BASIC LIVE SOUND REINFORCEMENT 1ST EDITION PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Raven Biederman | --- | --- | --- | 9781136126062 | --- | --- Chapter 1 What Is Live Sound? - Basic Live Sound Reinforcement [Book]

He translated his years of working experience and knowledge into print with the first edition of Live Sound Reinforcement, later released in by MixBooks. After years of working in the sound system and engineering business, Stark attended law school and worked with several Internet ventures. Today he is a sound system consultant in the Washington, DC area where he currently resides. Convert currency. Add to Basket. Book Description Artistpro. Condition: new. Seller Inventory think More information about this seller Contact this seller. Book Description Artistpro, Condition: New. Brand New!. Seller Inventory VIB Fast Handling. Ships next Business day!!! Book Description Condition: New. Seller Inventory S Seller Inventory SX Satisfaction Guaranteed! Book is in NEW condition. Seller Inventory Hunter Stark, Scott. The home studio guide to . Mix Books, CA-Emeryville. Ballou, G. Handbook for sound engineers, Third Edition. You can change this by adding sound reinforcement as an additional revenue stream for your business. Many folks Milwaukee, WI: Hal Everest, F. Alton and Pohlman, Ken C. Ahnert is one of the authors of the book Fundamentals of Sound Reinforcement , and in Russian and the book Sound Reinforcement —Basics and Practice , and fully updated in English in , in Chinese in , and in The detailed chapters include Sound Reinforcement Handbook , 2nd Edition , Ch. At Yamaha , we've been putting all our sound reinforcement expertise into our equipment for years. Now we've put it all into words. Presenting the Yamaha Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Without a doubt the only volume of its kind. If you ' re starting fresh , you should also get a book on the basics , such as Yamaha ' s Sound Reinforcement Handbook. The book features information on both the audio theory involved and the practical applications of that theory, explaining everything from microphones to . This revised edition features almost 40 new pages and is even easier to follow with the addition of an index and a simplified page and chapter numbering system. This up-to-date book comprehensively covers all aspects of speech and music sound reinforcement. It is roughly divided into four sections: Section 1 provides the tutorial fundamentals that all audio engineers will need, discussing subjects such as fundamentals of acoustics, psychoacoustics, basic electrical theory and digital processing. Section 2 deals with the fundamental classes of hardware that the modern engineer will use, such as systems and components, microphones, mixers, and signal processors. Special attention is given to digital techniques for system control and to audio signal analysis. Section 3 deals with the basics of system design, from concept to final realization. It covers topics such as basic system type and speech intelligibility, site survey, user needs analysis and project management. Section 4 discusses individual design areas, such as sports facilities, large-scale tour sound systems, high-level music playback, systems for the theater, religious facilities, and other meeting spaces. Basic Live Sound Reinforcement is a handbook for audio engineers and live sound enthusiasts performing in small venues from one-mike coffee shops to clubs. With their combined years of teaching and writing experience, the authors provide you with a thorough foundation of the theoretical and the practical, offering more advanced beginners a complete overview of the industry, the gear, and the art of mixing, while making sure to remain accessible to those just starting out. It discusses in detail the components and layout of sound reinforcement systems and gives examples and case studies of successfully installed systems. It is jam-packed with practical tools, expert tips and cost-effective methods for increasing sales and creating loyal clients. The Complete Guide to the Basics of Live Sound — Pro Audio Files

Land and perform your first live sound gigs with this guide that gives you just the right amount of information. Don't get bogged down in details intended for complex and expensive equipment and Madison Square Garden-sized venues. This book gives an introduction to the fundamentals of sound reinforcement engineering, and also explains how it relates to disciplines such as room acoustics. Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Hal Leonard Corporation, Milwaukee, WI, USA This book is arguably out of date it really pre-dates the digital audio revolution in many ways , but in terms of analog signal flow and basic reference, it's still Sound reinforcement engineering, fundamentals and practice. Alldrin, L. The home studio guide to microphones. Mix Books, CA-Emeryville. Ballou, G. Handbook for sound engineers, Third Edition. You can change this by adding sound reinforcement as an additional revenue stream for your business. Many folks Milwaukee, WI: Hal Everest, F. Alton and Pohlman, Ken C. Ahnert is one of the authors of the book Fundamentals of Sound Reinforcement , and in Russian and the book Sound Reinforcement —Basics and Practice , and fully updated in English in , in Chinese in , and in The detailed chapters include Sound Reinforcement Handbook , 2nd Edition , Ch. At Yamaha , we've been putting all our sound reinforcement expertise into our equipment for years. Now we've put it all into words. Presenting the Yamaha Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Without a doubt the only volume of its kind. If you ' re starting fresh , you should also get a book on the basics , such as Yamaha ' s Sound Reinforcement Handbook. The book features information on both the audio theory involved and the practical applications of that theory, explaining everything from microphones to loudspeakers. This revised edition features almost 40 new pages and is even easier to follow with the addition of an index and a simplified page and chapter numbering system. This up-to-date book comprehensively covers all aspects of speech and music sound reinforcement. It is roughly divided into four sections: Section 1 provides the tutorial fundamentals that all audio engineers will need, discussing subjects such as fundamentals of acoustics, psychoacoustics, basic electrical theory and digital processing. Section 2 deals with the fundamental classes of hardware that the modern engineer will use, such as loudspeaker systems and components, microphones, mixers, amplifiers and signal processors. Special attention is given to digital techniques for system control and to audio signal analysis. They require you to buy and connect an external power amp to turn them on. These are more common in larger permanent installations. To connect passive speakers to your console, run an XLR from their main outputs of the console to the inputs on your power amps, then connect the outputs of the power amps to the inputs of the speakers using TS or Speakon cables. If only two active are used, you can simply route the main outputs of your console to the inputs of the subwoofers. These usually include lots of DSP digital signal processors like EQ, compression, limiting and stereo imaging: but most importantly, they allow you to split a stereo signal to eight or more outputs, which gives you the freedom to include multiple subs. Stage monitors are connected essentially the same way the mains are connected, only using the aux outputs instead of the main outputs. Always start at the beginning of the signal chain — the console. Then, simply follow the chain down the line. Boot up the GEQs next, followed by the crossover and any additional processing. Analog consoles can be really intimidating. Some of them have 32 channels, dozens of knobs and more LED lights than your average Christmas tree. It all starts with the input of the preamp. If you want to increase the volume of a signal, you should reach for the channel fader, not the gain knob. Gain can be thought of as mic sensitivity. Too much gain and the signal can clip and distort. Too little gain and the signal feels weak and noisy. Every desk is different, but this is usually where the signal turns from green to yellow or orange. Just make sure you keep it out of the red! After setting the levels on the preamp, slowly bring up the channel fader until the instrument is at the appropriate volume. Up next is the EQ section. Next, your signal runs through the Aux Send section. Most analog consoles have 4 or more aux sends, which can be used to duplicate signals and route them to one of two places: stage monitors, or FX processors like reverb or delay. To send a signal to an Aux Send, simply find the Aux Send section of the desired channel, and turn up the send to the corresponding Aux. Remember, when using outboard FX processors, you can send a signal from the Aux Sends, but if you actually want to hear the effect you need to return it as well. Most consoles have dedicated Stereo Aux Returns specifically for FX, although literally any channel input will do. Sure, some engineers choose to tilt their toms a little this way or move a keyboard over there to get it out of the way in a busy mix, but overall most signals are panned in the center. The next piece of the channel strip is the fader. Get to know how the fader feels under your fingers. Become one with the fader. From there, you need to tell the signal where to go. Often times, engineers use channel strips to process individual signals and use subgroups to balance the mix. Think about it; what are you going to do, pull up eight mics simultaneously during the drum solo? By routing similar signals to subgroups like drums, bass, guitars, vocals, etc , you can balance levels by controlling multiple mics at once, leaving your other hand free to mix effects, run lights, or fight off the droves of groupies that are always fighting to hang out with the sound engineer. There are 4 stage monitors: stage left, center stage, stage right and upstage next to the drummer. You also have 2 FX processors: one for reverb and one for delay. The reverb unit is connected to Aux 5 and the delay unit is connected to Aux 6. Discover how to make your kick and bass hit hard by cutting NOT boosting the right frequencies! Plus, more counterintuitive ways to get fuller yet controlled low-end in your mix. The Ultimate Live Sound Operator's Handbook, 3rd Edition -

In the 's and 90's he was active in providing audio, staging and lighting services to a wide variety of performance events in clubs, theaters, outdoor events and more recently houses of worship in the eastern United States. Throughout his career Stark found a repeated need for presenting plain- English explanations of how sound systems worked, particularly for aspiring engineers struggling with important concepts of physics and sound properties. He translated his years of working experience and knowledge into print with the first edition of Live Sound Reinforcement, later released in by MixBooks. After years of working in the sound system and engineering business, Stark attended law school and worked with several Internet ventures. Today he is a sound system consultant in the Washington, DC area where he currently resides. If you own a ALFRED general audio tutorials and have a user manual in electronic form, you can upload it to this website using the link on the right side of the screen. The user manual lists all of the functions of the ALFRED Book: Live Sound Reinforcement , all the basic and advanced features and tells you how to use the general audio tutorials. The manual also provides troubleshooting for common problems. Even greater detail is provided by the service manual, which is not typically shipped with the product, but which can often be downloaded from ALFRED service. If you want to help expand our database, you can upload a link to this website to download a user manual or service manual, ideally in. Your e- mail will not be displayed or otherwise used in any way. Can't find what you're looking for? Try Google Search! Another use of an aux send is to select varying amounts of certain channels via the aux send knobs on each channel , and then route these signals to an effects processor. A common example of the second use of aux sends is to send all of the vocal signals from a rock band through a reverb effect. While reverb is usually added to vocals in the main mix, it is not usually added to electric bass and other rhythm section instruments. The processed input signals are then mixed to the master faders on the console. The next step in the signal path generally depends on the size of the system in place. In smaller systems, the main outputs are often sent to an additional equalizer, or directly to a power , with one or more loudspeakers typically two, one on each side of the stage in smaller venues, or a large number in big venues that are connected to that amplifier. In large-format systems, the signal is typically first routed through an equalizer then to a crossover. A crossover splits the signal into multiple frequency bands with each band being sent to separate amplifiers and speaker enclosures for low, middle, and high-frequency signals. Low- frequency signals are sent to amplifiers and then to subwoofers , and middle and high-frequency sounds are typically sent to amplifiers which power full-range speaker cabinets. Using a crossover to separate the sound into low, middle and high frequencies can lead to a "cleaner", clearer sound see bi-amplification than routing all of the frequencies through a single full-range speaker system. Nevertheless, many small venues still use a single full-range speaker system, as it is easier to set up and less expensive. Many types of input transducers can be found in a sound reinforcement system, with microphones being the most commonly used input device. Microphones can be classified according to their method of transduction, polar pattern or their functional application. Most microphones used in sound reinforcement are either dynamic or condenser microphones. One type of directional , called cardioid mics, are widely used in live sound, because they reduce pickup from the side and rear, helping to avoid unwanted feedback from the . Microphones used for sound reinforcement are positioned and mounted in many ways, including base-weighted upright stands, podium mounts, tie-clips, instrument mounts, and headset mounts. Microphones on stands are also placed in front of instrument amplifiers to pick up the sound. Headset mounted and tie-clip mounted microphones are often used with wireless transmission to allow performers or speakers to move freely. Early adopters of headset mounted microphones technology included country singer Garth Brooks , [6] Kate Bush , and Madonna. Other types of input transducers include magnetic pickups used in electric guitars and electric basses, contact microphones used on stringed instruments, and pianos and phonograph pickups cartridges used in record players. Electronic instruments such as synthesizers can have their output signal routed directly to the . A DI unit may be necessary to adapt some of these sources to the inputs of the console. Wireless systems are typically used for , bass, handheld microphones and in-ear monitor systems. This lets performers move about the stage during the show or even go out into the audience without the worry of tripping over or disconnecting cables. Mixing consoles are the heart of a sound reinforcement system. This is where the sound engineer can adjust the volume and tone of each input, whether it is a vocalist's microphone or the signal from an electric bass , and mix, equalize and add effects to these sound sources. Doing the mixing for a live show requires a mix of technical and artistic skills. A sound engineer needs to have an expert knowledge of speaker and amplifier set-up, effects units and other technologies and a good "ear" for what the music should sound like in order to create a good mix. Multiple consoles can be used for different purposes in a single sound reinforcement system. The front of house FOH mixing console is typically located where the operator can see the action on stage and hear what the audience hears. For broadcast and recording applications, the mixing console may be placed within an enclosed booth or outside in an OB van. Large music productions often use a separate stage monitor mixing console which is dedicated to creating mixes for the performers' on-stage. These consoles are typically placed at the side of the stage so that the operator can communicate with the performers on stage. Small PA systems for venues such as bars and clubs are now available with features that were formerly only available on professional-level equipment, such as digital reverb effects, graphic equalizers , and, in some models, feedback prevention circuits which electronically sense and prevent it becomes a problem. Digital effects units may offer multiple pre-set and variable reverb, echo and related effects. Digital loudspeaker management systems offer sound engineers digital delay to ensure speakers are in sync with each other , limiting, crossover functions, EQ filters, compression and other functions in a single rack-mountable unit. In previous decades, sound engineers typically had to transport a substantial number of rack-mounted analog devices to accomplish these tasks. Equalizers are electronic devices that allow audio engineers to control the tone and frequencies of the sound in a channel, group e. The bass and treble controls on a home stereo are a simple type of equalizer. Equalizers exist in professional sound reinforcement systems in three forms: shelving equalizers typically for a whole range of bass and treble frequencies , graphic equalizers and parametric equalizers. Graphic equalizers have faders vertical slide controls which together resemble a frequency response curve plotted on a graph. The faders can be used to boost or cut specific frequency bands. Using equalizers, frequencies which are too weak, such as a singer with modest projection in their lower register, can be boosted. Frequencies which are too loud, such as a "boomy" sounding bass drum , or an overly resonant dreadnought guitar can be cut. Sound reinforcement systems typically use graphic equalizers with one-third octave frequency centers. These are typically used to equalize output signals going to the main loudspeaker system or the monitor speakers on stage. Parametric equalizers are often built into each channel in mixing consoles, typically for the mid-range frequencies. They are also available as separate rack-mount units which can be connected to a mixing board. Parametric equalizers typically use knobs and sometimes buttons. The audio engineer can select which frequency band to cut or boost, and then use additional knobs to adjust how much to cut or boost this frequency range. Parametric equalizers first became popular in the s and have remained the program equalizer of choice for many engineers since then. High-pass and low-pass filters restrict a given channel's bandwidth extremes. Cutting very low frequency sound signals termed infrasonic , or subsonic reduces the waste of amplifier power which does not produce audible sound and which moreover can be hard on the low-range speakers. A low-pass filter to cut ultrasonic energy is useful to prevent interference from radio frequencies, lighting control, or digital circuitry creeping into the power amplifiers. Such filters are often paired with graphic and parametric equalizers to give the audio engineer full control of the frequency range. High-pass filters and low-pass filters used together function as a band-pass filter, eliminating undesirable frequencies both above and below the auditory spectrum. A band-stop filter , does the opposite. It allows all frequencies to pass except for one band in the middle. A feedback suppressor, using an microprocessor , automatically detects the onset of feedback and applies a narrow band-stop filter a notch filter at specific frequency or frequencies pertaining to the feedback. Dynamic range compression is designed to help the audio engineer to manage the dynamic range of audio signals. Prior to the invention of automatic compressors, audio engineers accomplished the same goal by "riding the faders", listening carefully to the mix and lowering the faders of any singer or instrument which was getting too loud. A compressor accomplishes this by reducing the gain of a signal that is above a defined level the threshold by a defined amount determined by the ratio setting. A compressor with high compression ratio is typically referred to as a limiter. The speed that the compressor adjusts the gain of the signal attack and release is typically adjustable as is the final output or make-up gain of the device. Compressor applications vary widely. Some applications use limiters for component protection and gain structure control. Artistic signal manipulation using a compressor is a subjective technique widely utilized by mix engineers to improve clarity or to creatively alter the signal in relation to the program material. An example of artistic compression is the typical heavy compression used on the various components of a modern rock drum kit. The drums are processed to be perceived as sounding more punchy and full. A noise gate mutes signals below a set threshold level. A noise gate's function is in, a sense, opposite to that of a compressor. Noise gates are useful for microphones which will pick up noise that is not relevant to the program, such as the hum of a miked electric or the rustling of papers on a minister's lectern. Noise gates are also used to process the microphones placed near the drums of a drum kit in many hard rock and metal bands. Without a noise gate, the microphone for a specific instrument such as the floor tom will also pick up signals from nearby drums or cymbals. With a noise gate, the threshold of sensitivity for each microphone on the drum kit can be set so that only the direct strike and subsequent decay of the drum will be heard, not the nearby sounds. Reverberation and delay effects are widely used in sound reinforcement systems to enhance the sound of the mix and create a desired artistic effect. Reverb and delay add a sense of spaciousness to the sound. Reverb can give the effect of singing voice or instrument being present in anything from a small room to a massive hall, or even in a space that does not exist in the physical world. The use of reverb often goes unnoticed by the audience, as it often sounds more natural than if the signal was left "dry" without effects. Other effects include modulation effects such as Flanger , phaser , and chorus and spectral manipulation or harmonic effects such as the exciter and harmonizer. The use of effects in the reproduction of era pop music is often in an attempt to mimic the sound of the studio version of the artist's music in a live concert setting. For example, an audio engineer may use an Auto Tune effect to produce unusual vocal sound effects that a singer used on their recordings. The appropriate type, variation, and level of effects is quite subjective and is often collectively determined by a production's audio engineer, artists, bandleader , music producer , or musical director. A feedback suppressor detects unwanted audio feedback and suppresses it, typically by automatically inserting a notch filter into the signal path of the system. Audio feedback can create unwanted loud, screaming noises that are disruptive to the performance, and can damage speakers and performers' and audience members' ears. Audio feedback from microphones occurs when a microphone is too near a monitor or main speaker and the sound reinforcement system amplifies itself. This type of feedback is intentional, so the sound engineer does not try to prevent it. A power amplifier is an electronic device that uses electrical power and circuitry to boost a signal and provides enough electrical power to drive a loudspeaker and produce sound. All loudspeakers, including , require power amplification. Most professional audio power amplifiers also provide protection from clipping typically as some form of limiting. A power amplifier pushed into clipping can damage loudspeakers. Amplifiers also typically provide protection against short circuits across the output and overheating. Audio engineers select amplifiers that provide enough headroom. Standards bodies differ in their recommendations for nominal level and headroom. When an audio engineer has selected an amplifier or amplifiers with enough headroom, this also helps to ensure that the signal will remain clean and undistorted. Like most sound reinforcement equipment products, professional amplifiers are typically designed to be mounted within standard inch racks. Rack-mounted amps are typically housed in road cases , sturdy plastic protective boxes which prevent damage to the equipment during transportation. Active loudspeakers have internally mounted amplifiers that have been selected by the manufacturer to be a good amplifier for use with the given loudspeaker. Some active loudspeakers also have , crossover and mixing circuitry built in. Since amplifiers can generate a significant amount of heat, thermal dissipation is an important factor for operators to consider when mounting amplifiers into equipment racks. The heat sinks can become clogged with dust, which can adversely affect the cooling capabilities of the amplifier. In the late s, power amplifiers in PA applications became lighter, smaller, more powerful, and more efficient, with the increasing use of switching power supplies and Class D amplifiers , which offered significant weight- and space-savings as well as increased efficiency. Often installed in railroad stations, stadia, and airports, Class D amplifiers can run with minimal additional cooling and with higher rack densities, compared to older amplifiers. Digital loudspeaker management systems DLMS that combine digital crossover functions, compression, limiting, and other features in a single unit have become popular since their introduction. Systems may include several loudspeakers, each with its own output optimized for a specific range of frequencies i. Bi-amplification, tri-amplification, or quad-amplification of a sound reinforcement system with the aid of a DLMS results in a more efficient use of amplifier power by sending each amplifier only the frequencies appropriate for its respective loudspeaker. Most DLMS units that are designed for use by non-professionals have calibration and testing functions such as a pink noise generator coupled with a real-time analyzer to allow automated room equalization. A simple and inexpensive PA loudspeaker may have a single full-range loudspeaker driver , housed in a suitable enclosure. More elaborate, professional-caliber sound reinforcement loudspeakers may incorporate separate drivers to produce low, middle, and high frequency sounds. A crossover network routes the different frequencies to the appropriate drivers. In the s, horn loaded theater loudspeakers and PA speakers were almost always "columns" of multiple drivers mounted in a vertical line within a tall enclosure. The s to early s was a period of innovation in loudspeaker design with many sound reinforcement companies designing their own speakers. The basic designs were based on commonly known designs and the speaker components were commercial speakers. The areas of innovation were in cabinet design, durability, ease of packing and transport, and ease of setup. This period also saw the introduction of the hanging or "flying" of main loudspeakers at large concerts. During the s the large speaker manufacturers started producing standard products using the innovations of the s. These were mostly smaller two way systems with 12", 15" or double 15" and a high frequency driver attached to a high frequency horn. The s also saw the start of loudspeaker companies focused on the sound reinforcement market. The s saw the introduction of Line arrays , where long vertical arrays of loudspeakers with a smaller cabinet are used to increase efficiency and provide even dispersion and frequency response. This period also saw the introduction of inexpensive molded plastic speaker enclosures mounted on tripod stands. Many feature built-in power amplifiers which made them practical for non-professionals to set up and operate successfully. The sound quality available from these simple 'powered speakers' varies widely depending on the implementation. Many sound reinforcement loudspeaker systems incorporate protection circuitry, preventing damage from excessive power or operator error. Positive temperature coefficient resistors, specialized current-limiting light bulbs, and circuit-breakers were used alone or in combination to reduce driver failures. XLR connectors are still the standard input connector on active loudspeaker cabinets. The three different types of transducers are subwoofers , compression drivers, and tweeters. They all feature the combination of a voicecoil , magnet , cone or diaphragm , and a frame or structure. Loudspeakers have a power rating in watts which indicates their maximum power capacity, to help users avoid overpowering them. Around the mid s trapezoidal -shaped enclosures became popular as this shape allowed many of them to be easily arrayed together. A number of companies are now making lightweight, portable speaker systems for small venues that route the low-frequency parts of the music electric bass, bass drum, etc. Routing the low-frequency energy to a separate amplifier and can substantially improve the bass-response of the system. Also, clarity may be enhanced, because low-frequency sounds take a great deal of power to amplify; with only a single amplifier for the entire sound spectrum, the power-hungry low-frequency sounds can take a disproportionate amount of the sound system's power. Professional sound reinforcement speaker systems often include dedicated hardware for safely "flying" them above the stage area, to provide more even sound coverage and to maximize sight lines within performance venues. Monitor loudspeakers , also called "foldback" loudspeakers, are speaker cabinets which are used onstage to help performers to hear their singing or playing. As such, monitor speakers are pointed towards a performer or a section of the stage. They are generally sent a different mix of vocals or instruments than the mix that is sent to the main loudspeaker system. Monitor loudspeaker cabinets are often a wedge shape, directing their output upwards towards the performer when set on the floor of the stage. Two-way, dual driver designs with a speaker cone and a horn are common, as monitor loudspeakers need to be smaller to save space on the stage. These loudspeakers typically require less power and volume than the main loudspeaker system, as they only need to provide sound for a few people who are in relatively close proximity to the loudspeaker. Some manufacturers have designed loudspeakers for use either as a component of a small PA system or as a monitor loudspeaker. In the s, a number of manufacturers produced powered monitor speakers, which contain an integrated amplifier. Using monitor speakers instead of in ear monitors typically results in an increase of stage volume, which can lead to more feedback issues and progressive hearing damage for the performers in front of them. The use of monitor loudspeakers, active with an integrated amplifier or passive, requires more cabling and gear on stage, resulting in an even more cluttered stage. These factors, amongst others, have led to the increasing popularity of in-ear monitors. In-ear monitors are headphones that have been designed for use as monitors by a live performer. They are either of a "universal fit" or "custom fit" design. The universal fit in ear monitors feature rubber or foam tips that can be inserted into virtually anybody's ear. Custom fit in ear monitors are created from an impression of the users ear that has been made by an audiologist. In-ear monitors are almost always used in conjunction with a wireless transmitting system, allowing the performer to freely move about the stage while maintaining their monitor mix. In-ear monitors offer considerable isolation for the performer using them, meaning that the monitor engineer can craft a much more accurate and clear mix for the performer. With in-ear monitors, each performer can be sent their own customized mix; although this was also the case with monitor speakers, the in-ear monitors of one performer cannot be heard by the other musicians. A downside of this isolation is that the performer cannot hear the crowd or the comments other performers on stage that do not have microphones e. This has been remedied by larger productions by setting up a pair of microphones on each side of the stage facing the audience that are mixed into the in-ear monitor sends. Since their introduction in the mids, in-ear monitors have grown to be the most popular monitoring choice for large touring acts. The reduction or elimination of loudspeakers other than instrument amplifiers on stage has allowed for cleaner and less problematic mixing situations for both the front of house and monitor engineers. Audio feedback is greatly reduced and there is less sound reflecting off the back wall of the stage out into the audience, which affects the clarity of the mix the front of house engineer is attempting to create. Sound reinforcement systems are used in a broad range of different settings, each of which poses different challenges. Audio visual AV rental systems have to be able to withstand heavy use, and even abuse from renters. For this reason, rental companies tend to own speaker cabinets which are heavily braced and protected with steel corners, and electronic equipment such as power amplifiers or effects are often mounted into protective road cases. As well, rental companies tend to select gear which has electronic protection features, such as speaker- protection circuitry and amplifier limiters. As well, rental systems for non-professionals need to be easy to use and set up, and they must be easy to repair and maintain for the renting company. From this perspective, speaker cabinets need to have easy-to-access horns, speakers, and crossover circuitry, so that repairs or replacements can be made. Some rental companies often rent powered amplifier-mixers, mixers with onboard effects, and powered subwoofers for use by non-professionals, which are easier to set up and use. Many touring acts and large venue corporate events will rent large sound reinforcement systems that typically include one or more audio engineers on staff with the renting company. In the case of rental systems for tours, there are typically several audio engineers and technicians from the rental company that tour with the band to set up and calibrate the equipment. The individual that mixes the band is often selected and provided by the band, as they have become familiar with the various aspects of the show and have worked with the act to establish a general idea of how they want the show to sound.

User manual ALFRED Book: Live Sound Reinforcement |

All rights reserved. For live sound engineers, this book is an invaluable resource in the path to career development. This edition builds upon the clear writing and comprehensive illustrations of the previous edition to explain the fundamental concepts of acoustics and the operating principles of all the key components of a live sound reinforcement system. Using easy to understand language, the design and implementation of the live sound system is covered in detail. Creating a solid foundation upon which to build a career is a crucial step in ensuring future success. Without a noise gate, the microphone for a specific instrument such as the floor tom will also pick up signals from nearby drums or cymbals. With a noise gate, the threshold of sensitivity for each microphone on the drum kit can be set so that only the direct strike and subsequent decay of the drum will be heard, not the nearby sounds. Reverberation and delay effects are widely used in sound reinforcement systems to enhance the sound of the mix and create a desired artistic effect. Reverb and delay add a sense of spaciousness to the sound. Reverb can give the effect of singing voice or instrument being present in anything from a small room to a massive hall, or even in a space that does not exist in the physical world. The use of reverb often goes unnoticed by the audience, as it often sounds more natural than if the signal was left "dry" without effects. Other effects include modulation effects such as Flanger , phaser , and chorus and spectral manipulation or harmonic effects such as the exciter and harmonizer. The use of effects in the reproduction of era pop music is often in an attempt to mimic the sound of the studio version of the artist's music in a live concert setting. For example, an audio engineer may use an Auto Tune effect to produce unusual vocal sound effects that a singer used on their recordings. The appropriate type, variation, and level of effects is quite subjective and is often collectively determined by a production's audio engineer, artists, bandleader , music producer , or musical director. A feedback suppressor detects unwanted audio feedback and suppresses it, typically by automatically inserting a notch filter into the signal path of the system. Audio feedback can create unwanted loud, screaming noises that are disruptive to the performance, and can damage speakers and performers' and audience members' ears. Audio feedback from microphones occurs when a microphone is too near a monitor or main speaker and the sound reinforcement system amplifies itself. This type of feedback is intentional, so the sound engineer does not try to prevent it. A power amplifier is an electronic device that uses electrical power and circuitry to boost a line level signal and provides enough electrical power to drive a loudspeaker and produce sound. All loudspeakers, including headphones , require power amplification. Most professional audio power amplifiers also provide protection from clipping typically as some form of limiting. A power amplifier pushed into clipping can damage loudspeakers. Amplifiers also typically provide protection against short circuits across the output and overheating. Audio engineers select amplifiers that provide enough headroom. Standards bodies differ in their recommendations for nominal level and headroom. When an audio engineer has selected an amplifier or amplifiers with enough headroom, this also helps to ensure that the signal will remain clean and undistorted. Like most sound reinforcement equipment products, professional amplifiers are typically designed to be mounted within standard inch racks. Rack- mounted amps are typically housed in road cases , sturdy plastic protective boxes which prevent damage to the equipment during transportation. Active loudspeakers have internally mounted amplifiers that have been selected by the manufacturer to be a good amplifier for use with the given loudspeaker. Some active loudspeakers also have equalization, crossover and mixing circuitry built in. Since amplifiers can generate a significant amount of heat, thermal dissipation is an important factor for operators to consider when mounting amplifiers into equipment racks. The heat sinks can become clogged with dust, which can adversely affect the cooling capabilities of the amplifier. In the late s, power amplifiers in PA applications became lighter, smaller, more powerful, and more efficient, with the increasing use of switching power supplies and Class D amplifiers , which offered significant weight- and space-savings as well as increased efficiency. Often installed in railroad stations, stadia, and airports, Class D amplifiers can run with minimal additional cooling and with higher rack densities, compared to older amplifiers. Digital loudspeaker management systems DLMS that combine digital crossover functions, compression, limiting, and other features in a single unit have become popular since their introduction. Systems may include several loudspeakers, each with its own output optimized for a specific range of frequencies i. Bi-amplification, tri-amplification, or quad-amplification of a sound reinforcement system with the aid of a DLMS results in a more efficient use of amplifier power by sending each amplifier only the frequencies appropriate for its respective loudspeaker. Most DLMS units that are designed for use by non-professionals have calibration and testing functions such as a pink noise generator coupled with a real-time analyzer to allow automated room equalization. A simple and inexpensive PA loudspeaker may have a single full-range loudspeaker driver , housed in a suitable enclosure. More elaborate, professional-caliber sound reinforcement loudspeakers may incorporate separate drivers to produce low, middle, and high frequency sounds. A crossover network routes the different frequencies to the appropriate drivers. In the s, horn loaded theater loudspeakers and PA speakers were almost always "columns" of multiple drivers mounted in a vertical line within a tall enclosure. The s to early s was a period of innovation in loudspeaker design with many sound reinforcement companies designing their own speakers. The basic designs were based on commonly known designs and the speaker components were commercial speakers. The areas of innovation were in cabinet design, durability, ease of packing and transport, and ease of setup. This period also saw the introduction of the hanging or "flying" of main loudspeakers at large concerts. During the s the large speaker manufacturers started producing standard products using the innovations of the s. These were mostly smaller two way systems with 12", 15" or double 15" woofers and a high frequency driver attached to a high frequency horn. The s also saw the start of loudspeaker companies focused on the sound reinforcement market. The s saw the introduction of Line arrays , where long vertical arrays of loudspeakers with a smaller cabinet are used to increase efficiency and provide even dispersion and frequency response. This period also saw the introduction of inexpensive molded plastic speaker enclosures mounted on tripod stands. Many feature built-in power amplifiers which made them practical for non-professionals to set up and operate successfully. The sound quality available from these simple 'powered speakers' varies widely depending on the implementation. Many sound reinforcement loudspeaker systems incorporate protection circuitry, preventing damage from excessive power or operator error. Positive temperature coefficient resistors, specialized current-limiting light bulbs, and circuit-breakers were used alone or in combination to reduce driver failures. XLR connectors are still the standard input connector on active loudspeaker cabinets. The three different types of transducers are subwoofers , compression drivers, and tweeters. They all feature the combination of a voicecoil , magnet , cone or diaphragm , and a frame or structure. Loudspeakers have a power rating in watts which indicates their maximum power capacity, to help users avoid overpowering them. Around the mid s trapezoidal -shaped enclosures became popular as this shape allowed many of them to be easily arrayed together. A number of companies are now making lightweight, portable speaker systems for small venues that route the low-frequency parts of the music electric bass, bass drum, etc. Routing the low-frequency energy to a separate amplifier and subwoofer can substantially improve the bass-response of the system. Also, clarity may be enhanced, because low-frequency sounds take a great deal of power to amplify; with only a single amplifier for the entire sound spectrum, the power-hungry low-frequency sounds can take a disproportionate amount of the sound system's power. Professional sound reinforcement speaker systems often include dedicated hardware for safely "flying" them above the stage area, to provide more even sound coverage and to maximize sight lines within performance venues. Monitor loudspeakers , also called "foldback" loudspeakers, are speaker cabinets which are used onstage to help performers to hear their singing or playing. As such, monitor speakers are pointed towards a performer or a section of the stage. They are generally sent a different mix of vocals or instruments than the mix that is sent to the main loudspeaker system. Monitor loudspeaker cabinets are often a wedge shape, directing their output upwards towards the performer when set on the floor of the stage. Two-way, dual driver designs with a speaker cone and a horn are common, as monitor loudspeakers need to be smaller to save space on the stage. These loudspeakers typically require less power and volume than the main loudspeaker system, as they only need to provide sound for a few people who are in relatively close proximity to the loudspeaker. Some manufacturers have designed loudspeakers for use either as a component of a small PA system or as a monitor loudspeaker. In the s, a number of manufacturers produced powered monitor speakers, which contain an integrated amplifier. Using monitor speakers instead of in ear monitors typically results in an increase of stage volume, which can lead to more feedback issues and progressive hearing damage for the performers in front of them. The use of monitor loudspeakers, active with an integrated amplifier or passive, requires more cabling and gear on stage, resulting in an even more cluttered stage. These factors, amongst others, have led to the increasing popularity of in-ear monitors. In-ear monitors are headphones that have been designed for use as monitors by a live performer. They are either of a "universal fit" or "custom fit" design. The universal fit in ear monitors feature rubber or foam tips that can be inserted into virtually anybody's ear. Custom fit in ear monitors are created from an impression of the users ear that has been made by an audiologist. In-ear monitors are almost always used in conjunction with a wireless transmitting system, allowing the performer to freely move about the stage while maintaining their monitor mix. In-ear monitors offer considerable isolation for the performer using them, meaning that the monitor engineer can craft a much more accurate and clear mix for the performer. With in-ear monitors, each performer can be sent their own customized mix; although this was also the case with monitor speakers, the in-ear monitors of one performer cannot be heard by the other musicians. A downside of this isolation is that the performer cannot hear the crowd or the comments other performers on stage that do not have microphones e. This has been remedied by larger productions by setting up a pair of microphones on each side of the stage facing the audience that are mixed into the in-ear monitor sends. Since their introduction in the mids, in-ear monitors have grown to be the most popular monitoring choice for large touring acts. The reduction or elimination of loudspeakers other than instrument amplifiers on stage has allowed for cleaner and less problematic mixing situations for both the front of house and monitor engineers. Audio feedback is greatly reduced and there is less sound reflecting off the back wall of the stage out into the audience, which affects the clarity of the mix the front of house engineer is attempting to create. Sound reinforcement systems are used in a broad range of different settings, each of which poses different challenges. Audio visual AV rental systems have to be able to withstand heavy use, and even abuse from renters. For this reason, rental companies tend to own speaker cabinets which are heavily braced and protected with steel corners, and electronic equipment such as power amplifiers or effects are often mounted into protective road cases. As well, rental companies tend to select gear which has electronic protection features, such as speaker-protection circuitry and amplifier limiters. As well, rental systems for non-professionals need to be easy to use and set up, and they must be easy to repair and maintain for the renting company. From this perspective, speaker cabinets need to have easy-to-access horns, speakers, and crossover circuitry, so that repairs or replacements can be made. Some rental companies often rent powered amplifier-mixers, mixers with onboard effects, and powered subwoofers for use by non-professionals, which are easier to set up and use. Many touring acts and large venue corporate events will rent large sound reinforcement systems that typically include one or more audio engineers on staff with the renting company. In the case of rental systems for tours, there are typically several audio engineers and technicians from the rental company that tour with the band to set up and calibrate the equipment. The individual that mixes the band is often selected and provided by the band, as they have become familiar with the various aspects of the show and have worked with the act to establish a general idea of how they want the show to sound. The mixing engineer for an act sometimes also happens to be on staff with the rental company selected to provide the gear for the tour. Setting up sound reinforcement for live music clubs and dance events often poses unique challenges, because there is such a large variety of venues which are used as clubs, ranging from former warehouses or music theaters to small restaurants or basement pubs with concrete walls. Dance events may be held in huge warehouses, aircraft hangars or outdoor spaces. In some cases, clubs are housed in multi-story venues with balconies or in "L"-shaped rooms, which makes it hard to get a consistent sound for all audience members. The solution is to use fill-in speakers to obtain good coverage, using a delay to ensure that the audience does not hear the same sound at different times. The number of subwoofer speaker cabinets and power amplifiers dedicated to low-frequency sounds used in a club depends on the type of club, the genres of music played there live or via a DJ , and the size of the venue. A small coffeehouse where traditional folk, bluegrass or jazz groups are the main performers may have no subwoofers, and instead rely on the full- range main PA speakers to reproduce bass sounds. On the other hand, a club where hard rock or heavy metal music bands play or a nightclub where house music DJs play dance music may have multiple large 18" subwoofers in big cabinets and powerful amplifiers dedicated for subwoofers, as these genres and music styles typically use powerful, deep bass sound. Another challenge with designing sound systems for live music clubs is that the sound system may need to be used for both prerecorded music played by DJs and live music. If the sound system is optimized for prerecorded DJ music, then it will not provide the appropriate sound qualities or mixing equipment and monitoring equipment needed for live music, and vice versa. A club system designed for DJs needs a DJ mixer and space for record players. Clubs tend to focus on either live music or DJ shows. However, clubs which feature both types of shows may face challenges providing the desired equipment and set-up for both uses. In contrast, a live music club needs a mixing board designed for live sound, an onstage monitor system, and a multicore "snake" cable running from the stage to the mixer. Lastly, live music clubs can be a hostile environment for sound gear, in that the air may be hot, humid, and smoky; in some clubs, keeping racks of power amplifiers cool may be a challenge. Often an air conditioned room just for the amplifiers is utilised. Designing systems in churches and similar religious facilities often poses a challenge, because the speakers may have to be unobtrusive to blend in with antique woodwork and stonework. In some cases, audio designers have designed custom-painted speaker cabinets so that the speakers will blend in with the church architecture. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Everest, F. Alton and Pohlman, Ken C. Ahnert is one of the authors of the book Fundamentals of Sound Reinforcement , and in Russian and the book Sound Reinforcement —Basics and Practice , and fully updated in English in , in Chinese in , and in The detailed chapters include Sound Reinforcement Handbook , 2nd Edition , Ch. At Yamaha , we've been putting all our sound reinforcement expertise into our equipment for years. Now we've put it all into words. Presenting the Yamaha Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Without a doubt the only volume of its kind. If you ' re starting fresh , you should also get a book on the basics , such as Yamaha ' s Sound Reinforcement Handbook. The book features information on both the audio theory involved and the practical applications of that theory, explaining everything from microphones to loudspeakers. This revised edition features almost 40 new pages and is even easier to follow with the addition of an index and a simplified page and chapter numbering system. This up-to-date book comprehensively covers all aspects of speech and music sound reinforcement. It is roughly divided into four sections: Section 1 provides the tutorial fundamentals that all audio engineers will need, discussing subjects such as fundamentals of acoustics, psychoacoustics, basic electrical theory and digital processing. Section 2 deals with the fundamental classes of hardware that the modern engineer will use, such as loudspeaker systems and components, microphones, mixers, amplifiers and signal processors. Special attention is given to digital techniques for system control and to audio signal analysis. Section 3 deals with the basics of system design, from concept to final realization. It covers topics such as basic system type and speech intelligibility, site survey, user needs analysis and project management. Section 4 discusses individual design areas, such as sports facilities, large-scale tour sound systems, high-level music playback, systems for the theater, religious facilities, and other meeting spaces.

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