1941. 50. The Polish side was composed of Sosnkowski, Zaleski, Seyda and Raczyn´ski (the first three resigning after the conclusion of the Polish–Soviet agreement in July), and the Czeckoslovaks were represented by Masaryk, Ripka, Slavic and Feierabend. 51. NA FO 371 26376, 28 December 1940, 12 January 1941; FO 371 C3298/6/12, 29 March 1941; FO 371 C13252/6/12, 26 November 1941. 52. PISM Wszelaki Papers, KOL39/35, lecture to the RIIA, 5 March 1941, p. 9. 53. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, pp. 40, 46. 54. NA FO 371 C13252/6/12, 26 November 1941. 55. ‘Joint Communiqué issued on the anniversary of the Joint Polish–Czechoslovak Declaration, November 11, 1941’. 56. PISM Polski Ruch Europejski KOL 408/218, Polish Draft Constitutional Act of 21 May 1941; NA FO 371 C13370/6/12, 25 November 1941, Kulski to Foreign Office. See also Roberts’ minute giving an immediate British response. 57. T. Komarnicki, ‘Próba stworzenia zwia˛zku polsko–czechosl/owackiego w okresie II wojny swiatowej’,´ Sprawy Mie˛dzynarodowe, nos.2–3, 1947, pp. 79–80. 58. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, pp. 65–6. 59. Kisielewski, ‘The Problem...’, pp. 284–5. 60. Polish–Czechoslovak Declaration, signed 25 January 1942, United Nations Information Center, New York. 61. Kisielewski, ‘The Problem...’, p. 286. 62. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, lecture to the RIIA, 17 March 1943, pp. 27–8. 63. NA FO 371 30827 C7636/151/12, 29 July 1942. Notes 243

64. Lord Gladwyn, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972, p. 116. 65. Wandycz, ‘Recent Traditions’, p. 46. 66./ Laptos and Misztal, p. 184, quoting US Dept. of State document R.38 T224, 28 January 1943 ‘British Opinion on Postwar Arrangements in Eastern Europe’; p. 202, Dept. of State doc. ‘Soviet and British Attitudes towards Eastern European Union’, 18 February 1943. 67. Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, p. 68. 68. NA FO 371 30828 C10671/151/12, 4 November 1942; FO 371 26376, 28 December 1940. 69. NA FO 371 26376, 28 December 1940, 12 January 1941, 15 January 1941; FO 371 C6251/6/12, 5 June 1941. 70. NA FO 371 30827 C5534/151/12, 28 May 1942, Makins’ minute. 71. NA FO 371 24480 C7401/151/12, 24 July 1942, Roberts’ minute. 72. NA FO 371 26376 Bruce Lockhart to Eden, 12 January 1941; FO 371 30828 C11953/151/12, 3 December 1942, Roberts’ minute. 73. NA FO 371 30828 C12165/151/12, 3 December 1942; FO 371 30828, 6 November 1942; FO 371 30827 C6364/151/12, 21 June 1942. 74./ Laptos and Misztal, p. 202; NA FO 371 30828 C10670/151/12, 30 October 1942. 75. See Borsody, pp. 111, 113–15. Churchill gained no support from the U.S. government for his ideas, Roosevelt placing all his hopes in a new worldwide international organisation which might be threatened by regionalism. The Big Three discussions at Teheran 28 November–1 December 1943 placed the final nail in the coffin of Churchill’s regionalist notions. 76. NA FO 371 30828 C9428/151/2, 11 October 1942 and C10670/151/12, 26 October 1942; Borsody, p. 109. 77. The Rt.Hon. the Earl of Avon, The Eden Memoirs: The Reckoning, London, Cassell, 1965, p. 290; Táborský, p. 388; NA FO 371 C10191/6/12, 7 September 1941. 78. Táborský, p. 388. 79. PISM Wszelaki papers, KOL 39/35, lecture to RIIA 17 March 1943 p. 28; NA FO 371 36992 N4906/499/38, 10 August 1943. 80. Táborský, p. 389; Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, pp. 81–2. 81. NA FO 371 30827 C7636/151/12, 29 July 1942. 82. NA FO 371 36992 N4906/499/38, 10 August 1943. 83. David Weigall, ‘British Ideas of European unity and regional confederations in the context of Anglo–Soviet Relations 1941–5’, in M.L. Smith and P.M.R. Stirk eds, Making the New Europe, European Unity and the Second World War, London and New York, Pinter Publishers, 1990, p. 159; Wl/adysl/aw R. Malinowski, ‘Towards Polish–Soviet Understanding’, New Europe, Supplement, November 1943. 84. Weigall, p. 159; Wandycz, Czechoslovak–Polish Confederation, p. 94. 85. Borsody, p. 106. 86. NA FO 371 C10670/151/12, 12 October 1942; FO 371 31535 U1742/1742/70, 23 October 1942. 87. NA FO 371 30828 C11666/151/12, 27 November 1942. 88. NA FO 371 30828 C11666/151/12, 27 November 1942. 89. NA FO 371 34334 C2304/206/12, 15 February 1943. 244 Notes

90. NA FO 371 30828 C10145/151/12, 23 October 1942. 91. NA FO 371 30828 C10670/151/12, 30 October 1942. 92. NA FO 371 30827 C5534/151/12, 28 May 1942.

4 Creating a movement

1. In August 1945 it embraced delegates of the following emigration societies: Belarussian, Czech, Estonian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Polish, Slovakian, Ukrainian and Hungarian. The president of the club was General L. Prchala, a Czech and its secretary was S. Karalus, a Pole. Two other Polish federalists, namely E.W. Kozorowski and Z. Sl/owin´ski were management board members. In the autumn of 1945 a statute was adopted, which served as a model statute for later established clubs. A declaration entitled ‘Our Aims’ was adopted as the club’s policy paper. The Polish circle of the club included, among others, K. Dziewanowski, B. Doman´ski, S. Grocholski, J. Nowak (T. Jezioran´ski), J. Lerski, S. Olszewski, J. Starzewski, I. Widawski, A. Zagórski and A. Zól˙ /towski. In May 1948 the Coordinating Committee of the Youth of Central and Eastern Europe was set up which became a youth annex to the London club. The Polish group had the biggest membership, several dozen members in total, and included such activists as E. Kudrewicz, J. Krok-Paszkowski, J. Cydzik, J. Opolski and B. Sulik. See Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum London (hereafter PISM), Central European Federal Club, London, henceforth CEFCL, KOL 414/1 Korespondencja 1949–1950; ‘Nasze cele (London, 12 October 1945)’, Biuletyn Intermarium, Rome 1947; PISM, CEFC, KOL/11, Polancy w General Council, pp. 1–2; PISM KOL 414/13, Korespondencja, 1949–50, pp. 1–3; Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, Rome 1946, pp. 7–13. 2. PISM A11E/874, Kluby Federalne, ‘The East Central European Movement’s Aims and the Present Framework of Organisation’. 3. The Free Intermarium Charter was published by the Central European Federal Club, Rome, 1946. Among the most active members of the club were Latvians, Lithuanians, Slovakians, Hungarians and two other Poles. 4. As its name implies the Intermarium referred to the area between the seas, the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean. The Rome Club set up two branches in the Near East, in Beirut and Jerusalem, where there were substantial numbers of East European exiles immediately after the war, but these clubs had a very short life and ceased to exist as early as 1948. Informacja dotycza˛ca form organizacyjnych Ruchu Federalnego, London, 12 July 1949, p. 4. 5. Ambassador W. Grzybowski became chairman, and J. Gl/e˛bocky secretary. Members came from Belarus, the Baltic States, Poland, Romania and Hungary. 6. The Polish language version of the text was published in The Intermarium Bulletin, no.12, May 1949. 7. PISM CEFCL KOL 414/7, Klub Francuski 1947–50, Paris 10 April 1948, pp. 1–3. 8. ‘Federacja Amerykanów Srodkowo i Wschodnioeuropejskiego Pochodzenia’, Tygodnik Polski, 12 May 1946. Representatives of many East Central European national groups were members of this Federation. 9. The chair of the Brussels Club was a Pole, J. Straszewicz. PISM, CEFCL KOL 414/10, Klub belgijski, p. 1. Notes 245

10. W. Sidzikauskas, a Lithuanian diplomat, was elected its president and K. Hrabyk, a Pole, became its secretary. K. Hrabyk, May 1949, Re˛kopis Biblioteki Ossolineum, Wrocl/aw. 11. These included M. Grabyn´ski, a former Polish consul in Munich, J. Koblyan´ski, president of the Union of Polish journalists in the western zones of Germany, and J. Bial/asiewicz, the editor of Kronika. See Informacja dotyczaca..., pp. 7–8; the Federal Club in Innsbruck was established as late as March 1949. Its secretary was a Pole, Jerzy Hauptmann, who later became a prominent writer on federalism. 12. PISM CEFCL KOL 414/9, Klub szwajcarski, 1948–1949, pp. 1–4. 13. ‘Polski Instytut Badania Spraw Mie˛dzynarodowych’, Kronika, 1 February 1948. 14. J. /Lukasiewicz and A. Zól˙ /towski became vice-presidents and T. Komarnicki its general secretary. 15. Biuro Studiów Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej przy Polskim Instytucie Spraw Mie˛dzynarodowych (BSESW).´ 16. Informacja dotycza˛ca form organizacyjnych Ruchu Federalnego...p. 11. 17. PISM KOL 415/11, Ró˙znice programowe mie˛dzy rzymskim a londyn´skim o´srodkiem federalnym, p. 4. 18. J. Hauptmann, ‘Austria a federacja regionalna’, Biuletyn Intermarium, September 1949, no.13. 19. ‘Po ustaniu dzial/an´ wojennych (sierpen´ 1945)’, Biuletyn Intermarium, Rome 1947. 20. ‘Ideowe pol/o˙zenie konfederacji Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej’,´ Biuletyn Intermarium, no. 5. 21. Karta Wolnego Mie˛dymorza, p. 11; ‘Nasze cele...’, pp. 25–6. 22. Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, p. 12. 23. ‘Nasze cele...’, p. 26. 24. Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, pp. 10–1. 25. ‘Projekt Konwencji Pan´stwo Intermarium’, Biuletyn Intermarium, May 1949, no. 12. 26. ibid., p. 7. 27. ibid., p. 8. 28. ibid., pp. 11–12. 29. ibid., p. 12. The ‘Project’ said about economic policy: ‘The economic policy as well as the industrial and agricultural production of the member states shall be coordinated by the Union in order to establish close cooperation and common use of the disposed means. The member states will facilitate the establishment of the Union Bank, when appropriate, in order to ensure the stability of the currency. They will not conduct a policy which could delay the implementation of a customs union between them’. 30. Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, p. 13. 31. PISM KOL 415/11 Ró˙znice programowe mie˛dzy rzymskim a londyn´ski o´srodkiem federalnym, p. 4. 32. PISM KOL 415/11, BSESW,´ p. 2. 33. ibid., p. 6. 34. PISM, KOL.415/8, BSESW,´ J. Starzewski, Ku mie˛dzynarodowemu ustrojowi prawa (28. IX. 1948), p. 3. 35. PISM, KOL 415/8, BSESW,´ J. Starzewski, Wspól/czesne da˛zenia˙ cal/kuja˛ce a federalism regionalny, pp. 6–7. 246 Notes

36. Polish federalists drew on the ideas of Ely Culbertson, a son of an American engineer who rendered considerable services to the development of the Caucasus oil industry. His mother was a daughter of a Russian general. As the property of the Culbertson family was conﬁscated after the Bolshevik revolution, Culbertson went to the United States and started to earn by playing bridge. With time he created a system referred to as ‘contract bridge’. He also published several studies on international relations. Culbertson wanted to establish a global organisation, which would ensure the equality of all countries, protect the interests of larger countries and guarantee rights for small countries. He considered the following countries as leading or initiating states: the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Poland, Turkey, Russia, China and Japan. Each of the countries was to preside over a federation, the United States over a panamerican federation (the United States and all Southern American countries), Great Britain was to preside over a British federation (the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Southern Africa), France – a Latin federation (France, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Portugal), Germany – a German federation (Germany and Austria), Poland – a Central European federation (Poland, Lithuania, Czechia, Slovakia, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania and Greece), Turkey – a Near East federation (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Afghanistan and Egypt), Russian – A Russian federation (the USSR, Estonia and Latvia as autonomous countries and Bessarabia), China – a Chinese federation and Japan – a Japanese federation. The Malay and Hindi federations were to be restricted autonomies. Any other countries would be outside any of the communities. See Ely Culbertson, Total Peace. What makes wars and how to organise peace, London, 1944. 37. T. Komarnicki, Uwagi w sprawie projektów organizacji pan´stw Europy Wschodniej, London, 1948, p. 3. 38. ibid., pp. 9–10. 39. ‘Nasze spory’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no. 7. 40. Federalists opposed ‘opening’ competition between national cultures by their emancipation in the common area, as they were afraid that antago- nisms between the regional communities might prevail or become even deeper there. Therefore, they opted for ‘closing’ of national cultures within national borders. 41. J. Steﬁcki, ‘Wste˛p do rozwazan ˙ ´ federalnych’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.9, 1948. 42. ‘Inauguracja Klubu Federalnego Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej w Niemczech’, Kronika, 5 September 1948. 43. ‘Ukrainiec o Mie˛dzymorzu’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.8, 1947. 44. ‘Za czy przeciw federacji?’, Kronika, 30 January 1949. 45. The latter was also known as the Promethean League of the Atlantic Charter. 46. ‘Mie˛dzymorze i ALON’, Kronika, 1 February 1948. The founders and most important members of the ABN were politicians assembled around the Ukrainian Chief Liberation Council (UHWR), dominated by the followers of S. Bandera. 47. Forming the Nationalist Union of Ukraine, the main Ukrainian centre in exile. 48. S. Paprocki, Kwesta ukrain´ska, London, 1949, pp. 28–9. 49. PISM, KOL 414/8, Klub niemiecki 1947–1948, p. 1. 50. ibid., pp. 1–2. Notes 247

51. ‘Rozwazania’, ˙ Biuletyn Intermarium, no.7, 1947. 52. PISM, KOL 415/11, BSESW,´ Tezy dotycza˛ce problemu rosyjskiego, 2 December 1947, pp. 2–3. 53. T. Schaetzel, ‘Wschodnia granica Mie˛dzymorza’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. 54. ibid., pp. 3–4. 55. ibid., p. 1. 56. PISM, KOL 415/11, BSESW,´ Protokól z posiedzenia Komisji Zagadnien´ Srodkowo-Wschodnio-Europejskich´ I Federalnych PIBSM, 5 March 1948, pp. 1–2. 57. PISM, KOL 415/11, BSESW,´ Uwagi Komisji dla Spraw Sowieckich PIBSM, 19 May 1948, p. 2. 58. S. Karski, ‘Une Semaine dans le Monde’, Le Monde, 10 April 1948. 59. PISM KOL 414/8, CEFCL, Stanowisko zasadnicze Srodkowoeuropejskiego´ Ruchu Federalnego w sprawie traktatu z Niemcami, 27 December 1946, pp. 4–6. 60. ‘Rozwazania’, ˙ Biuletyn Intermarium, no.7, 1947; ‘Przeciweuropejska gra o Niemcy’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.8. 61. ‘Przeciweuropejska gra o Niemcy’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.8. 62. PISM KOL 414/8, CEFCL. Stanowisko zasadnicze...27 December 1946, pp. 4–6. 63. The Club proposed the following eight ‘components’: Rhine Westphalia, Hanover, Friesland, Hesse, Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony and Mecklenburg- Brandenburg. 64. PISM KOL 414/8, CEFCL, Stanowisko zasadnicze...27 December 1946. 65. ibid., p. 5. 66. PISM KOL 414/7, CEFCL Klub Francuski 1947–1950, pp. 1–3. 67. M.S. Wolan´ski, ‘Ruch Europejski w latach 1948–1952. Geneza, struktury, inic- jatywy polityczne’, in R. Gelles and M.S. Wolan´ski eds, Studia i szkice z dziejów najnowszych, politologiee i socjologii, Wrocl/aw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocl/kiego, 1994, p. 212. 68. PISM, A11E/874, Kluby Federalne, ‘The East Central European Movement’s Aims and the Present Framework of Organization’. 69. Zbiór dokumentów, nos.10–1, 1946, pp. 370–3. 70. W. Churchill, ‘One way to stop a new war’, The Daily Telegraph, no.30, December 1946. 71. J. Steﬁcki, ‘Realista buduje na piasku’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.6, 1947. 72. J. Librach, ‘Zagadnienie zjednoczonej Europy’, Sprawy mie˛dzynarodowe, February 1948. 73. PISM KOL 414-13, CEFCL Koresponencja, 1949–1950. Memorandum of the Central European Federal Movement, presented to the Congress of Europe to be held in The Hague, 4 May 1948, p. 1. 74. ‘Odezwa do Europejczyków przyje˛ta na zakon´czenie Kongresu Europejskiego w Hadze (May 1948)’, in W. Grodzicki, J. Pomian ed., Wspólnota Europejska. Przewodnik dokumentalny, London, 1982. 75. J. Jankowski, ‘Po kongresie w Hadze’, Kronika, 6 June 1948. 76. J. Bial/asiewicz, ‘Problem zjednoczenia Europy’, Kronika, 23 May 1948. See, however, Chapter 5 below for a different and more optimistic interpretation. 77. PISM, KOL 414/7, CEFCL Klub francuski 1947–1950. Wnioski z ostatnich do´swiadcen´ federalnych – referat przewodnicza˛cego PKR, E. Straucha, p. 1. 248 Notes

78. ‘Do wszystkich zrzeszen´ narodów Mie˛dzymorza na emigracji (Rome, May 1946)’, Biuletyn Intermarium, nos.3–4, 1946. 79. PISM KOL 415/11, BSESW,´ Protokól z posidzenia Komisji Zagadnien´ Srodkowo-´ Wschodnio-Europejskich i Federalnych PIBSM, 5 March 1948, p. 1. 80. PISM KOL 415/11 BSESW,´ J. Poniatowski, ‘Uwagi o notatce londyn´skiej pod tytul/em’, Wnioski, 24 August 1947. 81. PISM KOL 414/11 CEFCL, Grupa polska Klubu Londyn´skiego, 1947, p. 1. 82. PISM KOL 414/7 Klub francuski 1947–1950. Wnioski z ostatnich do´swiadczen´ federalnych – referat przewodnica˛cego PKF, E. Straucha, p. 2. 83. ‘Wezwanie’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.11, November, 1948. 84. W. Anders, ‘Przedmowa do pracy A. Plutyn´skiego’, Jest nas 115 milionów. Stany Zjednoczone Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej´ , Rome 1946, p. 6. 85. J. Poniatowski, ‘Jeszcze o trudno´sciach zjednoczenia “Mie˛dzymorza” ’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. 86. G. Celmins, ‘Reﬂeksje roz ˙zalonego Europejczyka’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. 87. ibid. 88. List K. Hrabyka do J. Starzewskiego, Re˛kopis Biblioteki Ossolineum, 16/352/11, Papiery Hrabyka, 26 July 1949. 89. ‘Club Fédéral de l’Europe Centrale á Paris – Déclaration’, The Intermarium Bulletin, no.15, May 1951. 90. The activities and ideas of the Union of Polish federalists and the Polish political parties in exile are respectively discussed in Chapters 7 and 8 below. 91. See Chapter 8 for more information about the ideas of this League. 92. ‘History of Central European Federalists’, European Press, April 1964.

5 Great expectations

1. See M.B. Biskupski, ‘Spy, Patriot or Internationalist? The Early Career of Józef Retinger, Polish Patriarch of European Union’, The Polish Review, vol.XLIII, no.1, 1998; Thierry Grosbois, ‘The Activities of Józef Retinger in support of the European Idea’, in Thomas Lane and Marian Wolan´ski eds, Poland and European Unity: Ideas and Reality, Wrocl/aw, Wrocl/aw University Press, 2007; Józef /Laptos, ‘Józef Retinger, “le père d’ombre” de l’Europe: Le rôle de Józef Retinger et des réseaux personnels dans les débuts de la construction européenne’, in G. Bossuat, ed., Inventer l’Europe: Histoire nouvelle des groupes d’inﬂuence et des acteurs de l’unité européenne, Brussels, PIE-Peter Lang SA, 2003; J. Pomian ed., Joseph Retinger: Memoirs of an Eminence Grise, London, Sussex University Press, 1972; Prince Bernhard, ‘Hommage à un grand Européen, J.H. Retinger’, Bulletin du Centre européen de la Culture, no. 5, 1960–61, p. 2. 2. Biskupski, p. 24, fn 8; Michel Dumoulin, ‘Les Débuts de la Ligue européenne de Coopération économique (1946–1949)’, Res Publica, no.1, 1987. 3. Zdzisl/aw Najder, Joseph Conrad: A Chronicle, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 415. 4. Polish Library and Cultural Institute London (henceforth POSK), Retinger papers, 1280 Rps, nr.24a, Box ﬁle II, ‘My part in the movement for the Unity of Europe’. Notes 249

5. POSK, Retinger Papers, Box IV, File 6, Korespondencja A–Z, profile of Retinger in The Observer, 9 May 1948. 6. It is not necessary here to explore in detail the various allegations made against Retinger, that he was a Jew and a Zionist, a British or a Soviet agent, a Freemason or a misguided anti-clerical – when taxed with Retinger’s Jewishness Sikorski replied ‘First of all Recio was baptized and his godfather was Count Zamoyski of Ku ˙znice himself’. Sufficient to note here that two respected Polish exiles, the historian Jozef Garlin´ski and the diplomat who worked with Retinger during the Second World War, W. Kulski, believed him to be a British agent. Malcolm Muggeridge, the British journalist, colourfully described him as ‘A Metternich of S.W.1, a Machiavelli of the Inner Circle, a Talleyrand of Notting Hill’. If this language seems exaggerated it should be noted that Muggeridge worked for British Intelligence during the Second World War and perhaps had inside knowledge of Retinger’s activities. As Spaak said about him, ‘he would have lunch every day with one British politician or another, or with a member of one of the governments in exile. He knew everybody and no door was closed to him’. At the same time he observed that Retinger was ‘a man of unique qualities’. His access to prominent political figures both in the U.K. and in the U.S. and his close association with General Colin Gubbins who was a leading figure in British Intelligence in the war, and General William.Donovan, a counterpart in the U.S., suggests that his entrée to high political circles was not simply related to his role as adviser to Sikorski. Nevertheless this role seems to have been very important in establishing his position in Allied government circles. As Jaspar commented, anyone who was informed knew ‘the exceptional role played by Mr. Retinger at General Sikorski’s side’, and his policies were, to a great extent ‘formulated by his collaborator’. But compare this with the terse remark of Edward Raczyn´ski, that Retinger was an adventurer who did not have great influence over Sikorski. See Paul-Henri Spaak, The Continuing Battle: Memoirs of a European 1936–1966, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971, p. 202; Biskupski, p. 28, fn 5; Jerzi Lerski, Poland’s Secret Envoy 1939–1945, New York, Bicentennial Publishing Co., 1988, p. 77. 7. Lerski, p. 77; Lerski added that ‘Sikorski maintained a chummy personal relationship with this shadowy figure who served as a sort of confidential “cicerone”in England’. 8. Biskupski, p. 62; Edward Beddington-Behrens, Look Back – Look Forward, London, Macmillan, 1963, p. 194; Polish Library Paris, Tymc 27 [ak], December 1963, Beddington Behrens discourse to the European Movement. 9. European League for Economic Cooperation, (ELEC) ‘In remembrance of Joseph Retinger 1888–1960’, 1996, p. 33; Dumoulin, pp. 100–1; Grosbois, passim. 10. Grosbois, passim; the close contacts which existed between the Dutch and Belgian governments produced thinking about their binational future (which led ultimately to the formation of the Benelux) and a general sense that any world organisation post-war should reflect the interests of small states; Pierre-Henri Laurent, ‘Reality not rhetoric: Belgian-Dutch diplomacy in wartime London, 1940–44’, in M.L. Smith and P.M.R. Stirk eds, Making the New Europe: European Unity and the Second World War, London, Pinter Publishers, 1990, pp. 137–9. 250 Notes

11. Public Record Office London (now National Archives, henceforth NA), FO 371 30871 C2230/1543/62, 23 March 1942; FO 371 30871 C10396/1543/62, 14 November 1942; /Laptos, p. 185. Christopher Warner of the British Foreign Office wrote that ‘We are under a treaty obligation to discuss with the Soviet Union, and they will always be inclined to accuse us of not properly fulfilling this obligation whenever we reach conclusions after formal or informal discussions with others that do not suit the Soviet government’, FO 371 31535 U1742/1742/70, 23 October 1942. 12. NA FO 371 30871 C2230/1543/62, 23 March 1942. 13. Grosbois, p. 40. 14. NA FO 371 30871 C2230/1543/62, 23 March 1942. The Greek and Yugoslav governments were also apprehensive of the effect of these projects on their relations with the British and Soviet governments and Norway was positively opposed, preferring a closer alliance with the United States in a transatlantic community. 15. NA FO 371 30871 C10396/1543/62, 14 November 1942, minute of Roger Makins, 10 February 1942. 16. Pomian ed., pp. 205–7. 17. F. X. Rebattet, ‘The “European Movement” 1945–1953: A Study in National and International Non-Governmental Organizations working for European unity’ (unpub.D.Phil dissertation, Oxford University, 1962), p. 3. 18. Dumoulin, p. 101. 19. ibid., p. 117. 20. ELEC, p. 23. 21. ELEC pp. 23–4; Pomian, pp. 209–12; Dumoulin, pp. 106–7. 22./ Laptos, p. 188. 23. Rebattet, p. 3. 24. Dumoulin, p. 111. 25. From the perspective of Central East Europe it was fortunate that Retinger was present with Sandys at the EUF meeting at Montreux since he was able to counteract the west European centrism of the EUF delegates in his organisational role at The Hague. The memorandum of the Central European Federal Movement to the Hague Congress complained that the EUF congress ‘completely disregarded the existence of the nations of Central Europe’ and applied the term ‘Europe’ to its Western part only. See PISM A11E/874, Memo of the Central European Federal Movement presented to the Congress of Europe at The Hague, 7–10 May 1948. 26. Europe Unites: The story of the campaign for European Unity, including a full report of the Congress of Europe held at The Hague, May, 1948, pp. 2–4; Pomian, pp. 213–15. 27. Europe Unites, p. 30. The logic of this statement was that a failure to seat the delegates on equal terms would demonstrate a lack of the ‘sincere desire to unite the peoples’ of all Europe. 28. POSK, Retinger papers, Box 10, European Movement, ‘The Story of the Campaign’, no.42, 1952, p. 7; Aleksander Bregman, ‘Congress of Europe’, Polish Fortnightly, vol.1, no.8, 24 May 1948; Pomian, pp. 238–9; /Laptos, p. 190; Rebattet, pp. 324–5. 29. Europe Unites, p. 6. Notes 251

30. Denis de Rougemont, The Meaning of Europe, London, Sidgwick and Jackson Ltd., 1963, pp. 82–3. 31. POSK, Retinger Papers, Box 10, ‘The Story of the Campaign’, pp. 7–8. 32. European Movement, ‘Congress of Europe, The Hague – May, 1948, Resolutions’, p. 5. 33. ‘The Story of the Campaign’, pp. 8–9; Pomian, p. 222; Rebattet, p. 354. 34. Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (henceforth PISM), Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/211, Speech of Churchill to the International Council of the European Movement, 25 February 1949. Churchill’s warm welcome to the Central East Europeans on this occasion contrasts markedly with his earlier coolness. 35. PISM, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/217, ‘Speech by Mr. Churchill’, p. 2. 36. Beddington-Behrens, p. 185. 37. E. Raczyn´ski, ‘The Brussels Session of the European Movement’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol. II, no.1, June 1949. 38. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/209, ‘Principles of a European Policy’. 39. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/227, Brussels Conference of the Central and East European Commission of the European Movement, 10 January 1964. 40. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/215, European Movement, Central and Eastern European Section ‘An Eastern European Policy’, December 1949, p. 8. 41. PISM, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/217, International Council of the European Movement, 25 February 1949, speech of Duncan Sandys. 42. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/218, Central and East European Commission, ‘Statement of Policy on East–West Cultural Exchanges’, March 1955; POSK, Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, Box II, File 7, speech of Duncan Sandys, The Daily Telegraph, 26 October 1948. 43. The Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) did not include states from Central East Europe since Stalin had ordered these states not to join. 44. PISM, Raczyn´ki Papers, KOL, 23/H/220, ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’; POSK, Retinger Papers, Box 10, ‘The Story of the Campaign’, pp. 8–9, 12; PISM, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/218, Mouvement Européen, International Council 25–8 février 1949, ‘Objectifs et Organisation’, pp. 12–15; Europe Unites, p. 9. 45. There were eight Vice-Presidents, two from Western Europe and six from the occupied countries. 46. POSK, Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, European Unity, Box II, File 4. 47. POSK, Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, Box X, ‘The Story of the Campaign’, p. 15; European Press, September, October, November 1964. 48. The founding conference at Brussels in February 1949 was followed by one on economic policy in London in April and one on cultural policy in Lausanne in December of the same year. A conference in Hamburg on Germany’s place in Europe was held in 1951. 49./ Laptos, pp. 191 694; Polish Affairs, February 1952. 50. Polish Affairs, Report on the ‘One Europe’ Conference at Church House Westminster, February 1952. 51. Pomian, p. 234. 52. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/212, Raczyn´ski to Macmillan, 22 June 1950. 53. ‘The Story of the Campaign’, p. 11; A.H. Robertson, The Council of Europe: Its Structure, Functions and Achievements, 2nd edition, London, Stevens & Sons 252 Notes

Limited, 1961, pp. 2–6; Robert Boothby, ‘The Future of the Council of Europe’, International Affairs, vol.XXVIII, July 1952; Rebattet, p. 382. 54. Pomian, p. 243. 55. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/211, 1949; KOL 23/H/214, letter from Raczyn´ski to Macmillan, 22 June 1950; KOL 23/H/215; PISM, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/218, European Movement, ‘European Consultative Assembly – Recommendations’, p. 3. 56. Edward Raczyn´ski, ‘The Central and East European Section of the European Movement’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.IV, no.1, January 1951; Tufton Beamish, ‘Absent Friends’, Eastern Europe’s Monitor, vol.I, November–December 1955; PISM, ACEN Papers, KOL 408/209, Address of Stefan Korbon´ski, 22 April 1959 and KOL 408/210, ACEN doc 213 (VII), 9 September 1960, p. 8. 57. Polish Affairs, November 1952, p. 15; The Central European Federalist, vol.II, no.2, July 1954, p. 25, Resolution of Consultative Assembly proposed by M. Goedhart; PISM, ACEN Papers, KOL 23/H/246, ‘Intégration Européenne et Collaboration avec Le Conseil de l’Europe (Rapport)’. 58. PISM, KOL 23/H/246, ‘Intégration Européenne...’, and ACEN Papers, R. No.21 (Gen), ‘Collaboration with the Council of Europe’. 59. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/209, ACEN Res. 151 (V) Gen, 16 April 1959, and report on Council of Europe, 14 September 1959. 60. Beamish, ‘Absent Friends’; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’ n.d., probably 1957; PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 23/H/246, ACEN R.no.21 (Gen), 1955, ‘European Integration’, pp. 8–9; Robertson, pp. 20 and 238. 61. Idesbald Goddeeris, ‘Stefan Glaser: Collaborator in European Umbrella Organizations’ in Michel Dumoulin and Idesbald Goddeeris eds, Integration or Representation: Polish Exiles in Belgium and the European Construction, Louvain-la-Neuve, Bruylant-Academia s.a., 2005, pp. 89–94; Idesbald Goddeeris, ‘Exiles’ Strategies for Lobbying in International Organisations: Eastern European Participation in the Nouvelles Equipes Internationales’, European Review of History, vol.11, no.3, 2004. 62. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/228, letter from Raczyn´ski to the Secretary- General of the European Movement, 16 February 1965. Of the Committee members Raczyn´ski, Ciol/kosz, Starzewski, Lis and Sabbat were, or had been, members of the Executive Committee of the Polish Council of National Unity in London. 63. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Polska-Rosja-Chiny’, Kultura, no.3, marzec (March), 1964.

6 Thwarted plans

1. ‘Danubian Federation’, Polish Affairs, July–August 1952; Elizabeth K. Valkenier, ‘Eastern European Federation: A Study in the Conﬂicting National Aims and Plans of the Exile Groups’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.14, 1955. 2. PISM Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/217, International Council of the European Movement, Speech by Count Raczyn´ski, 28 February 1949; M. Grazynski, ˙ ‘The Odra-Nysa Line – A Frontier of Central European Federation and a Guarantee of Lasting Peace’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.V, nos.1/2, January–April; Francis Honti, ‘Union – The Condition of the Independence Notes 253

of the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.V, nos.3/4, August–October, 1952; Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 48, speech by General Anders to the French Federalist Movement, 22 March 1952; J.S., ‘The Philadelphia Declaration’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.IV, no.2, April 1951. 3. J.S., ‘The Philadelphia Declaration’. 4. Biographic note about the author H. Ripka, Kultura, no.12, grudzien´ (December), 1952. Ripka had close ties with a number of federalists among the Polish exiles. 5. H. Ripka, ‘O federalizacje˛ polsko-czeska˛’, Kultura, no.12, grudzien´ (December), 1952. 6. H. Ripka, A Federation of Central Europe, New York, 1953, pp. 41–5. 7. The institutions of the respective federations would consist of the following: a federal parliament, a federal army with a common minister of defence and a high command, a federal arbitration tribunal and supreme court. The parliament would have two houses of which the lower house would be chosen by elections and would express the collective will of the whole region. The upper house, formed by national parliaments, was intended to protect the interest of the member states. 8. Londyn´czyk (J. Mieroszewski) ‘Federacja o´smiu’, Kultura, no.4, kwiecien´ (April), 1954. See also the welcome for Ripka’s project from Edward Raczyn´ski in ‘Europeizm czy regionalism?’, Kultura, no.5, maj (May), 1954. 9. Francis Honti, ‘Union...’; PISM Wszelaki Papers, KOL 408/202, Polish National Council, Pan-Europe Committee, 1956; Polish Affairs, no.1, 2nd year, January 1953. 10. Jerzy Jankowski, ‘Union of Polish Federalists’, Anglo–Polish Review, vol.II, no.2. 11. PISM, ACEN papers, KOL 408/208, Dr. J. Starzewski, ‘The Problem of Central and Eastern European Union’, 26 June 1958. 12. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/218, ‘A Polish Plan’, Eastern Europe’s Monitor, vol.I, nos.1–2, July–August, 1955 and KOL 23/H/219, ‘Draft Plan for a Central and Eastern European Coal and Steel Community prepared...under the auspices of the Central and Eastern European Commission’, October 1953. 13. Polish Affairs, no.5, 5th year, May 1957; Mieczyslaw Sokol/owski, ‘Central- Eastern Europe and the Western-European Set Up’, Polish Affairs, no.3, 7th year, March 1959. 14. This was the economic pact between the Soviet Union and the communist states of Eastern Europe, often referred to as COMECOM. 15. PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/219, ‘Draft Plan for a Central and Eastern European Coal and Steel Community’, pp. 1–4. 16. J. Starzewski, ‘Tendencies towards Integration and Regional Federal Movements’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.II, no.1, June 1949; Speech of M. Sokol/owski at a meeting of the Polish National Council, 27 January 1950, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.III, no.2, April 1950; Honti, ‘Union...’. 17. See Chapter 7. 18. Francis Honti, ‘The Problem of the Independence of the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.IV, no.2, April 1951; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/219, ‘Draft Plan for a Central and Eastern European Coal and Steel Community...’, pp. 21–2 and KOL 23/H/215, Section on Eastern and Central Europe, Project dated 28 September 1950. 254 Notes

19. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/215, European Movement, Central and East European Section, ‘An Eastern Policy’, 28 September 1950; Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 42, Study Commission on International Relations: ‘We say simply that for the foreseeable future...the integration in Central and East Europe would be according to the principle of functionality’. 20. ‘Federation Studies of the Free Europe Committee’, The Central European Federalist, vol.II, no.1, April 1954; Mojmor Povolny, ‘Theories of Supranational Integration’, The Central European Federalist, vol.XI, no.1, 1963. 21. Sokol/owski, p. 5. 22. J. Starzewski, ‘The Problem...’; Review of Michael Gamarnikow, Polska, Wspolny Rynek i Zjednoczona, in Central European Federalist, vol.XIV, no.2, December 1966; Vilem Bernard, ‘The Socialist Union of Central and Eastern Europe and European Uniﬁcation’, European Press, June, July, August, 1965; K. Sieniewicz, ‘Les Démocrates Chrétiens en Exile preparent leur Fédération Future’, European Press, June, July, August, 1965. 23. Adam Romer, ‘A Realistic Approach towards European Uniﬁcation’, European Press, September, October, November 1964. Romer was a prominent exile federalist and Secretary-General in the war-time Polish government. 24. PISM Starzewski Papers, KOL 357/13, ‘Le représentants de l’opinion...’.‘Dans une fédération de nations il n’y a pas de minorités nationals, car tous les citoyens appartiennent à la majorité de plein droit’; PISM European Study Bureau, KOL 415/4, Central European Federal Movement Conference 26–29 May 1950, ‘General Statement’, p. 9. 25. Valkenier, pp. 365–7. 26. Joseph Mikus, ‘L’Intégration Politique: Impératif de l’Europe Centrale et Orientale’, PISM KOL30/III/1, Information Conference of the Federal Movement of Central Europe Paris, 12–13 January 1950. 27. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/215, ‘An Eastern European Policy’. 28. G. Zdziechowski, ‘Making Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.3, 4th year, June 1956; ‘East-West Trade’, Polish Affairs, no.1, 2nd year, January 1953. 29. The Assembly also emphasised that the western part of Europe could not fully develop its cultural and economic resources nor defend itself against external aggression without the integration of the countries of Central East Europe. 30. A.H. Robertson, The Council of Europe: Its Structure, Functions and Achievements, 2nd edition, London, Stevens & Sons Limited, 1961, p. 83. 31. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers KOL 23/H/243 Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, 4th Ordinary Session, 3 September 1952, Doc.36; Polish Library and Cultural Institute, London (hereafter POSK), Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, European Movement, ‘Observations on the Statute of the Council of Europe’, 1947–49; Directorate of Information, the Council of Europe, Concise Handbook of the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1954, p. 13; Frederick L. Schuman, ‘The Council of Europe’, American Political Science Review, vol XLV, no.3, September 1951, pp. 724–40. 32. Council of Europe, Concise Handbook, p. 15. 33. Robertson, p. 10. 34. ibid., p. 6; Council of Europe, Concise Handbook, p. 29. 35. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/244, memorandum to Tufton Beamish, May 1952. Notes 255

36. PISM Raczyn´ki Papers, KOL 23/H/220, ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’, n.d. prob. 1957, pp. 9–10; PISM, ACEN Papers, KOL 408/215, ‘Absent Friends’, 1955; ACEN, KOL 23/H/246, ‘European Integration Draft Report’, p. 9; ACEN, KOL 408/205, ‘ACEN News’, 1 April 1955, vol.1, no.1. See also Resolution of 29 September 1952 reafﬁrming faith in the unity of the whole of Europe, Robertson, p. 238; The Central European Federalist, vol.II, no.2, July 1954, ‘The Council of Europe, Consultative Assembly’, 28 May 1954. 37. PISM ACEN papers, KOL 408/207, Doc. No. 86 (Pol), 27 April 1957, p. 2; ACEN, KOL 408/209, Res 151, 16 April, 1959; Polish Affairs, no. 9, 4th year, December 1956. 38. Polish Affairs, no. 9, December 1956. 39. PISM Raczyn´ki Papers, 23/H/237, Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, 3 September 1952. 40. G. Zdziechowski, ‘Road to European Unity’, Polish Affairs, no.1, January 1952. 41. PISM ACEN papers, KOL 408/209, Address of Stefan Korbon´ski, 22 April 1959 and report of Adam Ciol/kosz, 1959. 42. PISM ACEN papers, KOL 408/217, 5 May 1961; Council of Europe, Concise Handbook, pp. 51–2; Robertson suggests that the most prominent issues in the Council’s discussions in the 1950s were: 1949–51, attempts to create a political authority with limited functions but with real powers; 1952–53, the inter-relation of the Council of Europe and the Europe of the Six; 1953–60, attempts to establish the Council of Europe as the general framework of European policy; 1953–60 discussion of general issues of foreign policy, Robertson p. 82. 43. George Zdziechowski, ‘Making Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.3, 4th year, June 1956. 44. PISM Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/217, International Council of the European Movement, 25 February 1949, speech of Duncan Sandys. 45. The purposes and functions of this Committee were outlined in Chapter Five. 46. PISM ACEN KOL 408/209, address of Korbon´ski, 22 April 1959. 47. Polish Library Paris, Morawski papers, Tymcz 26, The Times, 22 October 1966, ACEN Communique 18 January 1967 and letter from Auer to Director of ACEN Paris, 15 February 1967. 48. Polish Library Paris, Tymcz 26, ACEN document no. 438 (XIV) Gen., March 1968. 49. PISM, Polski Ruch Europejski, KOL 408/218, Free Central European News Agency, 4 May 1967. 50. PISM ACEN papers, KOL 23/H/246, Memorandum to NATO Powers, 16 December 1957; Polish Library Paris, Tymcz 27 [ak], Organisation Française du Mouvement Européen, paper from Auer ‘La Construction Européenne et les pays de l’Europe de l’Est’, n.d.; Polish Underground Movement Study Trust, Ealing, London (hereafter PUMST), Ciol/kosz papers, KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, p. 13. 51. PISM ACEN papers, KOL 408/207, doc. no.86 (Pol), 27 April 1957; ACEN papers, KOL 408/209, speech of Korbon´ski, 22 April 1959; ACEN KOL 408/213, ‘Polish Point of View’, by Adam Ciol/kosz, reporting on ACEN conference 5–7 May 1963; ACEN KOL 408/216, 20 October 1961; ACEN KOL 408/217, Delegation of ACEN in GB, 5 May 1961; ACEN KOL 23/H/246, 2 June (year not given); ACEN, KOL 408/213, doc. 346 (IX) Gen, ‘The Road to Freedom in East Central Europe’, 5–7 May 1963; PUMST, Ciol/kosz papers, 256 Notes

KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, p. 13, KOL 133/7, 3 January 1958, lecture by Paul Auer and ACEN minutes 14 January 1959. 52. PISM, ACEN KOL 408/213, doc 346 (IX) Gen, ‘The Road to Freedom...’, 5–7 May 1963; ACEN KOL 408/206, Minutes of conference...interested in protecting the workers of Poznan´, New York City, 11 July 1956; ACEN KOL 408/208, ‘L’Intégration Européenne et la Politique du Conseil de L’Europe’, 29 April 1958; Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 26 ACEN/1, Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, 17 September 1962. 53. PISM, ACEN KOL 23/H/246, meeting of Ciol/kosz and Starzewski with Lord Birdwood, n.d.; POSK Radomyski Papers, 1495/Rps/13, letter from Polish Freedom Movement ‘Independence and Democracy’ (NiD) to U.S. Vice- President Richard Nixon, 17 August 1959; PUMST, Ciol/kosz papers, KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, pp. 14–15, n.d., but after 1960. 54. PISM ACEN KOL 408/214, Doc. 1740, n.d., ‘Tâches qui incombent au Conseil de l’Europe’; ACEN KOL 408/207, Minutes of the Second Meeting of the Delegation in London of the ACEN 10 July 1957; ACEN KOL 408/207, Minutes of the Second Meeting of the Delegation in London of the ACEN, 10 July 1957; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, 23/H/244, Memo to Tufton Beamish, May 1952; PUMST, Ciol/kosz papers, KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, p. 16. 55. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers KOL 23/H/217, ‘Programme of future action of the European Movement’, 19 September 1954 – see also Raczyn´ski’s statement 10 March 1954; POSK Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps, European Unity, The Daily Telegraph, 26 October 1948, outlining ideas of Duncan Sandys; W. Folkierski, ‘Cultural Aid to Exiles’, Polish Affairs, February 1952 and comment in Dziennik Polski. 56. POSK Retinger Papers, Box IV, File 7, ‘Programme of future action of the European Movement, response of the Polish Committee’. 57. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, 23/H/234, letter of Raczyn´ski to Hallstein, 29 April 1971; PISM Polski Ruch Europejski, KOL 408/218, 4 June 1968. 58. Possibly 1963, from internal evidence. 59. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz [27ak], Mouvement Européen, Beddington-Behrens, discourse, n.d. 60. POSK Retinger Papers, Box 6, Korespondencja, ‘Draft Notes on the European Movement’ and Box 12, November 1954. 61. POSK Retinger Papers, Box 6, File 7, Reply of the Estonian National Committee 1956. 62. See Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 27 [ak], Message aux Européens, 1961. 63. Jerzy Jankowski, ‘Problems of Eastern Europe at Three European Congresses’, The Central European Federalist, vol.XVI, no.1, June 1968. 64. PISM Polski Ruch Europejski, KOL 408/218, Address of Hallstein to the Federal Council of the European Movement, 20 January 1968; Jerzy Jankowski, ‘Que faire jusqu’en 1980?’, Polska w Europie, no.2 (140), février, 1968, XVII, nos. 4–5 (177–78), avr–mai, 1971, and nos.5–6 (190–1), mai–juin, 1972; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, 23/H/231, 20 January 1968. 65. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 27 [ak], Introductory Report of M. de la Vallée Poussin, 10–11 January 1964; European Press, September, October, November 1964. Notes 257

66. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 6, Letter from Morawski to E. Rehak, 5 February 1964. 67. PISM ACEN KOL 408/214, telegram to ACEN representations, 3 January 1964. 68. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 26, ACEN/1, Meeting of ACEN Paris, 17 May 1965. 69. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/236, letter to Raczyn´ski from Thomas Philippovich, 26 July 1973. 70. Polska w Europie, nos. 9–10 (182–3), Sept–Oct 1971 and nos. 5–6 (190–91), mai–juin 1972. 71. Robertson, pp. 26–55; Schuman, pp. 730–3; Council of Europe, Concise Handbook, pp. 13–32. 72. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/207, Speech by Adam Ciol/kosz, 26 April 1957. 73. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 26, Central and East European Commission of the European Movement, 12 July 1962; Hendrik Brugmans, ‘The Dynamics of European Integration’, in C. Grove Haines ed., European Integration, Baltimore, MD, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. 74. Polish Library Paris, Morawski Papers, Lecture by Paul Auer, London, 3 January 1958; Peter van Ham, The EC, Eastern Europe and European Unity: Discord, Collaboration and Integration since 1947, London and New York, Pinter, 1995 (ﬁrst pub. 1993), p. 99; conclusions of Polish Political Council, 6–7 June 1952, Polish Affairs, May 1952. 75. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/209, Minutes 22 Meeting of Delegation in GB of the ACEN, 8 April 1959; Polish Political Council 6 & 7 June 1952, Polish Affairs, May 1952; PISM ACEN KOL 408/208, Speech of W. Czerwin´ski, London Committee of Free Representatives of Central and Eastern European Countries, 18 July 1957. 76. Jean Monnet, Memoirs, Garden City, NY, Doubleday Inc., 1978. 77. Walter Hallstein, Europe in the Making, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1972. 78. PUMST Ciol/kosz papers, KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, n.d., p. 13. 79. Michel Tatu, ‘L’Invasion de la Tchecoslovaquie et la Détente en Europe’ in Jerzy /Lukaszewski ed. The People’s Democracies after Prague, p. 103. 80. ‘Forgotten Allies’, Polish Affairs, no.4 (9th year), April 1961; ‘A Stalemate in Central and Eastern Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.5 (7th year), May 1959. 81. E. Osmanczyk, ‘Argument about Europe’, The Central European Federalist, vol.5, no.2, December 1957. 82. PPN (Polish League for Independence) Statement, ‘Poland and Europe’, Survey, vol.25, no.1(110), Winter 1980. 83. PUMST Ciol/kosz papers, KOL 133/6, ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy...’, p. 13; Polska w Europie, nos. 9–10 (182–83), Sep/Oct, 1971, ‘Les Fédéralistes Européens et les Pays de l’Est’.

7 The union of Polish federalists

1. This chapter is an enlarged and revised version of Marian S. Wolan´ski, ‘Federalism as a Doctrine and Method in the Activity of the Union of Polish Federalists’, in Thomas Lane and Marian Wolan´ski eds, Poland and 258 Notes

European Unity: Ideas and Reality, Wrocl/aw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocl/awskiego, 2007. 2. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Nazajutrz po zwycie˛stwie’, Kultura, no.12, grudzien´ (December) 1951. 3. J. Jankowski, ‘Polacy w ruchach europejskich’, Polska w Europie, no. 4, 1964. 4. M.S. Wolan´ski, Europa Srodkowo-Wschodnia´ w my´sli politycznej emigracji polskiej, Wrocl/aw 1996. 5. ‘Zasady polityki srodkowo-europejskiej,´ uchwalone przez Rade˛ naczelna ZPF na Zje´zdzie’, London, 6 December 1951. 6. J. Jankowski, ‘Polacy w ruchach europejskich’, p. 3. 7. ‘Co warto wiedzieć o Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów (ZPF)?’ Paris, May 1953, pp. 1–2. 8. ‘Federalizm. Zwia˛zek Polskich Federalistów i jego metody pracy’, pp. 1–2. 9. ‘ZPF – Okre˛g kontynentalny, Federalizm-nowoczesny ´srodek walki o wyzwole- nie czl/owieka i narodu’, ZPF – Okre˛g kontynentalny, Paris, September 1952. 10. ‘Rezolucja uchwalona przez Rade˛ Naczelna˛ ZPF w dniu 16 stycznia 1955’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1955. 11. ‘Rok 1956 dobrze zasl/u˙zyl/ sie˛ Europie’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, December 1956. 12. ‘Walne Zebranie Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, March 1957. 13. ‘Sil/a naszej idei’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, May 1957. 14. J. Jankowski, ‘Polacy w ruchach europejskich’, p. 3. 15. ibid. 16. ibid. 17. ‘Europa zaczyna sie˛ od gminy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–9, 1973. 18. ‘Dzial/alno´sć Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów 19.XII.1959–17.II. 1962’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, March 1962. 19. ‘Traktaty europejskie otwieraja˛ nowe horyzonty’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, September 1957. 20. Papers were given by Hendrik Brugmans, Rector of the College of Europe in Bruges, Eugène Claus-Pete, ex-Minister of Reconstruction in the French government, Claude-Marcel Hytte, a representative of the French federalist movement, and Paul Auer, a former Hungarian Foreign Minister. 21. ‘Federali´sci w sprawie Europy Wschodniej’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, February 1957. 22. ‘Thèses sur líntégration politique Européenne’,Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1956. 23. ‘Tezy Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów odno´snie planu politycznego dla Europy Srodkowej´ i Wschodniej’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1959. 24. The chair, Jerzy Jankowski, along with St. Paczyn´ski, J. Cydzik, J. Dehnel, J.Zlobiki˙ and J Mickiewicz, participated. 25. ‘Kongres AEF w Luksemburgu’, Polska w Europie, no.5, 1963. 26. ibid. 27. ‘Deklaracja ogólna’, Polska w Europie, no.7, 1963. 28. J. Jankowski, ‘Polacy w ruchach europejskich’, p. 3. Polska w Europie was partially funded by the French foundation ‘La Fédération’. 29. For a detailed discussion of the relations between the East European federalists in exile and the European Movement see Chapter 6. 30. ‘Rezolucja Ruchu Europejskiego’, Polska w Europie, no. 4–5, 1963. 31. J. Jankowski, ‘A gdzie jest nasze miejsce?’, Polska w Europie, no.5, 1963. 32. ‘Europa polityczna: kto, jak, kiedy?’ Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. 33. ‘Plan Spaaka czy plan Erharda?’ Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. Notes 259

34. M. Czarnecki, ‘Druga strona medalu’, Polska w Europie, no.4, 1963. 35. ‘Europa trwa’, Polska w Europie, no.2, February 1963. 36. S. Paczyn´ski, ‘Integracja europejska i kraje ujarzmione’, Polska w Europie, no.4, 1964. 37. ‘Europa Wschodnia: pretekst do rozbicia Wspólnot Europejskich?’ Polska w Europie, no.5, 1965. 38. ‘Zainteresowanie Wschodem Europy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1967. 39. ‘1 lipca 1967 r.: Próba bilansu przed nowym etapem’, Polska w Europie, no.6, 1967. 40. Dr. Dieter Roser was vice-president of the AEF. 41. ‘Nie ma polityki europejskiej bez Europy politycznej’, Polska w Europie, no.11, 1967. 42. ‘Bilans niedobrego roku’, Polska w Europie, no.12, 1968. 43. Though Norway did not join as the result of a subsequent referendum. 44. ‘Budowa Europy: ´swiatl/a i cienie’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–3, 1972. 45. ‘1972’, Polska w Europie, nos.11–12, 1971. 46. ‘Rza˛dy buduja˛ Europe˛’, Polska w Europie, no.4, 1972. 47. ‘Po paryskim “szczycie” ’, Polska w Europie, nos.9–10, 1972. 48. The commission presented its conclusions at a press conference in Paris on 23 September 1974. 49. ‘Federali´sci wskazuja˛ droge˛ do Europy politycznej’, Polska w Europie, 1974. 50. ‘Rozwazania ˙ nad Europa’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–2, 1975. 51. ‘Gdzie narodzi sie˛ zjednoczona Europa: w Strasburgu (1978) czy w Belgradzie (1977)?’ Polska w Europie, nos.1–2, 1977. 52. ‘Krok na drodze ku obywatelstwu Europy’, Polska w Europie, no.3, 1965. 53. ‘Europa zaczyna sie˛ od sa˛siadów’, Polska w Europie, nos.9–10, 1966. 54. A. Bregman, ‘Integracja europejska a stosunki polsko-niemieckie’, Polska w Europie, no.4, 1964. 55. ‘Nasza Europa, nasi sa˛siedzi’, Polska w Europie, nos.3–9, 1977. 56. ‘Czego od nas oczekuje Europa?’ Polska w Europie, nos.3–9, 1977. 57. ‘W poszukiwaniu “koncepcji kierunkowej” ’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1965. 58. ‘Nacjonalizm ϩ suwerenno´s´c pan´stwowa ϭ koniec marzen´ o zjednoczonej Europie’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–3, 1974. 59. ‘Jedno´s´c w ró˙znorodno´sci’, Polska w Europie, nos.3–5, 1975.

8 European ideas of Polish political parties

1. M.S. Wolan´ski, Europa Srodkowo-Wschodnia´ w my´sli politycznej emigracji polskiej 1945–1975, Wrocl/aw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocl/awskiego, 1996, pp. 84–110, 168–83, 297–305. 2. S. Grocholski, Polski Ruch Wolno´sciowy ‘Niepodlegl/o´s´c i Demokracja’. Pierwsze dziesie˛ciolecie, London, 1955, p. 4. The group mainly consisted of young people who were former activists in a number of organizations. These included ‘My´sl Mocarstwowa’ [‘The Power of Thought’] (R. Pil/sudski, Z. Jordan), the Association of Young Polish Democrats (B. /Laszewski, B. Wierzbian´ski), the Young People’s League (J. Ponikiewski), young ofﬁcers of PSZ and AK [Home Army] (J. Radomyski, A. Bregman, A. Pomian, J. Nowak-Jezioran´ski, J. Lerski and F. Miszczak) as well as writers (T. Terlecki). 260 Notes

3. J. Radomyski, ‘Polski Ruch Wolno´sciowy “Niepodlegl/o´sć i Demokracja” ’, in A. Szkuta ed., Kierownictwo obozu niepodlegl/o´sciowego na obczy´znie 1945–1990, London, 1996, pp. 490–508. 4. R. Pil/sudski, ‘Polska w Europie’, Trybuna, October 1946. 5. Polski Ruch Wolno´sciowy ‘Niepodlegl/o´sć i Demokracja’ (NiD). Zadania emigracji, Paris, November 1945, pp. 3–4. 6. R. Pil/sudski, ‘Jedno´sć Europy a problem niemiecki’, Trybuna, May 1947. 7. Zasady programowe uchwalone na i Walnym Zje´zdie PRW (NiD) 8 December 1947, pp. 1–4. 8. ibid., p. 5. 9. Z. Jordan, S´wiat w epoce atomowej, London, Biblioteka ‘Niepodlegl/o´sć i Demokracja’, 1947, pp. 6–7. 10. ibid., p. 7. 11. ibid., p. 10. 12. ibid., p. 11. 13. ibid., pp. 11–2. 14. ibid., pp. 18–19. 15. ibid., p. 19. 16. ibid., pp. 20–1, 23. 17. ibid., pp. 23–4. 18. T. Terlecki, ‘Przez Europe˛ do Polski’, Trybuna, August 1948. 19. NiD’s supporters thought that disapproval by other groups of their participation in the European Congress in The Hague in May 1948 was an unpleasant episode. 20. Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (hereafter PISM), Kancelaria Cywilna Prezydenta Rzeczpospolitej (hereafter KCPR), Korespondencja ogólna 1948, sygn.A.48.1/C.9, Interview with R. Pil/sudski, 24 May 1948, p. 2. 21. PISM TRJN Posiedzenia Rady, sygn. KOL 408/319, Przemówenie Z. Jordana w imieniu Klubu PRW ‘Niepodlegl/o´sć i Demokracja’ na posiedzeniu TRJN w dniu 2 July, c.1955, pp. 1–2. 22. Grocholski, Polski Ruch Wolno´sciowy, p. 12. 23. Zasady programowe, p. 10. 24. ‘Referat R. Pil/sudskiego, Polska a Zachód – Polska w Europie’, in Na progu drugiego tysia˛clecia. Niektóre wnioski polityczne na przyszl/o´sć z do´swiadczen´ przeszl/o´sci, London, 1967, p. 42. 25. ibid., pp. 46–7. 26. R. Zakrzewski, ‘Stronnictwa polityczne mówia˛. Rozmowa z Rowmundem Pil/sudskim’, Orzel/ Bial/y, June 1987. 27. A. Bregman, Polska i Nowa Europa, London, 1963, p. 54. 28. ibid., p. 55. 29. ibid., p. 56. 30. ibid., p. 57. The presidents of the League included Juliusz /Lukasiewicz, Michal/ Grazyn ˙ ´ski, Mikol/aj Dolanowski, Bohdan Podoski, Jerzy Zaleski and Jerzy Ostoja-Ko´zniewski. Among its more famous members were Wacl/aw Grzybowski, Tytus Komarnicki and Tadeusz Schaetzel. 31. J. Ostoja-Ko´zniewski, ‘Liga Niepodlegl/o´sci Polski’, in R. Zakrzewski, Stronnictwa..., June 1987, pp. 49–50. 32. ‘Uchwal/a Zjazdu Ligi Niepodlegl/o´sci Polski (5 and 6 June 1948)’, Kronika, 15 August 1948. Notes 261

33. See Chapter 4 for details. See also T. Borelowski (pseud. for M. Gra˙zyn´ski), Zarys programu niepodlegl/o´sciowego. Zbiór artykul/ów, Jerusalem, November 1947, pp. 24–5. 34. Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, Rome, 1946, p. 11. 35. ibid. 36. ibid., pp. 12–13. 37. Trzeci Walny Zjazd Ligi Niepodlegl/o´sci Polski. Uchwal/y, London, December 1950, p. 3. 38. W. Grzybowski, ‘Zasady przyszl/ej federacji Mie˛dzymorza’, in Za Wasza˛ i Nasza˛ Wolno´sć, New York, 1951, p. 9. 39. ibid., p. 10. 40. Zjazd Ruchu Europejskiego w Brukseli (25–28 February 1949), Freiburg 1949. 41. M. Grazyn´ski, ˙ ‘Analiza i wnioski’, Sprawa Polska, June 1952. 42. ‘Uchwal/a V Walnego Zjazdu Ligi Niepodlegl/o´sci Polski (19–20 April 1952) w Londynie’, Sprawa Polska, May 1952. 43. Komarnicki was secretary-general of the Polish Institute for Research on International Issues in London from 1946 – see Chapter 4 for information about this Institute. In the years 1954–1967 Komarnicki represented the League in the Polish Council of National Unity. His thesis drew on several past and present projects but his ideas were dominated by the Intermarium programme. PISM, Rada Narodowa, Diariusz Rady Narodowej z 29 czerwca 1949, sygn A.5/100, Wysta˛pienie J. Lukaszewicza, p. 97. 44. J. /Lukaszewicz, ‘Wczoraj i dzi´s’, in Za Wasza˛ i Nasza˛ Wolno´sć..., p. 7. 45. T. Komarnicki, Uwagi w sprawie projektów organizacji pan´stwo Europy Wschodniej i Pol/udniowo-Wschodniej, London 1948, p. 1. Among its founder members were General Zygmunt Podhorski, General Nikodem Sulik, Colonel Kazimierz Iranek-Osme˛dzki, Z. Korytowski, Krystyn Ostrowski and Zygmunt Szadkowski. General Podhorski was elected first president of the Group, hold- ing this office until his death in 1960. He was followed by Kazimierz Sabbat (in office until 1986) and Mieczysl/aw Sas-Skowron´ski. 46. ibid., pp. 9–10. 47. M. Sas-Skowron´ski, ‘Niezalezna ˙ Grupa Spol/eczna (N.G.S.)’, in Zakrzewski, op. cit., September–October 1987, p. 17. 48. W.E. Choroszewski, ‘Niezale˙zna Grupa Spol/eczna. Zarys historii’, in Szkuty ed., Kierownictwo obozu niepodlegl/o´sciowego, p. 436. 49. PISM, Wypowied ˙z K. Korytowskiego (N.G.S.) na posiedzeniu Rady Narodowej RP w dniu 11 April 1953, in Dariusz Rady Narodowej RP, Londyn 1953, p. 45. 50. PISM, Rada Narodowa, 8 posiedzenie 1 sesji Rady Narodowej RP w dniu 22 March 1952, sygn. A.5/118. Wysta˛pienie gen. N. Sulika (NGS). 51. PISM, Rada Narodowa, 2 posiedzenie 3 sesji Rady Narodowej RP w dniu 28 March 1953, sygn. A.5/132, Wysta˛pienie Krystyna Ostrowskiego (NGS). 52. Program dzial/ania NGS ze stycznia 1955 in Choroszewski, op. cit., p. 416. 53. M. Sas-Skowron´ski, ‘Dwa programy rozwoju Europy’, Rzeczpospolita Polska, February 1974. 54. M. Sas-Skowron´ski, ‘Niezalezna ˙ Grupa Spol/eczna (NGS)’, pp. 17–18. Among the prominent socialist leaders in exile were Tomasz Arciszewski, Zygmunt Zaremba, Lidia and Adam Ciol/kosz, Artur Szewczyk, Stanisl/aw Wa˛sik and Ryszard Zakrzewski. 262 Notes

55. S. Wa˛sik, ‘Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (C.K.Z.)’, in Zakrzewski ed., op. cit., July/August, 1987, p. 14. 56. S. Wa˛sik, ‘Polska Partia Socjalistyczna’, in Szkuty ed., Kierownictwo obozu niepodlegl/o´sciego..., pp. 448–51. 57. Uchwal/y Zjazdu w Pont-à-Lesse w Belgii. Sytuacja mie˛dzynarodowa i mie˛dzynarodowy ruch socjalistyczny in Zadania PPS na Obczy´znie (24–30 May 1948), p. 4. 58. ‘Rezolucja polityczna Rady Centralnej PPS z 5 wrze´snia 1948’, Robotnik Polski w Wielkiej Brytanii, October 1949. 59. ‘Rezolucja polityczna II Zjazdu PPS na Obczy´znie (July 1952)’, S´wiatl/o, March 1952, no.1. 60. One contributor to the Paris journal argued that ‘the Common Market is the outcome of democracy, capitalism, free initiative, the free market economy and free competition. For many it is sad to think that the experiment may succeed’. J. Pomian, ‘Wspólny Rynek Europejski’, S´wiatl/o, August–September 1957. 61. ibid. 62. F. Gross, ‘Uwagi o Europie Wschodniej’, Kultura, October 1958, no.10. 63. ibid., p. 100. 64. ibid., p. 101. 65. Lydia Ciol/kosz refers to his opinions in this period as a departure from orthodox Marxism, which considered socialism as an ultimate aim in com- parison to Gross’s ‘empirical socialism’. This explains the divergence of view between Gross and the Council of the Union. L. Ciol/koszowa, ‘Publicystyka’, in T. Terlecki ed., Literatura polska na obczy´znie 1940–1960, vol.II, London, 1965, pp. 291–2. 66. ‘Unia Socjalistyczna o jedno´sci Wschodniej Europy’, S´wiatl/o, no.9, September 1958. 67. ‘Resolucja w sprawach mie˛dzynarodowych’, Robotnik, November–December, 1962. 68. F. Gross, O warto´sciach spol/ecnych, New York, Studia szkice, 1960, p. 167. 69. ibid., pp. 169–70. 70. ibid., pp. 173–4. 71. ‘O´swiadczenie’, Biuletyn Stronnictwa Ludowego Wolno´sć, May–June 1946. ‘Freedom’ was presided over by Jerzy Kuncewicz, and B. Doman´ski and L. Marchwicki were its leading activists. 72. PISM, Rada Narodowa, Sygn. A.5/95, Tezy w spraciew polityki zagranicznej zl/o˙zone przez Klub Ludowy 5 May 1949. 73. ‘Nasz rodowód i program’, Biuletyn Stronnictwa Ludowego ‘Wolno´sć’, May–June 1946. 74. ‘Czekamy na dalsze etapy’, Biuletyn Stronnictwa Ludowego ‘Wolno´sć’, April 1947. 75. PISM, Rada Narodowa, 7 posiedzenie Rady Narodowej RP w dniu 13 July 1949, sygn. A.5/100. 76. B. Czaykowski, B. Sulik, Polacy w Wielkiej Brytanii, Paris, Paris Cultural Institute, 1961, pp. 458–9, 498. Among those who worked closely with Stanisl/aw Mikol/ajczyk were Stanisl/aw Kot, Franciszek Wilk, editor of Jutro Polski (‘Poland’s Tomorrow’) for a number of years, Tadeusz Paul and Stanisl/aw Wiszniewski. 77. Z. Nagórski, ‘Wywiad z Dymitrowem’, Kultura, no.2/19, 1949. 78. See Chapter 10. Notes 263

79. F. Conti, ‘La Déclaration de Philadelphie vue d’Europe’, The Intermarium Bulletin, May 1951, no.15. 80. ‘Deklaracja Celów i Zasad Wyzwolenia Srodkowej´ i Wschodniej Europy. Filadelﬁa i Williamsburg’, New York, June 1952. 81. ‘PNKD w rocznice˛ agresji’, Jutro Polski, 15 September 1954. 82. ‘Declaracja ideowo-programowa uchwalona na VI Kongresie PSL w Brukseli’, Orka, October–December 1968. 83. The leaders of the Democratic Party were Stanisl/aw Olszewski and Jerzy Brylin´ski. The party was for many years in opposition to the Polish government-in-exile. It was afﬁliated to groups such as the Democratic Concentration (1947), the Agreement of Democratic Parties (1948–1949), the Polish National Democratic Committee (1950–1954), and the Provisional Council of National Unity (1955–1962). From 1963 the Democratic Party joined the Federation of Democratic Movements. See Czaykowski and Sulik, op. cit., pp. 458–9, 472, 496. 84. S. Olszewski, Kryzys emigracji. Problem Federacji Srodkowo-Wschodniej´ Europy, London, 1955, p. 20. 85. ibid., p. 22. 86. ibid., p. 27. 87. ibid., p. 28. 88. ibid., pp. 28–9. 89. The executive organ of the party was referred to as the Central Executive Division. There were also Local Divisions of the National Party. The Central Executive Division was headed by Antoni Dargas (after 1968) and, after his death, by Józef Baraniecki (from 1991). Other leading members of the party in exile were Zygmunt Berezowski, Wl/adysl/aw Folkierski, Tadeusz Piszczkowski, Marian Emil Rojek, Edward Sojka, Zbigniew Stypul/kowski and Adam Zól˙ /towski. See J.P. Baraniecki, ‘Stronnictwo Narodowej Demokracji’, in Szkuta ed., Kierownictwo obozu niepodlegl/o´sciowego, pp. 528–48. 90. PISM, Posidezenie Rady Ministró – protokol/y, sygn. PRM – K. 102/93 D. Protokol/ posiedzenia z dnia 24 February 1947, Wysta˛pienie Z. Berezowskiego (SN). 91. W. Wasiutyn´ski, ‘L/ atwizny i anachronizmy’, My´sl Polska, May–June 1946. 92. S. Twardzic (pseud. K. Hrabyk), Rozwazania ˙ polskie, Niemcy Zachodnie, 1947, p. 68. 93. T. Piszczkowski, ‘Polska a Srodkowa´ Europa’, My´sl Polska, August 1946. 94. ibid. 95. Polityka Polska. Przemówienie min. Z. Berezowskiego. Stronnictwo Narodowe w walce o Polske˛, London, 1948, pp. 25–6. 96. ‘Polska, Niemcy Europa. Z Prezydium Stronnictwa Narodowego’, My´sl Polska, October 1946. 97. J. Giertych, Pól wieku polityki polskiej, Zachodnie Niemcy, 1947, pp. 256–8. 98. ‘Na rozdro˙zu’, My´sl Polska, February 1947. 99. ‘Wskazania programowe Zjazdu Delegatów i Me˛˙zów Zaufania Stronnictwa Narodowego z dnia 3 May 1948’, in Stronnictwo Narodowe w walce o Polske˛ . . . p. 8. 100. ibid. 101. ‘Zjazd Kontynentalny Delegatów i Me˛˙zów Zaufania Stronnictwa Narodowego w Pary ˙z’, My´sl Polska, July 1948. 264 Notes

102. T. Piszczkowski, ‘Zjednoczenie Europy Srodkowo´ Wschodniej’, My´sl Polska, July 1949. 103. Z. Abdank, ‘Reﬂeksje z prerii’, My´sl Polska’, 1 June 1951. 104. ‘Przemówienie T. Bieleckiego na sesji plenarnej konferencji londyn´skiej (22 stycnia 1952)’, My´sl Polska, 1 February 1952. 105. ‘Przemówienie T. Bieleckiego na Zje˙zdie Stronnictwa Narodowego w Stanach Zjecnoczonych (7 czerwca 1952)’, My´sl Polska, 1 July 1952. 106. ‘Uchwal/a Pierwszego Centralnego Zjazdu Delegatów Stronnictwa Narodowego za Granica˛, Londyn 27 maja 1955’, My´sl Polska, 20 June 1955. 107. Gl/ówne zagadnienia polityki polskiej. Referat wygl/osony przez Z. Bieleckiego na Drugim Centralnym Zje ˙zdzie Delegatów SN w Londynie dniach 19–22 maj 1961, London 1961, p. 5. 108. ‘Stanowisko Klubu Narodowego w RJN (16–17 marca 1963)’, My´sl Polska, 1 April 1963; ‘Konwencja paryska’, My´sl Polska, 1 February 1963; ‘Trzeci Centralny Zjazd Stronnictwa Narodowego. Uchwal/y’, My´sl Polska, 1/15 June 1968.

9 Liberation, Détente and European Union

1. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of the widening gap between the exiles and the Council of Europe and the European Movement. 2. Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century, Boston, Toronto, Little, Brown & Co., 1980, p. 503; Adam Ciol/kosz, ‘Wanted, An Eastern Policy of the West’, Polish Underground Movement Study Trust, Ealing Common, London (henceforth PUMST), Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/6, n.d.; F.J. Goedhart, Address to Assembly of Captive European Nations (henceforth ACEN), Strasbourg, PUMST, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/6, April 1956; Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum London (henceforth PISM), Raczyn´ski Papers, 23/H/226, European Movement, Central and East European Commission, ‘Conference on Problems of Eastern Europe’, 1963; Kultura, no.7/141–8/142, July–August 1959; Polish Affairs, no.2 (2nd year), February 1953; Polish Library Paris, (henceforth PLP), Morawski Papers, Tymcz 7, Dulles’ address to a Committee of Congress, 19 May 1953; PISM, Starzewski Papers, KOL 357/13, Jan Starzewski, Speech to the ACEN, Strasbourg, 25 April 1958. 3. Odd Arne Westad, ‘Preface’, in Wilfried Loth ed., Europe, Cold War and Coexistence 1953–1965, London and Portland, OR, Frank Cass, 2004, p. vii. 4. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/226 European Movement, Central and East European Commission, ‘Conference on Problems of Eastern Europe’, 1963; PLP, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 27 [ak], Introductory Report of M. de la Vallée Poussin to the conference at Brussels of the Central and East European Commission, 10–11 January 1963. 5. PISM KOL 265, Bregman Papers, article by Alexander Bregman in The Daily Telegraph, 18 October 1962; PLP, Morawski Papers, Tymcz 27 [ak], de la Vallée Poussin. 6. Polish Library and Cultural Institute (henceforth POSK), London, Retinger Papers, 1280/Rps European Unity Box, Background Paper, n.d. unsigned. 7. PISM KOL 23/H/246, ACEN Memorandum to the Powers of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 16 December 1957. Notes 265

8. Z. Broncel, ‘Polska rewolucja pa´zdziemikowa’, Kultura, no.12, grudzien´ (December), 1956; F. Fejto, ‘Od prowaokacji do rewolucji’, Kultura, no.12, grudzien´ (December), 1956. 9. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Rosyjski Commonwealth’, Kultura, no.6, czerwiec (June), 1961. 10. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Problem centralny XX wieku’, Kultura, no.5, maj (May), 1964. 11. PISM KOL 23/H/246, ACEN, report on European Integration, probably 1955, pp. 11–12; ‘ACEN Conference in Strasbourg’, Polish Affairs, no.5/6 (11th year), June 1963; PLP Morawski Papers, Tymcz 27 [ak], Paul Auer, ‘La Construction Européenne et les Pays de l’Europe de l’Est’, nd. prob.1964. 12. Klaus Larres, ‘Britain, East Germany and Détente: British Policy toward the GDR and West Germany’s “Policy of Movement”, 1955–65’, in Loth, Europe ..., p. 112. 13. Larres, p. 112; PUMST, Ciol/kosz Papers, lecture by Paul Auer, 3 January 1958. 14. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 23/H/246, ‘European Integration’, prob.1955, pp. 2, 11. 15. PISM, KOL 23/H/246, ACEN ‘European Integration’, p. 12; PUMST, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/7, ACEN Special Session, 12–15 April 1956 and Paul Auer, ‘Memorandum’, 30 September 1959. US Senator Hubert Humphrey challenged the term peaceful co-existence in 1956, suggesting the word ‘peaceful’ be amended to ‘competitive’ since the Soviets did not understand the meaning of peace. 16. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/206, ACEN Plenary Meeting 30 November 1956, quoting Hubert Humphrey, and KOL 408/207 quoting James Burnham in National Review, 30 May 1956; PUMST Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/6, Address of Goedhart to ACEN, April 1956. 17. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/226 European Movement, ‘Conference on Problems of Eastern Europe’, 18 December 1963, p. 1. 18. Tony Judt, A History of Europe since 1945, London, Heinemann, 2005, p. 253. But Kennedy’s speech in Berlin in June 1963 reiterated the Potomac Declaration and assuaged the anxieties of the exiles. 19. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’, n.d., probably 1957, pp. 12, 15; John W. Young, Cold War Europe 1945–1989: A Political History, London, New York, Edward Arnold, 1991, p. 11. 20. PUMST Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/6 ‘Wanted: An Eastern Policy of the West’, p. 14, n.d. and Memorandum from Paul Auer, 30 September 1959, pp. 2, 3; J. Mieroszewski, Ewolucjonizm, Paris Literary Institute, Paris, 1965, pp. 25–9. 21. Polish Affairs, no. 4, (7th year) April 1959; PISM Starzewski Papers, KOL 357/13, ‘Declaration of the Executive Committee of the Polish Council of National Unity on the ratiﬁcation of the Warsaw Treaty’, 22 May 1972; Kultura, no. 7/141–8/142, July–August 1959, article by Juliusz Mieroszewski, Digest in English; PISM Bregman Papers, KOL 265, Alexander Bregman, ‘Poland and German Unity’ in Modern Age, Spring 1962. 22. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, paper read by Hubert Ripka at meeting of the Central and East European Commission, 19 January 1957 and KOL 23/H/218, Hubert Ripka, ‘Negotiations with Moscow and the problem of Central Europe’, 2 May 1955; KOL 23/H/245, Memorandum by Paul Auer, 30 September 1959. 266 Notes

23. Adam Ciol/kosz, ‘Winds of Change’, Polish Affairs, vol.xiv, no.2, [Oct–Dec], 1966; PISM Starzewski Papers, KOL 357/13, ‘Neutrality in Central Europe’, n.d.; PISM, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/218, Central and East European Commission of European Movement, 20 May 1955. 24. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/209, ‘Message of the Assembly of the ACEN to the Council of Europe, 15 April 1959. 25. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/208, ‘The Problem of Central and Eastern Europe’, 17 January 1958; Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History 1929–1969, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973, p. 285. 26. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/208, Jan Starzewski ‘Existing Proposals for a New Security System for Central Europe’, April 1958, pp. 5–6. 27. PISM ACEN Papers, KOL 408/209, ‘Message of ACEN to the Council of Europe’, 16 April 1959, pp. 3–4. 28. PISM Bregman Papers, KOL 265, I, Folder 4, Bregman, ‘Poland and German Unity’, pp. 187–8. 29. Bregman, ‘Poland and German Unity’, p. 190. 30. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Motyw spol/eczny sojuszów’, Kultura, kwiecien´ (April), 1969; Jan Kempa, ‘ “Kultura” – a Polish Institution’, The Central European Federalist, vol. IX, no.2, December 1961. 31. J. Mieroszewski, Polityczne neurozy, Paris, 1967, pp. 101, 103. 32. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Militarization or Neutralization’, Kultura, Digest no.7/141– 8/ 142, July–August 1959; The Editor’s comment, Kultura Digest, no.5/139, May 1959. 33. POSK, Radomyski Papers, 1495/Rps/12, NiD’s letter to Nixon, 17 August 1959; NiD’s submission to the US State Department, 16 April 1958, in The Central European Federalist, vol.VI, no.1, June 1958. 34. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/246, memo by Paul Auer, 30 September 1959. 35. PISM KOL 23/H/220, Raczyn´ski Papers, ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’, n.d. prob. 1957, p. 12; Starzewski Papers, KOL 357/13, ‘Neutrality in Central Europe’ and ‘Memorandum’, n.d. The memorandum of the ACEN to the Council of Europe in 1959 carried a similar message. 36. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Simon and Schuster, 1994, p. 733. 37. P.M.H. Bell, The World since 1945: An International History, London, Arnold and New York, OUP inc., 2001, pp. 269–70; Dean Rusk, ‘Co-existence without Sanctimony’, in G.R.Urban ed., Détente, London, Temple Smith, 1976, p. 246. 38. Bell, pp. 270, 301–2; Young, p. 18. 39. Bell, p. 271. 40. J. Starzewski, ‘Soviet Terms for Peace in Europe’, Polish Affairs and Problems of Central and Eastern Europe, no.88, June 1972; ‘Polish Government in Exile and the Conference at Geneva’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975; Bruno Pitterman, ‘The moral factor in the conduct of foreign affairs’, in Urban ed., Détente, p. 10. 41. Pitterman, p. 15; ‘Mutual Appeal to the Western Participants of the Geneva Security and Co-operation Conference’ (from the Polish Committee for European Cooperation), Polish Affairs, no.95, December 1975. 42. ‘Documents’, Polish Affairs, no.95, December 1975. 43. Bell, pp. 290–1; Kissinger, p. 758. Notes 267

44. Young, p. 18; Bell, p. 286. 45. Jerzy Gawenda, ‘The Prospect of a New Yalta’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. 46. Bell, p. 289. 47. Stefan Korbon´ski, ‘President Ford and Eastern Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.91/2, July/December 1974; Rusk, p. 256. 48. Adam Ulam, ‘Why the status quo in Eastern Europe is a threat to Soviet security’, in Urban ed., pp. 225, 226. 49. Richard Pipes, ‘Détente and Reciprocity’, in Urban ed., pp. 186–7, 192. 50. Zdzisl/aw Stahl, ‘The Nixon–Brezhnev Summit and the European Security Conference’, Polish Affairs and Problems of Central and Eastern Europe, no.89, December 1972. 51. ibid. 52. Korbon´ski, ‘President Ford and Eastern Europe’; Note of Foreign Minister to Dr. H. Kissinger, 8 April 1976, Polish Affairs, no.96/97, July 1976; Ulam’s comment on this was that Sonnenfeld was buying into Soviet propaganda to the effect that ‘the East Central European states were traditional hotbeds of parochial nationalism and instability’. They strongly contributed to the outbreak of two world wars and could cause a third were it not for the over- whelming presence of the Soviet Union. Hence the Soviet Union was doing the world a service. Ulam in Urban, ed., p. 213. 53. ‘Memorandum of the Executive Committee of the Polish Council of National Unity’, Polish Affairs and Problems of Central and Eastern Europe, no.84, July 1970. 54. Kissinger, p. 734. 55. Young, pp. 17–18; ‘The Soviet–German Treaty: A Case of Unjustiﬁed Euphoria’, Polish Affairs, no.85, November 1970. 56. ‘Memorandum by the Polish Council of National Unity’, Polish Affairs, no.85, November 1970; Bell, p. 309. 57. Bell, p. 331. 58. ‘Memorandum...’, Polish Affairs, no.85, November 1970. 59. Bell, p. 310. 60. Zdzisl/aw Stahl, ‘The Helsinki Declaration and Political Prospects’, Polish Affairs, no.95, December 1975. 61. Bell, pp. 311–2. 62. Stahl, ‘The Helsinki Declaration...’. 63. Cyril E. Black et al., Rebirth: A History of Europe since World War II, Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford, Westview Press, 1992, p. 128; Bell, p. 312. 64. Young, p. 20. 65. Black, p. 128; Bell, p. 312. 66. Polish Affairs, no. 95, December 1975, and ‘Appeal of the ACEN to the United States Congress’, Polish Affairs, no. 91/2, July/December 1974. 67. ‘Memorandum from the Polish Government in Exile’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. 68. Polish Affairs, no.95, December 1975; ‘Polish Committee of Co-operation and Security in Europe to the Conference in Geneva’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. 69. ‘Declaration of the Polish Government in Exile on the forthcoming international conference in Helsinki’, Polish Affairs, no 95, December 1975; Stahl, ‘The Helsinki Declaration...’; Polish Affairs, no.99, April 1977. 268 Notes

70. Adam Ciol/kosz, ‘Let Them Be Bold’, Polish Affairs, no.99, April 1977. 71. Kissinger, pp. 759–60; Polish Affairs, no.119, Winter, 1986. 72. Jan Nowak, ‘Review of the Helsinki Process’, Polish Affairs, no. 119, 1986. 73. Kissinger, p. 759; Nowak, ‘Review...’. 74. Ulam in Urban ed., p. 225. 75. Ulam, p. 222; Kissinger, pp. 745, 756. 76. Kissinger, p. 752; Pipes, ‘Détente and Reciprocity’ in Urban, ed., pp. 185–6. Contrary to Kissinger’s assertion, Pipes argued that ‘the purpose of détente was not so much to make Russia change its system of government as to reduce the threat which it poses to Europe...a complete internal transformation is not what we are after...’. 77. George R. Urban, Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy: My War within the Cold War, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1997, p. 110. 78. Michel Korné, ‘Les Propositions du Groupe de Paris’, Polska w Europie, no.1–3, January–March, 1979; ‘L’Autre Europe: Sera-t-elle représentée?’ Polska w Europie, no.1–3, January–March, 1979; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, The Polish Committee of the ‘Britain in Europe’ Campaign, May 1975, and KOL 23/H/234, letter of Raczyn´ski to The Times, 24 July 1971; Geoffrey Warner, ‘Eisenhower, Dulles and the Unity of Western Europe, 1955–1957’, International Affairs, 69, 2, 1993. 79. ‘European Parliament’, Polish Affairs, no.113–14, Spring–Summer, 1984. 80. Jerzy Jankowski, ‘Les Fédéralistes Européens et les Pays de l’Est’, Polska w Europie, nos.9–10 (182–3), Sept–Oct 1971; Conclusions of the Conference of the ACEN, PUMST, Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/6 n.d. prob. 1961. 81. ‘L’Autre Europe: Sera-t-elle représentée?’. 82. Polish Affairs, nos.1–2, February 1959. 83. ‘European Parliament’, Polish Affairs, nos.113–114, Spring–Summer 1984.

10 War of ideas

1. Hugh Thomas, Armed Truce: The Beginnings of the Cold War 1945–46, London, Hamish Hamilton, Sceptre edition, 1988, 1st pub.1986, p. 676. 2. Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: America’s Secret War behind the Iron Curtain, Boston, New York, Houghton Mifﬂin Co., 2000, pp. 94–5. 3. J. Mieroszewski, ‘O mie˛dzynarodowa˛ brygade˛ europejska˛’, Kultura, no.11, listopad (November) 1951. In fact an institution of this sort already existed, namely the College of Free Europe in Strasbourg, which had been founded on the initiative of Kultura, but Mieroszewski had reservations about the way the college functioned. 4. Grose, p. 98; Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA, New York, Harper and Row, 1980, p. 111; John Foster Leich, ‘Great Expectations: The National Councils in Exile 1950–1960’, The Polish Review, vol.XXXV, no.3, 1990. 5. The Free Europe Committee had founded the College of Free Europe under the inspiration of Kultura, Mieroszewski, ‘O mie˛dzynarodowa˛...’. 6. The chairman of its Executive Committee was Joseph Grew, a retired ambassador, and another former OSS member, De Witt Poole, became President of the organization. Leich, p. 184; Grose, p. 124; Meyer, p. 111; Richard Notes 269

J. Aldrich, ‘European Integration: An American Intelligence Connection’ in Anne Deighton ed., Building Postwar Europe: National Decision Makers and European Institutions 1948–1963, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1995, p. 162; Sl/awomir /Lukasiewicz, ‘Polish Federalists in the United States after 1940’, in Thomas Lane and Marian S. Wolan´ski eds, Poland and European Unity: Ideas and Reality, Wrocl/aw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocl/awskiego, 2007, pp. 157–8. 7. Meyer, p. 111; Richard Aldrich, ‘OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948–1960’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, vol.8, no.1, March 1997. 8. Leich, p. 183. 9. William A. Buell, ‘Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in the mid 1980s’, in K.R.M. Short ed., Western Broadcasting over the Iron Curtain, London & Sydney, Croom Helm, 1986, pp. 85, 88. 10. Zdzisl/aw Najder, ‘Talk to Listeners in Poland’, Polish Affairs, no.109, Winter, 1982. 11. George R. Urban, Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy: My War within the Cold War, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1997, pp. ix, 53. 12. Gary D. Rawnsley, Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda: The BBC and VOA in International Politics, 1956–64, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1996, p. 69; Urban, p. 2; interview with Mr. Krok-Paszkowski, July 2004; the Radio Nacional de España, in Poland called ‘Radio Madrid’, was ‘profoundly anticommunist and even belligerent’ – see José M. Faraldo, ‘Peripheral Europeans. Polish Émigrés in Franco’s Spain (1939–1969)’, in Lane and Wolan´ski eds, Poland and European Unity, p. 141. 13. J. Mieroszewski, Polityczne neurozy, Paris, 1967, pp. 105–7. 14. Polish Affairs, May 1952; Trevor Barnes, ‘The Secret Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe 1946–1956, Part II’, The Historical Journal, 25, 3, (1982). 15. Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (henceforth PISM) London, Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, letter from Raczyn´ski 27 January 1957 and Memorandum on broadcasts of Radio Free Europe, 29 January 1957; Polish Affairs, February 1952; Rawnsley, p. 69. 16. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, Memorandum, 29 January 1957. 17. Mary McIntosh, chief, Statistics, ‘Analyses and Attitude Research, East European Audience and Opinion Research’, in Short ed., p. 246; Buell, p. 75. 18. Meyer, pp. 112, 117; Aldrich, ‘OSS, CIA and European Unity’, p. 189; Urban, p. 59. 19. Christopher Felix, A Short Course in the Secret War, Lanham, MD, New York and London, Madison Books, 1963, 1991, 1992, p. xiv; Urban, p. 107; Grose, p. 221. 20. Polish Affairs, no.109, Spring 1983. 21. Rawnsley, p. 69. 22. McIntosh, p. 245. 23. McIntosh, p. 245; Grose, p. 221; Jan Nowak, ‘Review of Helsinki Process’, Polish Affairs, no.119, 1986. 24. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, Memorandum, 29 January 1957; Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs eds, Navigating the Rapids 1918–1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle, New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973, p. 631. 270 Notes

25. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, Central and East European Commission, letter from John Pomian, 15 April 1957. 26. Interview with Z. Najder, 30 July 2004. 27. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004. 28. PISM, Bregman Papers, KOL 265, The Daily Telegraph, 18 October 1962. 29. Maria Danilewiczowa, ‘Polish Literary Scene in 1959’, Polish Affairs, no.6, 7th year, June 1959; Robert Kostrzewa ed., Between East and West: Writings from Kultura, New York, Hill and Wang, 1990, xii. 30. Interview with W. Bartoszewski, 30 July 2004. 31. Interview with J.K. Bielecki, 24 March 2004. 32. Interview with H. Gronkiewicz-Waltz, 16 December 2003. 33. Interview with J. Saryusz-Wolski, April 2004. 34. Interview with W. Bartoszewski, 30 July 2004. 35. ‘Kultura on trial in Warsaw’, Polish Affairs and Problems of Central and Eastern Europe, no.84, July 1970. 36. Konstanty A. Jelenski, ‘Introduction’, in Kostrzewa ed., p. 9. 37. M. Suszko, ‘Kultura and European Unification 1948–1953’, The Polish Review XLV, no.2, 2000; Adam Michnik, Letters from Prison and other Essays, Berkeley CA and London, University of California Press, 1985, p. 18; Kempka claimed that the black market price for a ‘second hand dog-eared issue was enormous’, Jan Kempka, ‘ “Kultura” – a Polish Institution’, The Central European Federalist, vol.IX, no.2, December 1961. 38. ‘Kultura on trial’ and Michnik, p. 18. 39. ‘Kultura on trial’. 40. Piotr Wandycz, ‘Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak Political Emigration and the Origins of the Cold War’, The Polish Review, vol.47, no.2, 2002; Suszko, ‘Kultura and European Unification’. 41. J. Czapski, ‘W Berlinie o zjednoczonej Europie’, Kultura, no.9, wrzesien´ (September), 1951, p. 112. 42. Suszko, ‘Kultura and European Unification’. 43. Interview with Z. Najder, 30 July 2004. 44. C. Mil/osz, ‘O Autografii na cztery re˛ce Jerzego Giedroycia’, Gazeta Wyborcza, 21–22 stycznia (January), 1995. 45. Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, New Haven & London, Yale University Press, 2003, pp. 226–31; Ilya Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 79, 86, 95. 46. J. Mieroszewski, Ewolucjonizm, Paris, Paris Literary Institute, 1965, p. 8. 47. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Polska-Rosja-Chiny’, Kultura, no.3, marzec (March), 1964. 48. J. Mieroszewski, ‘Konfrontacja w Pradze’, Kultura, pa´zdziemik (October), 1968. 49. Mieroszewski, Ewolucjonizm, pp. 25–9, 32. 50. ibid., pp. 38, 53–4. 51. PSW, ‘Poles and Federalism’, The Central European Federalist, vol.1, no.1, April 1953. 52. ‘An Uncensored Letter from Czechoslovakia, brought out in March 1954’, Central European Federalist, vol. II, no.2, July 1954; PISM Ciol/kosz Papers, KOL 133/218, Paul Auer ‘La Construction Européenne et les Pays de l’Europe de l’Est’, n.d. Notes 271

53. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, Central and East European Commission, letter from John Pomian, 15 April 1957. 54. ‘A Young Hungarian Exile speaks about Federation in East Central Europe’, The Central European Federalist, vol.V, no.2, December 1957. 55. E. Osmanczyk, ‘Argument about Europe’, The Central European Federalist, vol. V, no.2, December 1957; Bela Kiraly ‘Imre Nagy’s Road to Federalism’, The Central European Federalist, vol.XII, no.1, July 1964. 56. William R. Keylor, The Twentieth-Century World: An International History, New York, Oxford University Press, 1984, p. 28; Review of Michael Gamarnikow, Polska, Wspólny Rynek, i.Ziednoczona Europa, The Central European Federalist, XIV, no.2, December 1966. 57. Urban, p. 131; Jan Józef Lipski, ‘Two Fatherlands, Two Patriotisms’, Kultura, October 1981. 58. PISM Starzewski Papers, KOL357/13, 25 April 1958, speech by Jan Starzewski; PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL23/H/246, Stefan Osusky, Rapporteur, Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN) General Committee, Draft Report to the Council of Europe; for Gafencu, PISM Raczin´ski Papers, KOL 23/H/220, undated and unsigned report ‘Europe does not end at the Iron Curtain’, possibly 1957; for Ciol/kosz see Polish Library Paris (henceforth PLP), Morawski archive, Tymcz 26. 59. Jelenski in Kostrzewa, p. 15. 60. Keith Sword, Identity in Flux: The Polish Community in Britain, London, SSEES, University of London, 1996, pp. 40, 45–7; ‘A Young Hungarian Exile Speaks’; Bogdan Zaporowski, ‘The Young Generation of Post-Stalin East Europe’, The Central European Federalist, vol.XIV, no.2, December 1966; Aleksander Bregman, The Daily Telegraph, 18 October 1962. 61. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, KOL23/H/218, March 1955; PLP, Morawski archive, Tymcz 26, 27 April 1957, address of Morawski to the ACEN. 62. Juliusz Mieroszewski, ‘Militarisation or Neutralisation’, Kultura, no.7/141– no.8/142, July August 1959, (Digest). 63. Starzewski, loc.cit. 64. PISM Raczyn´ski Papers, 23/H/229, 1965, Memorandum of the Central and East European Commission of the European Movement; Zaporowski, p. 23. 65. Kostrzewa ed., xii. 66. Michnik, p. 19. 67. Urban, pp. 107, 112, 131. 68. ‘The Mission of RFE and RL Broadcasts’, in Short ed., Western Broadcasting, p. 95. 69. Interviews with K. Skubiszewski and H. Gronkiewicz-Waltz. 70. Interview with H. Gronkiewicz-Waltz, 16 December 2003.

11 Poland’s European policy after communism: continuity and change

1. The quotation is attributed to Lech Wal/e˛sa in Roger Boyes, The Naked President: A Political Life of Lech Walesa, London, Secker and Warburg, 1994, p. 317. 2. Louisa Vinton, ‘Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy, 1989–1993’, in Ilya Prizel and Andrew A. Michta eds, Polish Foreign Policy Reconsidered: Challenges of Independence, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1995, pp. 32, 45–6. 272 Notes

3. Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2003, pp. 219–31; Ilya Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 79, 151; Stephen R. Burant, ‘International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its Eastern Neighbours – Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine’, Europe-Asia Studies, vol.45, no.3, 1993. 4. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004; Radio Free Europe Research, (hereafter RFE Research) vol.14, no.41, Part II, 12 October 1989. 5. RFE Research, vol.14, no.41, Part II, 12 October 1989. 6. John F. Dunn, Widening the Community? E.C. Relations with European and Global Partners, London, HMSO, 1991, Wilton Park Papers no.40, p. 10; Renata Stawarska, ‘Poland’s Association with the EEC’, Polish Western Affairs, vol.XXXIII, no.1, 1992; Ilona Romiszewska, ‘The European Communities and the Central and East European Countries: From Aloofness through Co-operation to Association and Membership?’ Polish Western Affairs, vol.XXXIII, no.1, 1992; Peter van Ham, The EC, Eastern Europe and European Unity: Discord, Collaboration and Integration since 1947, London and New York, Pinter, 1995, 1st pub.1993, pp. 142–3. 7. Uncensored Poland News Bulletin, no.24/89, 31 December 1989, and no.9/89, 31 May 1989. 8. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004. 9. BBC Monitoring, Summary of World Broadcasts (hereafter SWB), Part 2, Eastern Europe, Third Series EE/0561, 14 September 1989; Vinton, pp. 26–31. 10. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004; Vinton pp. 37–8. 11. Ilya Prizel, ‘Warsaw’s Ostpolitik: A New Encounter with Positivism’ in Prizel and Michta eds, p. 105; SWB, Eastern Europe EE/0622, 24 November 1989. 12. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004. 13. ibid. 14. SWB, General and Western Affairs, EE/0711 A1/1, 13 March 1990 and Third Series, EE/0609, 9 November 1989; George Sanford, Poland: The Conquest of History, London, Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999, p. 83. 15. Prizel ‘Warsaw’s Ostpolitik,’ pp. 101–3. 16. SWB, General and Western Affairs, EE/0711 A1/1, 13 March 1990 and Third Series, EE/0609, 9 November 1989; SWB Special Supplement EE 0637 C/1, 12 December 1989, speech of Foreign Minister Skubiszewski to the Sejm, 7 December 1989; Sanford, Poland...p. 83. 17. Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy, pp. 113–15; Barbara Donovan, ‘Eastern Europe and German Unity’, in Radio Free Europe Research, ‘Report on Eastern Europe’, 2 March 1990; SWB Special Supplement, EE/0637 C/1, 12 December 1989. 18. SWB Third Series EE/0560 13 September 1989 and SWB Special Supplement EE/0697 C/1, 24 February 1990. Mazowiecki’s comment had been anticipated by Skubiszewski six months earlier when he said that the idea of the uniﬁca- tion of Germany without the consent of all members of the European home was unthinkable. Furthermore uniﬁcation ‘must be adjusted to European security requirements’. 19. SWB EE/0799 A1/7 25 June 1990, EE/0819/i 18 July 1990; Uncensored Poland, no. 8/91, 28 June 1991. Notes 273

20. SWB EE/0865 i 10 September 1990. 21. Interview with Z. Najder 30 July 2004. Najder remarked that Skubiszewski was very cautious, rejecting internal pressure that Poland recognise the independence of Lithuania on the grounds that this ‘would make the Russians angry’ (Najder’s words). Skubiszewski, said Najder, ‘did not want to rock the boat’; Prizel, ‘Warsaw’s Ostpolitik’, pp. 101–3. 22. Vinton, pp. 25–6, 37–8; Prizel, ‘Warsaw’s Ostpolitik, pp. 100–1. 23. Vinton, pp. 25–6; Mazowiecki’s address to an election meeting in Wrocl/aw, SWB 3rd Series, EE/0775, 28 May 1990 and Skubiszewski to the Sejm, SWB EE/0997 i 15 February 1991 and SWB EE/0998 i 16 February 1991; Mazowiecki to the Sejm 22 November 1990, Uncensored Poland, nos. 22–23/90, 16 December 1990. 24. Vinton, pp. 42–3. 25. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September, 2004. 26. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004; SWB EE/0732 B/6 6 April 1990. 27. Bielecki’s speech to the Solidarity Congress, 24 February 1991 reported in SWB EE/1007 B/9 27 February 199 and SWB EE/1250 B/12 9 December 1991. 28. Wal/e˛sa’s speech on his impressions of a visit to the Federal Republic of Germany, 14 September 1989, SWB EE/0561 14 September 1989. 29. Interview with Z. Najder, 30 July 2004. 30. ‘Pro Memoria’, submission of the request of the Republic of Poland for membership of the EU 8 April 1994, sections 1 and 9; Marcin Zaborowski, ‘Power, Security and the Past: Polish–German Relations in the Context of EU and NATO Enlargement’, German Politics, vol.11, no.2 (August 2002); Arthur Rachwald, ‘Looking West’, in Prizel and Michta eds, pp. 131–2. 31. David Warszawski, ‘A New Vision is Needed’, Uncensored Poland, no. 9/90, 11 May 1990, ﬁrst published in Rzeczpospolita, 5 April 1990. 32. SWB EE/0750 C1/1, 28 April 1990, report to Sejm by Foreign Minister Skubiszewski 26 April 1990. 33. ‘Declaration of Visegrad Summit’, 15 February 1991, in SWB EE/0999 A2/1 18 February 1991. 34. Dunn, p. 13; SWB Third Series, EE/0674 29 January 1990; SWB EE/0788 A2/1 12 June 1990; Sarah Meiklejohn Terry, ‘Poland’s foreign policy since 1989: The challenges of independence’, Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 33, 2000. 35. Terry, pp. 16–17. 36. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004. 37. Dunn, p. 21; Terry, pp. 10, 16, 18; Rachwald, p. 149. 38. Prizel, National Identity, p. 132; Snyder, p. 229. 39. Interview with K. Skubiszewski, 11 September 2004. 40. Interview with H. Gronkiewicz-Waltz, 16 December 2003. 41. Alexander J. Matejko, ‘The Structural Roots of Polish Opposition’, The Polish Review, vol.7, nos. 1–2, 1982; Jakub Karpin´ski, ‘Polish Intellectuals in Opposition’, Problems of Communism, July–August 1987. Some of the more prominent of these underground journals were Biuletyn Informacyjny, Opinia, Res Publica, Spotkania, Robotnik, Gospedarz, Gl/os, Krytyka, Puls, Zapis, Bratniak, Droga, Znak and TygodnikPowszechny. A number of them were asso- ciated with KOR, the Workers’ Defence Committee, some others were in the 274 Notes

Catholic tradition. Lipski summarises their role as ﬁghting for workers who were beaten, imprisoned and dismissed from their jobs and later supporting the movement for democracy and independence. The issues were often re-copied and widely read. Books were also published regularly, often by NOWA, an independent publishing house, as were policy studies by anony- mous writers calling themselves the Polish Independence Alliance or Polish League for Independence (PPN). 42. Jan Józef Lipski, KOR, a History of the Workers’ Defense Committee in Poland 1976–1981, Berkeley and London, University of California Press, 1986, p. 305; Karpin´ski, p. 52; Nika Krzeczunowicz, ‘Uncensored Press in Poland’, Polish Affairs, no.103, January–February–March 1981; Andrzej Drawicz, ‘Experience of Democratic Opposition’, Survey, vol. 24, no. 4 (109), Autumn 1979. 43. Polish Library Paris, Morawski archive, Tymcz 26, 27 April 1957, Address of Morawski to the Assembly of Captive European Nations and Tymcz 6, Speech at Commission of the Nations not represented in the Council of Europe, XIII session, 6 July 1961. 44. Prizel, pp. 74, 86, 151. 45. Prizel, p. 100. 46. Interviews with K. Skubiszewski, Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, K. Bartoszewski, Z. Najder and H. Gronkiewicz-Waltz. 47. Romiszewska, ‘The European Communities’. 48. Dunn, p. 10; Stawarska, ‘Poland’s Association’. 49. Solidarity Citizens’ Committee, Statement on ‘Poland and the World’, 24 April 1989, Uncensored Poland, no. 21/89, 17 November 1989. 50. Lipski, p. 361. 51. ‘Pro Memoria, pp. 1–2. 52. Stawarska, ‘Poland’s Association’. 53. Francisco M. Catalucci, ‘Introduction: In Search of Lost Europe’, in Bronisl/aw Geremek, The Common Roots of Europe, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1996, p. 14; Kazimierz Brandys, A Warsaw Diary 1978–1981, translation Richard Lourie, London, Chatto and Windus, Hogarth Press, 1984, p. 47. 54. PPN in Survey, vol.25, no.1 (110), Winter 1980. 55. Romiszewska, ‘The European Communities’; van Ham, p. 73; Heather Grabbe and Kirsty Hughes, Enlarging the EU Eastwards, London, Pinter and RIIA, 1998, p. 83; ‘Pro Memoria’, pp. 1, 7. 56. Adam Michnik, Letters from Prison and other Essays, Berkeley and London, University of California Press, 1985, pp. 16–18. 57. There was one exception to this; the London exiles did not share the government’s policy of recognising the existing Eastern frontiers. Bibliography

Unpublished Primary Sources

National Archives, London FO371 Foreign Ofﬁce Correspondence.

Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum, London (PISM) Kol 23/H/211–45 Raczyn´ski Collection. Kol 39/19 and 39/35 Wszelaki Collection. Kol 133/217,218 Ciol/kosz Collection. Kol 357/13 Starzewski Collection. Kol 265 Bregman Collection. Kol 408/202,203,204 Polish National Council Pan Europe Committee 1955–56–57. Kol 408/205–217 and Kol 23/H/246 ACEN Collection. Kol 408/218 Polski Ruch Europejski. Kol 434/129 Federal Union Correspondence 1941–2. Kol 30/III/1–5 Paprocki Collection. Kol 259, 9–11,31 Glaser Collection. Kol 874 Kluby Federalne1947–49. Kol 875 Federali´sci Europejscy 1947–49. Kol 414/7 Klub Francuski. Kol 414/8 Klub Niemiecki. Kol 414/10 Klub Belgijski. Kol 414/11 Grupa Polska Klubu Londyn´skiego. Kol 414/9 Klub Szwajcarski. Kol 414/13 CEFCL koresponencja. Kol 415/8,11 BSESW´ Collection. Kol 415/4 European Study Bureau. A48.1/C.9 Kancelaria Cywilna Prezydenta Rzeczpospolitej. A5/95,100,118,132 Rada Narodowa. Kol 408/319 TRJN Posiedzenia Rady. PRM-K.102/93 D Posiedzenia Rady Ministrów-protokoly. Kol 630 Cydzic Collection. Kol 202 Foreign Ministry Archive, Pan Europa 1945.

Polish Library and Cultural Institute, London (POSK) 1280/Rps Retinger Papers. 1495/Rps/12,13 Radomyski Papers.

275 276 Bibliography

Bibliothèque Polonaise, Paris Morawski Papers Tymcz 6,7,26,27,42,48 [ak].

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Re˛kopis Biblioteki Ossolineum, Wrocl/aw Papiery Hrabyka.

Periodicals

Kurier Warszawsk. The Polish Review. Kultura. New Europe. Foreign Affairs. Journal of Central European Affairs. Polish Fortnightly Review. Polish Fortnightly. The Eastern Quarterly. International Affairs. The Central European Federalist. Polish Affairs. Survey. European Press. Wiadomo´sci Polskie. Polska w Europie. Uncensored Poland News Bulletin. East European Quarterly. East European Reporter. Trybuna. White Eagle – Orzel/ Bial/y. European News, becomes East European News and Views. East Europe. Journal of Central European Affairs. East–West Digest. Biuletyn Intermarium. Tygodnik Polski. Kronika. Eastern Europe’s Monitor. Wiadomo´sci ZPF. Rzeczpospolita Polska. Sprawa Polska. Swiatl´ /o. Robotnik. Wolno´s´c. Summary of World Broadcasts. Bibliography 277

Published Primary Sources

Central European Federal Club, London, Statement of Aims, 12 October 1945. Central European Federal Club, Rome, Karta Wolnego Mie˛dzymorza, 1946. ‘Club Fédéral de l’Europe Centrale á Paris – Déclaration’, The Intermarium Bulletin, no.15, May 1951. Congress of Europe, The Hague – May 1948, Resolutions. ‘Declaration by the Polish Government in Exile on the forthcoming international conference at Helsinki’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. ‘Declaration of the Polish Government in Exile’, Polish Affairs, no.95, December 1975. ‘Deklaracja ideowo-programowa uchwalona na VI Kongresie PSL w Brukseli’, Orka, October–December 1968. Directorate of Information, the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, Concise Handbook of the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1954. ‘Documents’, Polish Affairs, no.88, June 1972. European Movement, European Consultative Assembly: Recommendations sub- mitted to the Conference of Ambassadors for the Establishment of a Council of Europe, 1949. European Movement, Objectives and Organization, February 1949. European Movement, Recommendations for Agenda and other Arrangements for First Session of the Council of Europe, formulated 17–19 June 1949. Europe Unites: The Hague Congress and After, London, Hollis and Carter, 1949. Journal of Central European Affairs, I, no.1, April 1941, ‘The Czechoslovak–Polish Agreement’. /Laptos, J., and M. Misztal, American Debates on Central European Union 1942–44: Documents of the American State Department, Brussels, PIE-Peter Lang, 2002. Lipgens, Walter, ed., Documents in the History of European Integration, vol.2, Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1986. Lipgens, W. and W. Lott, eds., Documents in the History of European Integration, vol.4, Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1991. ‘Memorandum by the Polish Council of National Unity’, Polish Affairs, no.85, November 1970. NiD ‘Polski Ruch Wolno´sciowy “Niepodlegl/o´s´c i Demokracja” (NiD). Zadania emigracji’, Paris, November 1945. ‘Philadelphia Declaration’, European Press, Sept, Oct, Nov 1964. Polish Council of National Unity, ‘The Problem of Central–Eastern Europe in the Context of East–West Negotiations’, Polish Affairs, no.4, 7th year, April 1959. ‘Polish–Czechoslovak Declaration on Confederation Agreements 1942’, Polish Affairs, no.119, Winter 1986. Polish Freedom Movement, ‘Independence and Democracy’, Charter of the Free Man, 8 December 1947. ‘Polska, Niemcy Europa. Z Prezydium Stronnictwa Narodowego’, My´sl Polska, October 1946. PPN (Polish League for Independence), ‘Poland and Europe’, Survey, vol.25, no.1 (110), Winter 1980. Projekt Konwencji Pan´stw Intermarium, published in Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. 278 Bibliography

‘Statement by the Presidium of the Polish Committee of the European Movement’, Polish Affairs, no.84, July 1970. ‘The Philadelphia Declaration’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.IV, no.2, 11 February 1951.

Unpublished Studies

Rebattet, F.X., ‘The European Movement, 1945–1953: A Study in National and International Non-Governmental Organizations Working for European Unity’, unpub. D.Phil diss, St. Antony’s College, Oxford, 1962.

Books and articles

Abdank, Z., ‘Reﬂeksje z prerii’, My´sl Polska, June 1951. Abromeit, Heidrun, ‘Contours of a European Federation’, Regional and Federal Studies, vol.12, no.1, 2002. Aldrich, Richard J., ‘European Integration: An American Intelligence Connection’ in Ann Deighton ed., Building Postwar Europe: National Decision-Makers and European Institutions 1948–1963, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1995. Aldrich, Richard J., ‘OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe 1948–1960’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, vol.8, no.1, March 1997. Aldrich, Richard J., The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence, London, John Murray, 2002, pbk.ed., 1st pub. 2001. Anders, W., ‘Przedmowa do pracy A. Plutyn´skiego’, Jest nas 115 milionów. Stany Zjednoczone Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej´ , Rome, 1946. Anon, ‘News from Invaded Nations’, New Europe, vol.1, no.8, July 1941. Anon, ‘Do wszystkich zrzeszen´ narodów Mie˛dzymorza na emigracji (Rome, May 1946)’, Biuletyn Intermarium, nos.3–4, 1946. Anon, ‘Po ustaniu dzial/an´ wojennych (sierpen´ 1945)’, Biuletyn Intermarium, 1947. Anon, ‘Ideowe pol/o˙zenie konfederacji Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej’,´ Biuletyn Intermarium, no.5, 1947. Anon, ‘Przeciweuropejska gra o Niemcy’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.8, 1947. Anon, ‘Na rozdro˙zu’, My´sl Polska, February 1947. Anon, ‘Czekamy na dalsze etapy’, Biuletyn Stronnictwa Ludowego ‘Wolno´s´c’, April 1947. Anon, ‘Ukrainiec o Mie˛dzymorzu’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.8, 1947. Anon, ‘Inauguracja Klubu Federalnego Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej´ w Niemczech’, Kronika, 5 September 1948. Anon, ‘Mie˛dzymorze i ALON’, Kronika, 1 February 1948. Anon, ‘Uchwal/a Zjazdu Ligi Niepodlegl/o´sci Polski (5 & 6 June 1948)’, Kronika, 15 August 1948. Anon, Europe Unites: The Story of the campaign for European Unity, including a full report of the Congress of Europe held at The Hague, May 1948, London, Hollis & Carter, 1949. Anon, ‘Za czy przeciw federacji?’, Kronika, 30 January 1949. Anon, ‘Na wschód od Mie˛dzymorza’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. Anon, ‘Rezolucja polityczna Rady Centralnej PPS z 5 wrze´snia 1948’, Robotnik Polski w Wielkiej Brytanii, October 1949. Bibliography 279

Anon, ‘Rezolucja polityczna II Zjazdu PPS no Obszy´znie (July 1952)’, S´wiatl/o, March 1952. Anon, ‘Regional Unions’, Polish Affairs, no.1, 2nd year, January 1953. Anon, ‘Polish–Czechoslovak Co-operation’, Polish Affairs, no.1, 2nd year, January 1953. Anon, ‘The Still-Born Fund’, Polish Affairs, no.6, 2nd year, June 1953. Anon, ‘An Uncensored Letter from Czechoslovakia’, The Central European Federalist, vol.II, no.2, July 1954. Anon, ‘Rezolucja uchwalona przez Rade˛ Naczelna˛ ZPF w dniu 16 stycznia 1955’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1955. Anon, ‘Thèses sur l’intégration politique Européenne’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1956. Anon, ‘Rok 1956 dobrze zasl/u˙zyl/ sie˛ Europie’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, December 1956. Anon, ‘The End of Jamming’, Polish Affairs, no.9, 4th year, December 1956. Anon, ‘Federali´sci w sprawie Europy Wschodniej’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, February 1957. Anon, ‘Walne Zebranie Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, March 1957. Anon, ‘Future of Central and Eastern Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.5, 5th year, May 1957. Anon, ‘Sil/a naszej idei’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, May 1957. Anon, ‘Traktaty europejskie otwieraja˛ nowe horyzonty’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, September 1957. Anon, ‘A Young Hungarian Exile speaks about federation in EC Europe’, The Central European Federalist, vol.V, no.2, December 1957. Anon, ‘The Polish Question on the International Forum’, Polish Affairs, no.4, 6th year, April 1958. Anon, ‘Captive Nations in Strasbourg’, Polish Affairs, no.5, 6th year, May 1958. Anon, ‘Unia Socjalistyczna o jedno´sci Wschodniej Europy’, S´wiatl/o, September 1958. Anon, ‘The Wrongness of European Self-Amputation’, The Central European Federalist, vol.VI, no.2, December 1958. Anon, ‘Tezy Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów odno´snie planu politycznego dla Europy Srodkowej´ i Wschodniej’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, January 1959. Anon, ‘The Problem of Central-Eastern Europe in the Context of East-West Negotiations’, Polish Affairs, no.4, 7th year, April 1959. Anon, ‘Czechoslovak–Polish Economic Rapprochement’, The Central European Federalist, vol.IX, no.2, December 1961. Anon, ‘Dzial/alno´s´c Zwia˛zku Polskich Federalistów 19.XII 1959–17 II 1962’, Wiadomo´sci ZPF, March 1962. Anon, ‘Rezolucja w sprawach mie˛dzynarodowych’, Robotnik, November–December 1962. Anon, ‘Deklaracja ogólna’, Polska w Europie, no.7, 1963. Anon, ‘ACEN Conference in Strasbourg’, Polish Affairs, nos.5–6 (11th year), June 1963. Anon, ‘Europa polityczna: kto, jak, kiedy?’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. Anon, ‘History of Central European Federalists’, European Press, April 1964. Anon, ‘Apel o wznowienie rozmów w sprawie zjednoczenia Europy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. Anon, ‘VII Stany Generalne Gmin Europy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. 280 Bibliography

Anon, ‘Plan Spaaka czy plan Erharda?’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1964. Anon, ‘Brussels Conference Controversy’, European Press, Sept, Oct, Nov, 1964. Anon, ‘Nowa wa˙zna data w zyciu˙ Europy’, Polska w Europie, no.3, March 1965. Anon, ‘Krok na drodze ku obywatelstwu Europy’, Polska w Europie, no.3, 1965. Anon, ‘Europa Wschodnia pretekst do rozbicia Wspólnot Europejskich?’, Polska w Europie, no.5, 1965. Anon, ‘W poszukiwaniu “koncepcji kierunkowej” ’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1965. Anon, ‘Zainteresowanie Wschodem Europy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–8, 1967. Anon, ‘1 lipca 1967 r.: Próba bilansu przed nowym etapem’, Polska w Europie, no.6, 1967. Anon, ‘Nie ma polityki europejskiej bez Europy politycznej’, Polska w Europie, no.11, 1967. Anon, ‘Bilans niedobrego roku’, Polska w Europie, no.12, 1968. Anon, ‘De Gaulle’s Policy in Central and Eastern Europe’, Polish Affairs, no.83, August 1969. Anon, ‘Kultura on trial in Warsaw’, Polish Affairs and Problems of Central and Eastern Europe, July 1970. Anon, ‘The Soviet–German Treaty: A Case of Unjustified Euphoria’, Polish Affairs, no.85, November 1970. Anon, ‘Budowa Europy ´swiatl/a i cienie’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–3, 1972. Anon, ‘Rza˛dy buduja˛ Europe˛’, Polska w Europie, no.4, April 1972. Anon, ‘Obywatele buduja˛ Europe˛’, Polska w Europie, no.4, April 1972. Anon, ‘A Dangerous Confrontation’, Polish Affairs, no.89, December 1972. Anon, ‘Po paryskim “szczycie” ’, Polska w Europie, nos.9–10, 1972. Anon, ‘Europa zaczyna sie˛ od gminy’, Polska w Europie, nos.7–9, 1973. Anon, ‘Nacjonalizm ϩ suwerenno´sć pan´stwowa ϭ koniec marzen´ o zjednoczonej Europie’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–3, 1974. Anon, ‘Appeal by the ACEN to the US Congress’, Polish Affairs, no.91/2, July–December 1974. Anon, ‘Federali´sci wskazuja˛ droge˛ do Europy politycznej’, Polska w Europie, nos.9–10, 1974. Anon, ‘Rozwazania ˙ nad Europa˛’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–2, 1975. Anon, ‘Jedno´sć w róznorodno´sci’, Polska w Europie, nos.3–5, 1975. Anon, ‘Polish Government in Exile and the Conference at Geneva’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. Anon, ‘Polish Committee of Co-operation and Security in Europe to the Conference in Geneva’, Polish Affairs, no.93/4, June 1975. Anon, ‘Helsinki’, Polish Affairs, no.99, April 1977. Anon, ‘Nasza Europa, nasi sa˛siedzi’, Polska w Europie, nos.3–9, 1977. Anon, ‘L’Autre Europe: Sera-t-elle représentée?’, Polska w Europie, nos.1–3, January–March 1979. Anon, ‘Odezwa do Europejczyków przyje˛ta na zakonćzenie Kongresu Europejskiego w Hadze’ (May 1948) in W. Grodzicki and J. Pomian eds., Wspólnota Europejska. Przewodnik dokumentalny, London, 1982. Anon, ‘Helsinki and its abrogation’, Polish Affairs, no.119, Winter 1986. Arciszewski, Tomasz, ‘Statement to the Polish National Council’, The Polish Review, vol.V, no.1, January 1945. Ash, Timothy Garton, ‘ “Mitteleuropa?” in “Eastern Europe, Central Europe, Europe”’, Daedalus, vol.119, no.1, 1988. Bibliography 281

Ash, Timothy Garton, The Uses of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central Europe, Cambridge, Granta Books, 1991. Ash, Timothy Garton, In Europe’s Name: Germany and the Divided Continent, New York, Random House, 1993. Ba˛czkowski, W., ‘The Countries of the Middle East and the Intermarium’, The Eastern Quarterly, vol.I, no.1, 1948. Ball, George, ‘Europe without a unifying adversary’ in G.R. Urban ed., Détente, London, Temple Morris, 1976. Baraniecki, J.P., ‘Stronnictwo Narodowej Demokracji’ in Szkuta ed., 1996. Barnes, Trevor, ‘The Secret Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1945–1956, Part II’, The Historical Journal, XXV, 1982. Barrell, Lawrence L., ‘Poland and East European Union 1939–1945’, The Polish Review, vol.III, nos.1–2, Winter–Spring 1958. Bauman, Zygmunt, ‘Intellectuals in East–Central Europe: Continuity and Change’, Eastern European Politics and Societies, 1, 2, Spring 1987. Beddington-Behrens, E., Look Back, Look Forward, London, Macmillan, 1963. Bell, P.M.H., The World since 1945: An International History, London, Arnold, 2001. Beneˇs, Edvard, ‘The New Central Europe’, Journal of Central European Affairs, vol.I, no.1, April 1941. Beneˇs, Edvard, ‘The New Order in Europe’, Nineteenth Century and After, vol.130, 1941. Beneˇs, Edvard, ‘The Organization of Post-War Europe’, Foreign Affairs, XX, no.2, January 1942. Beneˇs, Edvard, ‘Post-War Germany and Central–Eastern Europe Confederation’, New Europe, vol.III, no.6, June 1943. Beneˇs, Edvard, Memoirs of Dr. Edvard Beneˇs: From Munich to New War and New Victory, trans. Godfrey Lias, London, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1954. Beneˇs, Vojta, ‘The Mission of Small Nations’ in Lipgens ed., Documents, vol.2, Berlin and New York, de Gruyter, 1986. Berle, Beatrice Bishop and Travis Beal Jacobs, eds., Navigating the Rapids: 1918–1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle, New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973. Bernard, Vilem, ‘The Socialist Union of Central and Eastern Europe and European Uniﬁcation’, European Press, June, July, August, 1965. Bernhard, Prince, et al., ‘Hommage á un grand Européen J.H. Retinger’, Bulletin of the EEC, no.5, 1960–61. Bezins, Alfred, ‘The Soviet Union’s Heel of Achilles’, ABN Correspondence – Anti- Bolshevik Newsletter, vol.1, no.2, March 1950. Bial/asiewicz, J., ‘Problem zjednoczenia Europy’, Kronika, 23 May 1948. Biskupski, M.B. ‘Spy, Patriot or Internationalist? The Early Career of Józef Retinger, Polish Patriarch of European Union’, The Polish Review, vol.XLIII, no.1, 1998. Black, Cyril E., et al., Rebirth: A History of Europe since World War II, Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, Westview Press, 1992. Blom, J.C.H. and W. ten Have, ‘Making the new Netherlands: ideas about renewal in Dutch politics and society during the Second World War’ in M.L. Smith and P.M.R. Stirk eds., Making the New Europe: European Unity and the Second World War, London and New York, Pinter Publishers, 1990. Bobin´ski, Christopher, ‘Polish Illusions and Reality’ in Anatol Lieven and Dmitri Trenin eds., Ambivalent Neighbours: The EU, NATO and the Price of Membership, Washington DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2003. 282 Bibliography

Bohlen, Charles E., Witness to History, New York, Norton, 1973. Bonnefous, Edouard, L’Europe en face de son Destin, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, n.d., prob. mid 1950s. Boothby, Robert, ‘The Future of the Council of Europe’, International Affairs, vol.XXVIII, July 1952. Borelowski, T., Zarys programu niepodlegl/o´sciowego. Zbiór artykul/ów, Jerusalem, 1947. Bór-Komorowski, Tadeusz, ‘The Unity of Europe’, Polish Fortnightly, no.6, 26 April 1948. Borsody, Stephen, The Tragedy of Central Europe: The Nazi and Soviet Conquest of Central Europe, New York, Collier, 1962, 1st pub as The Triumph of Tyranny: The Nazi and Soviet Conquest of Central Europe, New York, Macmillan, 1960. Bosco, Andrea, ed., The Federal Idea, vol.I, The History of Federalism from the Enlightenment to 1945, London and New York, Lothian Foundation Press, 1991. Boyes, Roger, The Naked President: A Political Life of Lech Walesa, London, Secker and Warburg, 1994. Brandys, K., A Warsaw Diary 1978–81, London, Chatto & Windus, 1984. Bregman, Aleksander, ‘Congress of Europe’, Polish Fortnightly, vol.1, no.8, 24 May 1948. Bregman, A., Polska i Nowa Europa, London, Polonia Book Fund, 1963. Bregman, A., ‘Integracja europejska a stosunki polsko-niemieckie’, Polska w Europie, no.4, 1964. Broncel, Z., ‘Polska rewolucja pa´zdziemikowa’, Kultura, no.12, December 1956. Brzezin´ski, Z., ‘Eastern Europe after Prague: Tendencies and Prospects’ in J./ Lukaszewski ed., The People’s Democracies after Prague, Bruges, de Tempel, 1970. Brzezin´ski, Z., ‘From Cold War to Cold Peace’ in G.R. Urban ed., Détente, London, Temple Smith, 1976. Brzezin´ski, Z., Power and Principle, Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981, New York, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983. Brzorad, V., ‘Federalist Ideas among Exiles’, The Central European Federalist, vol.III, nos.2–3, November 1955. Buell, William A., ‘Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in the mid-1980s’ in K.R.M. Short ed., Western Broadcasting over the Iron Curtain, London and Sydney, Croom Helm, 1986. Burant, Stephen R., ‘Polish–Lithuanian Relations: Past Present and Future’, Problems of Communism, May–June 1991. Burant, Stephen R., ‘International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its Eastern Neighbours – Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine’, Europe–Asia Studies, vol.45, no.3, 1993. Burant, Stephen, ‘Poland’s Eastern Policy, 1990–1995’, Problems of Post-Communism, vol.43, no.2, 1996. Busek, Vratislav, ‘Federation and Neutrality’, The Central European Federalist, vol.IV, no.2, May/June 1956. Buszczynski, S., Amerika i Europa. Studium historyczne i ﬁnansowe, Kraków, 1876. Byrnes, Robert F., ‘Can Culture Survive Cultural Agreements?’ in Urban ed., Détente. Carr, E.H., Conditions of Peace, New York, Macmillan, 1942. Celmins, G., ‘Reﬂeksje rozzalonego ˙ Europejczyka’, Biuletyn Intermarium, no.12, May 1949. Channing-Pearce, M., ed., Federal Union: A Symposium, London, Jonathan Cape, 1940. Bibliography 283

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Action Européenne Fédéraliste, see under and membership of an East European Federalists’ Action European association, 45 American Committee on European opportunism of, 37–8 Reconstruction, 22 relations of, with Sikorski, 37 Anders, General Wl/adysl/aw, 75 support of, for a loose association Anglo–Soviet Treaty 1942, 50, 53, 55 of states, 39, 46, 49–50 Anti-Bolshevik Block of Nations (ABN) views of, on post-war frontiers, activists of, in Germany, 68 42, 43–4, 50 Anti-Bolshevik League of Liberation of worries of, regarding German Nations (ALON), 68 power, 43 stagnation of, 68 Beneˇs, Vojta, 28 arms reduction and limitation Berle, Adolf, 85, 195, 199 agreements, 180–2 Bevin, Ernest, and the Council of Assembly of Captive European Europe, 93 Nations (ACEN), 96, 105 Bielecki, Jan Krzysztof, 223 advice of, to Council of Europe, belief of, that knowledge of 110–13 European affairs in Poland very aggressive policy of, to Communist fragmented, 230 states, 106 doubts expressed by, over inﬂuence criticism by, of acceptance of status of Kultura, 227 quo in Central East Europe, 106 Bielecki, Tadeusz, 86, 91, 163, 165 militant policies of, 110–12 Bogomolov, Alexander, 55 Atlantic Charter, 24, 51, 53 Boothby, Robert Auer, Paul, 86, 94, 109, 178 views of, on Council of Europe, 92 Brandt, Willy Baltic Conference, Helsinki 1920, 13 acceptance by, of Oder–Neisse Bartoszewski, Wl/adisl/aw, 227, 230 frontier, 184 Baumann, Janina, 211 and policy of Ostpolitik, 184 Baumann, Zygmunt, 211 Brandys, Kazimierz, 232 Beddington-Behrens, Edward, 84, 90 Bregman, Aleksander, 150–1, 177, Belgian participation in Inter-Allied 201, 211 Committee in WWII, 82 Brezhnev Doctrine, 180, 183 leading to disagreements between Briand, Aristide, 14, 15 Belgians and Poles, 82 British Broadcasting Corporation Beneˇs, Edvard, 34–5 European Service, 196 attitude to Polish–Czechoslovak support of, for European unity, 196 confederation idea, 37, 39 British government conﬁdence of, that Soviet Union attitude of, to the confederation would win the war, 42 in Central East Europe, and Czechoslovak–Soviet Treaty 51–2 1942, 50 criticism of, 53 and indispensability of Soviet criticism by, of Czechoslovakia and support, 42–3, 53 Beneˇs, 52

298 Index 299

and frontiers of Poland and Cold War Czechoslovakia, 42, 47, 52 challenge of, to Polish federalists, 168 recognition by, of necessity for Confederation of federations in Soviet support, 53–4 Europe, 31, 33 Brugmans, Hendrik, 85, 115, 119, Congress of Central and East 130–1, 136 European Nations, 75 Brus, Wlodzimierz, 211 Constantinescu, Emil, 198 Brzezin´ski, Zbigniew, 182 Constitution of 3 May 1791, 6 support of, for détente, 182 Consultative Assembly of Council of Buczyn´ski, Stefan, 10 Europe, 75, 92 powerlessness of, 93 Caucasus federation, 69 Resolution 47 of, 94, 107–8 Cazalet, Victor, 81 Resolution 87 of, 95 Central East Europe resolutions of, 94–5 advantages of a regional federation Coudenhove-Kalergi, Count Richard, in, 25–8, 35, 36, 64–5 15, 72, 85 customs union in, 66–7 leadership of, in European essential unity of, 30, 58, 61–2, 152–3 Parliamentary Union, 85, 153 federation in, and its institutions, and Pan-European movement, 15 62–4 Council of Europe, 75, 77–8, 133 great differences in the region of, alleged failure of, to adopt liberation 30, 58, 66, 164–5 policies, 106 Central and East European Planning Committee of Ministers of, 93 Board, 22, 27 conﬁdence in, by Polish exiles, 97, Central European Federal Club, 30 107–8 Central European Federalist, 203, 207 criticism of, for appeasement policies, Central European Free Trade 108–10, 169 Association, 225 diminishing trust in, of Polish Christian Democratic Workers’ Party, 32 exiles, 108–9, 133 Churchill, Winston the formation of a Special call of, for a United States of Committee of (Watchdog Europe, 72 Committee), 94, 96 comment of, on Soviet good foundation of, warmly welcomed faith, 188 by exiles, 92 contradictions in federalist thought Founding Statute of, 93, 107, 118 of, 72–3 membership of exiles in, 88 Polish reactions to ideas of, 73–4 reasons offered for this failure of, and Potomac Declaration of, 111 118–21 sees necessity to keep Soviet support requests of exiles for representation in World War II, 53 in rejected, 93–4 United Europe Movement of, tension in, between Assembly and 72, 85 Committee of Ministers, 93 welcome of, to exiles in European Watchdog Committee of, as the con- Movement, 89 science of West Europe, 109 Zurich speech of, 72, 83 Council of Mutual Economic Assistance Cieszyn dispute, 43–4, 50, 52 (CMEA), 102, 119, 192, 216, 230–1 Ciol/kosz, Adam, 23, 31, 78, 91, 97, agreement between, and the 112, 119, 156, 169, 173–4, 210 European Community 1988, Clay, General Lucius D., 195 216–17 300 Index

Courland, 6 Eden, Anthony, 25 Cuban missile crisis, 180 position of, on Polish–Czechoslovak Czartoryski, Adam, 8–9 ‘Agreement’, 51–2, 53 and Essai sur la Diplomatie, 9 Eisenhower, Dwight, 111, 169, Czechoslovak ‘Fundamental 190, 195 Principles’, 49 Estreicher, Stanisl/aw, 15 Czechoslovakia’s ambivalence on European Coal and Steel Community European federation, 35–6, (ECSC), 102 45–6 European Economic Community Czechoslovak–Polish relations (EEC), 103 1920–21, 13 enlargement of, 132, 136, 190 Czechoslovak Russophilia, 46 evolution of, into a political Czechoslovak–Soviet relations, 50 community, 132, 190 Czechoslovak–Soviet Treaty membership in, of increasing interest 1942, 50 to Polish exiles, 103, 189–91 European Federalists’ Action, 131, Dalton, Hugh, 31–2, 36 136, 149 Danubian Club of London, 22 European League for Economic Danubian federation, 15, 100 Cooperation (ELEC), 72, 84 Dehousse, Fernand, 133 European Movement, 77–8, 114, 153 De la Vallée Poussin, Etienne, 85, alleged failure of, to adopt robust 91, 116 policies towards communist controversy involving, over states, 105, 113–15 policy of the European Central East European Commission Movement, 116 of, 90–1, 196 criticism of, by ACEN, 116–17 conﬁdence of exiles in, 98 criticism of, by Morawski, 116 constitution of, 88, 90 proposal of, to invite observers criticism of, 113–15 from Communist states, 117 initiative of, in establishing a Democratic Integral Federalism European Assembly, 92 (or inner federalism), 28 loss of trust in, by exiles, 105, De-nuclearization, 175–6 120–1, 133–4 d’Estaing, Giscard, 85, 139 membership of exiles in, 88 Détente, 121, 169, 179–80 organizes Westminster Conference, advantages of, to Moscow, 180–1 91–2 advantages of, in view of exiles, proposals to downgrade Central 179–80 East European Commission attractions of, to the U.S., 181–2 of, 117 scepticism about, by exiles, 179, purposes of, as seen by Polish 181, 183 exiles, 97 stimuli to, 180–2 reasons for the failure of, 117–20 Disaggregation of states into nations, role of, in promoting widest possible 103–4 European unity, 89–90 Disengagement, 176 support of, for exiles, 91–2 Dmowski, Roman, 11, 13 European Parliament Dormer, Sir Cecil, 32 popular voting for, 130, 189 Dulles, Allen, 195 European Parliamentary Union, Dulles, John Foster, 85, 169–70, 189 72, 85 Dziennik Polski i Dziennik Zol˙ /nierza, 60 European Political Community, 134 Index 301

European Press, 203 Free Intermarium Charter, 59, 61, European Union of Federalists (EUF), 64, 152 72, 85, 131, 149 French Union of Federalists, 59 L’Europe des Patries, 150 Functionalism as a method for Europe of the Peoples, 150 integration in Central East Europe of the Six Europe, 102–3 growing sentiment among exiles for membership in, 103 Gafencu, Gregoire, 86, 94, 210 Gaitskell, Hugh, plan of for Federal Clubs, 59 denuclearisation in Central attempts of, to broaden the base of, Europe, 176 74–5 Gaullism, 150 the Brussels Club, 60, 76 support for, by Polish National constitutions proposed by, 62–4 Democrats, 166 demise of, 76 Geneva conferences 1955, 173, 176–7 the Frankfurt Club, 60, 67, 68, 76 Geremek, Bronisl/aw, 198, 219 the London Club and its support for German–Polish Treaty of Friendship a federal union, 59, 63 and Cooperation, 221 the London Club’s solution of the German problem, 70–2 German problem, 71–2 German unification, 169, 173–5 the Paris Club, 59, 61, 63–4 consequences of, for membership of the Paris Club and the future of the NATO etc, 174 Soviet Union, 69 danger of, for interests of exiles, the Rome Club, 59, 61, 152 173–4 Federal Research Associations, 60–1 exiles’ conditions for acceptance of, Federation of Americans of East 174, 177 and Central European origin, would follow self-determination in 59–60, 76 both halves of Germany, 174 Federations, 20–1, 23–4 Germany advantages of, 24–7, 129–30 border issues in, 71, 174 conditions for success of, 30–1, 62 democratization and decentraliza- disadvantages of, 29 tion of, 70–2 factors impelling the creation of, fear of, 25, 66–7 126–7 federation of, proposed, 72 federation or confederation?, 23–4 pacification of, 174 minority problems eased by, 103–4 re-education of, 71, 173–4 multi-level, see Multi-level self-determination in, producing federation benefits for exiles, 174 power and prosperity of member Germany–Poland border treaty states enhanced by, 103 1990, 221 preferences among exiles for, 23–4 Giedroyc, Jerzy, 201, 203, 226 the preservation of national cultures Giertych, J, 164 by, 27–8 Glaser, Stefan, 97 results of, 127 Global country, see World structure and membership of, in Commonwealth Central Europe, 29–31, 100 Goedhart, F.J., 96, 110, 173 voluntary character of, 127 Gomul/ka, Wl/adisl/aw, 197, 203 Freedom International, 68 Gronkiewicz-Waltz, Hanna, Free Europe Committee, 103, 161 227–8, 230 302 Index

Gross, Feliks, 21–2, 24, 27–8, 29, Hrabyk, K, 60, 163 30, 31 Hull, Cordell, 53 federal ideas of, 157–9 Hungarian Revolt 1956, 95, 169, 195 and the transformation of values, 158–9 Independent League for Economic Grzegorzewski, Jan, 12 Cooperation (LICE), 84 Gwiazda, Andrzej, 198 character and policies of, 85 Independent Social Group, 143, Habsburg, Otto von, 189 154–5 Hague Congress 1948, 73–4 ideas of, 154–5 delegates at, divided on tight or initial support of, for Intermarium, loose European unity, 87 154 East European exiles represented membership of, 154 in, 86 origins of, 154 and failure of Polish federalists to Instytut Literacki, 201 act quickly, 73–4 Integral federalists, 72 failure of, to take a clear position Inter-Allied Committee, 81–2 on East Europe, 73–4 reasons for establishment of, 82 key recommendation of, 87 suspicion of, in London and major achievement of, 87 Moscow, 82 proposal of, for a European US attitudes to, 83 Consultative Assembly, 87 The Intermarium Bulletin, 59–60, report of Economic Committee of, 87 70–1, 76, 83 resolutions of Political Committee Intermarium project, 61, 152 of, 73–4, 87 broadening of, to include Cossack Hallstein Doctrine, 174 and Caucasus groups, 68 Hallstein, Walter, President of the customs union in, 66–7 European Movement, 113 and the future of the Soviet Union, few references to Eastern Europe in 68–70 autobiography of, 119 opposition to, of National inaugural speech of, to European Democrats, 163–4 Movement, 115 and the solution of ethnic and Jankowski’s criticism of, 115 minority problems, 66 Havel, Vaclav, 198, 224 and voluntarism of, 62 Helsinki Final Act, 184–6 Intermarium union, membership of, human rights clauses of, and their 61, 68 advantages, 187–8 International Committee of the impact of, on oppositionists in Movements for European Unity, 86 Central East Europe, 188 International Labour Organization no acceptance of, as a Peace Conference 1941, 22 Treaty, 186 International Peasant Union, 161 Helsinki process, 184 Ionescu, Take, Romanian Foreign reaction to, of exiles, 186–9 Minister, 13–14 Helsinki Watch Committees, 188 Isthmus, the, 12, 13 Hertenstein conference, 72 Iwaszkiewicz, Jarosl/aw, 120, 209 Hodˇza, Milan, 26 Home Army in Poland, 23, 26, 33 Jankowski, Jan, 144 support of, for a loose association of Jankowski, Jerzy, 59, 114, 122–3, 126, states, 33 128–9 Index 303

Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 214, 219 scepticism about influence of, on Jarzembowski, Wojciech, 9 eastern policy, 227–9 Jaspar, Marcel-Henri, 81 and Solidarity intellectuals, 215–16 Jordan, Zbigniew, 145–8 Journal of Central European Affairs, 22 La Fédération, 59, 132 proposals of, for a federal constitu- Kalembka, Sl/awomir, 6 tion for Europe, 132 Karolyi, Michael, 23 League of Poland’s Independence, 76, Katyn, 46, 50, 83 143, 151 Kennan, George, 119, 169, 175 differences of, from Polish and ‘Organized Political Warfare’ – Liberation Movement, 152 ‘counter force’, 194–5 ideas of, 151–4 and the policy of containment, origins of, 151 193, 283 Lednicki, Aleksander, 15 proposals of, for neutralization of Lerski, Jerzy, 144 Central Europe, 175 Leszczyn´ski, Stanisl/aw, 7–8 Kennard, Sir Horace, 32 liberalization in the Soviet Bloc, hopes Kennedy, John F., 173 of, 170 Kerstens, Pieter, 81, 85 liberation policy, 129, 169–72, 195 Khrushchev, Nikita, 170, 175 LICE, see under Independent Kirk, Peter, 94 League for Economic Kissinger, Henry, 180, 181–2, 183, Cooperation 187, 188–9 Limanowski, Bolesl/aw, 10–11 Klaus, Vaclav, 225 Lippmann, Walter, 119 Kohl, Helmut and the 10 point Lipski, Jan Józef, 209–10, 228, 231 programme, 220 Lithuania, 15 Kol/akowski, Leszek, 120, 209, 211 Lithuanian people, 11 Komarnicki, Tytus, 48–9, 65, 154 Little Entente, 13 constitutional proposals of, Livonia, 1 65, 154 Lockhart, Robert Bruce, 32, 52, 56 ideas of, 154 London Committee of Free Kotowicz, P., 67 Representatives of East European Kronika, 60 Nations, 178 Kul/akowski, J., 91 Lublin, Treaty of, 1569, 6 Kulski, W., 30, 46 Kultura, 60, 194, 203 Macmillan, Harold, 85 and European unity, 204–5, 229 belief of, in unity of Europe, not and federalization of Central East federalism, 87 Europe, 100 commitment of, to freedom of influence of, in Poland, 2–4–6, 215 Central East Europe, 89 influence of, on Polish policy Presidency of, of Central and East to eastern neighbours, European Commission of the 226–7 European Movement, 91 numbers of copies of, circulating proposal of, to form the ‘Watchdog’ in Poland, 203 Committee of the Council of opposition of, to Polish nationalism, Europe, 94 205 speech of, at Westminster penalties in Poland for possession Conference, 91–2 of, 203 Maisky, Ivan, 42, 54, 55 304 Index

Makins, Roger, 52 Nagy, Imre, 209 Malynski, Emmanuel, 14–15 Najder, Zdzisl/aw, 201, 221, 223, 230 and How to Save Europe, 14 National Democrats (Poland), 13 Marc, Alexandre, 85 Nazi–Soviet Pact 1939, 18 martial law in Poland, 187 neutralization, 106, 169, 175–6, Masaryk, Jan, 22, 37, 46 176–7 Masaryk, Thomas, 20 ceases to be an issue, 179 and European unity, 20 opposition to, among exiles, 178–9 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 214 support for, among some exiles, importance to, of united Germany’s 177–8 membership in EC, 220 New Europe, 22, 33 initial commitment of, to member- Nixon, Richard, 178, 182, 183 ship in Warsaw Pact, 218 Non-Proliferation Treaty, 180 support of, for Poland’s membership Nouvelles Equipes Internationales, 72, of a united Europe, 216, 231 85, 96 Michnik, Adam, 233 Nowak-Jezioran´ski, Jan, 193 Mickiewicz, Adam, 10 and an assessment of Helsinki Final Mie˛dzymorze idea (Intermarium), 226 Act, 187–8 Mieroszewski, Juliusz, 100, 123, head of Polish desk of Radio Free 169–70, 203, 206–7, 211, 226 Europe, 197 and the advantages of neutralization Nowa Koalicja, 228 of Central Europe, 177 Nowa Polska, 22 and the education of young Nowe Drogi, 33 exiles, 194 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963, 180 and the implications of the fall of communism, 206–7 Obóz, 228 and the power of ideas, 196 Oder–Neisse line, 71–2, 112, 126, predictions of, about the demise of 128–9, 174, 177 the Soviet empire, 206–7 advantages resulting from Mikol/ajczyk, Stanisl/aw, 37, 160–2 recognition of, 112, 184 Mil/osz, Czesl/aw, 232 failure to recognise, strengthened minorities, and how to protect them, Soviet grip, 112, 174 27, 28–9, 66, 103–4, 129 necessity for recognition of, by a Moczulski, Leszek, 226 united Germany, 219–21 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 42 Ofﬁce of Political Coordination, see criticism by, of confederations in under United States Europe, 53, 55 Olszewski, Jan, 223, 232 and temporary support for regional Olszewski, Stanisl/aw, 162 understandings, 55 Orzel/ Bial/y, 60 Monnet, Jean, 80, 119 Ostpolitik, 184 Montreux Congress, of European Osusky, Stefan, 210 Union of Federalists, 85–6 Morawski, Kajetan, 97, 116, 211 Paderewski, Ignacy, 12 Motz, Roger, 81, 85 Pan-Slavism, 8, 10 multi-level federation, 58–9, 64, 73, Partitions of Poland, 8 122–3, 125–6 peaceful co-existence, 169, 172–3 Mutually Assured Destruction appeal of, to the Kremlin, 172 (MAD), 182 attraction of, in the West, 172 My´sl Polska, 163 scepticism of, among exiles, 173 Index 305

People’s (or Peasants’) Party western visitors to, during Cold ‘Freedom’, 143, 160 War, 210–11 ideas of, 160 Poland’s first post-communist origins of, 160 governments, 214 Petlura, Simon, 68 complexity of problems facing, 215 Philadelphia Declaration, 76–7, ‘first concern’ of, was relations with 100, 161 the Soviet Union, 218 Philip, André, 120, 209 flexibility of, in relations with the Pierlot, Hubert, 81 Soviet Union, 219 Pil/sudski, Józef, 11 importance to, of recognition of the federation programme of, 11 Oder–Neisse line, 219–20 followers of, among the indispensability for, of the exiles, 151 Recovered Territories, 219 Pil/sudski, Rowmund, 86, 91, 94, necessity for, of good relations with 125, 144, 149 Germany, 218–19 Pipes, Richard, 182 principal aim of, was alignment hostility of, to détente, 182–3 with West, 218 Piszczkowski, T., 163–4 reasons of, for Poland’s membership, Poland 222–3 an integral part of Europe, 92–3 recognition by, of independence of belief in, in Poland’s membership in Eastern republics, 222 Europe, 212 and a regional association of states, citizens of, visiting or migrating to 224–6 the West, 210–11 support of, for Poland’s membership and conditions for membership in a of a united Europe, 217 united Europe, 89 Polish Affairs, 103, 105, 203 dissenting journals in, 228 Polish American Congress, impact of western print media in, 59–60, 161 202–3 Polish casualties 1939, 18–19 long-term interest of, in the Polish Committee for the European democratisation of the Soviet Movement, 97 Union, 219 Polish Commonwealth, 36 priorities of the population Polish–Czechoslovak agreement in, 202 1921, 13 public opinion in, on European Polish–Czechoslovak Agreement on integration, 128, 130, 192–3, confederation 1942, 31–2, 36, 49 200–2, 207–13, 228–9, 230, and British scepticism about, 32, 51 231–3 and British support for, 32, 37, 50–2 public opinion in, on the meaning lack of support for revival of, by of ‘Europe’, 212 Czechoslovaks, 225–6 smuggling into, of western books objectives of, 40 and journals, 203 proposal to revive, by Skubiszewski, Trade and Economic Cooperation 225 Agreement between, and EC, significance of, 49–50 216–17, 230–1 Soviet opposition to, 37, 50–1, western books and journals 55–6 available in, 201–2 a victim of Great Power politics, 56 western boundary of, see Polish–Czechoslovak Committee of Oder–Neisse line Coordination, 47 306 Index

Polish–Czechoslovak confederation Polish government-in-exile, 19, 35 proposed by Mieroszewski, 100 dissociation of, from Poland’s Polish–Czechoslovak ‘Declaration’, pre-war policies, 43 46–7 endorsement by, of deepening and Polish–Czechoslovak negotiations, widening of EEC, 191 47–9 lack of flexibility of, over Polish–Czechoslovak policy frontiers, 56 differences, 38 support of, for a broad confederation over frontiers, 39, 44 in Central Europe, 44 over the members of a Central East support of, for membership of a Europe confederation, 39 liberated Poland in EEC, 190–1 over public opinion in homelands, 45 unity of, in support of federalism, over relations with the Soviet 36–7 Union, 39–44 Polish Institute for Research on over social structures in homelands, International Issues (PIRII), 60 45–6 and a federal system in Russia after Polish Democratic Party, 143, 162–3 communism, 70 and federation ideas of, 162–3 Polish interviewees, by RFE, 192–3 Polish Draft Constitutional Act, 48 opinions of, on Poland in Europe, Polish exiles 193 ambitions of, for Poland in a united representativeness of, 193 Europe achieved, 233–4 Polish League for Independence belief of, in benefits to Western (PPN), 120–1, 232 Europe of the unity of the Polish Liberation Movement whole of Europe, 104–5 ‘Independence and Democracy’ belief of, in deepening and widen- and the formation of the Polish ing of EEC, 190–1 Union of Federalists, 149 claims of, to represent public opin- ideas and programme of, 144–5, ion in Poland, 31–2, 33–4, 92, 148–50 191, 192–3, 209–12, 213 membership of, 144 confidence of, in activities of ‘NiD’, 125, 143–4 Council of Europe and the origins of, 144 European Movement, 98 proposal of, for neutralization of expectation of, that a regional Central Europe, 178 association in Central East three-level union proposed Europe would not be by, 145 federal, 102 Trybuna, journal of, 144 influence of, on Polish Polish migration to Britain, 19–20 policy-making, 215–16 Polish National Party, 143, 163 as part of the broad Polish ideas and programmes of, 163, community, 233 165–6 political parties of, 142 opposition of, to Intermarium preference of, for regional groupings concept, 163–5 in Europe, 100–3, 190 pan-Europeanism of, 164 purpose of activities of, 96–7 support of, for Gaullism, 166 support of, for membership of their Polish Peasant/People’s Party, 24, 32, countries in EEC, 190 143, 160–2 Polish federalists’ proposals for the federal ideas of, 161–2 unity of Europe, 73–4 Polish Review, 22 Polish Fortnightly Review, 22 Polish–Romanian alliance 1921, 14 Index 307

Polish Socialist Party, 24, 26, 32, 143 chairs the Inter-Allied Committee, 81 activities of, post-war, 156 comment of, on Westminster attitude of, to EEC, 156–7 Conference, 91 and European integration, 156 commitment of, to European unity, and ideas of Feliks Gross, see under 36, 78, 90 Gross, Feliks critical letter of, to Walter Hallstein, proposals of, for reform of the 113–14 United Nations, 156 criticism by, of Council of Europe, 108 Robotnik, journal of, 156 criticism by, of European socialist planning proposed by, in Movement, 113–14 integrated Europe, 158 fear of, that liberated states might Polish Solidarity movement, see under reject federation, 102 Solidarity and membership of Council of Polish–Soviet relations, 25–6, 37, Europe’s Special Committee 40–1, 50, 54–5, 56 (Watchdog Committee), 94 Polish–Soviet Treaty, July 1941, 25, 40, negotiation of, with Czechoslovaks 41, 48, 54 on a federation, 46 divisions about, in the Polish Polish representative on government, 40 International Council of the severing of Polish–Soviet European Movement, 90 relations, 83 preference of, for a regional Polish Underground, 16, 33 federation, 101–2 federalist ideas of, 21, 24, 32–3 President of Polish Committee for and a reconstructed Europe 1941, the European Movement, 97 16, 32 represents exiles at Hague support of, for a confederation, 33 Congress, 86 Polish Uprising 1830, 9 and the responsibilities of the Polska w Europie, 114–15, 122, 133, European Movement, 89 136, 139 speech of, at Westminster Pomian, Andrzej, 144 Conference, 91 Pomian, John, 91 welcome of, for creation of the Poniatowski, J., 59, 67, 74 Council of Europe, 92 Ponikiewski, J., 67 Radio Free Europe, 128, 195–6 Posner, Stanisl/aw, 15 attacks on, by Communist Potocki, Count George, 22 governments, 196–7 Potomac Declaration, 111, 168 impact of, on individuals in Central Projekt Konwencji Pan´stwo Intermarium, East Europe, 198 59, 61 importance of, in communicating Prometheus and the Promethean with Central East Europe, Project, 68–9, 151, 153 196–7 inﬂuence of, on public opinion in Raczkiewicz, Wl/adisl/aw, 19 Poland, 198–9 Raczyn´ski, Edward, 197, 205 jamming of broadcasts of, 196–7 assertion of, that Central East policy decisions of, how made, Europe indispensable to 197, 200 prosperity of Western Europe, Polish desk of, 197 104–5 size of audience of, 197 attitude of, to Polish frontiers, 41 speaking for Central East Europe, 212 belief of, that liberation of Central support of, for European unity, East Europe imperative, 89 199–200 308 Index

Radio Liberty, 195 Saint-Pierre, Charles de, 7 Rapacki, Adam, 175 Sandys, Duncan, 85–6 Rapakci Plan, 175 Chairman of Executive Committee Reagan, Ronald, 189, 193 of European Movement, 90 Research Bureau of Central and and representation of exiles at the Eastern Europe, 60 Hague Congress, 86 Resistance movements in Europe, 20 views of, on role of European Retinger, Józef, 16–17 Movement, 90 aide and counsellor to Sikorski, 79 Sargent, Sir Orme, 52 biographical details of, 79–80 Savery, Frank, 32 character of, 80 Serruys, Daniel, 85 close collaboration of, with van Sikorski, General Wl/adisl/aw, Zeeland, 83 16, 18, 19 federalist beliefs of, 80, 83 and the creation of a new Europe, genius of, in establishing personal 20–1 contacts, 84–5 death of, 50, 83 mission of, to occupied Poland, 83 and differences with his participated in WWII discussions of government, 56 exile governments, 79, 80–1, 82 and federalism, 20–1, 35, 38 resignation as Secretary-General, 114 and a federation of states in Central Secretary-General of Executive East Europe, 16, 35–6, 37, 38, 45 Committee of European inspires declaration of post-war Movement, 90 solidarity, 82 Secretary-General of the policy of, to Baltic States, 44–5 International Committee of position of, on Polish frontiers, 41 the Movements for European support in Poland for, 32 Unity, 86 views of, on nature of Polish– Secretary-General of LICE, 85 Czechoslovak association, 38–9 and the security of Poland, 16, 83 willingness of, to compromise with work for European unity by, 83 Beneˇs, 39–40 Riga frontiers, 41 Skrzetuski, Stanisl/aw, 8 Ripka, Hubert, 39, 43, 46, 55, 56, 86, and Project for Uninterrupted Peace, 8 94, 100, 177 ‘Skubiszewski era’, 214 Risings in Poland and Hungary Skubiszewski, Krzysztof, 214 1956, 130 acceptance by, of Eastern borders, 222 Roberts, Frank, 32, 52 conviction of, that relations with Robotnik, 22, 31 the Soviet Union were a key Robotnik Polski, 22 issue, 218, 221 Roll back policy, see under United States critical importance to, of German Romer, Adam, 86, 103 recognition of Oder–Neisse line, Roosevelt, Franklin, 25, 34 219–20 Roser, Dieter, 136 criticism by, of Kohl’s 10 point Royal Institute of International Affairs programme, 220 (RIIA), 26 decision of, to negotiate on an Rusk, Dean, 180, 182 Association agreement, 217 ‘Russian Assumptions’, 69–70 denial of, that policy inﬂuenced by Rzeczpospolita (the United Republic of Kultura, 227 Poland–Lithuania), 6, 11, 12, 13, dual track policy of, to the Eastern 15, 46 republics, 221 Index 309

foreign policy of, criticised, recognition of, that reform 221–2, 224 of Council of Europe guiding principle of, in foreign impossible, 93 policy, 217 Sprawy Mie˛dzynarodowe, 60 practical problems facing, 216 Stalin–Eden conversations proposal by, to revive December 1941, 54 Polish–Czechoslovak Stanćzyk, Jan, 22, 31 confederation idea, 225 Starzewski, Jan, 60, 97, 103, 179, pursues a policy of ‘realism’, 216, 210, 211 221–2 Staszic, Stanisl/aw, 8 robust response of, to his critics, State system in Europe pre-war, 221–2 failure of, 24 strategy of, in conducting relations Steficki, J., 73 with the Kremlin, 217–18 Strang, William, 32, 54 support of, for regional ties, 224–5 Strassburger, Henryk, 24 support of, for a united Europe, Strategic Arms Limitation 216, 231 Talks, 182 Slavism, 8, 10 Sully, Maximilian, 7, 9 Smithers, Peter, 110 Smolar, Aleksander, 211 Táborský, Edvard, 39 Smolar, Eugeniusz, 211 Treaty between the Two Socialist International, 156 Germanys, 184 Socialist Movement for the United Treaty of Versailles, 13, 14 States of Europe, 85 Trybuna, 60, 203 Socialist Union of Central and Eastern ‘Two plus Four’ negotiations, Europe, 156, 158 219–21 Solidarity, 198, 205, 214 endorsement by, of Poland’s Citizens’ Committee of, and western border, 220 support for European unity, Tygodnik Powszechny, 228–9 217, 231 Sonnenfeld, Herman, 183 Ukraine, future of, in Europe, Sosnkowski, General Kazimierz, 36 162–3 Soviet–American summit meetings, 183 Ukrainian National Council and Sovietization of Central East Europe, composition of Intermarium, 68 193 Ulam, Adam, 182 Soviet Union hostility of, to détente, attitude of, to Polish–Czechoslovak 182, 188 confederation, 40–1, 54–5 Union of European Federations, 12 conditions of, for supporting this Union of Polish Federalists, 59, 75–6, confederation, 55 102, 122–4 liberation and future of, 68–9 affiliation of, to European objectives of, in Central Europe, Federalists’ Action, 131–2 25–6 arguments of, for internal federalism, opposition of, to federations in 124, 129 Central East Europe, 25, 55–6, 73 belief of, in economic integration Spaak, Paul-Henri, 81, 120, 209 as stepping stone to political plan of, to encourage further integration, 130, 132, 134 European integration and the benefits of federalism, 128, 1963, 134 136, 138–9 310 Index

Union of Polish Federalists – continued Central Intelligence Agency, concern of, at defeat of the European 195, 197 Defence Community, 127 Free Europe Committee, criticism by, of European Union of 194–5 Federalists, 131 Ofﬁce of Policy Coordination, 194 emphasis of, on the development of United States of Europe, 10 the EEC, 122–3, 130, 189–90 Urban, George, 196, 209–10, 212 as a gadﬂy, 124 Utrecht, Treaty of, 1713, 7 great hopes of, for the directly-elected European Parliament, 139 Van Zeeland, Paul, 81 hostility of, to ‘egotism of the assertion of, that Europe not nation state’, 126–7, 134, 141 limited to the West, 84 and how to create a political personal style of, 83–4 Europe, 138–9 preferred tactics of, 84 and how federalism could proposal of, for regional customs advance social conditions, and monetary union, 82 124, 126 proposes world association as on how liberation and European framework for regions, 84 unity would be achieved, 122, support of, for European union, 135, 141–2, 190 83, 87 importance for, of EEC becoming Visegrad meeting, 224–5 federal, 13l, 140–1, 189–90 Voice of America, 196 and the importance of the German Vyshinsky, Andrei, 54 issue, 128–9 and the notion of polycentrism in Wakar, Wlodzimierz, 12 international relations, 136 and The Union of the Emancipated opposition of, to Gaullism, 124, People, 12 134–5 Wal/e˛sa, Lech political initiatives of, 132–3 criticism by, of Skubiszewski, 221 and the preservation of national and meeting at Visegrad, 224–5 identities, 123 support of, for Poland’s membership press and publications of, 133 in EU, 223 programme of, 125–6 Wandycz, Piotr, on the impact of propaganda of, in Poland, 128–9 Kultura, 204 proposal of, for a world federal War of ideas, 193, 196 system, 125–6 Warsaw Pact, 175, 216 reaction of, to the EEC summit membership in, for independent 1972, 138 Central East Europe, 175 relationship of, with Polish winding up of, 222 Liberation Movement, 125 Wasiutyn´ski, W., 163–4 support of, for the idea of European Welles, Sumner, 39 citizenship, 140 Western rapprochement with support of, for West Germany’s Moscow, 171–2 membership in EEC, 128 fear of, among the exiles, 171 United Europe Movement, 72, 85 West German claims to 1937 United States frontiers, 220 attitude of, to Polish–Czechoslovak West German–Polish Treaty, confederation, 50–1, 53, 56–7 184, 221 Index 311

West German–Soviet Treaty Yugoslav–Greek Confederation, 31 1970, 184 West Slavonic Bulletin, 22 Zaleski, August, 15–16, 32, 37, 60 Wiadomo´sci (of Polish Home Army), 26 opinion of, about Beneˇs, 37 Wistrand, Senator, 91, 96 and presidency of Polish Institute Worcell, Stanisl/aw, 9 for Research (PIRII), 60 Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR), Zaolzie (western part of Cieszyn 205, 231 (Teschen), 12, 43–4 World Commonwealth (global Zaremba, Z., 86, 156, 158 country), 31, 33, 145–7, 149–50 Zdziechowski, G., 91, 109 Wszelaki, Jan, 26, 30, 39, 47 Znak, 228, 229