Conservation of Biological and Landscape Diversity in the Dnipro (Dnieper) River Basin

Home , Besed, Desna (river), Drut (river), Dyatkovo, Iput (river), Kremenchuk Reservoir

Canadian Association on Water Quality Monograph Series No. 6

Edited by Jan Barica IDRC Consultant Burlington, Ontario Canada Available from Subscription and Membership Office Canadian Association on Water Quality 867 Lakeshore Road Burlington, Ontario Canada L7R 4A6

Published by Canadian Association on Water Quality 2005

ISBN 0-9693150-3-1

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Canadian Association on Water Quality. Contents

Foreword v-vi J. BARICA

Ecological Status of the Transboundary Sections of the Dnipro Basin 1–15 O.G. VASENKO

State of the Biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin and its Major Threats Assessment of Protected Areas, Priority and “Problem” Ecosystems, and Threats to Biodiversity 16–27 T.A. ALEKSANDROVA, M.E. NIKIFOROV AND V.R. SHELIAG-SOSONKO

Review of Agricultural Practices in Relation to Transboundary Protection of Biodiversity 28–41 A.N. TRETIAK, N.N. BAMBALOV AND A.M. GORDEYEV

Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Dnipro Region in Relation to Biodiversity Conservation 42–53 V.D. ROMANENKO, S.A. AFANASYEV AND O.G. VASENKO

Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices in the Context of Landscape and Biodiversity Protection in the Dnipro Basin 54–67 A.V. PUGACHEVSKY, V.P. TKACH AND S.I. SMIRNOV

Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation ensuring Public Participation and Support 68–82 S.A. BALASHENKO, E.V. LAEVSKAYA, T.I. MAKAROVA, V.E. LIZGARO, A.A. SHCHERBINA, E.E. GRIGORIEV AND V.A. TARASENKO

Regional Strategy for Conserving Biological and Landscape Diversity in the Dnipro Basin 83–100 V.D. ROMANENKO, S.A. AFANASYEV, M.D. GRODZINSKY AND V.M. BILOKON

Results of the Pilot Projects Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept for Transboundary Areas of the Dnipro River Basin 101–112 M.D. GRODZINSKY, V.D. ROMANENKO AND V.R. SHELIAG-SOSONKO

Scientific Substantiation for Creation of a Protected Area in the Floodplain of the Dnipro in the Stretch of Zhlobin-Rechitsa as a Component of the Dnipro Basin Environmental Network 113–122 N.A. YURGENSON AND M.N. NIKIFOROV

Creation of the Dnipro Source Nature Reserve 123–128 N.N. MANKOV, A.I. BIZIUKOV AND V.N. KOSTIUSHENKOV

Assessment of Risk Related to the “Hot Spots” Impact on Environmentally Vulnerable Zones in the Dnipro Basin 129–141 S.A. AFANASYEV AND M.D. GRODZINSKY

Technology for Eliminating Dreissena Biofouling in Hydrofacilities 142–148 S. AFANASYEV, S. SCHERBAK, P. GUSAK, S. ROSS AND J. GROMOVA

Project Overview Review of IDRC’s Involvements in Environmental Management of the Dnipro River Basin 149–155 K. BABCOCK

Foreword

This monograph presents a selection of papers com- Document (ProDoc) in 1998, but the work commenced pleted under the guidance and funding of the Interna- fully in late 1999. Due to some administrative problems tional Development Research Centre (IDRC) as the exe- with transfer of funds, the start of the work was delayed cuting agent for the GEF-UNDP Project “Preparation of and the reports had to be completed in a short period of a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the Dnipro time (less than two years), tapping into existing informa- (Dnieper)* River Basin and Development of SAP Imple- tion published in part from previous research work and mentation Mechanisms” (short form “Dnipro Basin available only in Russian. The project teams collected this Environmental Project” or DBEP). The focus is on bio- information and prepared drafts of full-sized reports in diversity conservation as one of the major components Russian, which were filed and made available from the of the DBEP that was under IDRC management, with Project Management Office (PMU) in Kyiv online from the objective of improving conservation of biodiversity its website (www.dnipro-gef.net). In this monograph, in the Dnipro River Basin under four main activities, only extended summaries of these full reports are pre- namely (1) assessment of existing protected areas, (2) sented, focusing on the project rationales, major scientific review of legal, policy, institutional and regulatory and management accomplishment, and recommendations framework in the basin, (3) review of agricultural and for the strategic action plan (SAP). English translations of fisheries practices, and (4) developing a regional strategy the extended summaries were prepared locally by profes- for conserving and protecting biodiversity in the basin. sional translators commissioned by the PMU. These activities were formulated in the UNDP Project The reports/papers in this monograph are organized Document (ProDoc) of 1998. Forestry aspects were as follows: the introductory paper by O.G. Vasenko sum- added later during the course of the report preparation marizes the environmental issues in the Dnipro Basin , process. The work of the project teams under the super- followed by five main reports in the ProDoc outline vision of the newly established Biodiversity Regional (assessment of protected areas, three major sectors Thematic Centre in Smolensk, Russian Federation, adversely impacting on biodiversity (agriculture, fisheries (funded and operated by IDRC) commenced in 1999 and forestry), review of the Dnipro Basin biodiversity leg- and completed by the end of 2003, with publication of islation, results of three pilot projects from three riparian final reports in Russian, and later, extended summaries countries (development of ecological coridors in Ukraine, in English. The project teams worked under coordina- creation of a new protected area in Belarus, and creation tion in the tri-national Biodiversity Working Group and of a nature reserve around the Dnipro Source in Russia, met several times during the report preparation process, Smolensk Oblast/Region). A regional strategy for con- each time in another riparian country, together with the serving biological and landscape diversity in the basin is IDRC consultant who advised the teams on the structure then presented for inclusion into the Dnipro Strategic and objectives of the reports to comply with the ProDoc, Action Plan. Two extra biodiversity-relevant reports were and then edited both Russian an English versions. also added to cover the topics of risk assessment method- IDRC has previously published the results of the ology and zebra mussel control using an original method 1994 Dnipro water quality sampling expedition, orga- in hydroelectric plants which are numerous in the Dnipro nized under the bilateral Canada-Ukraine Program Basin. The monograph is concluded wirh a paper by (EMDU 1) in this Journal in 1998 (Vol. 33, No.4). It IDRC Project Coordinator giving a brief overview of was the wish of all report contributors to publish their IDRC-funded projects in the Dnipro River Basin. work in the Water Quality Research Journal of Canada This monograph presents only a fraction of the (WQRJC) again and to take advantage of the Journal’s entire IDRC involvement in the Dnipro Basin; a more circulation and abstracting services. During the Soviet detailed account of all IDRC projects and their accom- era, publication of research findings abroad and in Eng- plishments can be found on the IDRC web site lish was almost impossible. Hence, the authors have a (www.idrc.ca/oceei) The GEF-UNDP- UNEP-UNIDO strong need to catch up publishing in English language activities on the SAP preparation can be found on refereed journals. IDRC wholeheartedly supported this www.dnipro-gef.net. An online version of this Mono- wish and supports publication of this monograph with graph is also available from the IDRC web site funding and editorial services, with reprints of individual (www.idrc.ca). papers available for distribution among peers. The The consultant and the IDRC project leadership WQRJC has kindly devoted a special issue of its Mono- wishes to acknowledge the excellent cooperative spirit of graph Series for this purpose. the biodiversity teams and timely delivery of their reports. The individual biodiversity conservation projects Special thanks are due to Igor Iskra and Lesia Dronova were originally formulated in the GEF-UNDP Project for their indespensable assistance in organizing the work-

v ing group meetings and following up on successful com- *Editor’s note: The English name for the River Dnieper is pletion of the scheduled tasks. Nick Mandak, Ron Der- used interchangeably throughout this monograph with the mot, Mike Turner and Ken Mills of the Canadian Depart- Ukrainian form Dnipro, which was officially adopted for ment of Fisheries and Oceans reviewed several reports and the UNDP-GEF-IDRC Project, as over 50% of the river checked the English scientific terminology. length lies within the Ukrainian territory. The Russian name for the river is Dnepr, Belorussian is Dnepro. Jan Barica IDRC Consultant Monograph Editor Burlington, Ontario, Canada [email protected] Ecological Status of the Transboundary Sections of the Dnipro Basin

Oleksandr G. Vasenko*

Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Ecological Problems, 6 Bakulin Street, 61166 Kharkiv, Ukraine

The preparation of Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and Strategic Action Plan for the Dnipro basin would not have been possible without a comprehensive and objective assessment of the state of the environment in the transboundary sections of the Basin. For this reason, a joint field survey was conducted by the Belorussian, Russian and Ukrainian scientists in order to provide up-to-date information for this assessment. This survey, undertaken with the assistance of the International Develop- ment Research Centre (Canada), was focused on the transboundary sections of the Dnipro Basin within the Republic of Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine. The present paper summarizes findings and conclusions made on the basis of new original data collected during this survey with regard to the ecological status of transboundary sections of the Basin, their biological and landscape diversity, and transboundary transport of pollutants. The results provided a basis for formulating recommendations on the design and objectives of transboundary monitoring.

Key words: transboundary pollution, ecological status, water quality, Dnipro Basin

Introduction 1086 km2 and volume of 1.54 km3). The Dnipro River flow is regulated by a chain of six major reservoirs (the total The Dnipro River flows across three countries (Russia, area of 6,950 km2 and full storage volume of 43.8 km3). Belarus and Ukraine) and empties into the Black Sea Over 40 million people live in the Dnipro Basin. with its coast shared between Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma- Major industries of Belarus and Ukraine, nuclear reactors nia, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine. The Dnipro River is of Russia and Ukraine, and a number of major reservoirs the third largest river (after the Danube and the Volga) are located in the Basin. Significant anthropogenic load in terms of the catchment area and the fourth longest on the Dnipro River and its tributaries has resulted in a river (2000 km) in Europe. The Upper Dnipro crosses deteriorated sanitary situation and irreversible changes in the territories of Russia and Belarus where the Dnipro ecosystems which have exacerbated after the Chernobyl Basin area covers 19 and 23% of the respective country accident. Human health is threatened, as is the progress territories. The Middle and Lower Dnipro River flows of economic development in the Basin. 2 across Ukraine and drains the area of 291,400 km . The Dnipro River provides a source of water for The Dnipro River covers a drainage basin of about 30 million people in Ukraine and over 6.2 million 2 509,000 km . It has a number of transboundary tribu- people in Belarus. Water resource is very unevenly distrib- taries: the Sozh and Ipout Rivers flow from Russia into uted over the territory of the Basin, and the upper part of Belarus; the Desna, Psyol and Vorskla Rivers flow from the Basin is the most water abundant, with specific water Russia and empty into the Dnipro River in the territory availability per unit area being of 219,000 m3/km2 per of Ukraine; the Pripyat River and its right tributaries average water year. In the Desna and Pripyat River (the Rivers of Styr, Goryn, Stvyga, Ubort and Slovechna) Basins, specific water availability is 110,000-115,000 m3 are rising in Ukraine, flowing across the territory of per year, decreasing to 36,000 m3/year per 1 km2 in the Belarus and finally emptying into the Dnipro River in lower part of the Dnipro Basin. The role of the Dnipro Ukraine via the Pripyat River. River as a source of water supply is not limited by the 32% of the total annual river flow is collected in Basin boundaries: it is a major and sometimes sole source the territory of Russia, and about 31% – in the territory of water for a number of large industrial centres of the of Belarus. South and South-Eastern Ukraine. Annually, 5-6 km3 of The Dnipro River Basin has 15,380 tributaries of vari- the river flow is diverted beyond the territory of the Basin ous order (the total length of 67,156 km), 504 reservoirs via the Dnipro-Donbass, Southern Crimean and 2 (the total water surface area of 767 km and volume of Kakhovsky Channels. The Dnipro River has contributed 3 2.2 km ), 12,570 small river ponds (the total area of to the significant improvement of water availability levels in the Crimea (by a factor of 3), in Kherson (5.5), Kirovo- * Corresponding author; [email protected] grad (2.5) and Dnipropetrovsk (3) Oblasts.

1 2 Vasenko

On the 1st of July, 1996, three nations of the Dnipro Specific Factors Affecting Water Quality Basin signed a joint statement in Helsinki expressing in the Transboundary Sections of the Basin their willingness to cooperate and participate equally in the Dnipro Environmental Rehabilitation Project. Water quality in the Dnipro Basin is affected by a large The state policy in the field of use, protection and number of factors of anthropogenic (first and foremost) rehabilitation of the Dnipro River crossing the territories and natural origin. of three countries can only be effective if complete infor- The following factors should be included into the mation about the existing environmental state of the first category (anthropogenic factors): Dnipro River and its tributaries is available. Existing sta- • Discharges of municipal and industrial wastewaters tionary monitoring data is not sufficient to serve this from such large industrial centres as Smolensk, purpose, especially with respect to assessment of trans- Bryansk, Minsk, Mogilev, Gomel, Mosyr, Kyiv, boundary pollution levels, because water quality moni- Sumy, Zhitomyr, Cherkasy, Dniprodzerzhinsk, toring stations are virtually non-existent at the cross- Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhia, etc.; border sections of the Rivers of Dnipro, Sozh, Ipout, • Pollutant transport with surface runoff from Desna, Seim, Psyol, Vorskla and Pripyat (including right urban and agricultural areas; tributaries of the latter). • Pollutant inflows from livestock breeding farms, Whereas water scarcity to meet the demands of poisonous chemical storage sites, mineral fer- population, industry and agriculture represents an tiliser storage sites and other environmentally issue mainly for Ukraine, the issue of abstracted water dangerous facilities scattered over the territory of quality and maintaining proper water quality at the the Basin, in particular during the heavy rainfall natural sources is of major priority for all riparian periods and as a result of accidents; countries of the Basin. • Contaminated precipitation caused by the trans- In light of the above and with the purpose of boundary atmospheric transport of pollution preparing a basis for implementation of the international (including pollution carried over from the territo- UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Environment Programme, spe- ries of other countries); cialised field water quality surveys were carried out in • Seepage of contaminated groundwater into the the Russian Federation, Republic of Belarus and Ukraine river network; in October 2000 and May-June 2001 (on the basis of the • Collection and discharge of quarrying and other agreed programme and schedule). This work was carried process waters generated by mineral extraction out with the aid of a grant administered by the Interna- activities (including uranium mines); tional Development Research Centre (Ottawa, Canada) • Loss of fertile land in the river valleys as a result and financially supported by the United Nations Devel- of damming, as well as loss of wetlands as a opment Programme. result of land draining have caused reduction of The major focus of these surveys was concentrated biodiversity in the Dnipro drainage basin; on examination of water quality at the transboundary • Industrial accidents, especially the 1986 accident sections of the Dnipro River and its tributaries. In paral- at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant; lel with the water quality assessment programme of the • Excessive damming and regulation of river flow survey which included hydrochemical, hydrobiological (mainly within the territory of Ukraine) have and radioactivity parameters, flow discharges were mea- caused eutrophication and build-up of heavily sured at the sampling sites as water quantity data is very contaminated bottom sediments which some- important for assessment of transboundary mass flow of times float up to the water surface. pollutants. Also, pollution levels in biota and bottom sediments were examined. The factors of natural origin are mainly associated The data of the Dnipro Basin Surface Water Quality with higher natural contents of certain substances in Surveys is mainly targeted for the local environment pro- water and soil. In the Dnipro Basin, this is the case for tection and regulatory authorities, and also can be used iron, manganese, copper and lead, and other heavy met- for comparisons with the existing stationary monitoring als occurring locally. Within the Dnipro Basin generally, data. Moreover, a mere evidence of such activity as addi- iron concentrations in groundwater exceed the manda- tional water quality survey at the cross-border sections tory limits set for drinking water quality. helps to raise the public awareness of the Dnipro River The environmental issues of the Dnipro Basin environmental state and its rehabilitation as a common addressed within the framework of this project manifest issue for the three countries. The field survey results themselves in various transboundary areas (zones) which would enable for the expansion of the data base possess their own specific features. designed to provide a basis for the agreed international decisions on issues relating to use and protection of the The Belorussian/Ukrainian border. A number of large Dnipro Basin water resource. tributaries entering the Dnipro River in the territory of Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 3

Belarus (Berezina, Pripyat and Sozh) receive industrial and (17,000–20,000 people each), while the town of municipal wastewaters from such towns as Orsha, Shklov, Klimovo is a major source of pollution affecting the Mogilev, Bykhov, Rechitsa and Loev (the Dnipro River); Snov River water quality. Minsk, Borisov, Bobruisk and Svetlogorsk (the Berezina There is 90 million m3 discharged annually into the River); Pinsk and Mosyr (the Pripyat River); Gomel and surface water bodies, with a major proportion (over Krichev (the Sozh River). 60 million m3, or 70%) produced by water users in the City of Bryansk. Virtually all discharged effluents (95% The Russian/Belorussian border. The territory of this of the total amount) are polluted and require treatment. zone partially occupies the western and central part of the The largest towns of the Kursk Oblast affecting the Eastern European (Russian) Upland and is located within surface water quality and contributing to the trans- the Forest Zone. The Smolensk and Bryansk Oblasts are boundary pollution load are located in the Seim River among the largest industrial regions of the Central Russia. Basin, including Kursk itself (443,000 people) located The largest industrialised towns of the Smolensk immediately to the Seim River, as well as the towns of Oblast are located in the Dnipro Basin, with their indus- Kurchatov (44,000 people), Lgov and Rylsk (20,000 trial and municipal wastewater discharges greatly affect- people each). ing the surface water quality. These include Smolensk Water quality in the Psyol River is affected by dis- (over 300,000 people), as well as a number of smaller charges from the towns of Oboyan (15,000 people) and towns with populations of 50,000-60,000 people each, Sudzha (about 10,000 people). such as Vyazma, Safonovo and Yartsevo (the Dnipro The total annual amount of industrial and munici- River); Roslavl (the Oster River); as well as the town of pal effluent discharged in the Kursk Oblast into the Novozybkov (the Ipout River) in Bryansk Oblast. surface water bodies of the Seim River Basin is over Amount of effluent discharges into the natural sur- 145 million m3, with 45% of this amount being face water bodies of this study area has reached 150 mil- untreated or insufficiently treated. Over 75% of the total lion m3 per year, with a major proportion of that amount of wastewater is generated in Kursk. amount (120 million m3) being discharged into the The largest human settlements of the Belgorod Oblast Dnipro Basin water bodies. 30% of this amount origi- located in the Vorskla River Basin are the townships of nates from the City of Smolensk. 80% of discharged Stroitel, Tomarovka, Yakovlevo, Borisovka and the town effluent requires treatment. Graivoron (with population of 3000–15,000 people each). Surface runoff from ploughed-up agricultural lands Surface water quality in the Vorsklitsa and Vorskla (32% of the study area has been ploughed up) and live- Rivers is greatly affected by agricultural activities, espe- stock breeding sites contributes significantly to the total cially agricultural crop farming (the proportion of pollution load entering the water bodies. ploughed up land is over 60% of the total catchment area of these rivers). The Russian/Ukrainian border. Geographically this study area is located in the central part of the Eastern The Ukrainian/Belorussian border. A significant part of European (Russian) Upland, extending into the Forest, this study area (in particular, the Rivne Oblast where- Forest Steppe and Steppe climatic zones. from the Rivers of Pripyat, Goryn and Styr enter into the The proportion of forested area decreases as one territory of Belarus) is classified as the area affected by moves south- and southwestward (from 44-50% in the the Chernobyl accident, including the upper reach of the Kaluga and Bryansk Oblasts to 11% in the Kursk and Pripyat River and its numerous right tributaries (of Belgorod Oblasts), with the proportion of ploughed-up which the Styr and Goryn Rivers are the largest ones). land growing accordingly (from 30–33% in the northern This area also includes the mouth sections of the part to 63–65% in the southern part). Pripyat and Sozh Rivers and the section of the Dnipro The most industrialised regions in this part of the River itself. Hydrologically this area is confined to the Dnipro Basin are the Bryansk and Kursk Oblasts. The outflow from the Kyiv Reservoir. largest industrial towns and townships of the Bryansk Via this area pollution generated in Ukraine (where Oblast are located in the Desna River Basin, including the Pripyat River collects about 40% of its flow, or Bryansk itself (485,000 people), Dyatkovo, Zhukovka 5.7 km3/year) comes into Belarus. and Trubchevsk (20,000–40,000 people each), which affect the environmental state of the Desna River and The Russian/Ukrainian border. The Desna River and its significantly contribute to the transboundary pollution transboundary tributaries (the Seim River, etc.) flow in load. A significant proportion of pollution entering the this area and carry over transboundary pollution loads Desna River in the Russian Federation originates from from Belarus and Russia into Ukraine. Despite the agricultural sources. largest proportion of the Dnipro Basin being within Water quality of the Sudost River is affected by dis- Ukraine, 84% (44.8 km3) of the Dnipro River flow orig- charges from the towns of Pochep, Starodub and Pogar inates from Belarus and Russia. 4 Vasenko

Ukraine/Black Sea. This transboundary area includes luted sections of the Dnipro River and its main the mouth section of the Dnipro River, i.e., 93 km long tributaries, to characterise the existing environ- reach from the dam of Kakhovka Hydropower Station mental state of the Basin and collect initial data to the Dnipro-Bug Estuary, the Lower Dnipro tributaries for the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and (i.e., the Ingulets River), the Kakhovka Reservoir itself Strategic Action Plan for Environmental Rehabil- and, finally, the Dnipro-Bug Estuary. itation of the Dnipro Basin; The whole area of the Black Sea shelf within • Identify the priority indicators of surface water Ukraine (48,600 km2) is greatly affected by the Dnipro quality, i.e., parameters the actual concentrations River flow. The Dnipro introduces a significant amount of which during the survey period were registered of nutrients, thus maintaining high productivity levels in to have exceeded the existing mandatory limits; the marine ecosystems. Moreover, the Dnipro flow con- • Prepare recommendations on improvement of the tributes to the biotope diversity of the sea shelf (sand- transboundary monitoring network; bars, islands and spits) and, consequently, the biological • Carry out preliminary assessment of transbound- diversity of aquatic organisms. Anthropogenic eutrophi- ary pollution loads; cation which first manifested itself in the early 1970s, • Develop and strengthen working contacts has developed as a sequence of biological and ecological between the experts and organisations of the phenomena, from algal blooms to massive bottom fauna three countries. kills as a result of hypoxia. One of the factors particu- In the light of the above, the specific tasks of the larly contributing to this problem is excessive damming field surveys were to: and regulation of the river flow as a result of construction of major reservoirs. This has resulted in dramatic 1. Collect data on flow discharges; water, bottom sedi- reduction of freshwater flow discharge into the Sea. The ment and biota quality at the transboundary sections Dnipro-Bug Estuary plays a special role in transforma- and downstream of the major polluting sources; tion of the river water. Since the large-scale eutrophica- 2. Carry out field sampling and laboratory tests on the tion emerged and progressed, the Estuary has become a basis of the methodology agreed by the three survey key factor of impact on water quality. teams, including sampling site list, sampling schedule, list of measured parameters and a set of mea- Field Survey Programme, its Objectives, surement/analytical techniques; Tasks, and Organisational Aspects 3. Summarise and review the field survey data and prepare recommendations on improvement of the mon- The following key problems justified the need for imple- itoring system, transboundary pollution assessment, mentation of the water quality field surveys in the use of collected data for preparation of the Trans- Dnipro Basin: boundary Diagnostic Analysis and Strategic Action Plan for the Dnipro Basin. • Lack of stationary monitoring sites at the majority of transboundary sections of the Dnipro River The survey activities were carried out on the basis and its tributaries; of close interaction with the regional environment pro- • Insufficient number of water quality parameters tection authorities. Water sampling activities of the sur- sampled and monitored at the stationary moni- vey teams were supported by the locally available toring sites; expertise, mainly represented by the experts of the • Different water quality measurement and assess- regional hydrochemical laboratories and analytical con- ment techniques used in the riparian countries; trol departments. Assistance of the local population in • Virtual absence of survey/monitoring programmes water sampling and flow measurement activities is that enable the carrying out of simultaneous highly appreciated. examination of quality of water, bottom sediments The field survey progress and results had been publi- and biota on the basis of various parameters cised through mass media (TV programmes, newspaper (hydrochemical, radiation, hydrobiological, toxi- publications, radio interviews). In the course of the sur- cological and epidemiological); vey, awareness of the local population had been raised • Temporal and spatial discontinuity of the exist- on its objectives and tasks, and a number of promotional ing water quality data (from the stationary moni- videos made. toring sites) and water flow measurements. The field survey data is considered to be sufficiently representative as a basis for approximated assessment of The main goals of the field surveys were to: cumulative impact of point and non-point pollution • Carry out parallel autumn and spring/summer sources, as well as for comparative assessment of pollu- surveys of water quality and quantity in the tion levels throughout the river including its transbound- Dnipro Basin in order to identify the most pol- ary sections. Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 5

Methodology; Measured Variables Ukrainian parts of the Dnipro Basin, the same Dnipro and Pripyat River tributaries and cross-border sites on The list of measurement variables had been agreed by the the Dnipro River itself were measured for hydrometry three countries prior to commencement of the field sur- and sampled for water and bottom sediment quality. At veys. Over 60 parameters of the list were chosen to char- these sections, the distance between the sampling sites acterise water, bottom sediments and biota (Table 1). of the national field survey teams varied from 8 to 88 km in the virtual absence of concentrated side Selection of Sampling Locations inflows. Wherever possible, consideration was given to and Hydrometric Measurement Sites the travel time between a sampling section within Ukraine (Belarus) and the nearest sampling section Water quality sites were chosen so that they could be as within Belarus (Ukraine) for a respective water body, much as possible located at or near the hydrological as well as the travel time between a sampling site measurement sites. Bottom sediments and water for sub- within Russia and relevant sampling locations in the sequent laboratory tests were normally sampled several Dnipro, Sozh and Ipout Rivers within Belarus, and in meters upstream of the hydrometric measurement sites. the Desna, Sudost, Seim, Psyol, Vorsklitsa and Vorskla In total, 62 sites were sampled in the Dnipro Basin Rivers within Ukraine. A basic description of the trans- during the field survey (Fig. 1), including 20 transbound- boundary sites is given in Table 2. Due to logistic diffi- ary sites (Table 2). In addition, water and bottom sedi- culties, travel time was not taken into consideration for ment samples were taken over the cross-section (i.e., samples taken at the cross-border section of the Dnipro near the right bank, in the middle and near the left bank) River (Komarin – inflow into the Kyiv Reservoir). of the Dnipro River mouth at the point of its inflow into However, given that there was little precipitation dur- the Black Sea. ing this sampling/measurement activity, the effect of To ensure comparability of the field survey results time difference on comparability of sampling results on the quality of water in the Belorussian, Russian and was negligible.

TABLE 1. List of measured variables

No. Parameter Media

Group A. Variables measured on-sitea 1 River flow velocity, cross-section, water level, water discharge Water 2 Temperature, transparency, odour Water 3 pH, dissolved oxygen Water

Group B. Variables measured under laboratory conditions

- 2- - 2+ 2+ + + 4 Main ions (Cl , SO4 , HCO3 , Mg , Ca , Na , K ), mineralisation, colour, Water suspended substances 5 Nutrients (N-NH4, N-NO2, N-NO3, Ptotal, P- PO4, Si) Dissolved forms 6 COD, BOD5 Water 7 Surfactants (anion-active) Water 8 Phenols (total) Water; bottom sediments 9 Oil products Water; bottom sediments 10 Pesticides (Aldrin, BHC, DDT, Dichophol, Dieldrin, Endosulphane, Endrin, Bottom sediment; fish, shellfish Teptachlor, Heptachlorepoxide, Metoxichlor, Myrox, Stroban, Toxaphen) 11 Heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Pb, Al, Cd, Hg, As, Cu, Cr, Zn) Dissolved and suspended in water; bottom sediments; fish 12 Radioactivity (total beta-activity, 90Sr, 137Cs, MED, 40Κ, 232Th) Water; bottom sediment; fish 13 Hydrobiology • zooplankton (abundance, biomass, species composition); Water • phytoplankton (abundance, biomass, species composition); Water • ichtyofauna (abundance, biomass, species composition); Water • macrozoobenthos (abundance, biomass, species composition; presence Bottom sediment of pesticides in shellfish tissue) 14 Microbiology (bacterioplankton, heterotrophic bacteria, total bacterial number, Water Escherichia coli, salmonella) 15 Parasitology Fish aThe Ukrainian field survey team had portable equipment for on-site analysis and measured the Item 4-6 variables and background gamma- radiation levels on-site 6 Vasenko

Fig. 1. Locations of sampling sites for the 2000-2001 field survey.

Review of the 2000-2001 Field Survey Results cation of issues and problems relating to the conservation of the landscape and biological diversity in the Basin. As a result of international field surveys carried out in the The surveys revealed that the floodplains of the transboundary sections of the Dnipro River Basin during Pripyat, Ubort and Stvyga Rivers have been severely 2000-2001, new original data were collected. In particular, damaged and urgent actions are needed to protect what landscape diversity assessment surveys and a review of the is left of their landscape diversity. Landscape and biolog- current state of nature reserves and protected areas located ical diversity conservation capacity in nature reserves in the transboundary sections of the Dnipro River Basin and protected areas in the Basin is also inadequate. It were undertaken. This has provided a basis for the identifi- was also shown that although such areas could be used Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 7

TABLE 2. Basic description of transboundary sites sampled during the Dnipro Basin field survey and sampling dates

Estimated travel Sampling Distance to the Type of bottom time between site # Water body Site location mouth, kma sediments sites, hrs 1 Dnipro River Russian/Belorussian border 1664 Sand and rock 10 1653 2 Sozh River Russian/Belorussian border 550 Silt and sand 24 412 3 Oster River (the Sozh Russian/Belorussian border 60 Sand and silt — River tributary) 4 Ipout River Russian/Belorussian border 70 Sand and silt 25 32 5 Dnipro River Belorussian/Ukrainian border 998 Sand and silt 34 6 Pripyat River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 583 Sand and silt 15 529 7 Pripyat River Belorussian/Ukrainian border 76 Sand 33 10 8 Styr River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 64 Silt 4 56 9 Goryn River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 83 Sand 7 70 10 Stvyga River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 115 Sand 53 35 11 Lva River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 85 Sand 12 73 12 Ubort River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 121 Sand 11 104 13 Slovechna River Ukrainian/Belorussian border 99 Sand 9 86 14 Snov River (the Desna Russian/Ukrainian border 360 Sand and silt 10 River tributary) 340 15 Sudost River (the Desna Russian/Ukrainian border 15 Sand and silt 3 River tributary) 10 16 Desna River Russian/Ukrainian border 588 Sand and silt 65 361 17 Seim River (the Desna Russian/Ukrainian border 228 Sand and silt River tributary) 105 18 Psyol River Russian/Ukrainian border 542 Sand and silt 456 19 Vorsklitsa River (the Russian/Ukrainian border 50 Sand and silt Vorskla River tributary 40 20 Vorskla River Russian/Ukrainian border 344 Sand and silt 340 21 The Dnipro River mouth Inflow into the Black Sea — Sand — aThe numerator reflects the distance from an upstream country sampling site and denominator – the distance from a downstream country sampling site. as a reference basis for the purposes of ambient water Metal Contamination quality monitoring, they are currently not. The field survey results confirmed that metal concentra- Water Quality tions were relatively high in the transboundary river sections of the Dnipro Basin, where fishery MAC limits for In terms of ecological/sanitary criteria, the examined metals were exceeded in all water samples. All bottom water bodies can principally be described as moderately sediment samples were found to contain iron and man- polluted or dirty, corresponding to Water Quality Cate- ganese at significant concentrations. MAC limits for zinc, gories 5-7. The prescribed Maximum Allowable Con- copper, lead and arsenic were exceeded in fish samples, centration (MAC) limits for fishery water use were as well as the interim sanitary guideline levels for iron, found to be exceeded in the majority of water bodies chromium and nickel. Excessive concentrations of metals for a range of parameters (COD, BOD5, sulphates, and arsenic in water, bottom sediment and aquatic biota ammonium and nitrites). samples from the transboundary sections of the Dnipro 8 Vasenko

Basin indicate that these media have accumulated consid- indicated that HCCH, n,n’-DDT and its metabolites erable quantities of these substances (Fig. 2). were the predominant organochlorines found in trans- Concentrations of zinc, copper, nickel and mercury boundary river water samples (Fig. 3). α-HCCH was in all water bodies were found to be excessive only in detected in 72% of all water samples at levels ranging terms of the MAC limits for fishery water use. from 0.003 to 0.111 µg/dm3. γ-HCCH concentrations in water samples ranged from 0.012 to 0.018 µg/kg. Levels Persistent Organic Contamination of n,n’-DDT were found to be below the detection limit in most water samples, whereas n,n’-DDE was detected During the spring field survey, all but two water samples in 47% of water samples at concentrations ranging from (from Lake Nobel and the Seim River) were found to 0.007 to 0.026 µg/dm3. The highest levels of organo- contain oil products at concentrations exceeding the chlorine pesticides were found in water samples taken MAC limit set for fishery water use. Many exceeded the from Lake Nobel, the Kyiv reservoir, the Seim River and MAC limit for potable and recreational water use, with the Desna River section between the villages of Kamen levels up to 3.7 times higher than that set. and Chernigov. High levels of pesticides were found in water sam- Treflane, Harness and synthetic pyrethroid herbi- ples from the rivers Sozh, Ipout, Styr, Slovechna, cides were not detected in any of the water samples taken Pripyat, Seim and the Dnipro itself. Analytical results during the field surveys. However 2,4-D was detected at

Fig.2. Excessive concentrations of metals and arsenic in fish sampled during the 2001 field survey. Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 9

Fig. 3. Chlorinated organic pesticides in water of the Dnipro River Basin. concentrations ranging from 2.1 to 2.4 µg/dm3 in water Microbiological Contamination samples taken from the Desna and Sudost Rivers, and the mouth section of the Dnipro River itself. Organo-chlorine High levels of bacterial contamination were recorded in pesticides were present in bottom sediment samples at the transboundary sections of the Pripyat River tribu- levels reflecting their global dispersion pattern. More- taries during the autumn field survey (Table 3). The over, 38% of the bottom sediment samples were found to number of lactopositive Escherichia coli in samples from contain treflane. the Snov and Sudost Rivers exceeded the MAC limits for Organo-chlorine pesticides were detected in all fish recreational/domestic water uses by 1.2 times. samples at levels considerably higher than their ambient The lowest quantities of bacterial plankton and het- concentrations in water. A clear pattern of organo- erotrophic micro-organisms were in samples collected chlorine pesticide contamination emerged from the from the transboundary section of the Desna River. Dur- analysis of freshwater fish species (pike, perch, pike ing the autumn 2000 field survey, recorded quantities of perch, catfish, ide, bream, and rudd). The highest conta- bacterial plankton and heterotrophic bacteria at the mination levels were detected in liver samples, with Belorussian/Russian border section were 1.87 million lower concentrations being generally present in fish mus- cells/mL and 1600 cells/L, respectively. Bacteria species cle. There was a general trend of higher contamination active on oil products and surfactants were detected in levels in predator fish samples (pike, perch, and pike minor quantities (Escherichia coli, 60,000 cells/L). Dur- perch) compared to the benthophage fish species. ing the spring field survey, a 3.6-fold increase in the The major organo-chlorine pesticides detected in quantity of heterotrophic organisms was recorded for all fish samples were α- and γ-HCCH, n,n’-DDT, n,n’- DDE, n,n’-DDD, and heptachlor. Accumulated pesticide metabolites, in particular n,n’-DDE, were detected TABLE 3. Bacterial contamination in the transboundary in fish muscle and organs, indicating major metabolic sections of the Pripyat River tributaries changes since initial exposure to contamination. α- Pripyat River Escherichia coli Salmonella and -HCCH, n,n’-DDT and its metabolites n,n’-DDE β tributary (million cells/L) (cells/mL) and n,n’-DDD were detected in shellfish samples. In addition, there appear to be differences among water Goryn 10.98 102 Styr 3.20 70 bodies in terms of the level of pesticide accumulation Stvyga 0.60 34 in shellfish. 10 Vasenko

this section. This was attributed to pollution carried properties and hydrological regime), while the effect of from the adjacent territory during the spring high-flow anthropogenic factors is minor. As a result, biotic and period. Also, samples taken from this river section dur- diversity indices vary widely among the rivers. Only in ing the spring field survey had higher quantities of bacte- the Goryn River, did the state of benthic communities rial plankton (by 1.4 times), heteroptrophic bacteria (by suggest significant inputs of organic pollution from 2.8 times) and Escherichia coli (by 2.2 times). local sources. Interpretation of zoobenthos diversity The highest bacterial contamination levels were and abundance indices suggests that anthropogenic fac- recorded in the transboundary section of the Vorskla tors have not caused persistent effects on the state of River (downstream from the village of Lugovoe). Waste- the ecosystem. water discharges from the local dairy and municipal Field survey results and a review of the specialist lit- wastewater treatment plant have affected the hydrobio- erature showed that there was considerable diversity of logical regime of the river. Recorded quantities of bacter- parasites (up to 200 species) living in or on fish, shellfish ial plankton and heterotrophic organisms for this section and crayfish species inhabiting the transboundary sec- of the Vorskla River were 4.73 million cells/mL and tions of the Dnipro Basin. The parasitic fauna includes 184,000 cells/mL, respectively. The quantities of bacteria species capable of causing disease and death in fish (Try- active on oil products and surfactants were also relatively panosome, Microsporidia, Diplostomuma, and Ligula). high at 1800 cells/mL and 4430 cells/mL, respectively. Moreover, the following pathogenic species were also found: Opisthorchis felineus, Metagonimus yokogawai, Ecological Status Pseudamphistomum truncatum, Metorchis albisus, Mesorchis denticulatus, Apophallus muehlingi, and Overall, 473 phytoplankton species representing 8 Diphyllobothrium latum (Fig. 4). groups were recorded in the Dnipro Basin, with 321 Water and sediment samples from the Dnipro River species found in the transboundary sections of the Basin were analysed for toxicity with a set of animal and Basin. Phytoplankton community structure data indi- plant bioassays. River water samples analysed for toxic- cates that the water can be characterised as ‘moderately ity in the field were found to contain no toxic substances polluted’ by organic substances in the transboundary at detectable levels, whereas chronic toxic effects were sections. The field survey results on zooplankton com- found in the laboratory. No toxic substances were munity structure indicate that pollution levels were rela- detected in bottom sediment samples. tively low. Water quality in the Pripyat River Basin was mainly affected by factors of natural origin, whilst Radionuclide Contamination anthropogenic factors played a major role in the Dnipro River and its left-bank tributaries. In the majority of the Dnipro tributaries, 40K activity Zoobenthos is an important indicator of aquatic concentrations were found to have stabilised at levels ecosystem state and there appear to be significant dif- ranging from 0.02 to 0.35 Bq/L. Due to the lower miner- ferences among the transboundary sections of the alisation levels in the water of the upstream tributaries Dnipro Basin. In the Pripyat River Basin, benthic fauna of the Dnipro River, specific activity levels of 40K were development is mainly affected by natural factors (soil lower than in the downstream tributaries. Levels of 40K

Fig. 4. Parasitic invasions in B. leachi mollusc (the Vorskla River). Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 11 in bottom sediments correlated well with data on con- River Basin indicate that such species as Dreissena and centrations in soils, suggesting that the major inputs of Unito pictorum are the most powerful biological filters this radionuclide are associated with surface runoff and in the freshwater macrozoobenthic community with groundwater sources. Generally, the specific activity of accumulation factors of over 1100 for 90Sr in Dreissena, 40K in bottom sediments increased downstream. Bottom and near 500 for 137Cs in Unito pictorum. sediment samples from the downstream tributaries had Radionuclide contamination in the Dnipro River slightly higher levels of 40K activity than samples from Basin is very uneven in distribution, suggesting strong local the Dnipro reservoirs. This was attributed to higher dilu- sources of an anthropogenic nature. Tritium is a major tion rates and micro-organism abundance levels in the radioactive component of effluent generated by nuclear water of the reservoirs. power facilities and is regarded as a dangerous long-lived The highest levels of total beta-radioactivity and 40K radionuclide capable of spreading far beyond its immediate were found in sandy bottom sediment samples from the source. Tritium concentrations in water were generally Sozh River, whereas the bottom sediments from the below or slightly above the detection limits of the measure- Slovechna and Ubort Rivers had the lowest levels. It ment techniques involved in this study (up to 3.4 Bq/L). should be noted that these radioactivity levels were The only exceptions were water samples from the Styr recorded during the spring flood period, which can be River where the tritium concentration was 7.5 Bq/L, possi- attributed to higher inputs carried with surface runoff bly as a result of the Rivne Nuclear Power Plant. from the territories contaminated as a result of the Cher- nobyl accident. Assessment of the Ecological Status Concentrations of 137Cs in the bottom sediments of of the Dnipro Basin on the Basis of National the Middle and Lower Dnipro tributaries varied within a Techniques Adopted in the Riparian Countries range of 5-46 Bq/kg. The range was wider in the Upper Dnipro Basin (2.3-100 Bq/kg) due to the immediate The Water Pollution Index (WPI) technique is used in proximity of the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant and the the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and ‘spotty’ distribution of radioactive contamination. Ukraine as a tool to assess surface water quality. The Maximum concentrations of 137Cs were recorded in calculation procedure for WPI involves determining the the Pripyat River tributaries (up to 435.0 Bq/L), the mean annual concentrations of six substances. Two of Upper Dnipro tributaries (146.0 Bq/L), the Kyiv reser- them (dissolved oxygen and BOD5) are compulsory and voir, a major trap for Chernobyl-related radionuclide the other four can be chosen from a priority list of sub- contamination (up to 263.0 Bq/L) and the Snov River stances ranked in terms of the rate of the maximum (102.0 Bq/L). Levels of 90Sr in bottom sediments corre- admissible concentration (MAC) exceedence at a given lated well with 137Cs concentrations, suggesting expo- site. Based on data provided by the National Monitoring sure to localised sources of radioactive contamination as System, the four additional parameters involved in the a result of the Chernobyl accident. The highest level of WPI calculation procedure are ammonium nitrogen, 90Sr was found in bottom sediment samples from the nitrite nitrogen, zinc, and oil products. The WPI-based Pripyat River within the 30-km Chernobyl zone water quality classification system includes seven water (4.8 Bq/kg of dry sample mass), whereas samples from quality categories or classes (Fig. 5). the Ubort River had the lowest levels (0.27 Bq/kg). The The rivers of the upper part of the Dnipro Basin distribution of radionuclides in bottom sediment samples within the Russian Federation can be described as ‘mod- was similar to that of water samples, although more pro- erately polluted’ in terms of WPI values. nounced reflecting the overall picture of radionuclide In the Republic of Belarus, WPI values indicate that contamination as a result of the Chernobyl accident. ambient water quality in the Dnipro River between Orsha Bivalve molluscs act as natural filters, contributing and Bykhov is generally undisturbed, whereas water in the significantly to river self-purification processes. Data on river section between Rechitsa and Loyev is ‘moderately radionuclides in bivalve molluscs sampled in the Pripyat polluted’, suggesting a progressive downward trend in

Fig. 5. Water quality classification on the basis of WPI values. 12 Vasenko

water quality. The WPI values for the Berezina River indi- 1995-2000 were included in calculation procedure. Cal- cate relatively stable water quality upstream of Svetlo- culation results are presented in Tables 4–6. gorsk, although the downstream section of the river has As can be seen from the these tables, there appear to deteriorated over recent years. Consistently high pollution be significant differences in mass flow estimates made on levels have been reported for the Svisloch River section the basis of data collected at adjacent monitoring sta- downstream of the municipal wastewater treatment plant tions located on either side of the border. Nonetheless, serving the City of Minsk. The Pripyat River tributaries the exercise itself is very useful, as it helps to appreciate (Slutch, Tsna, Ptich, Bobrik, Moroch, Ubort, and Oressa) the order of magnitude involved and clearly illustrates have a relatively stable water quality regime and can be the need for establishing a special monitoring regime in described as ‘moderately polluted’ in terms of water qual- the transboundary sections of the Basin. ity classification. There appears to be no sign of water Taking into account the flawed character of the quality improvement in the transboundary sections of the input data involved in the calculations, the derived mass Dnipro River and its tributaries where they enter Ukraine. flow values must be considered as a very rough estimate. Moreover, the WPI values increase within the transbound- These values should not be used as a basis for evaluating ary section of the Dnipro River itself. and claiming damage incurred to the 3 riparian countries Within Ukraine, the rivers of the Dnipro Basin are as a result of transboundary pollution. characterised as ‘clean’ and ‘moderately polluted’. The pattern of WPI values for the Dnipro Basin is shown in Fig. 6. Recommendations for Transboundary Pollution Monitoring in the Dnipro River Basin Transboundary Transport of Pollution It is commonly recognised that the design of a water in the Dnipro Basin resource monitoring system has to be tailored to the infor- The existing water quality monitoring system has not mation needs and requirements of the basinwide environ- been designed to quantify transboundary pollution loads mental management system. From this perspective, the carried by river flow from or to the riparian countries of transboundary pollution monitoring system should be the Dnipro Basin. The closest cross-border water quality able to provide answers to the following questions: monitoring stations are often located 60-100 km from • What amount of polluting substances is carried the border and the transboundary hydrological monitor- with the river flow through the selected trans- ing network is inadequate with monitoring carried out on boundary monitoring stations? an infrequent basis. Therefore it is virtually impossible to • Is there any threat of acute deterioration of water calculate mass load values at a required level of accuracy quality as a result of accidental spills, natural dis- and precision (e.g., 10% error at 90% confidence). asters, etc? The mass load estimates calculated in this section are The existing water quality monitoring network in considered to be very approximate. In order to minimise the Dnipro Basin is by no means adequate for represen- potential error, only averaged values over the period of tative assessment of transboundary pollution loads and inter-governmental decision-making on the environmental rehabilitation actions in the Basin. Therefore additional monitoring stations need to be established in the cross-border sections, to be operated on the basis of the unified transboundary monitoring methodology. In addition to the existing stationary monitoring network, the following sites are proposed as the transboundary pollution monitoring locations: • the Styr River (the Ukrainian/Belorussian border, 75 km to the mouth); • the Lva River (the Ukrainian/Belorussian border, 84 km to the mouth); • the Stvyga River (the Ukrainian/Belorussian border, 126 km to the mouth); • the Ubort River (the Ukrainian/Belorussian border, 120 km to the mouth); • the Dnipro River (the Russian/Belorussian border, 1,653 km to the mouth); Fig. 6. Variation of Water Pollution Index (WPI) values • the Ipout River (the Russian/Belorussian border, along the Dnipro River within the Republic of Belarus. 32 km to the mouth). Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 13

TABLE 4. Estimated mean annual mass load at the Russian/Belorussian border over the period of 1995-2000 (tonnes/year)a

RF RB RF RB RF RB RF RB

Dnipro – Dnipro – Sozh - Ipout – Ipout - Total, Total, Parameters Smolens k Orsha Sozh Krichev Dobrodeev ka Dobrus h tonnes tonnes Suspended solids 31,120 42,644.4 26,300 34,138 2132 71,070 BOD5 9479 8778 4740 3943 1112 14,630 Mineral nitrogen 5914 1748 646.2 391.6 993.8 3367 PO4-P — 320.1 119.8 — 28.08 468 Total phosphorus 458.9 — — 179.5 — — Copper — 19.99 14 — 1.015 35 Zinc — 19.97 36.99 — 7.04 64 Nickel — 30.01 12.01 — 1.98 44 Not estimated Phenols 5.96 9.996Not estimated 2.996 — 1.008 14 Total iron — 3167 1059 310.8 203.8 4430 Oil products — 360 195.6 — 44.4 600 Surfactants 397.3 109.9 81.95 — 5.122 197 aCalculations made by the Belorussian experts (Dnipro-Orsha, Sozh-Krichev, Ipout-Dobrush) and Russian experts (Dnipro-Smolensk, Ipout- Dobrodeevka).

Moreover, it would be useful to establish a station- required to define this monitoring regime, although ary monitoring network to cover two-three catchments some preliminary recommendations can be made on the that have not been subjected to impacts of human activi- basis of the field survey findings. These recommenda- ties (e.g., within the natural reserve areas). tions are discussed below. At the first stage of the transboundary pollution mon- The list of the monitored variables should be expanded itoring system development, the effort should be focussed by including the following mandatory parameters: on the following major watercourses of the Dnipro basin: • mineralisation, macrocomponents; the Dnipro River itself (the Russian/Belorussian border; • dissolved oxygen; the Belorussian/Russian border; and the estuary), the • BOD ; Pripyat River (the Belorussian/Ukrainian border), and the 5 • COD; Desna River (the Russian/Belorussian border). The exist- • nutrients (nitrogen group and phosphorus); ing flow and water quality measurement sites at these sec- • oil products; tions could be used as a basis for development of the • surfactants; transboundary pollution monitoring network. • metals (iron, manganese, copper, zinc, lead, mer- For these sites, a special transboundary pollution cury, nickel); monitoring regime should be developed and established • pesticides; at a very early stage. It is clear that special study is • radionuclides.

TABLE 5. Estimated annual mass load carried by the main Dnipro tributaries across the Russian/Ukrainian border (tonnes/year)a

Parameter Desna Seim Psyol Vorskla Vorsklitsa Suspended substances 58,482 24,185 8168 2556 1326 Sulphates 66,631 79,775 47,142 16,004 2312 Chlorides 48,132 45,554 20,962 15,192 951.7 COD 66,822 40,082 12,446 2820 1168 BOD5 7543 4340 1459 445.5 163.2 Oil products — 156.7 30.87 14.50 6.04 Phenols — 1.43 0.774 0.510 — Surfactants — 77.93 49.62 4.535 0.575 Mineral nitrogen 1829 1890 604.1 188.8 51.38 Total phosphorus 360 783 267.7 62.74 29.18 Total iron 1022 261.2 95.89 54.82 20.30 Copper 39.42 3.932 2.506 0.486 — Zinc 18.64 3.435 11.73 1.376 — Chromium 6+ — 6.587 1.122 0.200 — aCalculations made by the Russian experts. 14 Vasenko

TABLE 6. Averaged mass flow estimates for the Dnipro-Kherson section (estuary) based on the 1998-2000 dataa

Probabilistic interpolation Sample average Linear Parameter Unit technique interpolation Quantile 0.10 Mean Quantile 0.9 Flow discharge km3/year 52.225 Suspended substances t/year ×1000 64.17 53.93 51.26 55.07 59.14 Sulphates (SO4) t/year ×1000 2485 2458 2446 2497 2550 Chlorides (Cl) t/year ×1000 1971 1988 1958 1982 2004 COD t/year ×1000 1295 1288 1254 1281 1308 BOD5 t/year ×1000 155.0 154.8 152.7 154.8 159.1 Oil products t/year 549 479 492 534 581 Phenols t/year 78 79 74 81 88 Total mineral nitrogen t/year ×1000 17.12 17.23 16.78 17.17 17.51 Phosphate phosphorus t/year 6095 6048 6027 6072 6123 Total phosphorus t/year ×1,000 12.54 12.45 12.40 12.48 12.55 Total iron t/year 4516 4987 4473 5042 5604 Copper t/year 146 169 156 175 194 Manganese t/year 1518 2199 1637 2482 3436 Zinc t/year 3583 3369 2981 3420 3903 Hexavalent chromium t/year 250 266 249 260 268

aCalculations made by the Ukrainian experts.

To improve informative value of monitoring data maintained in the individual branches of the Dnipro from the perspective of the transboundary pollution load Delta (apart from the single-time surveys). monitoring, the sampling programme should be also Some transboundary sections of the Dnipro Basin expanded by including the solid state sampling exercise have highly specific water quality patterns dominated by for a number of substances (metals, pesticides, etc.). natural factors, where ambient concentrations of certain For major contaminants, annual sampling frequency substances considerably exceed the national water qual- should be set at 24 times per year. For substances of pri- ity standards set in the riparian countries. At the same marily natural origin, featuring relatively stable concen- time, detailed study is required to be able to separate the tration pattern over a hydrological cycle, annual sam- ‘natural’ and ‘anthropogenic’ component in the total pling frequency of 12 times per year would be sufficient. amount of pollution load. In the future, the fortnightly sampling frequency for the The biological monitoring techniques are likely to major contaminants should be increased to 36 times per contribute significantly in terms of indicating the ecolog- year, i.e., in line with the existing transboundary moni- ical effects of changes in water quality. The 2000-2001 toring practice in the Rhine River Basin. field survey results might be used as the baseline data in Following the expansion of the monitoring pro- this respect. gramme for the transboundary sections, the existing It is necessary to ensure that the proposed trans- monitoring programme should be revised (expanded) for boundary pollution monitoring system is compatible the upstream, or ‘internal’ monitoring stations, in order with the existing monitoring systems of riparian coun- to provide a more complete picture of pollution flow tries in the legal, methodological and institutional formation before it crosses a national border. It should aspects of their operation. be borne in mind that a transboundary pollution moni- The existing monitoring networks should be adapted toring system coverage should not be limited to the to new operational arrangement where the re-siting of the cross-border sections only. existing (or establishment of new) monitoring stations Some specific recommendations can be made in should be a requirement in all cases where point or non- respect to the improvement of pollution load monitoring point pollution sources exist in the river reaches down- at the Dnipro Estuary, where this load enters the Black stream of the existing monitoring stations but upstream Sea. In addition to the general requirement of expanded of the border. variable list and increased sampling frequencies, the The state of transboundary water bodies should be monitoring programme for this section should involve assessed in an integrated manner, on the basis of criteria sampling at different depths. Sub-surface sampling pro- reflecting various aspects of the aquatic ecosystem func- cedure currently employed at the Ukrainian Hydromet tioning (hydrological, hydrochemical and hydrobiological). monitoring station in Kherson is by no means adequate Given that monitoring data will have the interstate for providing sufficient data on the transport of pollu- status, sampling and analytical techniques should be cho- tion. Moreover, no monitoring activities have been sen on the basis of the agreement between the parties. Ecological Status of the Dnipro Basin 15

The use of existing national techniques and methods formProject” (Moscow); the State Oblast Committees of which appear to be different between the countries would Natural Resources and Environment Protection of the inevitably lead to discrepancy of results and disputes Brest, Vitebsk and Mogilev Oblasts and the State City between the parties. One possible option to address this Committee of Natural Resources and Environment Pro- issue could be the introduction of relevant ISO standards. tection of the City of Minsk; Central Hydrochemical Laboratory (Minsk); the Republican Centre for Radia- Acknowledgements tion Control and Environmental Monitoring (Minsk); the Belorussian State University and the Mosyr Peda- The following national institutions acted as the leading gogic Institute; the Institute of Hydrobiology and Insti- parties in organisation and implementation of the water tute of Geography of the Ukrainian; theExperimental quality field surveys in the Dnipro Basin: and Clinical Veterinary Medicine Institute (Kharkiv); Kyiv University and Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute. 70 Republic of Belarus: Central Scientific Research Institute experts were directly involved in implementation of the for Integrated Water Resource Management of the field surveys (18 from Russia, 26 from Belarus and 26 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment from Ukraine). In total, 105 people participated in the Protection (M.M. Cherepansky, Institute Director, survey activities, including staff of two survey teams and A.N. Kolobaev, Survey Team Leader); laboratory personnel involved in collection, analysis and Russian Federation: Federal State Unitary Company summarisation of survey data. “Centre for Regional Water Resource Manage- ment” (N.I. Zubchinsky, Company Director, V.P. Anuchkin, Survey Team Leader); References Ukraine: Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Eco- State Water Inventory of Belarus and Russia for the period logical Problems of the Ministry of Ecology and of 1990-2000. Natural Resources (A.V. Gritsenko, Institute Direc- State Water Inventory of Ukraine for the period of 1986- tor, O.G. Vasenko, Survey Team Leader). 2000. In addition to the representatives of the above men- Republic of Belarus Annual Hydrochemical Bulletin data tioned organisations, employees and representatives of for 1990 and 1995-2000. the following organisations and agencies were involved Belorussian and Ukrainian Field Survey Reports, Autumn in the survey activities and laboratory tests: the State 2000. Oblast Committees of Natural Resources and Environ- Belorussian, Russian and Ukrainian Field Survey Reports, ment Protection and the Regional Sanitary Epidemiolog- Spring-Summer 2001. ical Service authorities of the Bryansk, Kursk and UNDP-GEF. 2003. Transboundary diagnostic analysis for Smolensk Oblasts; Moscow State Company “VodIn- the Dnipro River Basin. www.dnipro-gef.net. Assessment of Protected Areas, Priority and “Problem” Ecosystems, and Threats to Biodiversity

Tatiana A. Aleksandrova,1* Mikhail E. Nikiforov2 and Volodymyr R. Sheliag-Sosonko3

1Environmental Security and Monitoring Branch, Environmental Directorate, Smolensk Oblast, Smolensk, Russian Federation 2Institute of Zoology, Academy of Science, Minsk, Belarus 3Institute of Botany, Ukrainian Academy of Science, Kyiv, Ukraine

An overview of the current state of biodiversity in the Dnipro River basin, with species composition of the most significant animals and plants, their territorial distribution and trends in size, is presented. Current agricultural practices in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine with regards to their contribution to the loss of biological and landscape diversity, soil degradation and contamination are assessed. The effectiveness of the existing system for the protected areas is evaluated and shortcomings are identified. Priority ecosystems for biodiversity conservation and their major ecological threats are specified. Finally, recommendations for a regional strategic action plan for biodiversity conservation are made.

Key words: biodiversity conservation, protected areas, ecological threats, Dnipro basin

Introduction the world’s most advanced states with a well-organized system of biodiversity conservation. The Dnipro Basin (Dnieper in English, Dniepr in Russian) At present, economic and social relations in Russia, is a region with an ancient history, multinational culture Ukraine and Belarus are undergoing dramatic and painful and plentiful natural resources. Owing to the irregular transformations. The countries are at the threshold of economic development of the territories under relatively profound changes in their entire economic structures and inclement climatic conditions, local flora, fauna and their re-orientation towards the best accomplishments of ecosystems preserved in almost unchanged natural state in international science and technology. These changes will the greater part of the Dnipro Basin. The basin countries – certainly affect the environmental sphere, in particular, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine – have long and rich tradi- the conservation of biodiversity. However, economic and tions of biodiversity conservation. The system of protected technological reforms take time, while nature and wildlife areas has been in place for over a hundred years here. The transform rapidly and incessantly. Immediate measures foundations of forestry, sustainable use of hunting ground should be taken to preserve, and sometimes to save, cer- resources and biological resources of the sea were laid tain plant and animal species, unique ecosystems and nat- down centuries ago. Agricultural practices are becoming ural landmarks. Therefore this Project aimed to assess the more environmentally friendly. The three countries’ potential and current state of biodiversity in the Dnipro national fundamental and branch sciences have created Basin, and to identify prospective and priority areas of favorable conditions for the organization of activities biodiversity conservation and their sustainable use. aimed at biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, as This paper is a resume of the Final Report “Assess- well as for biodiversity identification, assessment and ment of Protected Areas, Priority Ecosystems and “Prob- monitoring. At the same time, economy in these countries lem” Biodiversity Areas” that summarizes the Project had long evolved under strict centralization, in isolation results and offers recommendations for the Strategic from the world markets and international partnerships. A Action Plan for the Dnipro Basin. The Final Report is lot of innovations, including environmental ones, were in available in the Management Committee of the Dnipro low demand. The above and many other factors have Basin Environment Program, in the Regional Thematic affected the current situation in Russia, Ukraine and Center Biodiversity, in the National Management Com- Belarus. These countries have the potential to be among mittees and the IDRC Kyiv Office.

* Corresponding author: [email protected] Importance of the Dnipro River Basin for Editor’s note: the Russian term “problem” areas corre- the Conservation of Global Biological Diversity sponds to the comparable terms “Areas of Concern” in the Great Lakes Basin, or terms “impacted”, “degraded”, or The Dnipro River, with its numerous tributaries, makes “threatened” ecosystems used elsewhere. up an integrated ecological system covering most of

16 Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 17

Eastern Europe. The Dnipro Basin is of global signifi- of this large region of the Republic of Belarus started cance for the conservation of biodiversity both at the forming after the continuous Pleistocene glaciation level of populations and species, and at the coenotic one. about 150 thousand years ago, whereas the North-East- The following factors determining the importance of ern regions of the Dnipro Basin emerged from under the biodiversity conservation in the Dnipro Basin, on the ice or ceased to be directly affected by the glacier only regional and global scale, were identified as: 10-15 thousand years ago. The second equally important characteristic feature of this area is the contemporary 1. Situated in four zones, from the European Siberian differentiation of its climatic conditions: climate in the conifer to the Mediterranean forest, the basin plays South-East of the Republic of Belarus is the most conti- an important role in preserving biodiversity of dif- nental, while that in the North-East it is the coldest. It is ferent genetic origin, from boreal taiga to xerophytic also noteworthy that the Dnipro valley functions as a steppe and xerothermic Mediterranean forest. The large natural corridor, along which forest-steppe and Dnipro upper flow is in the area of the main Euro- steppe species used to migrate in the past and still pean divide. It was due to the basin’s strategic geo- migrate northwards, since the river flows in the longitu- graphical position and its embracing several natural dinal direction across several natural and climatic zones. zones and provinces that an unusual population, Simultaneously, the river creates a barrier for the species species, coenotic and geo-systemic variety was migration in the latitudinal direction. formed in this territory. On the other hand, the Prypiat’ – the Dnipro largest 2. Degradation of biological diversity in the Dnipro tributary flowing from the West to the East – is also an Basin hampers considerably the circulation of essential environmental migration corridor. Besides, spe- microelements and substances in all ecological sys- cific hydrological, landscape and microclimatic condi- tems and inhibits biological decontamination, par- tions, different from those in the rest of Belarus territory, ticularly in aquatic ecosystems. exist in the plain low Prypiat’ valley that has a very 3. Extensive pollution of the Dnipro Basin inevitably slight grade and is permanently subjected to eutrophica- leads to a global contamination of three sea basins, tion. All this affects the biological diversity in the region namely those of the Black, Caspian and Baltic Seas. and determines its territorial distinctness. The headwaters of many tributaries of the Dnipro, In the lower stretches of the Dnipro Basin, the species Volga and Western Dvina Rivers are situated within composition and current state of predominantly aquatic the basin at a fairly close distance from these. plants and animals of the Ukrainian part of the Dnipro 4. At the same time, acute pollution of the Dnipro River Basin were studied and described, but less thoroughly causes contamination of artesian water formed in the analyzed as compared with the species of upland vegeta- Dnipro rift, in the territory of Smolensk river section. tion, mammals and birds. Besides, for the territory of Ukraine, aquatic organisms have an undisputable priority Overview of the Current State both in terms of their population size and in comparison of Biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin with the territories of Russia and Belarus, where forest and wetland ecosystems are of primary importance. Species Composition Current Situation and Trends in Specifics of biological diversity in the Dnipro upper the Size of the Most Significant Species stream (Smolensk oblast (Region), Russia) are conditioned by the basin geographical position: two thirds of This subject is studied for the main habitats on the basis the total area of Smolensk oblast belong to the basin ter- of empirical research and data from literature. Significant ritory (50,000 km2). species are defined as a component of biodiversity, which, The Dnipro headwaters (near the village of Dud- in any habitat and in any ecosystem, accounts for the sta- kino, Sychevsky district) is situated very closely to the bility of biological processes. Their vital functions help to headwaters of the Obshcha and Mezha Rivers, belong- keep up a stable gas composition, to maintain the optimal ing to the Baltic Sea Basin, and to those of some rivers of ratios of mineral substances, to support environment self- the Caspian Sea Basin (the Vazuza River) and the Black purification, to maintain soil fertility and to obtain a bal- Sea Basin (the Viazma and Osma Rivers). The borders of anced level of primary and secondary production. two zoogeographical provinces lie within this area, accounting for both rich biodiversity and noticeable Territorial Distribution of Protected Species specificity of flora and fauna in the basin. Biodiversity in the middle part of the Dnipro basin An in-depth study of biological diversity in the Upper within the territory of Belarus and Briansk oblast (Rus- Dnipro Basin (Smolensk oblast, Russia) allowed for the sia) is also remarkable and determined by its formation production of a complete inventory of plant and animal history. Contemporary flora and fauna in the South-East species (by major taxonomic groups) and to assess the 18 Aleksandrova et al. intensity of anthropogenic impacts on many species of prehensive and cohesive manner. This system seems flora and fauna. instrumental in preserving the populations of separate The study resulted in the most complete, to date, animal and plant species and their diversity, in conserv- compendium of endangered and threatened species. In ing the most valuable natural sites and features and the 1997, based on this compendium, the Red Book of components of cultural heritage, as well as in ensuring Smolensk oblast was published describing 131 animal the sustainable use of biological resources. species, 87 plant species, 1 mushroom species and 2 moss Components of the SPA system of the Dnipro Basin (lichens) species. are presented in Table 2. The territorial distribution of protected species of the middle part of the Dnipro Basin within the territory of Belarus and Briansk oblast of Russia was analyzed in Shortcomings of the Existing System the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus and in the Red for Protected Areas Book of Briansk oblast. The role of the established network of specially pro- More than half of all plant and animal species tected areas of the Dnipro Basin in the regional biodiver- entered into the Red Book of Ukraine are concentrated in sity conservation can hardly be overestimated. Compo- the Lower Dnipro Basin and valley embracing Ukrainian nents of the SPA network are regarded as functional territory as well as that of Kursk, Belgorod and Oriol elements of the whole ecological framework of the oblasts of the Russian Federation. Special environmental Dnipro Basin. The ecological framework is a system of importance is attached to the fact that in the Dnipro Basin inter-related natural components ranked by their ecolog- there lie geographical and botanical-geographical bound- ical/environmental significance, the interconnectedness aries of highest ranks within which population, species, of which leads to a natural ecological balance enabling coenotic, eco-systemic and landscape diversity of their the system to endure anthropogenic impacts. respective areas is concentrated, which makes them partic- The major functions of the region’s ecological frame- ularly vulnerable. These are the great European rift in the work are as follows: conserving biodiversity, fostering the upper Prypiat’, boundaries of Central European province ability of natural communities to restoration and devel- and Eastern European province, deciduous forest and for- opment, supporting the role of live nature in regulating est-steppe zones, forest and Mediterranean areas, etc. the environment. The system of specially protected areas of various types and ranks is, in and of itself, an ecologi- Effectiveness of Existing System of Protected cal framework that performs the above functions. Areas and their Representative Capacity Effective as the SPA system in the Dnipro Basin is, it in terms of Biodiversity Conservation still needs to be further improved and developed.

Current State of Protected Areas 1. In general, the national biodiversity legislations of in the Dnipro Basin the three participating countries are fairly well developed. At the same time, their propensity to the Specially protected areas (SPA) are parcels of land and “natural resources” approach and a frame character areas of water surface having a great environmental, of many laws mean that in order to be properly ecological, research, cultural, aesthetic, historical, recre- implemented and enforced these laws should be sup- ational importance and withdrawn, in part or in full, plemented by additional regulatory instruments or temporarily or permanently, from commercial use, with by-laws. As a result, emerging gaps should be filled a strict protection regime imposed. in and inconsistencies remedied either by amending The Dnipro Basin is situated in three countries – the the effective legislation or by designing and develop- Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and ing new areas of legislative policy envisaged by the Ukraine. The SPA system of the Dnipro Basin is formed Convention on Biological Diversity. Given that the and develops in compliance with the national legislative Dnipro Basin ecosystem is indivisible, the biodiver- frameworks of these countries. Certain difficulties in sity legislation of the three riparian countries should analyzing and summarizing the situation with specially be harmonized and unified, particularly in what protected areas in the Dnipro Basin arise from the differ- concerns the regulation of specially protected areas. ences in legislations of the Russian Federation, Ukraine 2. Some territories with protection functions (such as and the Republic of Belarus. Because of these differ- green belts of cities and towns, recreational, resort ences, this section presents a general picture of the SPA areas, etc.) are not included in the natural-reserve system of the Dnipro Basin. stock of the Dnipro Basin. A lot of specially protected In view of the region’s economic and geographical areas still lack methodological support: plans of area potential, the existing system of specially protected areas management, plans of SPA establishment (especially in the Dnipro Basin seems to be the most effective means for preserves of national importance whose bound- of addressing a host of environmental issues in a com- aries are not always marked on the ground). Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 19

TABLE 1. System of Specially Protected Areas (SPA) in the Dnipro Basin

Russia Belarus Ukraine Specially No. protected areas Number Area, hectares Number Area, hectares Number Area, hectares 1 Reserves 7 28,977 1 85,149 7 209,197.7 Biosphere 2 26,846 2 133,397.6 Nature 5 2131 5 75,800.1 2 National parks –– –– 1 82,592 4 125,830 Nature 1 51,830 Landscape 3 74,000 3 Preserves 270 500,517.3 45 464,984 78 150,294.5 Hydrological 21 1897.4 3 73,200 21 23,929 Biological: 150 418,090.4 32 164,396 38 31,535.5 botanical 31 25,007 zoological 7 6528.5 Landscape – – 10 227,388 18 56,930.7 Integrated 99 80,529.5 –– 1 37,900 4 Natural landmarks 570 16,116.8 23 1744 (heritage sites) Hydrological 5 161 Biological: 12 468 botanical 8 399 zoological 469 Integrated 6 1115 5 Botanical gardens 1 78.6 –– –– –– –– 6 Bird sanctuaries 8 23,750 –– –– 7 6795

Total 856 569,439.7 47 632,725 119 493,861.2

% of the Dnipro 1.14 1.26 1.00 Basin area % of overall Dnipro 3.4 Basin area occupied by SPAs

3. The national legislations on specially protected areas 6. A unified modern monitoring system and a relevant of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus database are also absent at the moment. Environ- and Ukraine are not always internally consistent. mental records kept at specially protected areas are Thus, certain norms and provisions on natural- outdated. Moreover, they are not kept systemati- reserve stock of Forest Codes and Land Codes in all cally or regularly; nor are they used for any serious three countries contradict one another. research conclusions and generalizations. 4. Complete inventory of biodiversity components in 7. Until now, not all of the territories playing an impor- specially protected areas is still to be compiled, pro- tant role in conserving and protecting biological tection regimes are still to be formulated for each area diversity have been given a required environmental and their specifications are still to be developed. Only (protection) status. the most generalized methodological recommendations have been prepared so far, but they do not Other Forms of Protecting Biodiversity, cover all specific characteristics of biodiversity, local their Role and Effectiveness social conditions and many other essential factors. 5. The distribution of specially protected areas over The national environmental legislations of the Russian natural bio-geographic zones of the Dnipro Basin Federation, the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine provide remains imbalanced. For example, protection forests for the allocation of land for conservation purposes, and meadows of the forest-steppe zone are notice- namely, for setting up, alongside specially protected areas, ably underrepresented. Since various bio-geographi- dendrological parks, botanical gardens, water protection cal zones are not evenly covered within protected zones along riversides and waterfronts of other water bod- areas, the issue remains open whether the whole net- ies. Besides, according to these laws, economic activities work of specially protected areas in the Dnipro are considerably restricted within the green belts of cities Basin is sufficiently representative. and towns, recreation and tourist zones, as well as resorts. 20 Aleksandrova et al.

Priority Ecosystems for Biodiversity Should the above key natural complexes (reserves) Conservation, their Current State be included in the SPA network of the Upper Dnipro, a and their Major Threats system of specially protected areas uniting about 500 sites of various types and ranks and occupying about Priority Ecosystems Essential for 15% of the Upper Dnipro Basin territory will be effec- Conservation of Biological Diversity tively established. This will also reform the current practice of the SPA network forming at the expense of sites Designation of Specially Protected Areas. Taking into in need of compensatory effort (rehabilitation). Preven- consideration the great biocenotic value of peat-bogs, tative conservation of the key natural areas that are the the Basin’s peatlands that are sources of rivers and most vulnerable will allow the preservation of the whole springs and affect the water balance in adjacent areas diversity spectrum of biotic and abiotic nature and, thus, should be taken under a special protection. maintain regional environmental stability. Apart from marsh complexes and wetlands, key ter- Aquatic ecosystems of the Upper Dnipro with the ritories for establishing an area-protection regime are participation of Trapa borysthenica, T. rossica, Salvinia river headwaters, primarily those of large (over 100-km natans, Tchorea ramosissima, Nymphoides peltata, etc., long) and affluent rivers. There are about 50 such water- should also be given a status of areas under special pro- courses in the Upper Dnipro. tection. A protection regime should be established for

TABLE 2. List of priority ecosystems, essential for biodiversity conservation

Russia 1. Wetlands Marshes and oligotrophic upland bogs, peat deposits, bogs that are headwaters of large or affluent rivers, bogs having a great impact on water regime of adjacent territories, floodplains and bayou ecosystems (“oxbows”, meander cut-offs) 2. Forest ecosystems Systems of natural origin (aboriginal), and those located on main rifts (divides) Belarus 1. Aquatic ecosystems Communities of river channels (in their natural state) Highly eutrophic lakes (or of glacial and relict origin) Floodplain lakes (in the valleys of large and mid-size rivers) Fish pond communities 2. Forest ecosystems Upland original old-age (90-240 years and older) oak forests with unique biotic complex of plants and animals Floodplain old oak groves Old hornbeam forests Communities of maple forests (of an exceptionally rare formation for the region) Communities of lime-tree forests (of an exceptionally rare formation for the region Old (over 60 years) ash forests Communities of old (over 60 years) black alder forests with biotic complex of lowland marshes 3. Lightwood and shrub communities Juniper shrub (Juniperus communis L.) Willow thickets in river flood-lands Communities with dominating birch trees (Betula humilis Schrank) on transitional bogs 4. Marsh ecosystems (wetlands) Open lowland sedge marshes, including calciphilous bog and acidophilous lowland marsh communities upland acid bogs, transitional bogs, including herbal communities with dominating cotton grass (Eriophorum gen.) 5. Meadowland ecosystems Xerothermic herbal communities, Xerothermic psammophilous, Psammophilous Atlantic, Hygromesophilous flood-land, Oxylomesophilous herbal, and Psychromesophilous meadow communities Ukraine 1. Aquatic ecosystems Head- and shallow waters of the Dnipro reservoirs, firths and lakes in the estuarine parts of the Dnipro flood plain; Western Polessye lakes :– Turskoye, Beloye, Peschanoye, Sviatoye, Luki; floodplain lakes of the Desna, Prypiat’ and Orel’ Rivers and Lake Lebedyn 2. Forest ecosystems, Accompanied in Ukrainian Polessye with complexes of aquatic ecosystems and wetlands. These are Tsumanska Pushcha forest; Slutch Switzerland; Reutsky, Slavutsky, Korostyshevsky, Teterevsky, Dzerzhinsky, Mezinsky and Dnipro forest areas. In the forest-steppe zone: Central Podolsky massive; Cherkassky Bor, Ichniansky, Kholodny Yar; Trostianetsky, Sredneseimsky, Dikansky and Verkhneinguletsky forest areas. In the steppe zone:Samarsky Bor and Saksagansky area of small forest, and arena forest areas of the Dnipro and its wetlands Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 21 the ecosystems of lakes Turskoye, Beloye, Sviatoye, with the core area as large as 13 thousand hectares. Sak- Peschanoye and Lebedyn where unique alga populations saganky forest area consists of several spots of oak have preserved. forests covering 550-1500 hectares. Reserve ecosystems In all of Polessye forest areas listed below, the best- make up at least 30% of the arena forest areas and wet- preserved core ecosystems should be placed under pro- lands. Proposals to designate the above ecosystems as tection. This core is represented by aboriginal pine, oak- specially protected areas have been put forward several pine and, to a lesser degree, oak and alder forests, as times, but the matter still remains unresolved. Many of well as meso- and oligotrophic acid forest and grass- the listed sites should be included in Ukraine’s environ- grown bogs, with the participation of a great number of mental network to be set up in 2000-2015. However, no relict and rare species. This core forest in Tsumanska work towards this end has been initiated so far. Pushcha covers 10 thousand hectares out of its total area of 30 thousand hectares; in Reshutsky forest area it com- Analysis of the Current State of Protected Areas prises 150 hectares of virgin lime-oak forests, not found and Priority Ecosystems from the Viewpoint anywhere else in the Right-bank Polessye; Slutch of Identification of “Problem” Ecosystems Switzerland has the area of 31 thousand hectares; Ubort- sky forest area – of 8 thousand hectares and Slavutsky The following tables (Tables 3 and 4) present the sum- forest area – of 4 thousand hectares. In the steppe zone, maries of the analysis of the major threats to biodiversity Samarsky Bor forest area occupies 31 thousand hectares and the major “problem” ecosystems in the Dnipro Basin.

TABLE 3. Major threats, their causes and impacts on biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin

Major threats Causes Impact on biodiversity

Poor management of Insufficient or deficient legislation on the SPA Unsustainable use of natural resources, natural resource use system management; lack of coordination degradation of natural ecosystems across environmental agencies; absence of an inter-governmental agreements between Russia, Ukraine and Belarus on water use in transboundary river basins Disturbance of Climate change; ammelioration; building Altered hydrological regime; deteriorating hydrological regime transportation facilities on wetlands; hydrochemical indicators; changed habitats in the Dnipro Basin fluctuations in groundwater table and conditions for life; transformations in species composition Forestry operations Predominant growing of monocultures; Changes in natural forest composition ; altered clear felling; forest fires; littering of migration routes and bird and animal habitats; forest territory reductions in forest fauna and flora populations Hunting and fishing Improper legislative regulations, poaching Reduction in fauna population size and species composition Agriculture Unsustainable agricultural practices; tilling soil Altered habitats and living conditions; down the slopes, floodplains, and within the deteriororating hydrological and hydro- SPA boundaries; impact of cattle breeding chemical regimes Anthropogenic Contaminant discharges by industrial Deteriorating hydro-chemical composition; pollution enterprises; forest fires; landfills; mining of degrading natural ecosystems; reduced mineral resources number and variety of habitats; altered species composition Urbanization Urban sprawl along the major watercourses; Disintegration and degradation of natural growing threats to natural landscapes; landscapes; reduced number and variety extensive construction of individual homes of habitats around residential settlements (suburbia) building of transportation networks and infrastructure (roads, pipelines, etc.) Environmental Shortage of teaching and methodological Unauthorized activities, impact on natural education materials, environmental syllabi; lack of resources of the region systematic awareness building campaigns on SPAs (Continued) 22 Aleksandrova et al.

TABLE 3. Continued

Major threats Causes Impact on biodiversity

Forest fires Controlled burns for agricultural purposes, Altered species composition of flora; deterioration careless handling of fire; distortion of of living conditions and changes in habitats; hydrological regime of bogs and marshes loss of biodiversity components

Dissatisfaction Expansion of road networks, growing density Reduction in population size and extinction of (anxiety) factor of population, extensive hunting and tourism some species

Transport and Development of international transportation Increased anthropogenic pressures on the Dnipro communications corridors: No.2 (Berlin –Warsaw –Minsk – Basin biodiversity development Moscow), No.9 (Helsinki –S. Petersburg – Pskov – Vitebsk – Kyiv – Chisinau – Plovdiv), No.9B (Minsk – Vilnius – Klaipeda)

Extraction of mineral Man-made contamination of environment; Changes in natural landscape; disturbance resources (Kursk cluttering up land with wastes from of ecosystems Magnetic Anomaly, minerals extraction Soligorsk industrial region)

Continuous Authorized and unauthorized contaminant Mortalities of organisms; intensified drift of contamination and discharges, etc. invertebrates downstream to commonly more volley contaminant contaminated habitats, leading to exhaustion discharges and of upper streams of rivers, reduction of general anthropogenic stock of organisms and extinction of species sediment susceptible to contamination, degradation of re-suspension in habitat communities small rivers

Reduction of river Regulation of river flow Decreasing number of reophilic organisms habitats constituting the basis of normal aquatic ecosystems

Decreasing number Intensified erosion resulting from tilling lands Reduced “reserve” stock of bottom invertebrates of habitats least in immediate vicinity of river banks, that serve as a source for replenishing lower sensitive to reduction of floodplain forests and river streams with species of xeno- and contamination by excessive cattle grazing oligo- saprobes diffuse sources and flooding

Increased proportion Damming of small rivers, intensified erosion, Reduced habitat diversity; decreasing number of of river stretches anthropogenic sediment re-suspension habitats for litoreophilic species susceptible to silting

The issue of verifiable Inadequate knowledge about species composition A large-scale comprehensive hydrological study of assessment of aquatic and biology of aquatic ecosystems, poor the Dnipro Basin transboundary rivers should system conditions, representation of organisms of micro- be conducted, in particular of their least defining their zoobenthos in the Red Book of Ukraine, affected sections; methodology of biological “normal” state, absence of biological concepts of desired assessment and control of the state of the river setting goals for state of aquatic ecosystems environment should be developed restoring biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems and species associated with them Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 23

TABLE 4. List of the most significant “problem ecosystems” of the Dnipro Basin

Russia Belarus Ukraine

Biological (zoological) preserves, Marshland complex “Dikoye”, preserve Group 1: natural landmarks of national importance, Ramsar site River-bank ecosystems that develop on All wetlands in the Dnipro Basin Marshland complex “Zvanets”, preserve sandy substrate. of national importance, Ramsar site Forest stock of the region; newly Within the steppe zone, on the Dnipro created national park “Pridesniansky” Marshland complex “Olmanskiye River bank sands (arenas) “Problem in Briansk oblast; natural park Bolota”, preserve of national ecosystems” of sandy steppes. “Khotmyzhsky” in Belgorod oblast importance, Ramsar site Vulnerable pine forest ecosystems in the Hunting grounds and fishing areas, Forest-and-marshland complex forest-steppe and forest zones of the except for reserves “Duleby”, preserve of national Dnipro Basin and along its tributaries, importance located on sandy crests of secondary Headstreams of the Dnipro and Desna terraces with sandy, soddy-podsolic, Rivers; transboundary sectors of the Lake-forest-marshland complex slightly humic soils. Dnipro, Desna, Sozh, Iput’, Vorskla “Vygonovsky”, preserve of national and other rivers importance Group 2. Ecosystems of crystalline rock of Specially protected areas adjacent to Lake-and-marshland complex Polessye on the edge of the Ukrainian developed commercial and “Sporovsky”, preserve of national crystalline formation industrial centers importance, Ramsar site Group 3. Developed industrial centers and Lake-forest-marshland complex Ecosystems of the small forests growing communications in the cities and “Golubitskaya Pushcha” in steppe ravines of the Basin. towns of Smolensk, Viazma, Dorogobuzh, Fokino, Briansk, Forest-marshland complex Group 4. Kursk, Kursk Magnetic Anomaly; “Pukhovichskiye Bolota” Ecosystems” with the steppe vegetation preserved on steep calcareous slopes Highways M-1 “Belarus” Floodplain system “Middle Prypiat’”, of forest-steppe and steppe parts of (Moscow – Minsk); Oriol – Riga; preserve of national importance Kursk – Kharkov (Russia) the basin. Floodplain system “Dnipro-Sozhsky”, Group 5. All specially protected areas, except preserve of national importance for preserves, in Russia Marsh ecosystems affected by drainage Marshland complex “Stolinsky” in amelioration. Belarus The Dnipro River flood-lands (stretch from Zhlobin to Rechitsa) The River Sozh flood-lands (stretch from Vetka to Chechersk) Natural complex “Upper Dnipro” Natural Complex “Besiadsky” (Klimovichi-Kostiukovichsky) Natural complex “Svisloch-Berezinsky” Forest complex “Dobrushsky” National park “Prypiatsky” Berezin Biosphere reserve Polessye State Radiation-and- Environmental reserve Fisheries: “Selets”, “Novoselki”, “Beloye”, “Tremlia”, “Krasnaya Sloboda” 24 Aleksandrova et al.

Fig. 1. Priority ecosystems of the Dnipro Basin. Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 25

Recommendations for the Strategic Action Plan Zhlobin, Kalinkovichi, Lelchitsy, Loev, Mozyr, for Biodiversity Conservation and Rehabilitation Petrikovsk, Rechitsa, Khoinik, Borisov, Logoisk, in the Dnipro River Basin Minsk, Pukhovichi, Smolevichi, Bobruisk, Osipovichi); Review and Improvement of the Present • Design and implement plans of SPA management, Legislative and Regulatory Framework particularly in what concerns the conservation of for Establishment of Spas and wetlands, including preserves “Millde Prypiat”, Conservation of Biodiversity “Vygonoshchansky”, “Olmanskiye Bolota”, 1. Develop a uniform legal policy, improve the effec- “Dnipro-Sozhsky”, “Staritsa”, “Smychek”; tive national biodiversity legislations and harmonize • Develop environmentally sound structure of the them among the three riparian countries; region’s territorial planning that will regulate the 2. Propose legislative amendments and mechanisms of location and development of residential settle- building an infrastructure for managing specially pro- ments, industrial, agricultural and recreational tected areas of national and international importance; sites and facilities, transport and engineering 3. Develop recommendations on optimizing the land infrastructure with the aim of preserving biodi- use structure and plans of introducing environmen- versity resources; tally friendly agricultural practices in Poless andye. • Promote the establishment of the following Design and implement a series of measures to SPAs: national park “Svosloch-Berezinsky”, restore or maintain traditional commercial activities hydrological preserve “Golubitskaya Pushcha”, on pastures and hayfields of the Dnipro floodplain biological preserve “Danilevichsky”, and spe- and those of its tributaries; cially protected areas in the Dnipro flood-lands 4. Review the national legislations on forestry, with the at the stretch Zlobin-Rechitsa and in the River aim to amend it by providing for the conservation and Ubort flood-lands. development of biological and landscape diversity; 5. Amend the riparian countries’ effective legislations Forming the SPA Cadastre (inventory): by including regulations on methods and systems of forestry management; 1. Introduce an inter-state cadastre of specially pro- 6. Amend the three countries’ legislations by envisag- tected areas of the Dnipro Basin. ing a transition to intensive selective cutting and reduction of areas under clear-cutting; Information Support to Management 7. Adopt a system of by-laws regulating the use, load- and Environmental Monitoring: ing and restoration of biological resources and their 1. Complete inventory of biological resources and the quality categories, as well as relationships among assessment of changes in ecosystem natural state, and the users with regard to biological resources; plant and animal genetic pool in the Dnipro Basin; 8. Create conditions for the effective implementation 2. Complete inventory of biodiversity of the Dnipro and enforcement of adopted laws. To this end, Basin ecosystems and the assessment of their environ- develop feedback mechanisms and hold the autho- mental condition (environmental spectrum of species); rized agencies responsible for the enforcement. The 3. Organize monitoring of biodiversity of rare and above responsibility should be governed by the law. endangered species, on one hand, and the biodiversity monitoring as a system of assessing quality of Improvement of the SPA System Management human, animal and plant habitats, on the other; 4. Further develop forest monitoring system, particu- 1. Set up a unified international body in charge of larly focused on biodiversity conservation; managing and developing the SPA system; 5. Organize a network of zoological monitoring sites 2. Develop uniform, theoretically substantiated princi- in the region and include them into the inter-state ples of establishing specially protected areas. Design environmental monitoring system; a basin-wide management scheme and a strategy of 6. Establish inter-state information systems on biodi- the SPA management and development; versity conditions in the Dnipro Basin. 3. The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity in the middle part of the Dnipro Basin: Conservation of Landscape • Reorganize some of the existing SPAs and iden- and Biological Diversity tify SPA protection zones, analyze the coverage of regions with maximum concentration of rare 1. Carry out measures for rehabilitation (re-introduc- and protected plant species by the SPA system tion and natural restoration) of rare and endangered (Drogichin, Stolin, Pinsk, Dokshitsa, Gomel, species of flora and fauna; 26 Aleksandrova et al.

2. Set up an ecological network (ECONET) based on 7. Develop theoretical substantiation and establish SPAs as key territories, and on protection forests international biosphere reserves in transboundary and river valley wetlands as “green corridors” to territories, most significant for biodiversity conser- ensure protection and spatial relationships of typical vation, design and implement transboundary and rare natural complexes in the Dnipro Basin; Belorussian-Ukrainian projects of improving the 3. Further develop the system of the most significant SPA system in the Prypiat’ Basin; SPAs at the international level as a unified ecological 8. Develop and implement action plans of conserving framework of the Dnipro Basin; European endangered species: reedwarbler, double 4. In order to conserve biodiversity in the Upper snipe and others; Dnipro Basin, it is necessary to finalize the process 9. Carry out a study of the trans-Polessye migration of granting specially protected area status to water- corridor and organize a regional center for ringing divided sectors of three sea basins, namely: and studying bird migration; • First of all, SPAs should be set up on the Dnipro 10. Identify and protect the areas of the largest bird River. Its headstreams are in close vicinity of the migration gatherings; River Vazuza tributaries (River Losminka), the 11. Revise land use practices in separate areas to ensure Vazuza River – the Moskva River – the Oka – the conservation of rare plant populations; search the Volga – the Caspian Sea. This region should for new habitats and assist in settling species in receive a national park status, its boundaries acceptable eco-topes (using active and passive meth- should be clearly established and area recorded; ods); tighten control of anthropogenic impact; • The headwaters of rivers starting in Viazma high- 12. Plant forest shelter-belts (with dominating original lands should be placed under special protection. tree species) on eroded or erosion-susceptible soils; Here lies the border of the water divides of the 13. Develop theoretically substantiated program of Caspian Sea Basin (the Vazuza with its tribu- rehabilitating landscapes disturbed by human activi- taries, numerous tributaries of the Ugra – all ties. This program should foresee a gradual installa- within the Volga system) and the Black Sea Basin tion of more effective treatment facilities and intro- (the Dnipro tributary Viazma); duction of cleaner production technologies; • Of special interest are the headwaters of rivers 14. Develop a forecast of environmental impacts of starting in Dukhovshchinskaya highlands, partic- reconstructing amelioration systems; prepare recom- ularly the Khmost’ (the Dnipro Basin) and the mendations on mitigating its adverse impact on Zherespeya (the West Dvina). Their headstreams biotic complexes; are situated 2 km apart from each other. The 15. Design and implement a basin-wide program of region, especially the Zherespeya flood-lands, is a using ineffectively drained lands and/or former peat habitat of about 10 bird species indicated in the mines (peat dug-outs), and of remedying adverse Red Book of Smolensk oblast and the Red Book impacts of large-scale drainage projects in the of Russia. Therefore, a federal preserve shall be Dnipro River Basin; established here to preserve and protect the head- 16. Design and implement a target program of foresta- waters and rare bird species. tion of exhausted peatlands and lands withdrawn • The area of Yelninskaya highlands where numer- from agricultural use; ous Dnipro Basin rivers (the Khmara, the Desna, 17. Adopt a sustainable approach to regulating water the Uzha, the Volost, etc.) and the Volga Basin drainage systems in the course of exploiting and re- rivers (the Ugra with its multiple tributaries) start, vegetation of peateries to prevent uncontrolled fires; requires special protection. A federal preserve 18. Develop an inter-state basin-wide program of opti- should be created here to fulfill three important mizing forest coverage; objectives: biodiversity conservation at the border 19. Combine commercial forestry activities with envi- of two sea basins; protection of the Vazuza hydro- ronmental functions of the forests; engineering facilities supplying water to Moscow 20. The following steps should be taken for biodiversity from contamination; and preservation of an conservation in the Lower Dnipro Basin: important cultural heritage site – A.S. Griboyedov • Withdraw 3.5 million hectares of arable land manor – situated in this area; from agricultural use at the expense of eroded 5. Continue the designation and description, according land and restore their natural biodiversity – for- to the Ramsar criteria, of key wetlands in order to est, meadow, steppe and marsh in the following grant them an international or regional protection ratio: 1.5:1.0:0.5:0.5 million hectares; status; • Develop new concepts of drainage amelioration 6. Continue to identify key habitats of rare and endan- in Polessye and a plan of biodiversity re-natural- gered species beyond SPAs and place them under ization, first and foremost, within the boundaries protection; of river drainage areas; Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 27

• Carry out afforestation and establisment of assessment at the project level, especially with regard meadows on eroded lands and ensure their use to urban development and mining projects, includ- for designated purposes, paying special attention ing assessment of threats to biodiversity. to afforestation and meadowing of steep slopes; • In the steppe zone, withdraw from agricultural use Environmental Education and Awareness the erosion-susceptible land and ensure re-naturalization of steppe diversity there. It is desirable to 1. Design and implement a series of environmental plant forests in sectors with sufficient soil moisture; awareness programs and educational activities in the • Remove all river floodplains and other lands region: develop informational and methodological adjacent to water resources from the inventory of materials for landowners and land users whose land arable lands, and restore forests and meadows on parcels are included in SPAs or on whose land them. Tilling all arenas of the Dnipro and its trib- parcels protected species populations have been reg- utaries should also be stopped; istered; organize special training for forestry work- • The Dnipro water reservoirs, with the total area ers and water resource managers in the basin. of 700 thousand hectares, are of particular concern. The most accessible territories requiring Acknowledgements limited financial resources and hydro-engineering works should be withdrawn from these water This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.1.of the reservoirs. Contemporary geo-morphological, Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC hydrological and technical conditions allow Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following restoration of natural complexes that used to Project Team members: exist in these territories, with regulated water Russia: T.A. Aleksandrova, (Project Manager), N.D. regimes similar to polder systems; Kruglov, N.N. Mankov, A.I. Biziukov, V.V. 21. Develop a strategic action plan of conserving forest Vladimirov, M.V. Kumani, E.G. Glazunov. V.N. ecosystem biodiversity; Kostiushenkova; 22. Carry out forest certification. Belarus: M.E. Nikiforov, A.V. Pugachevsky, A.V. Kozulin, A.E. Plenin, N.A.Yurgenson, A.N. Skurlatovich; State Environmental Control Ukraine: V.R. Sheliag-Sosonko, M.D. Grodzinsky, S.A. Afanasyev, B.V.Yaminsky 1. Tighten up controls over the use of land within and beyond specially protected areas. Reference Environmental Expert Assessment Aleksandrova TA, Nikiforov ME, Sheliag-Sosonko VR. 1. Introduce procedures of branch and strategic envi- 2003. Assessment of protected areas, priority and ronmental impact assessment, including assessment “problem” ecosystems, and threats to biodiversity. of threats to biodiversity; Final report. Dnipro Environmental Project, Kyiv, 2. Tighten up requirements to environmental impact Ukraine. (In Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Review of Agricultural Practices in Relation to Transboundary Protection of Biodiversity

Anton N. Tretiak,1* Nikolay N. Bambalov2 and Anatoliy M. Gordeyev3

1Institute for Land Use Planning, Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Sciences, Kyiv, Ukraine 2Institute for Natural Resource Use and Ecology, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Belarus 3Smolensk Agrarian Institute, Smolensk, Russia

The objective of the project was to assess current agricultural practices in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and their impact on the loss of biological and landscape diversity, soil degradation and contamination. Based on this assessment, a system of measures conducive to an optimized land use structure and environmentally balanced farming was proposed. The land structure within the Dnipro Basin existing in the three participating countries, as well as current land use methods and agricultural practices caused a number of unfavorable environmental changes, in particular degradation and contamination of soils and ecosystems at large. In some regions, these changes acquired a critical scale, having an extremely adverse impact on natural landscapes and leading to a considerable loss of biological diversity and soil fertility. The use of degraded and infertile lands for farming is both environmentally unacceptable and economically not feasible, since it entails annual direct losses (as the cost of growing plant produce is higher than that of the yielded harvest). Some experts estimate the overall environmental damage caused by the loss of fertile soil layers, humus and nutrients, by soil degradation, adjusted for the Dnipro Basin area, at over 350-500 million US dollars per year.

Key words: agricultural practices, biodiversity protection

Introduction constituting the surface of sandy terraces of the Dnipro and its tributaries. Degradation (defliration) is also This report summarizes the outcomes of the Project of observed on overly drained peatlands, which is common reviewing agricultural practices in relation to trans- for transboundary areas. The soils of the Dnipro terraces boundary protection of biodiversity and soil conserva- above the floodplains, as well as of the floodplains and tion and contamination. terraces of its tributaries are salinized. Large areas of The objective of the Project was to assess current waterlogged land are to be found in the northern part of agricultural practices in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and the basin. Man-made contamination by radionuclides, their impact on the loss of biological and landscape heavy metals and pesticides is another critical factor diversity, soil degradation and contamination. Based on accounting for the soil fertility deterioration in the this assessment, a system of measures conducive to an Dnipro Basin. Over the last few decades, physical soil optimized land use structure and environmentally bal- degradation has become increasingly manifested in soil anced farming was proposed. thickening, and the formation of a solid surface crust The land structure within the Dnipro Basin existing resulting from the loss of valuable agronomic soil com- in the three participating countries, as well as current position. Among other causes of soil degradation are: land use methods and agricultural practices caused a the shortage of organic fertilizers, imbalanced applica- number of unfavorable environmental changes, in partic- tion and wash-out of organic substances, common use of ular degradation and contamination of soils and ecosys- heavy agricultural machinery coupled with insufficient tems at large. In some regions, these changes acquired a soil cultivating. Irrigated lands suffer from flooding critical scale, having an extremely adverse impact on observed in 15-20% of all areas, secondary salinization natural landscapes and leading to a considerable loss of (5-10%) and alkalinization (over 30% or irrigated biological diversity and soil fertility. lands), loss of soil composition (texture, structure) and Large areas of agricultural land are subject to water de-humification. In the Polessye, where the share of erosion. Within the Dnipro Basin, arable lands with the areas with double water regime regulation is relatively total area of 1 million hectares have mildly or highly low, the excessive expansion of drained areas has an eroded soils. A great part of the territory is degraded adverse impact on the land quality. The condition of soil (“deflirated” in Russian), including light texture soils micro-flora also deteriorates because of overloading of agricultural landscapes and consequent de-humification, * Corresponding author; [email protected] as well as man-made combined with sharply reduced

28 Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 29 application of fertilizers, especially organic ones, and cultural production systems in general. The application of increased use of pesticides. As a result, soil fertility is mineral fertilizers and pesticides has reduced tenfold, the damaged, and the capacity of soil to accumulate and use of organic fertilizers – by several times. break down toxic compounds (in particular metal- All of the above factors combine in changing the organics) is diminished. environmental situation in agrarian landscapes, under- The use of degraded and infertile lands for farming mine the ecosystem stability and, thus, necessitate the is both environmentally unacceptable and economically development of new approaches to environmental pro- not feasible, since it entails annual direct losses (as the tection and conservation. In this respect, the Dnipro cost of growing plant produce is higher than that of the Basin deserves special attention. yielded harvest). Some experts estimate the overall envi- The conducted analysis testifies that soil landscape is ronmental damage caused by the loss of fertile soil lay- used unsustainably in the Dnipro Basin. On the one hand, ers, humus and nutrients, by soil degradation, adjusted specialization of agricultural production characteristic of for the Dnipro Basin area, at over 350-500 million US the former planned economy that tended to ignore envi- dollars per year. ronmental implications of unsustainable land use is still in Unfortunately, the environmental and economic place in many regions. The specialization presupposed an damage caused by the use of land under excessive intensive development of one or several branches of plant anthropogenic pressure was never properly assessed in growing or cattle breeding, which limited the use of envi- the past, as the reigning ideology insisted that “the soil ronmentally friendly planning of territories by agricultural fertility could not decrease under socialist economy”. enterprises, administrative districts and oblasts. The in-depth analysis of the problem, that started only On the other hand, following the deep crisis in agri- recently, cannot possibly embrace the whole scope of the culture, the system of controlling the activities of agricul- problem, especially in its quantitative terms. A consider- tural producers and land planning services collapsed. able drop in productivity and stability of ecosystems, Therefore lands within water-protecting zones and river- intensive degradation processes, increased cost of soil sides have been used unsustainably for household farm- rehabilitation testify to the pressing nature of the prob- ing, building summer cottages and small processing enter- lem in question. prises, as well as for organizing small farms. The planting Therefore, the aim of the Project was to assess cur- of water protecting forest and shrub belts has stopped. rent agricultural practices in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine In view of the above, approaches to agricultural with regard to their contribution to the loss of biological practices and land use planning in the Dnipro Basin and landscape diversity, soil degradation and contamina- should be urgently revised and reformed. tion. Moreover, the Project was geared to develop, on The Dnipro Basin total area in the territories of the basis of this assessment, a system of measures lead- Ukraine, Russia and Belarus is 511.8 thousand square ing to the improvement of land composition and envi- kilometers. Agricultural land occupies 31,082.6 thou- ronmentally balanced agriculture. sand hectares (60.7 % of the total basin area, see Table 1 and Fig. 1), of which 22,925.3 thousand hectares are Main Problem Zones and Challenges; ploughed lands (44.8 %, Fig. 2). Non-Point Sources of Pollution These lands have a relatively high natural fertility rate, the majority of them can be used for effective land Over the past years, a mixed economy has been formed farming and cattle breeding. At the same time, the agri- within agrarian-industrial complexes of Ukraine and Rus- cultural development and tilling rates of the Dnipro sia, the majority of enterprises have been re-organized, Basin territory (especially in Ukraine) are extremely productive and land relations have been reformed and high, exceeding by many times the corresponding indica- land use boundaries have changed. These changes have tors found in the developed countries of the world. Since affected economic and commercial activities, planning of these lands are intensively tilled, the biological diversity territories, cultivation area composition, farming and agri- in the region is adversely affected, the anthropogenic

TABLE 1. Agricultural development rate of the Dnipro Basin lands

Agricultural land Tilled land Total area of land, Country thousand hectares thousand hectares % thousand hectares % Belarus 11,861.3 5126.4 43.2 3196.7 27.0 Russia 10,180.0 60,52.5 59.5 4212.6 41.4 Ukraine 29,140.0 19,910.7 68.3 15,516.0 53.2 Total 51,181.3 31,089.6 60.7 22,925.3 44.8 30 Tretiak et al.

Fig. 1. Agricultural development rate of the Dnipro Basin Fig. 2. Tilling rate of the Dnipro Basin territory. territory.

load on the landscapes is growing, which, in its turn, stance can lead to the reduction of humus content in the leads to the degradation of the soil. soil and, thus, reduction of soil fertility. The loss of soil fer- In terms of global environment, the alleviation of tility inevitably entails soil degradation, diminished stabil- anthropogenic load (pressure) is viewed as a sought out- ity of functioning ecosystems, and their replacement with come of conservation activities, as one of the strategic less valuable ones having a lower energy balance (see Fig. objectives of environmental stabilization and safety. 2). Soil in the Dnipro Basin is highly eroded. The areas of Understandably, the reduction of agricultural activity eroded arable land expand from the upper flows of the scopes can only be auspicious if the lands are used in a river southwards (see Table 2 and Fig. 3). Among the nat- sustainable manner and natural biological and geograph- ural and agricultural regions most affected by water ero- ical sites typical for the region in question are formed. sion are the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Ukraine. Weakened state control of ecosystems is one of the A reversed regularity is observed in respect of the factors contributing to depletion of species composition areas of waterlogged lands. In the Upper Dnipro Basin, and extinction of numerous species. The exhaustion of waterlogged lands, naturally, occupy larger areas (see ecosystems, reduction of their species diversity is harm- Table 3 and Fig. 4). Part of them was drained, but they ful for their stability. Short-term consequences of have not been used effectively over the last years. reduced species diversity may not be quite obvious, yet As for the current state of ameliorated systems, it can in the long run they can cause environmental disasters. hardly be characterized as satisfactory. No new systems The fact often overlooked in analyzing environmental are being set up, the old ones being in need of urgent and challenges is that the ecosystem stability factor depends, comprehensive reconstruction. Fifteen percentt of irri- to a great extent, on the volumes of primary production gated lands suffer from flooding in spite of the dramatic per area unit, i.e., on the gross photosynthesis produc- reduction in watering caused by the shortage of sprin- tion. It is commonly believed that the gross photosynthe- kling equipment, high cost of fuel, lubricants and electric- sis production for the Earth is, in general, relatively sta- ity. Secondary salinization is observed in 7% to 8% of ble, although this stability can be threatened, given the total area of irrigated lands, while soil alkalinization is in growing CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. 25% to 35% of their area. Almost universally, irrigation This matter may seem at first glance to be more of a has resulted in de-humification and soil disturbance. theoretical rather than practical nature. However, a further Approaches to land drainage have two essential look reveals that the amount of bound solar energy deter- aspects to them. On the one hand, until the 1990s, the mines the quantity of organic substance received by soil. areas of drained land were expanded to a maximum pos- The decreased receipt part in the balance of organic sub- sible size, often with no regard of double regulation of Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 31

TABLE 2. Erosion rate of the Dnipro Basin land

Eroded arable land, Total area of arable land, Country thousand hectares thousand hectares % Belarusa 3196.7 959.0 30.0 Russia 4212.6 758.3 18.0 Ukraine 15,516.0 3987.6 25.7 Total 22,925.3 5704.9 24.9

aEroded and erosion-susceptible lands. water regime or of a special role waterlogged ecosystems Bogs and marshes are specifically positioned have to play in conserving wildlife habitats and natural between the minor biogenic and major biological circu- flora, as well as in regulating hydrological regime of the lation of substances; they transfer CO2 from biogenous territory. Deep irreversible drainage, unreasonably large circulation into biological one and remove it from the share of inter-tilled crops in the crop composition and atmosphere 7-15 times as effectively as forests do. When minimum share of perennial plants lead to an unusually drained, peat bogs, instead of removing CO2 from the rapid mineralization of peat formation coupled with the atmosphere, start polluting it, thus aggravating the loss of peat layer, susceptibility to degradation, surfacing greenhouse effect. of infertile, sometimes even toxic gley soil with high con- Secondary bog formation, observed in some areas tent of ferric oxide. and caused by the worsened functioning of the existing Looking critically at the current practices involving drainage systems, can be considered favourable for the waterlogged lands in agricultural use, one cannot deem environment, since it is usually accompanied with a them expedient for a number of reasons. The majority of decrease in river basin contamination with agro-chemi- these lands are adjacent to Polessye (forest) zone, with cals, reduction of eutrophication scope, restoration of its specific landscapes constituted by intermingling the population and species composition of water fauna, marshy lowlands and sandy upland accumulations. The etc. Unfortunately, these processes have not been studies lowland periphery is represented by semi-hydromorphic, lately, although research in this area is critical. Accord- light texture soils that, when in their natural condition, ing to the findings of fragmental environmental monitor- are the most productive. As a rule, drainage of waterlogged territories leads to the change in the overall hydrology of such landscapes, the ground water depres- sion curve often going beyond the perimeter of intended drainage. The soil moisture level on the lowland periphery drops significantly, and the soil there, having light texture, and, consequently, low moisture-holding capacity, loses fertility. Thus, the economic effect of drainage proves much less than initially estimated. The above applies to economic aspects of drainage, which, in every particular case, should take into account the character of ameliorated landscapes, including their hydrological indicators, and the correlation between the area of waterlogged lands and that of lands with peripheral semi-hydromorphic soils, as well as the soil qualities, fertility and prospects of further use (following drainage). In environmental terms, it seems essential that the Polessye zone is a basin (trough) where the amount of water depends on the accumulation of snowmelt of the last glaciation. The discharge of sub-surface water in the course of drainage, which in some cases is not sufficiently substantiated, can be detrimental to the overall humidification of Polessye landscapes and, given the hydro-physical soil characteristics, to the productivity of those landscapes at large. Under the circumstances, irreparable harm is done to biodiversity. Fig. 3. Erosion rate of tilled land in the Dnipro Basin. 32 Tretiak et al.

TABLE 3. Bogginess of the Dnipro Basin territory

Area, thousand hectares

Country Total land Marshes/bogs Bogginess, % Belarus 11,861.3 554.6 4.68 Russia 10,175.7 153.6 1.51 Ukraine 29,140.0 666.7 2.29 Total for the basin 51,177.0 1374.9 2.69

ing, in spite of the reduced contamination from agricul- risen noticeably and exceeded the established maximum tural production, the general contamination with chemi- admissible concentrations (MAC). Among such contami- cal toxicants remains high, and sometimes even grows. nants are ammonium (exceeding MAC by 22 times), The reason lies in the renewed operation of local indus- nitrates (76 times), oil products (12-42 times), phenols trial enterprises, in particular of chemical ones, and in (14-71 times), heavy metals (5-134 times) and the transboundary toxicant transport with atmospheric organochlorine pesticides (2-72 times). These increases masses, coming from the industrially developed Euro- are attributed to the input from the non-point, diffuse pean countries. sources of pollution/contamination, primarily from agri- The outcomes of the above environmental monitor- cultural operations. ing testify that the soils of the basin, especially on the The overall level of the Dnipro water mineralization Dnipro flood lands near Dorogobuzhsky industrial com- (total concentration of dissolved solids) has slightly plex in Smolensk Oblast and in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, increased. The concentrations of copper and zinc in water are contaminated very considerably. are fairly high along the whole river. High concentrations of iron and manganese have been registered in the river Non-Point Sources of Pollution water near Dnipropetrovsk. Phenol concentrations sur- and Contamination pass the admissible levels on the entire basin area. In the zones of intensive agricultural production (especially in Over the last ten years, the content of many contami- the southern part of the Basin) the Dnipro suffers from nants in the water of the Dnipro and its tributaries has man-made contamination with chemicals released into the river together with surface run-off and wastewater discharges from water treatment facilities of agricultural enterprises that are, for the most part, inefficient. Great amounts of nutrients and pesticides have accumulated in bottom sediment of the Dnipro water reservoirs. In summer months of low flow, these contaminants return to the river water and are carried downstream. Thus, high metal concentrations in the bottom sediment were registered in samples from the Konoplianka, Vorskla and Mokraya Moskovka rivers. Pesticide contamination of various concentrations was observed in water and bottom sediment samples from estuary parts of fourteen Dnipro tributaries. In more than half of the Dnipro tributaries, the concentration of organochlorine pesticides exceeded the MAC established for fisheries. As mentioned above, arable lands cover 44.8% of the total basin area. Disproportionately high rates of their agricultural development and tilling contribute a lot to the destabilization of environmental situation in the Dnipro Basin. Agriculture-landscape environmental stability is known to depend directly on how well preserved the natural plant ecosystems are. Environmental stability and territorial anthropogenic load factors were used to assess the state of land resources as regards their poten- Fig. 4. Bogginess of the Dnipro Basin territory. tial and actual susceptibility to anthropogenic loading Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 33

(pressures). The latter factor* is a calculated indicator respect to conserving biodiversity on agricultural lands reflecting the types of land of different environmental (see Table 5). stability (forests, shrubs, meadows, pastures, marshes, The total area of agricultural lands in the Dnipro reserves, etc.). Based on this factor, the northern and Basin adversely affected by water erosion is 4.9 million western parts of the Dnipro Basin can be assessed as rel- hectares, including 4.0 million hectares of arable lands atively stable, whereas the southern part is the most vul- (constituting 26% of the total area of these lands). Of nerable (susceptible to loads/stresses). eroded lands, 1.7 million hectares have medium and Land composition analysis, particularly in regards highly eroded soils. Of special concern are the erosion to agricultural land, reveals an unbalanced composition scale and intensity on black and other fertile soils. harmful to the land quality and fertility. The area of eroded arable lands in the basin expands On the other hand, the proportion of tilled land is by 30-50 thousand hectares per year, the expansion rate gradually decreasing, while the area of forage grasslands of the area of medium and highly eroded soils being espe- and forests (i.e., environmentally stabilizing lands, cially high. Annual losses of fertile continuum of tilled whose ecosystems function like natural ones under the land in the Dnipro Basin amount, on average, to 14 thou- minimum anthropogenic impact) is growing, which can sand hectares. In a number of territories in the forest- be considered a sign of an improving environmental situ- steppe zone, these losses are even higher, at 20 thousand ation. So, a broad scale re-naturalization of the environ- hectares per year. In general, 220 million tonnes of soil, ment seems to be underway in the region, corresponding with over 9 million tonnes of humus and 5 million tonnes to the environmental optimization of land use. of nutrients, are annually washed off the plough lands Since natural climatic conditions in the Dnipro [on the average, 6 centers (1 center = 100 kilograms) of Basin are varied, it is necessary to develop an environ- humus and 3 centers of nutrients are washed off from mentally optimized land composition at the most repre- every hectare of tilled land]. Erosion products are partly sentative territorial level, characterized by uniform nat- accumulated in the gully network, partly are transmitted ural and economic conditions. The unit meeting these into the Dnipro and its tributaries, thus causing the silt- requirements is the natural agricultural district (zone) – ing of water bodies and their contamination with organic the smallest taxonomic unit of the natural-and-agricul- compounds and agro-chemicals. tural zoning. Analysis of the change in soil humus content over Ukraine seems to have a land reserve composition, time testifies that over the last 20 years the (absolute) categorized by all land users and land owners for differ- humus content in tilled land was reduced, on the average, ent natural agricultural zones (districts), which is the by 0.3%, in the steppe zone sometimes by 0.4% to 0.6%. most destabilizing for the Dnipro Basin biodiversity (see Erosion of pastures is slower and less intensive. Table 4, % of total area). Tables 5, 6 and 7 show envi- However, the unrestricted cattle grazing leads to grass ronmental stability and ecological load factors of the sod depletion, which, in its turn, catalyzes erosion land reserves in the Ukrainian, Russian and Belorussian processes. Alongside flat land erosion, intensive processes parts of the Dnipro Basin. of linear corrosion and gully-formation are under way. These are baseline data for developing the optimized The area of active gullies approaches 100 thousand structure of land resources use, their distribution by lands hectares. The waterfront of the Dnipro water reservoirs and environmentally sustainable territory planning. extends for over 3 thousand kilometers, 1100 kilometers Thus, steppe and forest-steppe zones within of which are eroded escarpments in need of urgent stabi- Ukraine’s territory appear to be the most unstable, in lization, as over 6 thousand hectares of land have

TABLE 4. Land composition in the Ukrainian part of the Dnipro Basin, %

Lands, % of total area:

Marshes/bogs

Natural Including agricultural Agricultural Plough high/acid zones land land Hayfields Pastures Forest Total bogs Sands Ravines FOREST (Polessye) zone 48.8 30.0 8.0 8.3 37.5 4.0 0.1 0.4 0.1 FOREST-STEPPE zone 73.8 59.7 5.4 6.6 13.7 2.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 STEPPE zone 83.1 68.9 1.9 10.8 6.2 0.8 0.0 0.1 0.2 ARID STEPPE zone 80.4 71.0 0.9 6.7 3.8 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.2 DRY STEPPE zone 63.8 54.0 0.4 7.7 4.9 1.1 — 1.7 0.1 TOTAL for the Dnipro Basin 68.3 53.2 5.0 8.1 18.4 2.3 0.0 0.3 0.1 34 Tretiak et al.

and 675 thousand hectares (3.4%) have saline soil. Besides, 829 thousand hectares of agricultural lands have soil with excessive moisture content, 904 thousand hectares have waterlogged soil and 170 thousand hectares have stony soil. While in 1985-1990 lime was annually applied at over 1.5 million hectares of acid soil, average dose being 5 tons per hectare, nowadays lime application has practically ceased. The monitoring findings testify that long-term agricultural use of lands with especially valuable soil acceler- ates dramatically (due to increased microbiological activity) the bio-geo-chemical cycle processes, changing (i.e., speeding up) the soil-formation rhythm (see Table 8). As a result, soil needs to be constantly supplied with energy material. Absence of such supplies on fallow lands and their shortage on tilled land were offset by mobilizing all other available resources, which has eventually led to depletion and drop in fertility of ploughed land, as well as to the break down of the initial biodiversity balance in these soils. Another evidence of reduced biodiversity in the region is the fluctuation in bird populations in the bios- Fig. 5. Environmental stability factor of the Dnipro Basin phere reserve “Askaniya Nova”. Located close to virgin territory (as of 2002). Environmental stability (ES) is a measure of ecosystem resilience to withstand natural and anthro- lands under special protection treatment, this reserve has pogenic stresses and maintain its equilibrium with minimal been used over the last forty years as a site for observing fluctuations in productivity, and gas and nutrient regime, changes in biodiversity in the zone of man-made land- (droughts, floods oxygen supply, contamination, etc.). ES scapes where forest and wetland biotopes have been indicator depends on the agricultural development rate formed resulting from large-scale irrigation. The intro- including the tilling rate and the intensity of land use, intensity of amelioration, land clearing, territorial development duction of semi-natural biotopes into steppe habitats is and other development factors. ES calculation is based on the conducive to a growing species diversity, the tendency agro-landscape stability criterion and on assessment of differ- having been revealed at the early stages of avifauna ent types of land against this criterion. A system of factors, study in the reserve [11, 12]. Analysis of findings at reflecting the environmental importance of each land type those stages and their comparison with the contempo- and ranging from 0 for developed lands to 1 for forests, has been designed. ES level of each specific area is determined by rary data show that at the early stages the number of calculating mean weighed ES factor on the basis of the cur- species grew, while later certain species were extinct. A rent land composition. If the obtained value is less than 0.33, dramatic change in the populations of bird species has the territory is assessed as environmentally unstable; if it also been observed. Anthropogenic factors had a great varies within the range 0.33-0.5, the territory is stable-to- impact on bird populations that immigrated to the unstable; if it does not exceed 0.5-0.66, the territory is of medium stability. The territory is considered environmentally steppe zone from other natural zones, since they started stable if the ES value is 0.66 and more. settling in the new territory, which was often limited in space. Two contrary processes have been observes over the last 10 years: re-naturalization, on the one hand, and already been lost to bank erosion, accompanied with the destruction, on the other, both being fairly pronounced. inflow of 400 million cubic meters of bank erosion prod- Since the early 1990s, agricultural production in the ucts into the water reservoirs. Over 3 million hectares of region has declined, which has affected the condition of land are systematically subject to wind erosion, while up plough lands. At the same time, direct impact on wildlife to another 10 million hectares to dust storms. Dust has intensified because of biotope transformation and storms annually occur in Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia and uncontrolled hunting. Moreover, natural factors, includ- Kharkiv oblasts. ing climatic ones, have contributed noticeably to periodi- Other quality indicators of land reserves (saliniza- cal substantial biotope changes, which, in their turn, dis- tion, alkalinity, excessive moisture content, etc.) also tress avifauna. Birds are one of the most sensitive tend to deteriorate. Thus, according to the State Com- indicators of the environmental situation. Several obser- mittee of Ukraine for Land Resources, in the Dnipro vations have been made of their ability to differentiate Basin 4.8 million hectares of tilled land (24.7%) have protected territories from those where hunting was acid soil, 1.1 million hectares (5.7%) have alkaline soils allowed. In humid years, for example, qualitative and Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 35

TABLE 5. Environmental stability and anthropogenic load factors in the Ukrainian part of the Dnipro Basin (as of 2002)

Environmental Anthropogenic Environmental Natural agricultural zones stability factor load factor stability FOREST (Polessye) zone 0.57 3.1 Medium FOREST-STEPPE zone 0.32 3.7 Stable-to-unstable STEPPE zone 0.26 3.8 Unstable ARID STEPPE zone 0.20 4.0 Unstable DRY STEPPE zone 0.20 4.1 Unstable TOTAL for the Dnipro Basin 0.37 3.6 Stable-to-unstable

quantitative characteristics of bird populations com- Factors relating to re-naturalization processes seem monly improve. Thus, before describing the most essen- to be as follows: tial changes in the avifauna of “Askaniya Nova”, it • increased acreage of weed-grown lands; seems appropriate to give a brief outline of the factors • unstable weather conditions and their direct or that have caused the said changes. Among these factors, indirect impact; increased or decreased atmos- directly or indirectly linked with human activities, are pheric precipitation; the following: • increased annual precipitation rate; • shrinkage of irrigated land acreage leading to the • flooding of some lands because of drainage sys- decreased fertility and productivity of agricul- tems breakdown, etc. tural lands, reduced amount of crop residue and In some years, certain species may actively settle in concentration of some bird species within a lim- the area, their populations growing for two-three years ited area under crop, the latter experiencing and then going down, almost to extinction. The avail- excessive loading; able data testify that the qualitative composition of bio- • reduction of rice-growing areas resulting in dry- diversity on agricultural lands is rapidly deteriorating in ing up of waterlogged territories and, thus, the entire territory of the Dnipro River Basin. Its current decreasing waterfowl populations or their stop- condition can be assessed as pre-critical, tending towards ping to nestle in the region; progressive aggravation. • total burnout of stubbles destroying nesting places; Conclusions • annual massive burnout of forest belts damaging The following conclusions can be drawn on the basis of protective and nutritious properties of these habi- the undertaken comprehensive analysis of agricultural land tats and affecting both settlements of passerine use and current agricultural practices in the three countries and predatory birds in the nestling period and (Belarus, Russia and Ukraine) of the Dnipro Basin. their stop-over sites during migrations; • tillage of the remaining virgin land along Lake 1. High agricultural development rate of the territory Sivash coast bringing about the change in habi- (ranging from 43.2% to 68.3%), tilled land erosion tats of steppe species. rate (amounting to 18-30%), uncontrolled land

TABLE 6. Environmental stability and anthropogenic load factors in the Russian part of the Dnipro Basin (as of 2002)

Environmental Land type stability factor, K1 Area, P P × K1 Score, B P × B Developed territory and roads 0.00 983.9 0.0 5 4919.5 Ploughed land 0.14 3196.7 447.5 4 12,786.8 Hayfields 0.62 656.1 406.8 3 1968.3 Pastures, deposits 0.68 1273.6 866.0 3 3820.8 Ponds and natural marshes 0.79 786.9 621.7 2 1573.8 Natural forests 1.00 4964.1 4964.1 2 9928.2 TOTAL — 11861.3 7306.1 — 34,997.4 Environmental stability factor 0.62 Anthropogenic load factor 3.0 Land use Of medium stability 36 Tretiak et al.

TABLE 7. Environmental stability and anthropogenic load factors in the Belorussian part of the Dnipro Basin (as of 2002)

Environmental Land type stability factor, K1 Area, P P × K1 Score, B P × B Developed territory and roads 0.00 773.4 0.0 5 3867.0 Ploughed land 0.14 4357.4 610.0 4 17,429.6 Hayfields 0.62 600.4 372.2 3 1801.2 Pastures, deposits 0.68 1075.0 731.0 3 3225.0 Ponds and natural marshes 0.79 153.6 121.3 2 307.2 Natural forests 1.00 3215.9 3215.9 2 6431.8 TOTAL — 10,175.7 5050.5 — 33,061.8 Environmental stability factor 0.50 Anthropogenic load factor 3.2 Land use Of medium stability

amelioration and anthropogenic pressures have an of about 5 million hectares of land in the terri- adverse impact on the quality and self-restoring tory of Belarus and Ukraine, namely: reduction capacity of soil, plant and animal biodiversity. of wetland and marsh species, particularly water- 2. This adverse impact on biodiversity manifests itself fowl, replacement of original species by alien in manifold ways, including: ones and altered correlation of species; • large-scale destruction of soil, wetland and other • territorial re-distribution of marsh, wetland and types of biological diversity resulting from high other types of biological diversity; tilling rate of the territory, intensive soil erosion, • frequent fires on drained marshlands and adjacent wide-ranging amelioration of bogs and marshes habitats; in all three countries; • breakdown, following the tilling of drained terri- • anxiety shown by many animal species as a reac- tories, of a unified system of wetland and forest tion to changed quality and condition of agricul- habitats, that used to exist prior to marsh amelio- tural land, particularly in forest (Polessye) and ration, into separate fragments, which hampers steppe zones; land and water contamination on migration of many animal species. the periphery of large cattle-breeding farms and 3. Differential approach to land use based on the complexes; specificity of regional (local) sets of natural indica- • replacement of hygrophilic plant species with tors can serve as an effective means of conserving those characteristic of dry-land habitats, and and rehabilitating biodiversity, as well as of increased acreage of steppified meadows where rationing anthropogenic pressures (loads) on the vegetation is affected by xerophication; Dnipro Basin territory. To these ends, a map of nat- • deterioration of habitats of aquatic species con- ural-agricultural zoning of the major part of the tributing to biodiversity because of euthrophica- Dnipro Basin was developed within the Project tion of lakes and rivers caused by the influx of framework. The map shows the boundaries of terri- excessive nutrient loadings into their water; pri- tories with identical climate characteristics. For marily from non-point diffuse sources; each of the singled-out taxonomic units, informa- • irreversible changes in fauna brought about by tion has been compiled on its land composition and the anthropogenic change in hydrological regimes agricultural land use.

TABLE 8. Microbial communities of natural and agricultural ecosystems

Humus- Actino- Ammonifiers destroyers mycetes Fungi, thousand Lands Years Humus, % million per gram of soil per gram of soil Virgin land 1998 6.53 7.8 6.5 3.6 63 Tilled land (crop rotation) 1958 5.13 5.0 7.1 3.9 42 Fallow land, 30 years 1998 3.66 2.5 3.5 0.9 7 Fallow land since 1984 1998 5.12 5.1 2.8 2.8 56 Forest 1998 6.03 4.4 2.6 4.1 163 Tilled land (crop rotation) 1998 2.07 3.3 10.9 2.2 47 Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 37

TABLE 9. Optimized structure of the Dnipro Basin lands important for agricultural and non-agricultural biodiversity (in currently environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories)

Lands, thousand hectares:

Agricultural lands: Natural Total area, agricultural zones thousand hectares Total Plough land Hay-fields Pastures Forest FOREST-STEPPE zone 11,327.8 7872.1 6108.7 727.3 809.3 1649.5 STEPPE zone 6086.1 4871.3 3959.7 130.6 688.2 400.2 ARID STEPPE zone 2055.9 1545.3 1322.0 44.9 140.9 87.9 DRY STEPPE zone 831.7 518.1 423.2 14.5 66.3 48.2

Based on the research outcomes and conclusions, degraded and low-fertility plough lands aimed to the following documents and recommendations have preserve soil biodiversity and wild fauna in environ- been developed: mentally unstable and stable-to unstable territories (see Table 12 and Fig. 7). 1. Optimized structure of environmentally significant 3. Recommendations on designing natural and amelio- lands for environmentally unstable and stable-to- rated agro-landscapes with due regard of the unstable territories (see Table 9 and Fig. 6), required method of environmentally justified, landscape- changes in the composition of lands important for based land use planning conducive to biodiversity agricultural and non-agricultural biodiversity (see conservation and rehabilitation; Table 10), and indicators of agricultural loading 4. Guidelines for improving agricultural practices, (agricultural development and tilling rates) in the reducing contamination and preserving soil and new, optimized land composition (see Table 11). water types of biodiversity. The priority measures 2. Conception and proposals on the conservation of should include:

Fig. 6. Optimized structure of lands important for agricultural and non-agricultural biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin (in currently environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories). Legend: boundaries of the Dnipro Basin—blue lines; boundaries of administrative oblasts—grey lines; natural agricultural regions (zones)—green lines; natural agricultural regions (areas)—orange lines; natural agricultural regions (districts) — blue lines). 38 Tretiak et al.

TABLE 10. Required changes in the composition of lands environmentally significant for agricultural and non-agricultural biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin (in currently environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories)

Lands, thousand hectares: Agricultural lands: Natural agricultural zones Total Tilled land Hay-fields Pastures Forest FOREST-STEPPE zone –485.1 –658.4 +117.0 +56.2 +100.1 STEPPE zone –187.3 –231.9 +15.0 +29.6 +20.6 ARID STEPPE zone –107.7 –137.9 +26.9 +3.2 +9.4 DRY STEPPE zone –12.5 –25.8 +11.0 +2.3 +7.5

TABLE 11. Indicators of agricultural load in the Dnipro Basin for currently environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories

Modern Environmentally optimum

Natural Agricultural Tilling Agricultural Tilling agricultural zones development rate, % rate, % development rate, % rate, % Change FOREST-STEPPE zone 73.8 59.7 68.0 53.9 –5.8 STEPPE zone 83.1 68.9 79.3 65.1 –3.8 ARID STEPPE zone 80.4 71.0 73.7 64.3 –6.7 DRY STEPPE zone 63.8 54.0 60.7 50.9 –3.1

TABLE 12. Conservation of degraded and low-fertility tilled lands in currently environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories of the Dnipro Basin

Environmentally sustainable types of conservation:

Transformation: Area of degraded plough lands, including:

Natural thousand agricultural zones hectares % rehabilitation total hayfields pastures forest regeneration FOREST-STEPPE zone 658.3 10.8 373.7 284.6 117.0 56.2 100.1 11.2 STEPPE zone 231.9 5.5 161.9 70.0 15.0 29.6 20.6 4.9 ARID STEPPE zone 137.9 9.4 95.8 42.1 26.9 3.2 9.4 2.5 DRY STEPPE zone 25.8 5.8 1.0 24.8 11.0 2.3 7.5 4.1

• land protection against water erosion; Level Problem • discontinuation and prevention of destructive Global 1. Change of peatland functions from anthropogenic impacts on soil; atmospheric decontamination to • observance of the use regimes of specially pro- contamination tected areas; European 1. Reduced biodiversity • water resources protection from contamination 2. Contamination of the Black Sea with chemical toxicants; Transboundary 1. Contamination of fresh water • formation of conservational agro-landscapes. resources 2. Water erosion 3. Territory aridization resulting from Strategic Recommendations peatland mineralization and wind erosion 1. The Dnipro Basin environmental problems can be National 1. Secondary salinization and grouped by their scale and urgency for transboundary alkalinization biodiversity conservation (in the context of reducing 2. Negative consequences of privatizing environmentally vulnerable land. contamination and protecting soils) as follows: Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 39

Fig. 7. Conservation of degraded and low-fertility tilled lands in environmentally unstable and stable-to-unstable territories of the Dnipro Basin. Legend: boundaries of the Dnipro Basin—blue lines; boundaries of administrative oblasts—grey lines; natural agricultural regions (zones)—green lines; natural agricultural regions (areas)—orange lines; natural agricultural regions (districts)—blue lines). Expedient guidelines of conservation: rehabilitation (pink shading), hayfields (light green shading), pastures (grey shading), forest (dark green shading), regeneration (yellow shading). Degraded tilled lands area (%): more 14 (dark grey shading), less 5 (light grey shading).

2. In order to improve the environmental situation • conduct campaigns reaching out to policy and and ensure biodiversity conservation in the Dnipro decision makers, the business community, and River Basin, the participating countries should do the general public, and raising their awareness of the following: the need for biodiversity conservation; • conduct an exhaustive study and thoroughly • take complete stock of genetic resources available describe the current state of biodiversity and in Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus and use them develop an interstate action plan of its conser- jointly and equally for the common benefit of the vation; participating countries, in particular for breeding • jointly draft required amendments to relevant highly productive and disease-resistant agricul- national legislations on protection, rehabilitation tural crop varieties; and use of land (in particular agricultural land) • evaluate the environmental impact of proposed and biodiversity issues pertaining to it; agricultural projects to be implemented as part of • develop a strategy for creating a biodiversity agrarian and agricultural reforms in the riparian cadastre (inventory), within the frameworks of countries. the land cadastre, and a relevant informational 3. Management, monitoring and control of the condi- database, with a section concerning genetic tion and functioning of marsh landscapes (wetlands) resources that can be used in agriculture; should be focused on the three following areas: • carry out research and personnel training in the • in order to avert negative processes and phenom- field of biodiversity identification, conservation ena and to maintain environmental balance in the and sustainable use; basin landscape, regular control over the condition 40 Tretiak et al.

of natural components of agro-landscapes should 70% as tilled land in the system of soil-conserva- be exercised, including: control of surface and tional grain-crop-and-grass rotation, located in ground water quality, ecological purity of soils, the areas with the deepest peat bed; and the state of forests and shrubs both within the • all areas with peat soils that are regularly flooded ameliorated systems and in the adjacent territories; because of poor operation of amelioration sys- • control and maintenance of water regimes opti- tems should be withdrawn from tilled lands and mal for agricultural crops on ameliorated lands be used exclusively as meadows of long-term use should be ensured, the best timing and modern grown with hygrophilous grasses; technologies of soil treatment, sowing, crop • given a correctly regulated water regime, peat- growing and harvesting should be used; gley and peaty-gley soils as well as thin peat soils, • environmentally justified restrictions on agricul- should be used to grow leguminous and tural output (plant-growing and cattle-breeding) Gramineae perennial grasses, while middle and should be imposed. The ceilings of agricultural thick peat soils should grow grain crops. produce output should be limited depending on 5. Biodiversity conservation should be dependent on the optimal mix of environmentally friendly com- sustainable and environmentally safe agricultural ponents of used agro-technologies. Any artificial practices based on state-of-the-art research and tech- stimulation of agro-coenoses is inadmissible nological development, with an account of environ- although increasing land productivity and soil mental specifics of every region, which is likely to fertility—as it destroys ecological balance. There- improve (optimize) the composition of the Dnipro fore, the correlation between the energy input Basin land reserves. One of the priority measures in and output should be carefully maintained. pursuing biodiversity preservation is a mandatory 4. The character of agricultural use of peat soils should conservation of degraded and low fertility soils of be chosen with due regard of their peat layer thick- tilled land (with further restoration of fauna and ness, the share of land with these soils in the farm’s flora habitats on these lands). In the long-term per- total agricultural land acreage, the level of land spective, the following steps should be made: transformation and cultivation, available water sup- • first, setting up a territorial environmental net- ply of the territory, and the farm’s demands for work of natural landscape preserves subject to grass fodder and forage grain. In so doing, the fol- special protection; lowing principles should be applied: • second, improving agricultural practices by mini- • peat soils where the dry peat bed is up to one- mizing their adverse impact on the environment; meter deep should be used exclusively as culti- • third, designing and adopting at the national vated hayfields and pastures; growing grain crops level a system of investing in environmental and can be permitted only during the periods of conservational activities. restoring meadowlands; 6. In order to implement the above proposals targeting • peat soils where dry peat bed is over one-meter the rehabilitation and restoration of natural habi- deep should be used as hayfields for long-term tats, the participating countries should draft new use (10-15 years), as well as in the system of and improve existing legislation and regulations grain-and-grass rotation with the perennial grass (standards) for environmentally sustainable land share of 50%-60%; use, etc. National environmental legislation should • the lesser the share of peat soils in the total be harmonized with relevant international and acreage of the farm’s agricultural lands, the European norms. greater share of them should be used as meadows 7. Alongside the implementation of already adopted and the lesser as tilled lands in the system of soil- international instruments on the protection and use conservational grain-crop-and-grass rotation— of transboundary areas [such as: Rio de Janeiro and vice versa; Declaration on Environment and Development • if peat soils occupy 30%-50% of the farm’s agri- (1992), Convention on the Protection of Trans- cultural lands, part of their area (with the deepest boundary Watercourses and International Lakes peat bed) can be used as tilled land in the system (1992), Convention on Wetlands of International of soil-conservational grain-crop-and-grass rota- Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971), tion, while the other part should be used to set Pan-European Strategy of Biological and Landscape up cultivated, highly productive meadows; Diversity Conservation (1995), and others], the • if peat soils occupy 50%-100% of the farm’s three riparian countries should continue to take an agricultural lands, about 30%-50% of them active part in international organizations promoting should be used as meadows, and the other 50%- biodiversity conservation. Assessment of Protected Areas and Priority Ecosystems 41

Acknowledgements Ukraine: A. Tretiak (Project Manager), O. Kanash, L. Hrekov, V. Druhak, A. Martyn This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.3.a.of the Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC Reference Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following Project Team members: Tretiak A, Bambalov N, Gordeyev A. 2003. Review of Russia: A. Gordeyev, M. Kumani, A. Kremen’, A. agricultural practices in reaction to transboundary Biziukov; protection of biodiversity. Final report. Dnipro Envi- Belarus: N. Bambalov, G. Sokolov, G. Dudko, V. Yat- ronmental Project, Kyiv, Ukraine. (In Russian). www. sukhno, V. Smirnova; dnipro-gef.net. Review of Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Dnipro Region in Relation to Biodiversity Conservation

Viktor D. Romanenko,1 Sergey A. Afanasyev1* and Oleksandr G. Vasenko2

1Hydrobiology Institute, National Academy of Science, Kyiv, Ukraine 2Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Environmental Problems, Kharkiv, Ukraine

Damming of the Dnipro River accompanied by the anthropogenically-induced eutrophication has significantly changed the diversity of ichthyofauna and has resulted in the considerable deterioration of the quality of commercial fishes caught both from reservoirs and river estuaries. In the Dnipro River, reservoirs have caused changes in the hydrological regime, flooded fish-spawning and dwelling areas, blocked routes of migrating fishes by dams, resulting in a decline of native migrating, semi-migrating and non-migrating rheophilic fish species. Some valuable species (such as ship, sterlet, salmon, and eel) have completely disappeared, while fishes with limited value (sardelle, Alburnus alburnus, aterina and pipefish) have multiplied in large numbers. The same situation is observed in the Dnipro-Bug estuary, which cannot but influence the Black Sea ecosystem. Because Dnipro Basin shorelines have, for the most part, been turned into agricultural lands, water reservoirs are being contaminated by surface run-offs of suspended solids. In addition, due to low water velocity in the reservoirs, shallow water zones that serve as spawning areas for phytophilic fishes are getting silted. This process is accompanied by the contraction of fish-spawning areas and spawning substrate, which is a characteristic feature of the current stage of their development. Strategic recommendations to resolve these problems are made.

Key words: biodiversity, fisheries, aquaculture, Dnipro River

Introduction The fishing industry is not only about stocking ponds with fishes, introduction and catching of fish and The impact of the fishing industry and aquaculture on prey organisms, but also about creating a specific type of the biodiversity of the Dnipro Basin water eco-systems water bodies – fish ponds. This means that biodiversity has so far been little studied. This has to do with the fact is influenced at all levels – species, ecosystems and land- that the fishing industry of the former USSR and by tra- scapes are all affected. In view of the above, the imple- dition that of post-Soviet republics did not take an inter- mentation of a project aimed at identifying outstanding est in non-commercial aquatic species. We have mainly problems and issues related to the impact of the fishing historical data on the diversity of commercial fish caught industry on biodiversity in the full sense of this word is by the fishing industry (for commercial purposes) and of practical and theoretical interest to us. fishes bred in fish ponds. No account is taken of the Damming of the Dnipro River accompanied by the impact of the fishing industry, recreational fishing and anthropogenically-induced eutrophication has significantly illegal harvest of fishes and invertebrates on the plant changed the diversity of ichthyofauna and has resulted in and animal life of water bodies. the considerable deterioration of the quality of commercial Since the priorities of the fishing industry, which fishes caught both from reservoirs and river estuaries. among other things strives to obtain maximum numbers In the Dnipro River, reservoirs have caused changes of some species, are obviously inconsistent with a well- in the hydrological regime, flooded fish-spawning and known principle according to which increased domi- dwelling areas, blocked routes of migrating fishes by nance leads to a reduction in the diversity of species dams, resulting in a decline of native migrating, semi- making up a community, we have scientifically substan- migrating and non-migrating rheophilic fish species. Some tiated reasons to believe that the fishing industry and valuable species (such as ship, sterlet, salmon, and eel) aquaculture have a considerable impact on biodiversity have completely disappeared, while fishes with limited of aquatic ecosystems. The investigation of this problem value (sardelle, Alburnus alburnus, aterina and pipefish) is a high-priority task not only for the Dnipro Basin have multiplied in large numbers. The same situation is extending into the territories of Russia, Ukraine and observed in the Dnipro-Bug estuary, which cannot but Belarus but also for other river basins. influence the Black Sea ecosystem. Because Dnipro Basin shorelines have, for the most * Corresponding author; [email protected] part, been turned into agricultural lands, water reservoirs

42 Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 43 are being contaminated by surface run-offs of suspended Project Accomplishments solids. In addition, due to low water velocity in the reservoirs, shallow water zones that serve as spawning areas Description of Water Resources Used for phytophilic fishes are getting silted. This process is by the Fishing Industry accompanied by the contraction of fish-spawning areas and spawning substrate, which is a characteristic feature The present-day definition of waterbodies used by the of the current stage of their development. fishing industry, as applied in Belarus, Russia and Biodiversity and fish yields of reservoirs are greatly Ukraine dates backs to the Soviet times – namely, to the affected by the anthropogenic factors such as oxygen “Regulation on the Protection of Fish Stocks and Regula- regime disruptions, heavy metals, and radionuclides. This tion of Fishing in the USSR Waterbodies”. The Regula- has resulted in massive fishkills taking place practically tion attributes to waterbodies used by the fishing industry each year in winter and particularly summer. In view of all water bodies (i.e., territorial waters, landlocked seas, the above, the survey focused on the assessment of the cur- rivers, lakes, ponds, water reservoirs and their accessory rent fishing industry activities in the Dnipro Basin water- waters) which are used, or may be used, for commercial bodies and the impact of these activities on the diversity of extraction of fish and other aquatic animals and plants, fauna in the Dnipro water and major Dnipro tributaries. or are important for reproducing commercial fish stocks. Input of pollutants (especially nutrients and organic Waterbodies of the highest (special) order include pollutants) into waterbodies and watercourses has been spawning and foraging areas, wintering grounds of valu- accelerating their eutrophication. Damming of the river able, protected and commercial fish species and other flow and significant variations in the water level regime aquatic organisms, and artificial fish breeding grounds. of the reservoirs have had a destabilizing effect on river Waterbodies of the first order include waterbodies ecosystems and have transformed spawning and nursery used for conservation and reproduction of oxhyphilic areas of young fishes, thereby adversely affecting natural fish species. Waterbodies of the second order include fish habitats and particularly their reproduction environ- those used for other fishing industry’s purposes. This ment. Construction of hydrotechnical and irrigation means that all waterbodies, irrespective of their size or facilities is facilitating the invasion of new and exotic length, are attributed to waterbodies used by the fishing fishes and invertebrate species into waterbodies. industry and should be brought in compliance with fish The Project goal is to assess the fishing industry protection standards. The only exception are sewage impact on the biodiversity of the Dnipro Basin water holding ponds, however, during the current economic ecosystems and to make proposals aimed at biodiversity decline, some of them have been used by private entre- conservation. preneurs for fish-culture and recreational fishing. The research objectives of this project were as follows: Types of the Water Resources Used by the • To describe the water resources used by the fish- Fishing Industry in the Dnipro Basin Countries ing industry, and to examine the current state of the Dnipro Basin waterbodies; In general, the Dnipro Basin water resources used by the • To analyse the current status of the fishing indus- fishing industry are being constantly subjected to adverse try, including a description of commercial fishing impacts of human activities (Table 1). By their nature, enterprises, fishing in natural waterbodies, and these impacts fall into physical (e.g., river-bed alignment, fish culture in fish-farms; water level lowering, erection of river dikes,), chemical • To assess the biodiversity of the Dnipro River (industrial and domestic effluent discharges, water dis- ecosystem in terms of species variety of flora and charges from land-reclamation systems, run-off from fauna, including rare and vanishing species; agricultural land), and biological areas (e.g., introduc- • To characterize fish introduction, invasion and tion of new fish species, proliferation of phytoplankton intervention in waterbodies of the Dnipro tribu- and macrophytes). Quite often, water resources are sub- tary sub-basins; to evaluate the impact of these jected to a combination of these impacts in which case processes on biodiversity of water bodies used by the negative effect of each of them increases. the fishing industry; The greatest single threat to biodiversity is the • To evaluate the impact of commercial fishing and damming of the Dnipro River flow and the resultant pond aquaculture on the species diversity of fish impoverishment of the river ecosystem diversity as well and aquatic invertebrate species; as unfavorable reproduction conditions. This is as a • To define the role of fish farms as biodiversity result of abrupt daily water level fluctuations that are reserves and refugia; leading to massive declines in reproductive capacity of • To identify outstanding issues of the fishing invertebrates and fishes. Other unfavorable factors industry and to come up with proposals for the include the substantial contraction of flooded wetlands, Strategic Action Plan. massive overgrowing of shallow water areas by terres- 44 Romanenko et al.

TABLE 1. Types of the water resources used by the fishing industry in the Dnipro Basin countries

Waterbody Russia Belarus Ukraine Water reservoirs (area, thousand ha) 17.9 34,745 797.0 Lakes (area, thousand ha) 1.8 23,325 86.55 Ponds (area, thousand ha) 58.4 17,868 122.5 Cooling ponds and multi-purpose 40.2 1934 13.5 ponds (thousand ha) Estuaries (area, thousand ha) 5.92 All waterbodies (area, thousand ha) 78.1 54,570 1025.47 Rivers (number) 5088 9023 15,423

trial and aquatic plants, flooding and contamination of ing to 20% of the maximum potential output. Between water reservoirs and inflowing rivers by industrial, agri- 1990 and 2000, marketable fish production by fish cultural and municipal effluent discharges, substantial enterprises was less than one-half its previous volume. subglacial drawdowns leading to frequent winterkills of However, it should be noted that the last few years have invertebrates and fishes of different ages and the entrain- seen a slight trend towards production growth. ment of young commercial fishes from the water reser- Under current economic conditions in Russia, gov- voirs into water intakes. The effects of land reclamation ernmental organizations, commercial fish enterprises, and activities and the accompanying river-bed alignment, recreational anglers’ societies do not engage in the repro- changes in the hydrological and hydrochemical regime of duction of fishery resources in natural watercourses, or lakes and the resultant changes in the direction of pro- natural and artificial reservoirs that are not part of the duction processes are most readily apparent in the Prip- commercial fishing production phase. While up until the iat River sub-basin. Most of the Pripiat left-bank tribu- mid 1980s fish commercial enterprises had annually taries have been channelized for much of their length, released millions of young fish of the most valuable fish resulting in changes in the hydrological regime, flood species into rivers, water reservoirs and general-purpose water velocity and duration of spring floods and high- ponds, today they have discontinued this practice. water periods, reduction in average river depth, contrac- In the 1990s, the Belarus commercial fishing enter- tion of the area and shortening of periods during which prises based in the Dnipro Basin reduced the volume of flood water stands in the river floodplain, and flooding production of marketable pond fish and fish-culturing of the floodplain. material and their harvests of lake and river fish by 1.5 to 3 times as compared to 1989 and 1990. To a large extent, Current Status of the Fishing Industry this had to do with inadequacies in the monetary and tax policies, increased prices for energy, feed, fertilizers, fish Under the present economic environment the situation in culture equipment, fishing gear, and transportation. the Dnipro Basin fish industry has significantly deterio- Belorussian fish farms based in the Dnipro Basin rated. Production-related problems of fishery enterprises produce over 85% of Belarus total fish catch. Between result mainly from their low economic efficiency and 1997 and 2001, the average annual production output lack of State financial subsidies. of marketable fish and fish-culturing supplies was 3.43 In Russia, the available production facilities are and 1.86 thousand tonnes, respectively. Fish caught in under-utilized, with the marketable fish output amount- the Dnipro Basin rivers, lakes and water reservoirs accounts for 66, 30 and 60% (respectively) of the total river and lake fish catches in the Republic. Over the aforesaid period the average annual harvest of lake and river fish reached 434 tonnes, of which more than 75% was caught in the Pripiat basin ponds and rivers. Whereas in the Pripiat River sub-basin lake fisheries play a predominant role accounting for 55% of the total fish yield, the Dnipro River sub-basin is noted for its river fisheries (74% of the total fish yield). The largest share in the production of pond fish-and fish-culturing material (over 87%) is accounted for by carp. In river and lake fishing, there is a trend towards smaller catches of valuable commercial fishes (of which Fig. 1. Structure of the fish industry water resources in the Dnipro Basin. 66% are accounted for by bream) and larger catches of Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 45 fish with limited value, especially aurata and gold-fish, mic pre-Mediterranean forests. The Upper River collects which account for 76%. its flow from the great European watershed. This factor, The difficult economic situation in Ukraine has also coupled with the fact that the Dnipro Basin spans differ- affected the fish industry. Lack of working capital and ent zones and provinces has given rise to a vast number increased prices for mineral fertilizers, mixed feed and of populations, species, ecosystems and landscapes. fuel, prevent the use of intensive fish-culture technologies Similarly, the Dnipro Basin is of no little significance and industrial fish-culture methods, and are reducing fish for fishes, namely, for the Dnipro sturgeon population yields of water reservoirs and ponds. Stocking the Dnipro (primarily, Acipenser ruthenus), carp-like, namely barbel Basin water reservoirs and cooling ponds of hydropower (Barbus barbus borysthenicus), and lampreys (Eudonto- plants with fishes has declined. For the majority of fish- myzon mariae.) eries, fish-culture activities have become unprofitable. The natural biotopes of the Dnipro river valley and Fish catches from their ponds have declined too. In 1999, slopes of bedrock terraces that have survived to this day – the total volume of fishes caught in natural ponds of the among them local nature reserves and sanctuaries – are Ukrainian Dnipro Basin reached 12,787 tonnes, with considered as a core component of a prospective Dnipro low-value species accounting for the largest share. ecological corridor which will be of pan-European signifi- Prior to the construction of dams, the stretches of cance as a constituent of the continental eco-corridor net- the Dnipro River main stream and of its accessory bod- work which is now being created. Equal pan-European ies and watercourses that were subsequently flooded to importance is attached to the eco-corridor lying along form reservoirs, yielded on average 4647 tonnes of com- the Pripiat and Desna river valleys. mercial fish per year, with bream, pike-perch and carp The distribution of protected species across the catches reaching 500 to 700 tonnes (or 10.8 to 15.1% of Dnipro Basin shows great variability. The richest biodi- the total volume). versity and most landscapes with natural vegetation The damming of the Dnipro River has led to lower cover are encountered in the northern regions, notably, commercial fish yields. This downward trend for lower the right-bank Polesiye region. The left-bank Polesiye yields of the water reservoirs has persisted to this day. In (the Desna Basin) has undergone more anthropogeni- 2000, fish yields were as low as 11.1 kg/ha (excluding cally-induced changes and has fewer natural biotopes as sardelle – freshwater sardines) and 12.7 kg/ha (including compared to the right-bank and therefore, has fewer sardelle). Put another way, fish yields dropped 4 times as protected animal and plant species. Further south, the compared to the pre-regulation period. anthropogenically-induced transformation of landscapes Fish culture in Ukraine’s inland ponds have also and damming of the Dnipro River have caused radical seen its marketable fish production levels decline. Thus, changes in the Dnipro Basin ecosystems thereby reducing average fish yields of fish foraging ponds have dropped habitats of rare and vanishing species. almost by half over the past few years. The Red Book of Belarus lists 10 plants, 5 insects, Practically, no country in the Basin controls activi- 4 fishes, 1 amphibian and 1 reptile dwelling in the ponds ties of fish farms in the environmental protection field or and watercourses of the Dnipro and Pripiat river basins in terms of their impact on biodiversity. Although fish on the Belarus territory. Unlike other riparian countries, ponds have a noticeable impact on the hydrological in addition to the national Red Book, the Russian Feder- regime of surface waters, the existing environmental laws regulate only the quality of fish pond water that enters surface watercourses, falling short of regulating the hydrological and hydrochemical regime of fishponds. In addition, there is no control over the condition of aquatic biota, accumulation of plant remains or silting processes. As a result, owners of fish ponds run them without any outside control and do not answer for damaging their ecological state and biodiversity.

Assessment of Biodiversity of Flora and Fauna

The Dnipro Basin is of essential importance for biodiversity conservation including conservation of populations, species and ecosystems. Occupying 4 zones from the Euro-Siberian pine forest zone and up to and including the pre-Mediterranean zone, it plays a great role in sustaining species complexes of different origins ranging Fig 2. Commercial fish catches from the Dnipro Basin water from the boreal taiga to xenophyte steppes to xenother- reservoirs as of 01/01/2000. 46 Romanenko et al.

Fig 3. Distribution of animal species listed in the Red Book across the Ukrainian Dnipro Basin.

ation has been keeping regional (oblast) lists of protected The Dnipro Basin is home for more than half of the and rare species found in its administrative regions, each endangered animal and plant species listed in the Red species being entered separately. Book of Ukraine. The Ukrainian Dnipro Basin accom- The Red Book of the Kursk region contains 8 aquatic modates 76 rare and vanishing plant species and 66 ani- plant species inhabiting ponds and watercourses of the mal species which are to a varying degree connected Seim and Psiol river basins as well as 3 fishes, 3 amphibia, with water ecosystems. 1 reptile, 12 birds and 1 mammal which are part of the We cannot argue that life and preservation of num- fauna of the Dnipro Basin ponds and watercourses. The bers of most of these species depend solely on fisheries Red Book of the Smolensk region lists 7 fishes, 1 amphib- practices. Still, there is no denying that water quality ian, 1 reptile, 1 annelid, 2 crustacea, 12 insects, 32 birds, changes, economic activities carried out in the river and 3 mammals. floodplains, extraction of fish and feed invertebrates,

Fig 4. Distribution of plant species listed in the Red Book across the Ukrainian Dnipro Basin. Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 47 creation of the artificial favorable environment con- Introduced species ducive to the reproduction of species that “suit” fishing industry’s needs, and changes in the ratio of the number Introduced species are fish species introduced into nat- and area of biotopes to a varying extent pose a threat to ural water basins for fish-breeding purposes as well as rare and vanishing plant and animal species. with a view to increasing fish yields. In the case of the It is noteworthy, that as a part of our biodiversity Dnipro Basin, these include 9 fish species: Cyprinus car- research under this Project we have produced the first- pio (common carp), Carassius auratus gibelio (Prussian ever inventory of fish species inhabiting the Dnipro carp), Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp), Aris- Basin. The inventory, which includes 90 species, lists 9 tichthys nobilis (bighead carp), Hypophthalmichthys introduced species, 9 interventionist species, and 5 inva- molitrix (silver carp), Ictalurus nebulosus (brown bull- sive species (for clarification of Russian terminology and head), Ictalurus punctatus (chanel catfish), Anguilla English equivalents see editorial notes.) anguilla (European eel), and Solmo gairdneri irrides (rainbow trout). Apart from fish, prey (feed) organisms were intro- Introduction, Intervention and Invasion duced into the Dnipro Basin reservoirs. Thus, the To preserve and increase valuable fish stocks, certain Dnipro reservoir was stocked with sandhoppers and fish species inhabiting one reservoir are introduced into mollusks, while the Kremenchuk reservoir was stocked another water reservoir or water basins with similar liv- with Gammaridae. To improve the feed (prey) base of ing conditions (Table 2). Ctenopharyngodon idella and the spawning environment

TABLE 2. Species diversity of Cyclostoma and fish inhabiting the Dnipro Basin

Sub-basins

Dnipro Desna Pripiat

Fish species (subspecies, morph.) R B U R U B U Eudontomyzon mariae (Berg) Ukrainian brook lamprey x x x x x Lamperta planeri (Bloch) European brook lamprey x x Acipenser persicus colchicus V. Marti Persian sturgeon x Acipenser nudiventris Lovetsky fringebarbel sturgeon ? Acipenser ruthenus L. sterlet x x x x x ? Acipenser stellatus Pallas starry sturgeon x Acipenser sturio L. sturgeon ? Huso huso ponticus Sal’nikov and Malyatskij beluga x Alosa pontica (Eichwald) Pontic shad x Alosa caspia tanaica (Grimm) Azov shad x xlupeonella cultriventris cultriventris (Nordmann) Black Sea sprat ? x ? ? ? Salmo trutta labrax Pallas brown trout x Salmo trutta trutta L. sea trout x x x Salmo gairdneri rainbow trout x x Coregonus peled (Gmelin) peled x Esox lucius L. northern pike x x x x x x x Anguilla anguilla (L.) European eel x x x x Abramis ballerus (L.) zope x x x x x x Abramis brama (L.) carp bream x x x x x x x Abramis sapa sapa (Pallas) white-eye bream x x x x x x x Alburnoides bipunctatus rossicus Berg chub xxx xx xx Alburnus alburnus (L.) bleak x x x x x x x Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson) bighead carp x x x x x x Aspius aspius aspius (L.) asp xxx xx xx Blixxa bjoerkna (L.) white bream x x x x x x x xhalcalburnus chalcoides mento (Heckel) Danube bleak x Chondrostoma nasus (L.) sneep x x x x x x x Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes) silver carp x x x x x x Leucaspius delineatus (Heckel) belica x x x x x x x Leuciscus borysthenicus (Kessler) Dnieper chub ? x x ? x Leuciscus cephalus (L.) European chub x x x x x x x Leuciscus idus (L.) ide x x x x x x x Leuciscus leuciscus leuciscus (L.) common dace x x x x x x x (Continued) 48 Romanenko et al.

TABLE 2. Continued

Sub-basins

Dnipro Desna Pripiat

Fish species (subspecies, morph.) R B U R U B U Pelecus cultratus (L.) ziege x x x x x x x Phoxinus perenurus (Pxllas) lake minnow x x x x x Phoxinus xhoxinus (L.) European minnow x x x Rutilus frizii frizii (Nordmann) kutum x ? x ? ? ? Rutilus rutilus rutilus (L.) roach x x x x x x x Scardinius erythrophthalmus (L.) rudd x x x x x x x Vimba vimba vimba (L.) Baltic vimba x x x ? x x x Rhodeus sericeus amarus (Bloch.) bitterling x x x x x x x Gobio gobio gobio (L.) gudgeon x x x x x x x Pseudorasbora parva (Temminck et Schlegel) stone moroko x x x x Barbus barbus borystenicus Dybowski barbel x x ? x Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes) grass carp x x x x x x Mylopharyngodon piceus (Richardson) black carp x Carassius auratus auratus (L.) goldfish x x x xarassius auratus gibelio (Bloch) Prussian caro x x x x x x x Carassius carassius (L.) Crucian carp x x x x x x x Cyprinus carpio carpio L. common carp x x x x x x x Tinca tinca (L.) tench x x x x x x x Barbatula barbatula (L.) stone loach x x x x x x x Cobitis taenia L. spined loach x x x x x x x Misgurnus fossilis (L.) weather fish x x x x x x x Silurus glanis L. Wels catfish x x x x x x x Ictalurus nebulosus (Lesueur) brown bullhead x Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) channel catfish x x Gambusia holbrooki (Girard) eastern mosquitofish x Lota lota lota (L.) burbot x x x x x x x Gasterosteus aculeatus L. threespine sticklrback x x x x x x Pungitius platygaster platygaster (Kessler) southern ninespine stickleback ? x x ? x Pungitius pungitius pungitius (L.) ninespine stickleback x x Syngnathus nigrolineatus Eichwald black striped pipefish ? x ? Mugil soiuy Basilewsky mullet x Lepomis gibbosus (L.) pumpkinseed x Gymnocephalus acerinus (Güldenstaädt) Donets ruffe x x x x x x Gymnocephalus cernuus (L.) European ruffe x x x x x x x Gymnocephalus baloni Holc˘ik et Hensel Danube ruffe ? ? x x Perca fluviatilis L. European perch x x x x x x x Stizostedion lucioperca (L.) zander x x x x x x x Stizostedion marinum (Cuvier) estuarine perch x Stizostedion volgense (Gmelin) Volga pikeperch x Sarotherodon mossambicus Peters Mozambique tilapia ? x Tilapia nilotica Nile tilapia x Perxcottus glenii Dybowski Chinese leeper x x x x x x ? Benthophiloides brauneri Beling et Iljin x Benthophilus stellatus (Sauvage) stellate todpole goby ? x ? ? Caspiosoma caspium (Kessler) x Knipowitschia longecaudata (Kessler) x Neogobius eurycephalus (Kessler) mushroom goby ? Neogobius fluviatilis (Pallas) monkey goby x x x x x x Neogobius gymnotrachelus (Kessler) racer goby x x Neogobius iljini Vasiljeva et Vasiljev ? x x ? ? Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas) round goby x x x x ? Neogobius syrman (Nordmann) Syrman goby x Pomatoschistus marmoratus (Risso) marbled goby ? Pomatoschistus minutus elongatus (Canestrini) sand goby ? Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas) turbenose goby ? x x ? x Cottus gobio koshewnikowi Gratzianov bullhead x x x x Platichthys flesus luscus (Pallas) European flounder x x – present; blank – absent; ? – no evidence. Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 49 of native fish species the Kremenchuk reservoir was invasive species dwelling in the Belarus Dnipro Basin stocked with broad-leaved Zizania. include 2 species, namely, Perccottus glenii and Pseudoras- bora parva. On the Russian territory these are Perccottus Interventionist species glenii and 2 species of Tilapia, while in Ukraine these are Perccottus glenii, Pseudorasbora parva and Lepomis Interventionist species (or opportunistic species; these macrochirus (Rafinesque). are native species that are expanding their ranges as a result of environmental degradation; editor’s note) are Assessment of the Fishing Industry Impact represented by eurybiont species which can, in particular on Flora and Fauna Biodiversity under the influence of anthropogenic factors, actively and substantially expand their distribution. This survey suggests that the structure of ichthyofauna The interventionist species dwelling in the Belarus found in the Dnipro Basin is undergoing large-scale Dnipro Basin include 4 species, namely, Gasterosteus quantitative and qualitative changes which are affect- aculeatus L., Pungitius pungitius pungitius (L.), Neogob- ing over 50 fish species and can have a tangible impact ius gymnotrachelus (Kessler), and Neogobius melanosto- on the production potential of the Dnipro Basin ecosys- mus (Pallas) (for English common names see Table 2). tem. In addition, they can lead to a further reduction in The Ukrainian Dnipro Basin is home for 7 intervention- the numbers of native rheophilic species and gradual ist species, namely, Gasterosteus aculeatus L., Clupe- extinction of most of them. This process will be accom- onella cultriventris cultriventris (Nordmann), Syng- panied by the expansion of Ponto-Caspian and Far nathus nigrolineatus Eichwald, Neogobius iljini East planktivorous species (subject to regular fish- Vasiljeva et Vasiljev, Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas), stocking activities) and an increase of their share in the Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas), and Benthophilus Dnipro Basin fish yields. stellatus (Sauvage). Commercial fishing is transforming the structure Interventionist fish species inhabiting the ponds of ichthyofauna by reducing the share of large, mostly and watercourses of the Dnipro, Desna, Seim and Psiol predatory, fish species and increasing the share of low sub-basins on the Russian Territory have as yet not value (coarse) fish, notably roach and Blicca bjoerkna been studied. (L.) A decrease in the numbers of predatory fishes and Apart from interventionist fish species, the other an increase in the numbers of low-value planktonic species that have become widespread throughout the and benthic feeders are influencing the planktonic and Dnipro Basin are invertebrates of the pontocaspian benthic communities. However, given other impacts, complex. Some interventionists (i.e., mollusks such as especially those associated with the damming of the Dreissena bugesis and Polymorpha, Monodacna, Pon- river flow, it is impossible to make an objective assess- togammarus-meoticus, Crassius, Robustoides, Poly- ment of the impact of commercial fishery on the diver- chaeta hypania, etc.) have become predominant having sity of invertebrates and other aquatic biota. formed new communities. As vast areas of the bottom Pond fish culture and construction of reservoirs of the Dnipro Basin water reservoirs have become pop- have a significant impact on the numbers and variety ulated by large numbers of mollusks of the Dreissena of fish fauna and invertebrates by sharply increasing type for the first time in the history of the hydrosphere the area and magnitude of habitats. Construction of there has appeared and has been detected a new type of ponds on small and medium-sized rivers results in all freshwater communities with an attached filtering mol- elements of the ecosystems being converted from those lusk acting as a medium-forming dominant organism. typical of rivers to those intrinsic to lakes and wet- So far we do not fully understand the implications of lands. It also leads to the replacement of original the development of this new community type, which native fish, invertebrate and plant species by new ones. has its own unique topical, trophic and other cenotic Fish species sensitive to oxygen levels and those links in freshwater ecosystems. However, within the dwelling in river rapids, become extinct or less abun- scope of this Project we can say that most benthos-eat- dant, whereas fish species favoring lakes and resistant ing fish species in the Dnipro reservoirs have switched to anoxia and high water turbidity increase their num- over not only to the Dreissena itself but also to the bers. At the same time, some hydrotechnical facilities companion species. (floodgates) of pond fish-farms prevent phytophilic fish species from breeding by blocking flood water and Invasive species preventing it from overflowing the floodplain of natural watercourses. Invasive species are those which have been accidentally As a result of construction of a great number of fish introduced into natural water basins in the course of ponds in the Dnipro Basin and application of associated fish-farming activities or as a result of illegal introduc- technologies (e.g., periodic soil drainage and liming,) tion and do not belong to fish-breeding objects. The ecosystem biodiversity has been significantly damaged. 50 Romanenko et al.

Assessment of the Impact of Recreation Fishing ity of fish farms. Since artificial reproduction by fish and Poaching on Species Diversity of Fish farms of native fish species, including rare and endan- and Aquatic Invertebrates gered ones, is not economically stimulated, genetic heritage of these species is gradually declining. Thus, due to The nature and volume of goods and services offered to insufficient artificial reproduction of fish resources, it is recreational anglers as well as fish catches show that impossible to preserve present fish biodiversity levels. there are some 4 million anglers in the Dnipro Basin. Fish production and extraction are not properly Estimates show that annually they catch on average up controlled. Fish farms and fishing companies are not to 168,000 tons of river fish and sell/ purchase UAH always interested in their products or catches being 500 million (or around 100 million euros) worth of officially registered. Divisions of large regional enter- goods and services. prises in all the riparian countries assess their fish In general it is fair to say that the current large-scale catches taking into account commercial grades rather illegal extraction of fishes and crustaceans, and well- than types of fish species, and even this little informa- organized system of sales (which in fact is based along tion cannot be obtained from small private businesses. criminal lines) cause substantial damage to the Dnipro There is practically no control over fish culture activi- Basin environment, undermine its fish stocks, threaten ties in the environmental protection field or of their the reproduction of valuable fish species such as sheat- impact on biodiversity. fish and pike-perch and weaken the breeding stock of Culturing valuable fish-species is not adequately bream and roach by taking out its best producers. The targeted. The genetic pool of most fish-cultured species volume of fish sold in large cities based in the Dnipro is dwindling. Broodstocks have been degraded by Basin is several times larger than the quota established hybrid forms. for fishing organizations and exceeds by a factor the Non-compliance of the existing Commercial Fish- officially registered commercial fish catches. ing Rules with biological principles of use of water bod- Recreational fishing should develop upon scientifi- ies and with principles of sustainable use of biodiver- cally grounded management lines to maximize sustainable sity, results in the situation when self-sustaining yields and to be environmentally friendly. The present marketable fish species are caught with the observance erratic growth of this sector may result in the depletion of of commercial fishing limits rather than justified harvest fish stocks, degradation of fluvial ecosystems and disputes quotas. Also, fish selection industry is not geared to the between commercial and recreational fishery. exploitation of lesser valued fish species.

Identification of Knowledge Gaps Problems connected with recreational fishing and and Problems of the Fishing Industry poaching. Problems connected with recreational fishing and poaching are mainly the result of the absence of In the course of the Project implementation, we have laws establishing the size of catches and fishing methods. identified a number of problems and gaps faced by the Nor are there any laws to fight against illegal fishing fishing industry. These have a direct bearing on issues practices involving the use of fishing nets, electric related to aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity conserva- devices, chemicals and explosives. Especially dangerous tion in general. The gaps are related to an incomplete is the widespread practice of stunning fish in wintering understanding of the impact of fishing and fish culture grounds before, and during,the freeze-up spell. on aquatic flora and fauna as well as to the insufficiency So far, no effective system for regulating sales of fishing of the legislative framework governing reproduction and gear has been established. Fishing nets are sold at very low utilization of fish stocks. Furthermore, quite often even prices and countrywide. A fishing net up to 100 m long the existing statutes regulating the use and conservation costs from 150 to 300 rubles (or 30 to 60 euros) in Russia of biodiversity prove to be ineffective. All current prob- and from 25 to 100 hrivnas (or 5 to 20 euros) in Ukraine. lems related to biodiversity conservation and the fishing There are inadequate legislative framework and industry can be divided into the following five groups: small fines for violating fishing rules. Existing laws are universally violated. Fish protection measures are not Problems directly related to productive activities of fish- coordinated with local executive authorities and police. ing enterprises. Problems directly related to productive No effective control over sales of illegal fish catches has activities of fishing enterprises are mainly caused by the been installed. industry’s low economic efficiency and a lack of ade- In places where illegal fishing is especially wide- quate financial support by the State as a result of which spread, large river stretches have been virtually depleted the industry if incapable of taking environmental mea- of fish, in spite of the current improvement of the envi- sures. Disparities of prices for fish feed, energy ronmental state of the rivers due to decreased industrial resources, fuel and fish products result in low profitabil- and agricultural effluent discharges. Thus, we may con- Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 51 clude that the burden of illegal fishing is even greater Problems related to the non-existence than that traced to pollution. of monitoring

Problems related to the use of fish ponds. There are There are problems related to the non-existence of moni- problems related to the use of fish ponds and other artifi- toring of the quality of the habitat and biodiversity by cial water bodies used by the fishing industry as habitats the national environmental monitoring systems. A signif- of a great number of plant and animal species including icant problem in monitoring water quality and pollution rare and vanishing ones. Artificial ponds and their water sources of ponds used by the fishing industry is the protection zones play an important role in biodiversity imperfection of water quality assessment criteria estab- conservation. Artificial ponds used by the commercial lished for these water bodies. The current practice of fishing industry are fairly large in size: thus, in the forest- using the same values of maximum acceptable concen- steppe zone they occupy an area 5 times larger than that trations (MACs) of pollutants throughout the entire occupied by natural ponds and watercourses. Dnipro Basin does not take into account the potential At present, there are many fish ponds which are not presence of natural (background) levels of chemical sub- intensively used by the commercial fishing industry. stances. In some regions background concentrations of They may be used as biodiversity reserves. However, no controlled substances exceed their MACs: among them management instructions and conditions have been are naturally occurring orthophosphate, iron and copper established for such ponds. (Seim and Psiol river basins), and iron and humic acid (Pripiat River Basin). Historically, local aquatic commu- Problems related to the damming of the Dnipro River nities have adapted to local natural water chemistry, flow and anthropogenic contamination of the waterbod- therefore, from the ecological and physiological stand- ies. Damming of the Dnipro River flow has radically point the enforcement of common water quality require- transformed major hydrodynamic parameters. One such ments in different regions is unjustified. example is the slowing down of water flow velocity. The Another shortcoming is virtual neglect of biological movement of water masses is governed not only by nat- methods of monitoring water quality and the state of the ural phenomena (wind, floods) but also by the water con- ecosystems. Such complex water pollution indicators as trol operator. During some seasons of the year reservoir pollution index (WPI) or MACs are a matter of conven- draw-downs reach 2-3 metres, while the water cycle tion (Transl. com. – schematic, rough), have not been intensity decreases 5 to 24 fold. Shallow water areas have justified in biological terms and do not reflect the real become stagnant with the stagnant zones reaching 18 to state of water ecosystems. 40% of some reservoirs. All this has a profound effect on To sum up the present situation in the fishing indus- the formation of fish fauna in the reservoirs. try in the Dnipro Basin countries, it is worthwhile to Damming of the river has accelerated the pace of identify the following gaps in this sector: eutrophication of the water reservoirs as a result of • non-existence of the monitoring system for ingress of organic and nutrient substances. The reser- assessing fish resources and forecasting their voirs also receive pollutants from powerful point pollu- dynamics as part of the national environmental tion sources such as large industrial facilities and munici- monitoring system; pal runoff from urbanized shoreline areas. However, the • imperfection of indicators of technogenic conta- latest data (the “Identification of Risks Related to the mination of both aquatic biota and their habitats Hot Spots Impact on Eco-Sensitive Zones in the Dnipro (MACs, permissible levels, etc.); Basin” Project funded by the IDRC) indicate that of • unavailability of methods of assessing the environ- greatest concern are cumulative risks posed by non-point mental damage to fish resources and ecosystems of and small point pollution sources, which compromise waterbodies used by the fishing industry as a result the river self-purification capacity, rather than risks of economic activities or natural disasters; posed by large point pollution sources. • unavailability of methods of assessing actual To preserve and augment the biodiversity of not quantities of fishes and other aquatic organisms only fishes but of other aquatic organisms as well, it is caught by recreational anglers and poachers; necessary, first of all, to revise the Water Reservoir Man- • insufficient knowledge of fishing and fish-cultur- agement Instructions, which are based on environmental ing activities in small rivers and of their fish requirements. These requirements include compliance resources; with the reservoir water level regime with due regard for • insufficient data on the species diversity, distribu- the fishing industry’s needs, expansion of reclamation tion and resources of invertebrate species to activities in shallow water zones and creation of repro- allow for their commercial harvesting; duction facilities for breeding both commercially valu- • insufficient scientific data on the distribution, sta- able, and rare and vanishing fish species. tus of populations and numbers of fish species 52 Romanenko et al.

TABLE 3. High-priority long-term measures to be included in the strategic action plan for the Dnipro Basin environmental rehabilitation

Compliance with the existing legal and Investment Measure Priority level regulatory framework opportunities Develop a monitoring system for assessing fisheries resources high-priority/ Belarus – full compliance, international(a)/ and forecasting their dynamics (as part of the national long-term Russia and Ukraine – national environmental monitoring system) partial compliance Develop a system of indicators of anthropogenic high-priority/ partial compliance international(a)/ contamination of aquatic habitats using bio-indicators long-term national Develop methods for assessing and registering the impact of high-priority/ noncompliance international(a)/ non-point pollution sources (particularly agricultural) long-term national on aquatic habitat. Develop a system of penalties for exposure of aquatic ecosystems to hazardous discharges Develop a methodology of assessing the cost of environmental high-priority/ noncompliance international(a)/ damage caused by commercial activities, accidental spills or long-term national natural disasters to fisheries resources and natural and man-made water bodies used by the fishing industry Develop methodology for assessing true quantities of fish and high-priority/ noncompliance national other aquatic organisms caught by recreational fishermen long-term and poachers Develop a complex program to study fishing and fish culture high-priority/ noncompliance international(a)/ activities in small rivers and to describe the state of their long-term national aquatic organisms Develop a program for study of ecosystems of ponds and high-priority/ compliance international(a)/ small water reservoirs to enable the fishing industry to long-term national use them more effectively and to improve biodiversity conservation efforts Develop proposals for assessing the status of populations high-priority/ compliance international(a)/ and restoring to previous levels the numbers of rare and long-term national endangered fish species whose protection status has been defined by international conventions Identify and inventory nature complexes used by the fish high-priority/ compliance international(a)/ industry and pond fish farms, defining them as wetlands long-term national that are vital for biodiversity conservation and protection of waterfowl Ensure that fishing enterprises assess their fish catches taking high-priority noncompliance national into account types of fish species Propose measures to increase culturing of fish stocks (native, long-term compliance national introduced, rare and vanishing species) on the basis of offering economic incentives to pond fish farms Develop a long-term plan for reclamation of ponds and small long-term compliance international(a)/ reservoirs to improve their ecosystems and to use fish national resources on a sustainable basis (preparation of fisheries, clearing the bed of remains of trees and shrubs) Draft new Commercial and Recreational Fishing Rules in high-priority partial national accordance with biological principles of use of water bodies compliance for fishing industry’s purposes as well as with the principle of sustainable use of their biodiversity Revise fish harvest quotas with regard to species diversity high-priority partial national and regional characteristics of water resources compliance Justify the identified list of species and fishing gear allowed high-priority partial national for commercial fishing in continental water bodies compliance Introduce into the Criminal Code legislation imposing high-priority noncompliance national responsibility for selling illegal fishing gear and use of electric devices Enhance control over compliance with service regulations of high-priority compliance national the small-size fleet and impose a year-round ban on entry of motor boats into shallow bays (Continued) Review and Status of Fisheries and Aquaculture 53

TABLE 3. Continued

Compliance with the existing legal and Investment Measure Priority level regulatory framework opportunities

Ensure that controlling and enforcement agencies coordinate high-priority/ partial national their activities to strengthen their fight against illegal long-term compliance fishing/poaching Develop educational programs aimed at introducing an long-term compliance international(a)/ elective school course (including the fundamentals of national aquatic ecology) and establishing fishing education societies Develop a nation-wide system for leasing waterbodies for high-priority noncompliance international(a)/ fish culture national Justify the expansion of the network of the protected long-term compliance international(a)/ territories used for reproduction of fishes and invertebrates national Create a Blue Book of rare and vanishing species of aquatic long-term compliance international(a)/ ecosystems national aAssessing investment opportunities for implementing the proposed measures appears to be a fairly difficult task in view of the unfavorable investment climate of the three countries.

subject to national and international protection The proposed measures aimed at the conservation (Bonn Convention and CITES Convention); and sustainable use of Dnipro Basin biodiversity by the • incomplete identification (inventory) of natural three countries may be represented with regard to their systems of waterbodies used by the fishing indus- priority rating and degree of compliance with legislative try and of pond fish farms, which are classified as and regulatory acts of the Republic of Belarus, Russian wetlands that are vital for the protection not only Federation and Ukraine. In addition, it is necessary to of habitats of water fowl but also of the biodiver- make an impartial assessment of investment opportuni- sity of wetland eco-systems. ties for implementing these measures (Table 3). • national environmental monitoring systems do not provide for monitoring of waterbodies as Acknowledgements habitats and reserves of the genetic stocks of invertebrates and fishes. This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.3.b. of the Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following Strategic Recommendations Project Team members: To resolve the above-mentioned problems, it is necessary Russia: V. Frolov, M.V. Kumani, A.N. Ginizburg; to take measures to resolve not only problems intrinsic Belarus: S.D. Scherbak, B. Petukhov, V.G. Kostousov; to the fishing industry but also the range of issues related Ukraine: V.D. Romanenko (Project Leader), S.A. to them. The proposals for the SAP may be roughly Afanasyev, O.G. Vasenko, V.A. Gorobchishyn divided into the following types that require concrete measures: Reference • Scientific planning and monitoring Romanenko VD, Afanasyev SA,Vasenko OG. 2003. Review • Legislative initiatives and status of fisheries and aquaculture in the Dnipro • Education Region in relation to biodiversity conservation. Final • Development of business activities report. Dnipro Environmental Project, Kyiv, Ukraine. • Expansion of a network of protected territories (In Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices in the Context of Landscape and Biodiversity Protection in the Dnipro Basin

Alexandr V. Pugachevsky,1* Viktor P. Tkach2 and Sergey I. Smirnov3

1Institute for Experimental Botany, National Academy of Science of Belarus, 220072 Minsk, Belarus 2Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Ammelioration, 61024 Kharkiv, Ukraine 3Bryansk State Engineering and Technology Academy, 241037 Bryansk, Russia

This project was designed to develop proposals for the enhancement of the role forests play in conserving biological and landscape diversity. It was geared towards sustaining their environmental (i.e., water cycle protection, soil preservation and climate regulation) and social functions on the basis of a comprehensive assessment of forests and forestry use, together with the management practices in the Dnipro Basin. These proposals are expected to be incorporated into the overall basin-wide program of actions and three national action plans of the Dnipro Basin environmental rehabilitation.

Key words: forestry use, forestry practices, landscape protection, biodiversity

Introduction part of the basin, to those auspicious for highly productive mixed coniferous-and-broadleaved forests in The Dnipro Basin area covers 503.5 thousand square Belorussian and Ukrainian Polessye with their fauna and kilometers. It occupies a central position amongst other flora diversity, for pine and oak forests in Ukrainian for- river basins in the territory of Ukraine (305.2 thousand est-steppe zone adjusted to unstable water regime, and, square km, or 50.6% of the country’s total land area) finally, for isles of forests in steppe ravines and flood- and Belarus (116.4 thousand square km, or 56.1% of plains in the central and southern steppe, and mountain- the country’s total area). It lies in the west of the Euro- ous forests with beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), spruce and pean part of the Russian Federation (81.9 thousand silver fir (Abies alba L.) on the foothills and eastern square km, or 0.5% of the country’s total area). slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. Forests constitute one of the main landscape and environment forming components of the Dnipro Basin. They Overview of the Dnipro Basin Forests cover 124.8 thousand square km of its territory, including 46.7 thousand square km in the Belorussian part of the The Dnipro River being 2285 km long, the latitude pro- basin (40.1% of the area), 26.9 thousand square km in the jection of its stream from the north to the south is about Russian part (27.2% of the basin area) and 51.2 thousand 1040 km. According to the forest zoning adopted in the square km in the Ukrainian part of the basin (16.8% of the former USSR, the Dnipro River and its tributaries stretch area). The average percentage of forest area is 24.8%. from the north to the east of the Eurasian forest area of One of the three basin countries’ major natural the moderate zone (Scandinavian-Russian province) and resources, forests perform a number of extremely impor- of Eurasian steppe area (Southern Russian province). tant environmental functions, namely those of water The Dnipro flows through 4 natural zones (from the protection, soil preservation and climate regulation. north to the south), namely: the zones of mixed forests Forests are a natural habitat for the most part of land and of deciduous forests, forest-steppe and steppe zones. biota. They provide necessary conditions for numerous Coniferous trees dominate in the basin forest vegeta- species of plants, mushrooms and fungi, algae and ani- tion (55.3% of area). The most common are pine (Pinus mals (both vertebrate and invertebrate). silvestris L.) forests: they make up 48.6% of the Dnipro Forest growing conditions in the basin are deter- Basin forests. The share of the European fir (Picea abies mined by the geo-morphological structure of the terri- Karst.) is also noticeable in the northern part of the tory, its soil continuum and climate. They vary within a basin, in particular, in Smolensk (25.9%), Vitebsk fairly broad range: from conditions favourable for the (23.2%), Mogiliov (16.5%), Minsk (13.0%) oblasts, formation of southern-taiga phytocoenoses (plant com- and on the eastern slopes of the Carpathian mountains munities) dominated by fir and pine trees in the northern (21.3% in Lviv oblast). Smolensk oblast is unique for the basin in that it has * Corresponding author; [email protected] a big share (62.5%) of derivative small-leaved species of

54 Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 55 birch (Betula pendula Roth.), aspen (Populus tremula L.), this problem stems not from the forestry management per gray alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) in its forests, which se, but rather from the inefficient use of forests for agri- is the result of felling native coniferous and broad-leaved cultural, industrial and building purposes in the past. forests in the past and replacing them with fast growing pioneer species: birch, aspen and gray alder. The share of Forest Management and Use: small-leaved species in the basin forests amounts to Factors Affecting Flora, Fauna 30.0%, of which 7.0% is made up by native black alder and Landscape Diversity in the Basin forests on marshes (eutrophic bogs) and river floodlands. Further southwards, broad-leaved species (oak, ash, The area of lands under the state-owned forests of the maple) compete with pine. In Lviv and Ternopil oblasts, three riparian countries is 13.64 million hectares, includ- beech is rather common, too. The overall share of forests ing 5.56 million hectares in Belarus, 2.80 million with dominating hard-leaved species is as small as 13.6% hectares in the Russian Federation and 5.28 million of the forest-covered basin area, while in the forest-steppe hectares in Ukraine. State forestry authorities of the and steppe zones oak stand constitutes the major part of three countries are in charge of the preservation and use forest vegetation. Oak dominates in the forests of Oriol, of this land, where forestry economy is developed with Kursk, Belgorod oblasts of the Russian part of the basin, the active utilization of forest resources. as well as in Khmelnytsky, Ternopil, Kharkiv, Cherkassy, Main components of forestry economic activities Vynnytsia, Kirovograd, Dnipropetrovsk and Donetsk affecting biological and landscape diversity are: oblasts of Ukraine. On the whole, the share of oak forests • forest restoration and growing, including agricul- in the Ukrainian part of the basin is 20.9% of the forest- tural afforestation (agrosilviculture); covered basin area, as compared to 12% of such area in • forest improvement felling; the entire basin. • sanitary felling (selective, final, forest de-littering) Forests with predominant ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) and other types of felling (forest clearing for communities are characteristic of the flood-plains of the communication lines, etc.); basin rivers. Their share in the forest-covered area is 0.9%. • forest protection (including prevention of and fight- Shrubs occupy over 1% of the forest-covered basin ing forest fires, as well as combating unsanctioned area. These consist of various species of willow (Salix felling and other breaches of forest legislation); sp.) on transitional (mesotrophic) bogs, marshes • forest preservation (including prevention and (eutrophic bogs) and river flood-plains, as well as of detection of forest diseases, fighting forest pests juniper (Juniperus communis L.) on sandy soils. and prevention of their propagation); • hydro-technical amelioration of forests. Forest Coverage of the Dnipro Basin Territory Forest use presupposes the following types of utiliz- The forest coverage of the basin territory is extremely ing natural resources: irregular. The number of forests tends to decrease from • main forest use, including final harvest; the northern districts (raions) of Smolensk oblasts with • intermediate forest use in the course of improve- high forest density (50%-70%) and low population den- ment felling, sanitary and other types of forest sity, through the districts with relatively large forest cutting; areas in Belarus, Briansk, Kaluga and Oriol oblasts of • use of secondary forest resources (harvesting edi- the Russian Federation and Ukrainian Polessye (forest ble, forage, medicinal, technical ornamental, and coverage of 25%-50%), to the sparsely wooded regions other useable materials in forests); of forest-steppe and Black Sea coast steppe (forest cover- • forest use for recreational, research, educational age of under 15%, sometimes as low as 5%). and similar purposes. In practically every oblast, there are separate districts (raions) or entire regions where the forested area should be urgently expanded by afforesting unused or Forest Restoration and Afforestation misused territories. Forest restoration and forest growing (afforestation) are Contemporary dynamics of the forest coverage in two most active forms of the forest industry impact on the basin is characterized by a trend towards increasing biological and landscape diversity: percentage of forest area throughout the whole basin territory, which results from the crisis in agriculture and • forest restoration is the afforestation of those contamination of a vast territory with the radioactive areas where forest was destroyed by felling or emissions following the Chernobyl NPP accident. certain catastrophic events on forest ecosystems Low or insufficient forest coverage is one of the (fires, hurricanes, etc.); impediments to the development of landscape, fauna and • forest growing is the formation of new forests in flora diversity in most parts of the Dnipro Basin, although the territories that were not previously covered 56 Pugachevsky et al.

Fig. 1. Forest coverage (%) of the Dnipro Basin territory (by oblasts and raions).

with forest. In the Dnipro Basin, new forests are into forest reserve has been represented by low-fertility most commonly grown on the lands transferred agricultural land, exhausted peatlands, etc. into the forest reserve after field development of In the course of forest reconstruction (recovery) a mineral resources (peat, some construction mate- new forest community is formed by planting (sowing) rials like sand, gravel, etc.) or on agricultural desired forest species, which, at the stage of soil prepara- land plots with unproductive and eroded soil. tion, is accompanied with breaking the continuum of the surface soil layers, ground spreading and forest grass Forest restoration is planting or, more rarely, sow- cover. The natural successions of forest-free area are ing forest species or stimulating natural growth of such ruptured and replaced with forest successions. Other species in wood-cutting areas subject to final or sanitary potential impacts on flora and fauna include: application felling or in fire-sites. Forest growing is, as a rule, associ- of chemicals (herbicides, insecticides, fertilizers); intro- ated with forest species production. duction of alien species, sometimes even formation of Forest species production in the basin embraces pestholes and nests of diseases hazardous for surround- 35-40 thousand hectares, having reduced over the latest ing forests in the places of species production. decades due to the reduced scales of final felling. How- Forest restoration and afforestation have both posi- ever, the reduction has not been as considerable as it tive and adverse impact on biological and landscape could have been, as the major part of land transferred diversity. Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 57

• when soils are prepared for planting new forests, TABLE 1. Forest coverage (%) of administrative territorial units (oblasts) of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine within the the structure of their layers and ground litter is Dnipro Basin disturbed, forest restoration can also entail damaging the populations of forest species preserved Range of forest coverage (%) in wood-cutting areas; Country, oblast within the Dnipro Basina • conditions for the introduction of coenotically Minimum Maximum Average aggressive (invasive) non-forest species are created on mineralized soils; Belarus 10.1 65.9 40.1 1. Brest 23.1 50.1 34.1 • soils become more susceptible to water erosion; 2. Vitebsk 23.4 51.0 37.4 • the natural dynamics of restoring or forming for- 3. Gomel 22.8 65.9 45.1 est communities is interrupted and substituted 4. Minsk 10.1 51.7 37.8 with the artificial one, resulting in the termina- 5. Mogiliov 15.9 55.8 36.0 tion of the natural lifecycle of some succession- The Russian Federation 1.5 65.8 32.8 participating species; 1. Smolensk 11.1 56.4 36.3 • the populations of species characteristic of non- 2. Kaluga 41.5 58.3 48.6 3. Briansk 10.3 65.8 35.0 forest stages of vegetation dynamics are destroyed, 4. Oriol 10.9 31.6 21.3 ousted or suppressed; 5. Kursk 1.5 17.2 8.8 • when new forests are formed with the introduced 6. Belgorod 4.1 12.9 8.2 tree species, certain species whose gene pool is Ukraine 0.8 65.04 16.7 alien to the aboriginal biota may be implanted; 1. Vynnytsia 4.2 8.5 6.9 • the application of herbicides, insecticides, silvicides 2. Volyn 6.7 53.9 30.8 3. Dnipropetrovsk 2.1 11.3 4.6 and fertilizers leads to habitat contamination with 4. Donetsk 2.8 5.5 3.4 foreign substances of anthropogenic origin, some- 5. Zhytomyr 6.3 65.0 33.3 times threatening to the local species diversity; 6. Zaporizhzhia 2.8 5.5 4.0 • pestholes and disease nidi dangerous for the sur- 7. Kyiv 2.4 42.1 28.1 rounding forest ecosystems sometimes germinate 8. Kirovograd 3.2 17.4 8.6 9. Lviv 0.9 31.2 20.7 in the places where new forests are planted. 10. Mykolayiv 2.2 4.8 3.4 At the same time, forest restoration and forest grow- 11. Poltava 2.1 17.7 8.7 12. Rivne 5.8 61.0 36.6 ing (afforestation): 13. Sumy 3.1 82.4 17.3 • allow to restore or create forest ecosystems in 14. Ternopil 5.2 22.4 13.4 15. Kharkiv 2.4 17.2 8.3 previously forestless territories much faster than 16. Kherson 0.8 22.4 4.3 in natural successions; 17. Khmelnytsky 1.9 23.2 17.5 • ensure fast recovery and development of forest 18. Cherkassy 2.9 37.7 19.2 habitats stimulating the return and expansion of 19. Chernihiv 6.4 39.6 20.4 species belonging to forest biota complexes; aCalculations based on all districts (raions) within the oblast territory • facilitate the restoration of forest vegetation com- (see Fig. 1). For more details see expanded table in the full report. plexes and their growth (in the case of forest growing), as well as the enlargement of the area Thus, the formation of forest species is characterized of forest biotopes; by the following processes: • provide varied micro-conditions inside forest ecosystems favourable for the formation of forest • populations of non-forest species developed on biocoenoses (habitats) with diverse fauna and flora; the land plots allocated for afforestation are • lead to breaking the ploughed sub-soil layers either destroyed, ousted or suppressed; hardened by perennial agricultural use and pre- • new communities are formed, as a rule, with the cluding the growth of trees and coenoses (com- genetic material non-indigenous for the area and, munities)of soil organisms; therefore, having a lower adaptability, which • stimulate accelerated recovery and emergence of conditions a low stability of the new forest stand; the landscape composition of the elements repre- • species of the newly formed forest stand are of senting early stages of forest successive dynamics the same age, which is seldom the case in natural (natural and planted undergrowth) with innate forest communities; complexes of plant and animal species; • the newly-created forest stands frequently have a • increases the biotope diversity on previously homogeneous species and spatial composition, forestless lands; thus stands of similar composition prevail in the • sometimes nurtures the improvement of feeding total mass of produced forest species; reserves for phytophagans. 58 Pugachevsky et al.

Agricultural Afforestation Over the last years, the scale of planting soil and and Protective Forest Growing water protecting forest belts in Ukraine has been reduced to 300 hectares from 20-25 thousand hectares As components of agricultural landscapes and concen- in 1970-1980s because of inadequate funding. In view tration sites of plant and animal species belonging to of this situation, in February 2001 the Cabinet of Min- forest biota, forest improvement plantations are isters of Ukraine passed a resolution “On Priority Mea- widely spread in the Ukrainian and southern areas of sures to Plant Forests on Low-fertility Lands and in the Russian parts of the basin (in Oriol, Kursk and River Basins”. Belgorod oblasts). The percentage of field-protecting forests in the Economic development rate of the Ukrainian part of steppe zone of Ukraine does not meet modern require- the basin is 92%, its agricultural development rate being ments: as of 1.1.1996, it was only 2.2%. In accordance 72%. As a result, the soil productivity deteriorates, with the draft National Program of Land Protection, by while soils get extremely liable to erosion and degrada- the year 2010, the average percentage of forests in agri- tion. The area of washed-out land in the Ukrainian part cultural regions is to be increased to 3.7%. of the Dnipro Basin amounts to 12.3 million hectares, Protective forest plantations are accounted in the cal- whereas that of arable land – only to 10.2 million culation of optimal forest amount in individual regions of hectares (32.8%), and of lands susceptible to degrada- the basin. Thus, for the left-bank forest-steppe zone of tion – to 19.8 million hectares (54.2%). Over Ukraine it is estimated at 18%, for the right-bank forest- 1991-2000, annual losses of fertile soil layer caused by steppe zone – at 16%, for the northern steppe zone – at erosion and deflation in Ukraine were equal to 600 mil- 8%, including bank (32%), anti-erosion (28%), green- lion tons (including 20 million tons of humus). zone (13%), maintenance (8%), field-protection (6%), Forest-improving plantations create favourable con- roadside (1%) and other (12%) plantations. ditions for multi-industry agricultural development of The current reform in Ukraine’s agricultural sector the relevant agricultural landscapes and for increasing necessitates an urgent inventory taking of protective for- biodiversity. There are 1.4 million hectares of such plan- est plantations in order to determine their quantity and tations in Ukraine, including 432 thousand hectares of evaluate the effectiveness of their location and use for forest field-protection belts on plough land and about the designed purpose. 90 thousand hectares of water-regulating forest belts. Forest belts of Ukraine have the following composi- About 120 thousand hectares of plantations in tion: 31% - oak belts, 36% - black locust and robinia, Ukraine are situated along the banks of minor rivers 21% - ash, maple and elm. A great part of field protec- and on the shores of other water bodies. These forest tion (43%) and water protection (45%) plantations are plantations protect the water bodies from contamina- in a poor condition because of the negligence and disre- tion and volume reduction, improve water balance, and gard of the recommendations concerning their species preserve aquatic and littoral flora and fauna. Their sani- composition. A considerable number of field protection tary, hygienic and recreational significance cannot be belts (26%) need correcting, while 25.4% of them are in overestimated, either. a satisfactory condition. Only 39.1% of such plantations 960 thousand anti-erosion forest plantations helped meet the requirements set to effective agronomy. The to halt soil destruction and erosion in the regions where main reasons of the poor state of forest plantations are: they were most pronounced: in Kaniv dislocation, Don- wrong selection of species, ineffective agro-technical and bass region, Volyn-Podillia highlands, Middle Dnipro silvicultural maintenance, lack of proper control and Basin. Anti-erosion plantations on the slopes leading to responsibility at all stages of plantation growing and the hydrological network arrest soil washout and ero- guarding. Because of insufficient guarding, a lot of pro- sion, transfer the surface drainage of snow-melting and tective plantations suffer from unsanctioned and unregu- rain water into the sub-soil level, purify water of field lated cutting by the local population. drain ingredients and enhance the local rivers’ water In order to improve silvicultural and amelioration content in low-water seasons. indicators of belt plantations, their structure, and species Anti-erosion plantations are multifunctional: apart composition, correlation of basic and accompanying from playing their major role, they provide medicinal species should be brought into compliance with the and technical raw materials, mushrooms and berries, effective requirements. honey and its by-products, serve as habitats for plants The observation of forest belts in the southern steppe and animals, including rare and endangered species. zone showed that the amount of field protection forests However, land-improving forest plantations protect there is 2-3 times as little as the established standard, only 40% of the basin arable land and require special while the plantations themselves are in an extremely bad silvicultural measures aimed to enhance their ameliora- condition. Therefore, in the near future restoration felling tion functions and sustainability. and belt replacement may become necessary. Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 59

Improvement Felling, Selective Sanitary • deteriorating habitats and living conditions for and Other Types of Felling species pertaining to closed forests; • reduced diversity of species participating in the Improvement felling is a type of forestry activity, annually community dynamics; covering the largest forest area and taking the greatest • substitution of natural succession with the semi- amount of human and other resources in forestry enter- natural one; prises. Taking care of undergrowth, forestry specialists • removal from the forest stand of trees potentially ensure an optimal tree species composition in forest plan- capable of maintaining ecosystem’s sustainability tations. Later, severance felling and advance thinning are and enhancing its biodiversity; carried out to assure the quality of future timber harvest. • random damage caused in the course of felling to Besides, they allow to use timber which would otherwise the field layer with all its components; never be used; it would be treated as dropout and, under- • sporadic burn-down of natural forest vegetation going rotting and mineralization, would decompose. in the course of felling site cleaning, accompanied Selective sanitary felling is conducted in forest with the kill of many plant and animal organisms; stands, whenever necessary, depending on its condition, • contamination of habitats with oil products, in particular, on the presence of a great number of dry, lubricants or their combustion products left by sick or damaged trees. forestry equipment or transport vehicles; The improvement felling in the basin forests is fairly • mechanical damage caused to trees and under- large-scale: 650-700 thousand cubic meters of timber are growth in the cutting area; annually cut on 80-100 thousand hectares of the improve- • sometimes, weakened forest stand resistance to ment felling sites. Severance felling and advance thinning pests or forest diseases; is annually conducted on about 100 thousand hectares of • anxiety factor in the period of reproduction, forests with the cutting of 2.4-3.0 million cubic meters of breeding and raining young animals and birds. timber. Selective sanitary felling is also rather extensive: it annually affects 175-200 thousand hectares where On the other hand, these types of cutting can affect 2.5-3.0 million cubic meters of timber are cut. the forest positively. Among such positive influences are: Over the last years, though, the scale of improve- • decreased probability of massive propagation of ment felling in the Russian and Ukrainian parts of the forest pests and development of forest diseases; basin has decreased, remaining relatively stable in the • improvement of habitat conditions for light- Belorussian one. demanding and heat-loving species; Improvement, sanitary and other types of felling • better growing conditions for the most economi- inevitably change the forest community composition and cally valuable biodiversity components due to the environment conditions under the forest canopy. As a weakened competition with other species and result, the forest becomes better lit, ventilated and forest stand at large; heated by sunlight, the air humidity decreases, as well as • formed conditions for micro-successions at the the moisture content of ground litter and surface soil sites of storing and/or burning brushwood; layers. Thus the natural succession processes in forest • emerging micro-mosaic of new biotopes enhancing phytocoenosis are interrupted, part of surface phytomass biological diversity owing to the species requiring is removed, other felling-related changes occur. burnt or mineralized soils, slash piles or drifts. These types of felling have the following adverse impacts on biological and, to a lesser degree, landscape Forest Destruction and Final Sanitary Felling diversity: • change in the natural dynamics of forest stand Final sanitary felling is conducted in forest stands dam- composition resulting from felling; aged by pests, fires or windfall slash, affected by dis- • frequently observed transformation of mixed and eases, water regime change or other adverse factors, the uneven-aged forests into pure (unmixed) and stand condition leaving no hope for growing a high- even-aged ones; quality timber harvest by the time the trees reach their • practically complete removal from forest stand of main felling age. biologically useful trees: snags, den and wolf Final sanitary felling is not pre-planned, but carried trees, chatwood, etc., serving as habitats for out if the forest stand condition so demands. Its scale is numerous groups of insects, fungi, weeds, den- determined by the overall state of the forests and climatic nestling fauna species and alike; conditions of a given year. The decade of 1991-2001 • created conditions for the penetration of non-for- was marked with a series of wide-ranging unfavourable est invasive species into lower layers due to tem- conditions in the Dnipro Basin, such as: droughts that porary climate change under the forest canopy; struck large areas in all three riparian countries (1992, 60 Pugachevsky et al.

1994-1996, 2001), hurricanes, massive propagation of The scales of main felling in the basin forests are forest pests and spread of forest diseases. On average, in fairly large, though they decreased in the 1990s. On the the Dnipro Basin final sanitary felling is annually con- whole, 7.7 million cubic meters of timber are annually ducted on the area of 11-12 thousand hectares to cut cut in the basin forests in the course of main felling. In about 2 million (sometimes more) cubic meters of timber. 1991-1995, the scope of main felling was 9.2 million Over the analyzed period, the loss of forest planta- cubic meters. The rate of calculated wood-cutting area tions, accompanied with final sanitary felling, was development varies depending on the region and species increasing steadily. While in 1991-1995 the basin statis- groups. The calculated wood-cutting area is used by tics of forest stand loss amounted to 9.9 thousand 87%-98% in the forest-poor districts of Ukraine. The hectares, in 1996-2000 it grew to 21.2 thousand highest development rate is characteristic of coniferous hectares, which makes up, respectively, 0.080% and and, to a lesser degree, hard-leaved plantations. At the 0.170% of the total forest covered area. The rise in for- same time, 25%-60% of mature forest stands of soft- est stand loss was especially pronounced in the Russian leaved species (birch, aspen, alder, etc.) remain unused. (by 2.1 times) and Belorussian (1.6-fold) parts of the In Polessye administrative–territorial complex of basin. The scopes of final sanitary felling, understand- Russia, the use of calculated wood-cutting area over the ably, grew as well, reflecting the deterioration of forest last 5 years has been under 40%, and in Smolensk oblast condition caused by the climate change and negative nat- the development of mature small-leaved forest stand has ural phenomena it entailed: massive fir drying in the been as low as 15%-20%. northern areas of the Dnipro Basin, development of root The preservation of increasingly larger areas of old- rots in the stands of pine and fir trees, primarily, on the age forest stands is favourable for the flora and fauna lands previously used in agriculture, degradation of pro- diversity in the basin. tective plantations in the steppe and forest-steppe zones The most environmentally smooth types of felling and of flood-land oak forests throughout the basin terri- (selective and gradual) that are close to the natural pat- tory. Administration, management and economic prob- terns of forest dynamics are not widely used in the basin lems added to aggravate the situation even further. forests. Noteworthy are the good practice and activity of The main reasons for the forest loss in the 1990s some forestry enterprises in Belarus that use selective were unfavourable weather conditions (droughts and main felling. While in 1991-1995, selective and gradual hurricanes) affecting 34% of forest area, insects and felling was used annually on the area of 562 hectares to other forest pests (26.4% in 1996-2000) and forest fires cut, on the average, 45.6 thousand cubic meters of tim- (53.6% in 1991-1995 and 21.9% in 1996-2000). In ber, in 1996-2000 these types of felling were carried out effect, all of these factors are climate-determined. on the area of 1483 hectares cutting 104.3 thousand Forestry statistics in Belarus even refers the massive dry- cubic meters of wood, which makes up 12.3% of the ing of fir forests caused by timber beetle (Ips typogra- area and 4.2% of the scope of main felling in the phus L.) and other related insects to the category “Loss Belorussian part of the basin. resulting from unfavourable weather conditions”. Main felling leads to a number of negative conse- The mismanagement and ineffective practices of quences for the biological and landscape diversity in the forestry enterprises are also to blame for the increasing basin, including: loss of forests. Examples of inefficient practices include the domination of one species in the species composition • destruction of forest plant community in general, of forests, preference given to growing even-aged forest its disappearance from the forest landscape mosaic; stands of pure composition, lack of correspondence • fragmentation of forest areas; between the requirements to the cultivation of forest • death, displacement and suppression of coenotic trees and soil conditions, poor forest protection activity, populations of the majority of forest species that lack or ineffectiveness of monitoring systems. existed prior to the felling, especially of those Final sanitary felling has almost the same impact on characteristic of the advanced (mature) stages of fauna and flora components as main felling. The differ- forest dynamics, as the result of changing their ence is that the former is carried out in the earlier age of habitats; the forest stands, before they reach maturity. • higher probability of further degradation of habitats and growing conditions of forest species Main Felling resulting from water and wind erosion and swamping in respective areas; Main felling and forest restoration felling in the protec- • break in the dynamics of native and climax com- tion forest plantations, conducted as clear (final) felling, munity formation; have the greatest, most radical and wide-spread impact • cessation of the natural species rotation and its on forest ecosystems, on the diversity of their biological replacement with the artificial one accompanied components and on forest landscapes. with forest restoration by forest species production; Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 61

• shrinking areas of old-age forests; are registered annually in the three riparian countries’ • higher probability of developing degressive suc- forest reserve. The area affected by fires causing a dra- cessions when native and pioneer forest species matic damage to biotic complexes varies from 1450 (in are supplanted with weed and invasive ones; 2000) to 21,550 (in 1992) hectares. • destruction of habitats of numerous trees-related The research conducted within the project frame- species groups: birds, animals, insects, mush- work in the Belorussian part of the Dnipro Basin in rooms, epiphytic lichens, mosses, etc.; 2002 showed that the problem of forest fires is especially • withdrawal from substance and energy circula- pressing for dried and abandoned peat mines. Their for- tion in the forests ecosystem of the most essential est-growing conditions are unfavourable and forest circulation components: phytomass of trees or, at recovery is a rare practice. In drought-affected years they least, their trunks; often blaze up causing numerous environmental and eco- • complete or partial destruction of the field layer nomic problems. Peat land fires are difficult to extin- with all its components by heavy logging equip- guish. Very often, the most feasible way to use this cate- ment; gory of lands is their secondary swamping or • burning out (on individual spots or the entire transformation into wetlands. This option would be ben- wood-cutting area) of the natural forest flora eficial for biological and landscape diversity and, at the accompanied with the death of plant and animal same time, conducive to the decreasing release of green- organisms and their populations; house gases into the atmosphere. • contamination of the environment with oil prod- Fires result in the death of plants and animals, ucts or their combustion products; destruction of soil organics, interruption of the natural • mechanical damage caused to the remaining trees progress of plant successions. However, fires have some and undergrowth in the wood-cutting areas by positive impact as well. They create conditions for the logging equipment; development of a fairly large group of animals and plants • weakening of surrounding forest stands, sometimes – pyrophytes whose population require fire impact for conducive to the outbursts of forest pests popula- their development. Besides, fires are necessary for the tions and the development of forest diseases; development of a group of plant communities, in particu- • higher probability of windfall in the areas adja- lar native pine forests on mineral soils with medium cent to the wood-cutting ones; moisture content. Finally, forest fire-sites constitute • use of technologies incompatible with the fauna another component of landscape and biotope diversity. and flora conservation. Nevertheless, adverse impacts of forest fires prevail in the basin. The Dnipro Basin areas affected by fires are Main felling and final sanitary felling have similar sufficient for the development of species whose lifecycle impact on biota and landscapes, which can sometimes be is dependent on fires. On the average, about 4,900 forest positive and manifest itself in the following: fires occur on the area of 5300 hectares every year. • clearing of living space for developing the popu- Given that some fires are not registered by official statis- lations of species requiring open space for their tics, especially in the forests belonging to agricultural development; and defense enterprises, fire-sites of various ages are not • new potential for the realization of living strate- a rare type of forest biotopes. gies for the species and forms suppressed by the forest canopy; Forest Hydro-Technical Amelioration • emerging mosaic of new biotopes enhancing biological diversity owing to the species requiring Main forms of forest hydro-technical amelioration used burnt-out or mineralized soils; in the basin are bog reclamation with the aim of further • “renewal” and increased diversity of the succes- afforestation and drainage of swampy forests to increase sion dynamics of forest communities: emerging in the forest stand productivity. the landscape structure of the elements represent- The drainage (reclamation) is accompanied with the ing early stages of the forest succession dynamics lowering of the ground water table, accelerated evacua- (clearings, natural and planted undergrowth); tion of thaw and rain water, change in water and air • increased biotope diversity. regimes of peat deposits, and leads to the transformation of the forest plant communities in which adverse impact Fires on biological and landscape diversity predominates. Very often, although not always, an economic effect is Fires are among the most decisive factors having a sub- also achieved in the form of additional timber harvest. stantial, sometimes devastating impact on forest and Large-scale draining of the basin forest lands and wetland ecosystems. Depending on the weather condi- marshes was launched in the Belorussian and Ukrainian tions during the vegetation season, 28.5 thousand fires Polessye in the second half of the 19th century by the 62 Pugachevsky et al.

Western expedition led by I.I.Zhylinsky. The major • creation of favourable conditions for the inte- scope of work related to draining was performed in the grated development of forest species; 1960-1970s. By now, 438.6 thousand hectares of the • increased ecosystem productivity due to the basin forest reserve have been reclaimed by draining growth in reserves of all components of tree mass; (including 155.3 thousand hectares in the Belorussian • emerging of specific biotopes of open peat areas; part of the basin, 201.1 thousand hectares in the Ukrain- • appearing of numerous water biotopes (channels, ian and 82.2 thousand hectares in the Russian ones). drains, water bodies, etc.) conducive for the Draining causes a change in the whole set of factors diversification of aquatic and littoral species. determining the habitat conditions for forest phytocoenoses (plant communities): the existing wetland and Radioactive Pollution and Contamination forest communities are rearranged, the natural succes- of Forest Land and its Impact on Biological sion of forest and wetland phytocoenoses is interrupted, and Landscape Biodiversity anthropogenic post-amelioration successions are initiated, the composition and reserves of phytomass are According to the radiation monitoring data, the area of transformed. Some other changes linked with the con- the three riparian countries’ forest land contaminated struction and operation of forest hydro-technical amelio- with radionuclides is 4658.7 thousand hectares, or ration systems take place as well. 34.2% of the total forest-covered area of the Dnipro The above changes bring about consequences Basin. The largest areas of contaminated land (2616.1 unfavourable for the fauna, flora and landscape diversity thousand hectares) are found in the Ukrainian part of of the basin, such as: the basin, while the most contaminated (over 5 Curie per square kilometer) areas are concentrated in Belarus • death, displacement and suppression of popula- (495.1 thousand hectares). tions of the majority of hygrophilous species According to the effective norms and rules, forestry existing prior to amelioration (including rare and management and use in the areas with high radioactive endangered ones); contamination levels are restricted. Restrictions related to • destruction of the native wetland community in high radiation levels in forests have an overall favourable general, its disappearance from the existing land- impact on the biological and landscape diversity of the scape mosaic and replacement with the forest one; basin territories where forestry management is either sus- • extinction of feeding reserves for birds and ani- tained or considerably reduced in scope and intensity. As mals that need wetlands and marshes at different a result, natural ecosystems are restored and the natural periods of their life; successions are not interrupted by felling. Fire clearing of • degradation of berry-fields (cranberries, bog wood-cutting areas is banned in the territories with high whortleberries, cloudberries, red bilberries); contamination levels. The anxiety factor is either • higher probability of unpredictable collapse of removed altogether or significantly reduced. new communities under the extreme conditions The task of academics and forestry practitioners is of anthropogenic and natural origin; to maintain the high level of flora and fauna diversity of • interruption of the natural dynamics of wetland the forests that will return into a common use in the and forest-marshland communities; future as the radioactive contamination levels decrease. • higher probability of developing degressive successions when forest and wetland species are sup- Forest Categories and Territories planted by weed and invasive species; • cessation of peat formation; Categories of Forest Reserve Areas Most • release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere Valuable for Biological Diversity Conservation: caused by progressing peat decomposition; • higher fire risk in the areas of reclaimed (dried) Forest communities. upland native old-age oak forests peat mines; with a non-moral biotic complex of plants and animals; • deteriorating condition of forests on the adjacent flood-plain old-age oak forests; old-age hornbeam lands resulting from the passive drainage of areas forests; communities of maple and lime-tree forests; old- adjacent to the sites under forest hydro-technical age ash forests; old-age black alder forests with a biotic amelioration, which in some cases causes the out- complex of eutrophic bogs (marshes); old-age and bursts of forest pests populations and the devel- uneven-aged pine forests on dry sandy soils (including opment of forest diseases. on ancient and modern dune complexes); native old-age Among the positive outcomes are: and uneven-aged pine forests on oligotrophic (high) bogs; rare zonal native climax and sub-climax old-age • increasing amount of forests and expanding for- and uneven-aged fir forests; old-age fir forests in island est areas; locations beyond the main areas of fir distribution; tree Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 63

TABLE 2. Area of land under forest in the Dnipro Basin contaminated with radionuclides, thousand hectares

Contamination level, Curie/square km

1-5 5-15 15-40 40 and > Total The whole basin, thousand hectares 3898.5 485.9 238.7 35.7 4658.7 % of the forest-grown area 28.6 3.6 1.8 0.3 34.2 Belarus 1080.4 306.5 164.4 24.2 1575.5 % of the forest-grown area 19.5 5.5 3.0 0.4 28.4 The Russian Federation 339.0 98.6 27.4 2.2 467.2 % of the forest-grown area 12.1 3.5 1.0 0.1 16.7 Ukraine 2479.1 80.8 46.9 9.3 2616.1 % of the forest-grown area 46.9 1.5 0.9 0.2 49.5

communities with the participation of Karelian birch, • forest-wetland complexes of Olman marshes rare and valuable form of weeping birch; flood-land for- (Stolin district of Brest oblast and Lelchitsa district est communities of white and black poplar; mountainous of Gomel oblast) characterized with exceptionally forests with the participation of silver fir and beech. rare preservation condition and unique size; • forest-wetland complexes of the Berezina bios- Open woodland-shrub communities. juniper open wood- phere reserve area having an extremely rare land of Juniperus communis L.; willow thickets on river preservation condition and size. flood-lands; communities with domination of short birch (Betula humilis Schrank) on mesotrophic (transitory) bogs; Russia shrubs of Pontic azalea (Rodonendron luteum Sweet). The most valuable forest areas of the Russian part of the Wetland ecosystems. open eutrophic sedge bogs (includ- Dnipro Basin are: ing calciphilous marsh communities and acidophilous • forest massif (range) at the Dnipro headstream in eutrophic bog communities); oligitrophic sphagnum Kholm-Zhirkov district of Smolensk oblast; bogs; mesotrophic bogs (including grass communities • Briansk forest massif – an integrated forest with the domination of cotoon grass). ecosystem bordering on the steppe zone with the area of over 500 thousand hectares within the Belarus administrative borders of Briansk, Kaluga, Oriol and Sumy (Ukraine) oblasts; Forests and forest areas in the Dnipro Basin of special • forest massif located along the River Seim left significance for biological diversity conservation are as bank, between the towns of Rylsk and Lgov of follows: Kursk oblast; • flood-land forests in the valleys of the Prypiat • a group of forest massif on both banks of the and its tributaries, the Dnipro, Sozh, Berezina, Vorskla River in Belgorod oblast. Drut and Besed Rivers; • forest massif (range, system) of the Svisloch- Forest Legislation Efficiency in Belarus, Berezina interfluve area, unique for its preserved the Russian Federation and Ukraine complexes of broad-leaved forests; in Respect of Biological and Landscape • forest-wetland complexes of rare preservation Diversity Conservation condition in the Drut-Berezina interfluve; • unique in their composition and preservation As the three riparian countries are former Soviet Union condition forest and forest-wetland massifs of the republics, their legal frameworks regulating forestry man- Berezina biosphere reserve area and the “Pryp- agement and use are alike. Moreover, many of the rele- iat” National Park; vant legislative provisions have remained effective since • forest massifs of the Polessye radio-environmen- the times when the three countries belonged to one state. tal reserve area of unmatched research value and The division of the forest into groups and protection character of natural dynamics; categories, the forestry standards and rules, and the • forests of Kostiukovichi and Klimivichi districts industry regulations of the three countries are similar, of Mogiliov oblast, rare in their flora species whereas the regulatory differences are connected with composition and landscape structure; different environmental and climatic conditions, forms 64 Pugachevsky et al. of forest land ownership, advances in reforming the for- tems as FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) or PEFC (Pan- est industry and management systems. European Forest Certification). There is a substantial body of legislation regulating, directly and indirectly, the protection and use of forest Major Threats to Biological and fauna and flora. In the course of the project, 39 legisla- Landscape Diversity posed by tion instruments of the Russian Federation, 46 Ukrain- Forestry Management and Use ian and 52 Belorussian were analyzed. Legislative provisions concerning the conservation The most common problems posing threats to the con- of biological and landscape diversity are fragmented and servation of forest flora, fauna and landscape diversity in sometimes controversial. For the most part, they are not the Dnipro Basin are as follows: applied directly. Since they do not form a comprehensive consistent system, such norms do not secure proper legal 1. The lack or deficiency, in the forest industry legisla- guarantees for an effective protection, maintenance and tive framework, of norms directly providing for the sustainable use of forest biodiversity, perhaps, with the need to conserve and develop biological and land- only exception of regulations of hunting fauna species. scape diversity, to apply the principles of sustainable The effective regulations on managing forests of vari- forestry management and use. ous protection categories do not apply to the activities 2. Considerable area of land ineffectively drained in aimed at biodiversity conservation. However, they differ- the course of forest hydro-technical amelioration or entiate between economic activities in the forests of differ- dried as the result of agricultural land drainage in ent use, which has a positive, if indirect, impact on fauna, the forests, which increases forest fire risks and flora and landscape diversity. The efficiency of a devel- probability of forest stand destruction by biotic and oped system of protective forests and plantations, spe- abiotic factors (Belorussian and Ukrainian Polessye, cially protected areas and other categories of forest land Smolensk and Briansk oblasts). of predominantly environmental value is rather high. 3. Transfer into the state forest reserve of considerable As for the system of forestry management activities areas of abandoned peat mines and low fertility lands and forest use, it is not sufficiently regulated with regard removed from agricultural use where forest restoration to conserving individual components significant for bio- and forest growing is difficult (all territory of the diversity sustaining, namely: dead timber, dry, hollow, Belorussian part of the basin) but the fires are frequent. old-age and rare trees, bushes and shrubs, rare and even 4. Unsatisfactory practices, low economic efficiency and endangered species of undergrowth and grass layers, inconsistency of forest use in a great part of forests nests of birds and small mammals, minor water bodies managed by agricultural enterprises or located on and streams, transit zones, etc. reserve lands. Felling has a direct and most pronounced influence 5. Critically low percentage of forest area in separate on biodiversity. Therefore, the effective felling rules and administrative units in the northern and central parts instruction as well as sanitary standards should be of the basin, and entire regions in the forest-steppe urgently revised and amended. The implementation of and steppe zones; high fragmentation of forest areas. new felling regulations will facilitate biodiversity conser- 6. Slow introduction of forest certification in the forest vation and sustainable use. industries of the three countries conditioned by the The three countries’ legal regulations regarding industry personnel’s lack of understanding of the lands disturbed by extraction of mineral resources and forest certification phenomenon, insufficient activity transferred (returned) into the forest reserve are inflexi- of the state power bodies and NGOs in this sphere. ble. They rigidly determine the use of lands for a Shortage of available information in the national designed purpose, most commonly for afforestation, languages. thus restricting the possibilities for the forest industry 7. Slow introduction in the forest industry of systems, enterprises to use them in a more appropriate way, and methods and techniques facilitating the conservation entailing environmental threats and risks (for example, of biotope diversity (dead timber, brushwood, micro- of peat fires). biotopes, target specially protected areas, etc.). Forest certification is a powerful tool allowing to 8. Undeveloped (or underdeveloped) landscape and make forestry management and use more environmen- basin-wide approaches in designing, planning and tally friendly and effective. It is under way in each of the organizing forestry management and use activities. three riparian countries. Forest certification is critical, 9. Absolute domination of final main felling in the sys- regardless of its implementation method: through the tem of forest use. introduction of national patterns with the successive 10. Lack of an integrated approach to the forest use integration within the existing international forest certi- organization with due regard of the necessity to con- fication systems or through direct accession to such sys- serve biological and landscape diversity. Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 65

11. Occasional transformation of selective sanitary felling Forest Policy and Legislation into commercial field ones. 12. Increasingly frequent explosions of forest pest popu- 1. The forest industry legislative framework should be lations and spread of forest diseases due to the dete- revised and amended to include provisions of the riorating climate conditions, weakened sustainabil- necessity to conserve and develop biological and ity of tree mono-species, low efficiency of the forest landscape diversity. To this end, we propose the fol- protection system. This problem pertains, in particu- lowing: to draft and incorporate provisions on the lar, to Polessye administrative-territorial complex of conservation and restoration of biological and land- the Russian Federation where the planting of mono- scape diversity and on the application of sustainable species pine forests with low biological sustainabil- forestry management and use principles; to amplify ity on vast areas led to a massive infestation of tree the regional “Regulations for organizing and devel- plantations with pine fungus, especially on old- oping forest industry” and other documents on arable soils, and, eventually, to their degradation. forestry management in the Russian part of the basin 13. Dominating trend to grow coniferous species and with provisions on restoring forest biological and reduce the areas with broadleaved plantations, ori- landscape diversity, on preserving forest environmen- entation towards creating mono-species forests. tal and resource potential and on creating conditions 14. Absence of theoretically substantiated practice of for the conservation of flora and fauna populations; growing uneven-aged forest stands and insufficient to develop legislation instruments regulating the participation of mixed stands. norms of anthropogenic load (pressure) on the forest 15. Forest enterprises’ lacking materials on populations landscapes of different types, as well as the norms of rare and endangered plant and animal species and regimes of recreational forest use, etc. and their disregarding the need to conserve these 2. The process of introducing forest certification on the populations. national (Belarus and Ukraine) and regional (Russia) 16. Untimely receipt of information on the changing levels should be accelerated. Forestry management state of forests and its evaluation on the regional authorities, in cooperation with environmental level because of the absence of a forest monitoring NGOs and international organizations, should system or its operation at a lower capacity that the develop and implement a forest certification training rated one (refers, primarily, to the Russian part of program for the industry personnel, including the the basin and, to a lesser extent, to the Ukrainian publication of required training and awareness rais- and Belorussian ones). ing materials. The system of public ecological audit 17. Degradation of a considerable part of protection of the forestry management in the Dnipro Basin forest plantations in Ukraine, Kursk, Belgorod and forests should be further developed. Oriol oblasts of the Russian Federation leading to 3. In developing the national long-time governmental the loss of functional properties of these plantations policies of forest conservation and forest use, special and their biota diversity. attention should be paid to the cooperation with the 18. Repeated regrowth having an adverse impact on the private sector, non-governmental organizations, aca- oak forest sustainability in the forest-steppe zone of demic and research institutions, local population the Russian and Ukrainian parts of the basin, which, and local governments. coupled with the damage from forest pests and dis- 4. In developing the riparian countries’ forest policies, eases, in potential critical situations can cause their the principle of synergy of environmental conven- massive drying. tions (biodiversity, Ramsar, frame convention on 19. Low share of old-age (mature and overmature) plan- climate change, on fighting desertification/land tations in the forest reserve of the majority of the degradation, Arhuss conventions) should be applied. basin regions. 5. The principles of ministerial process of the Euro- 20. Critically high recreational load (pressure) on cer- pean forest conservation declared in the documents tain forest areas, especially those linked with rivers of the European Forest Ministers’ meetings in Stras- and water-bodies, and especially in the Ukrainian bourg, Helsinki and Lisbon should be implemented part of the basin. more consistently and systematically.

Strategic Recommendations Forestry Management and Use Practices

The following constitutes proposals for improving the 6. A regional (basin-wide) program or a set of coordi- environmental situation in Dnipro Basin forests, enhanc- nated national programs of using ineffectively ing their environmental functions, and conserving land- drained lands and/or lands disturbed with peat land scape and biodiversity. development, and of mitigating the adverse impact 66 Pugachevsky et al.

of a large-scale land drainage in the Dnipro Basin their condition assessment, on substantiated norms of should be developed and realized. recreational load and on functional zoning of recre- 7. A target sectoral program of afforestation of aban- ational forests should be designed with the account of doned peat mines and lands removed from agricul- these norms, networks of environmental routes and tural use should be developed and implemented. paths, etc. Environmentally friendly forms of forest 8. Management of the forests transferred from agricul- tourism and recreation should be broadly advertised. tural enterprises and those in their use should be ensured, and a target program of sustainable use of Environmental Protection Practices such forests should be developed. 18. Forest areas should be expanded as part of the envi- 9. An interstate basin-wide program of expanding for- ronmental reserves by establishing specially pro- est areas should be developed and realized. tected areas (reserve areas, preserves, national parks, 10. An interstate basin-wide target program (or a set of natural landmarks, etc.). Forests and forest districts coordinated national programs) of increasing envi- belonging to the natural and cultural heritage ronmental efficiency of forest industry should be should be identified, their environmental status developed and implemented. should be determined and appropriate methods of 11. Systems of forest area development should be forestry management selected. designed with due regard to the needs of conserving 19. The state power bodies in charge of the environmen- biological and landscape diversity (based on the tal protection and use of natural resources, in coop- principles of landscape development, key biotopes, eration with research and academic institutions, environmental corridors, wider use of mixed forests, should compile an inventory of habitats of plant and stimulating natural restoration, etc.). animal species subject to protection in accordance 12. Stock of protective plantations in the Dnipro Basin with the international and national environmental (particularly in the forest-steppe and steppe zones) legislation (Red Books and so on), design measures should be taken in order to assess their condition for their preservation and notify land users of their and to design activities aimed at their conservation respective obligations. They should also organize and enhancement of their functions and role in bio- training programs for forest industry employees and logical and landscape diversity conservation; an provide forest industry enterprises with the neces- interstate program of protective afforestation should sary methodological and reference materials. be developed. 20. A national Green Book of rare and endangered 13. Pilot projects with coordinated aims, content and plant communities of the Republic of Belarus and a location should be initiated in the three countries in regional one of the Russian Federation should be the field of sustainable forestry management and compiled by analogy with the Green Book published use. Later on, a basin-wide network of sample in Ukraine. forests for a model forestry management should be 21. Vulnerable forest ecosystems of the Dnipro Basin formed on the basis of the model forest ideology. By should be identified, their international cadastre way of implementing the Memorandum of Under- should be formed and recommendations on their standing between the Federal Forest Service of the protection and use regimes should be developed. Russian Federation and the Forest Service of Envi- ronment Canada (1994) within the Model Forest Research, Monitoring and Education Program, a model forest should be created on the basis of Briansk forest massif (range). 22. Based on the existing national and regional (in the 14. Environmentally acceptable forest harvesting tech- Russian Federation) forest monitoring systems, an nologies (assortment technology, selective felling, integrated basin-wide system should be set up in use of wheeled logging equipment) should be used order to ensure control of the biodiversity condition more broadly and intensively. and state of forest biological resources. 15. A concept of hunting management based on the 23. A coordinated (or joint) research program aimed at principles of landscape organization and sustainable the assessment of forestry management and use on development of forest areas should be developed flora, fauna and landscape diversity should be devel- and tested in model hunting forestries. oped as well as a series of activities to reduce and end 16. Theoretical principles and methodological recom- their adverse impact. Environmental and economic mendations on the use, protection and restoration of consequences of the extreme natural and anthropo- small ravine forests in the steppe zone (Ukraine) and logical factors that caused mass destruction of fir of flood-land forests (all countries) in the Dnipro forests, big forest fires, massive pine infection with Basin should be worked out. pine fungus and oak forest drying, and the impact of 17. A program of improving recreational use of forests, these factors on the Dnipro Basin biological and land- particularly those in the suburban zones, based on scape diversity should be thoroughly assessed. Analysis of Forestry Use and Management Practices 67

24. A unified scheme of the Dnipro Basin landscape dif- Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following ferentiation should be devised, and the basin land- Project Team members: scape, forestry, hunting, recreational and environ- Russia: A.I. Biziukov, S.I. Smirnov, A.S. Kremen; mental zoning should be carried out. Belarus: A.V. Pugachevsky (Project Manager), A.P. 25. Curricula of universities, colleges and other educa- Kulagin, A.A. Molozhavsky, N.A. Korotkevych; tional institutions training forest professionals Ukraine: V.R. Sheliag-Sosonko, V.P. Tkach, I.F. Buksha, should be amended to reflect the material on con- M.D. Grodzinsky serving and enhancing flora, fauna, landscape and water resources diversity in forest industry, forest Reference use and development. Pugachevsky AV, Tkach VP, Smirnov SI. 2003. Analysis of Acknowledgements forestry use and management practices in the context of landscape and biodiversity protection in the Dnipro This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.3.c of the Basin. Final report. Dnipro Environmental Project, Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC Kyiv, Ukraine. (In Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation Ensuring Public Participation and Support

Sergey A. Balashenko,1* Elena V. Laevskaya,1 Tamara I. Makarova,1 Viktoria E. Lizgaro,1 Alexander A. Shcherbina,2 Eugeniy E. Grigoriev3 and Vladimir A. Tarasenko4

1Faculty of Law, Belarus State University, 220004 Minsk, Belarus 2Scientific Research Centre “Commentary”, 220093 Minsk, Belarus 3Ministry of Economic Development of Russia, Moscow, Russia 4Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Reasources of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

The analysis and subsequent improvement of the legislative framework and institutional capacity of each of the three riparian countries in the sphere of preserving biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin, as well as a further harmonization of the three countries’ national environmental legislations seem to be high on the agenda. In the course of the Project, general and environmental legislation of the member-countries on biodiversity conservation was studied with a special focus on the legal instruments regulating the use and protection of individual natural systems and sub-systems (fauna, flora, water bodies), protection and preservation of endangered species and critical ecosystems, and natural reserve areas in the basin territory. Based on the research findings, recommendations were developed concerning the improvement and harmonization of the national legislations of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine.

Key words: environmental legislation, legal protection of biodiversity, Dnipro Basin

Introduction “Analysis of the Legislation of the Russian Federation Regulating the Practices of Preserving Biodiversity in the The Dnipro River is a trans-boundary system: 20% of its Dnipro Basin” and “Review of the Legislative and Regu- basin lies in the territory of the Russian Federation, 23% latory Frameworks of Ukraine Relating to the Protection - in the Republic of Belarus and the largest part – 55% - of Biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin”, and implemented in Ukraine. The significance of the river reaches beyond in accordance with the schedule and plan of activities the three riparian countries as it flows into an interna- under Project 5.2 of the UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Envi- tional water body – the Black Sea. ronment Program. It also embraces the materials of the On July 1, 1996 the environmental ministers of three International RTC Work Meeting held on April 22-23, countries (Belarus, Russia and Ukraine) met in Helsinki 2002 in Minsk and of the Third International Work to sign a joint statement declaring their respective coun- Meeting of the Biodiversity RTC that took place in tries’ commitment to contribute resources and take part Kharkiv on October 23-24, 2002. in the development and implementation of the Dnipro In the course of the Project, general and environ- Basin Environmental Program. That document testified mental legislation of the member-countries on biodiver- to the regional governments’ political will to fulfill their sity conservation was studied with a special focus on the obligations and cooperate in meeting common objectives. legal instruments regulating the use and protection of In view of the above, the analysis and subsequent individual natural systems and sub-systems (fauna, flora, improvement of the legislative framework and institu- water bodies), protection and preservation of endan- tional capacity of each of the three member-countries in gered species and critical ecosystems, natural reserve the sphere of preserving biodiversity in the Dnipro areas in the basin territory. Basin, as well as a further harmonization of the three Based on the research findings, recommendations countries’ national environmental legislations seem to were developed concerning the improvement and harmo- be high on the agenda. nization of the national legislations of the Republic of This project was designed on the basis of national Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. reports “Review of the Legislative and Regulatory Frameworks of the Republic of Belarus Regarding the International Law Instruments Protection of Biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin and the on Biological Diversity Protection Public Involvement in Environmental Activities”, 1. The Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and * Corresponding author; [email protected] Ukraine take part in the universal process launched

68 Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 69

by the decisions of the UN Conference on Environ- taking into account all rights over those resources and ment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992). The to technologies, and by appropriate funding. The Conference final document, Agenda for the 21st major principle proclaimed by the Convention is the Century (or Agenda 21), regards the preservation of recognition of each State’s sovereign right to exploit biological diversity as one of the major prerequisites their own resources pursuant to their own environ- of sustainable development. It sets forth the follow- mental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that ing objectives in this area: activities within their jurisdiction or control do not • Develop national strategies for the conservation cause damage to the environment of other States or of biological diversity and the sustainable use of of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. biological resources and integrate them into the Each state that acceded to the Convention com- national development strategies; mitted to take measures to ensure the conservation • Carry out country studies on the conservation of and sustainable use of biodiversity, the major of biological diversity; them being as follows: • Undertake long-term research into the impor- • Develop national strategies, plans or programs tance of biodiversity for the functioning of for the conservation and sustainable use of bio- ecosystems and the role of ecosystems in produc- logical diversity; ing goods, environmental services and other val- • Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, ues supporting sustainable development; the conservation and sustainable use of biological • Take effective economic, social and other appro- diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral priate incentive measures to encourage the conser- plans, programs and policies; vation of biological diversity and the sustainable • Identify components of biological diversity impor- use of biological resources, including the promo- tant for its conservation and sustainable use; tion of sustainable production systems, such as • Monitor, through sampling and other techniques, traditional methods of agriculture, agroforestry, the components of biological diversity paying par- forestry, range and wildlife management, which ticular attention to those requiring urgent conserva- use, maintain or increase biodiversity; tion measures and those which offer the greatest • Share in a fair and equitable way the benefits potential for sustainable use, and identify processes arising from the commercial and other utilization and categories of activities which have or are likely of biological and genetic resources among all to have significant adverse impacts on the conser- users, including indigenous peoples and local vation and sustainable use of biological diversity; communities; • Establish a system of protected areas or areas • Promote the protection of natural habitats in where special measures need to be taken to con- protected areas, including the environmentally serve biological diversity, rehabilitate and restore sound and sustainable development in areas adja- degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery cent to protected areas; of threatened species; • Promote the rehabilitation and restoration of • Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage damaged ecosystems and the recovery of threat- or control the risks associated with the use and ened and endangered species; release of living modified organisms resulting • Develop methods of sustainable use of biotechnol- from biotechnology; ogy and transfer technology to other Contracting • Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate Parties, particularly, to developing countries. those alien species which threaten ecosystems, 2. A decisive step forward was made in promoting the habitats or species; conservation of biodiversity when the Convention on • Recognize and foster the traditional methods and Biological Diversity was open to signing on June 5, the knowledge of indigenous people and their 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and communities relevant to the conservation of bio- Development in Rio de Janeiro. The Republic of logical diversity and the sustainable use of bio- Belarus was among 140 countries of the world that logical resources; signed the Convention on June 5, 1992. On June 10, • Develop or maintain necessary legislation and/or 1993 Belarus ratified it. The Russian Federation and other regulatory provisions for the protection of Ukraine also signed and ratified the Convention. The threatened species and populations; objectives of the Convention are: the conservation of • Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its compo- components of biological diversity (i.e. the con- nents and the fair and equitable sharing of the bene- servation of components of biological diversity fits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, outside their natural habitats); including by appropriate access to genetic resources • Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilita- and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, tion of threatened species and for their reintro- 70 Balashenko et al.

duction into their natural habitats under appro- The Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and priate conditions; Ukraine also cooperate within other conventions on bio- • Adopt measures relating to the use of biological diversity conservation: Convention on International resources to avoid or minimize adverse impacts Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora on biological diversity. (CITES), Convention Concerning the Protection of the 3. In 1971, the Convention on Wetlands of Interna- World Cultural and Natural Heritage adopted in 1972 tional Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat at the UNESCO General Conference in Paris. In 1992, was signed in the city of Ramsar (Iran), and, thus, is the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and commonly referred to as the Ramsar Convention. Ukraine signed an Agreement on Cooperation in the The major aim of the Convention is to identify, des- Sphere of Environmental Protection and Ecology. ignate and conserve the most valuable wetlands According to Article 2 of this Agreement, the Parties (marsh, fen, peatland, lakes, areas of marine water, pledged to “take measures facilitating the reproduction stretches of river basins), irrespective of their geo- of living resources, conservation and restoration of bio- graphical location, that have, according to a number logical diversity”. of criteria, the status of lands of international Given a special role the Dnipro Basin has to play in importance. The criteria determining the importance the conservation of biological diversity, it seems advis- of wetlands suggest that these lands should be typi- able that an international agreement on biodiversity cal or unique for their respective area, play an essen- preservation in the Dnipro Basin be drafted and signed tial role in maintaining biological diversity and be by the interested parties. The Dnipro Basin is a holistic regularly visited by big flocks of waterfowl. Wet- natural-and-economic system; therefore a basin-wide lands designation as “having international impor- approach should be adopted to the activities affecting its tance” and their inclusion into the List of Wetlands environmental state. The riparian countries’ administra- of International Importance means that the State tive borders do not coincide with those of river basins, undertakes responsibility for facilitating the preser- and the natural river water is the property of the ripar- vation and sustainable use of wetlands and for the ian nations. The rehabilitation, protection and sustain- conservation, management and wise use of migra- able use of the Dnipro Basin located in the territory of tory stocks of waterfowl. The major areas of activity the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and under the Convention are: Ukraine constitute an important and urgent task, which • development, revision and implementation of cri- can never be performed without a close cooperation of teria for designating the most valuable wetlands; these three states under an international agreement. The • development of legal frameworks for designating, need for a coordinated policy of joint use and protection conserving and using the most valuable wetlands; of water resources on the basis of such an agreement is • wetland stock-taking and research; conditioned by the national governments’ commitments • conservation of wetlands and waterfowl; to improve the living standards of the population, to • monitoring of the most valuable wetlands, ensure the conservation and rehabilitation of the Dnipro exchange of data and publications regarding wet- River and related ecosystems, as well as by the demands lands and their flora and fauna among the Con- of economic development of the three countries. The tracting Parties of the Convention. agreement in question is to establish the following fundamental cooperation principles: The former USSR acceded to the Convention in 1975. A special Resolution of the USSR Council of Min- • ensuring the ecologically and environmentally sus- isters was passed to designate 12 wetlands of interna- tainable use and protection of water resources; tional importance. The Russian Federation, as a legal • preventing, limiting and reducing water contami- successor to the USSR, continues to fulfill its obligations nation for priority provision of the population under the Convention. Thus, the Russian government, with high-quality drinking water; by a relevant resolution, expanded the list of wetlands of • maintaining and rehabilitating, when necessary, international significance. It designated 35 such wet- water and related ecosystems; lands, including 3 formerly selected for the List. In the • barring, in the countries’ respective territories, Republic of Belarus, on May 25, 1999, the President unilateral actions detrimental to the other Con- issued a Decree recognizing the country’s legal succes- tracting Parties’ interests; sion in respect of the Convention on Wetlands of Inter- • envisaging environmental responsibility for the national Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat. In breach of the agreement; Ukraine, wetlands of international importance were also • promoting the introduction, in the countries’ officially designated to include the following: “the Pryp- respective territories, of environmental insur- iat’ Valley” (12,000 hectares) and “the Stokhod Valley” ance systems in compliance with the national (10,000 hectares) on the Stokhod River. legislations with a view to enhancing environ- Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 71

mental safety of production and creating favor- mineral resources, water, flora and fauna, atmospheric able conditions for life and economic activities air) and regulating each of these separately. The three of the population. countries’ effective legislation has such branches as land, water, forest (legal treatment of flora), mining (legal The agreement will become a step forward in the treatment of subsoil assets) and fauna (legal treatment of implementation of the UN/ECE Convention on the Pro- wildlife) law, as well as legal protection of atmospheric tection of Transboundary Watercourses and Interna- air. The above classification evolved within the Soviet tional Lakes (1992). legislation and was objectively determined by the underdevelopment of the conservational aspects of environ- National Legislations of the Russian Federation, mental relations in the 1960-1970s (when the legislation the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine on on natural resources was adopted), on the one hand, and Conservation and Sustainable Use of by the non-existence of the very notion of “biological Biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin diversity” in the national legislations, on the other. Thus, the participating countries lack comprehensive leg- National Strategies to islations regulating biodiversity protection, while the Conserve Biological Diversity national environmental laws do not define the category of “biodiversity” in legal terms. That is why the analysis By way of fulfilling its international obligations, the of the Dnipro Basin biodiversity legislation necessarily Republic of Belarus developed the draft National Strat- included the study of laws of the Russian Federation, the egy and Action Plan of Conservation and Sustainable Republic of Belarus and Ukraine on environmental pro- Use of Biological Diversity. These documents were tection and regulatory instruments regarding the protec- approved by Resolution #789 of the Council of Minis- tion of separate natural features: fauna and flora, water, ters of the Republic of Belarus dated 26 June 1997. The rare and endangered plant and animal species, specially National Strategy of Conservation and Sustainable Use protected areas. of Biological Diversity provides for a number of priority environmental measures, including: conducting national study and assessment of biodiversity status; creating con- Legislation of the Russian Federation the ditions for the restoration of ecosystems and endangered Republic of Belarus and Ukraine biological species; expanding the system of protected on Natural Resources areas to conserve biological diversity; adopting legislative framework for the protection of endangered species. Legal protection of fauna. Of special importance for the The latter measure is of particular interest since it is conservation of biological diversity are the provisions of unprecedented in the national legislative history of the laws and other regulatory acts on the protection and use Russian Federation, Belarus and Ukraine. In Ukraine, of fauna. The Preamble of the Law of the Republic of Resolution #439 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 12 May Belarus “On Protection and Use of Fauna” of 19 Sep- 1997 approved the Concept of Biodiversity Conserva- tember 1996 stipulates that “fauna of the Republic of tion in Ukraine. In the Russian Federation, the National Belarus is an indispensable component of the environ- Strategy of Conserving Biological Diversity as part of the ment and of the Earth’s biodiversity; it is a renewable, National Strategy of Sustainable Development was elab- protected natural resource in need of sustainable use”. orated in 2002. Article 1 of the Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Fauna” defines the notion “biological diversity of Laws on Environmental Protection fauna” as the diversity “of components of fauna within one species, across species and in ecological systems”. The evaluation of legislative framework in support of The Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Protection and biological diversity in the Dnipro Basin in terms of its Use of Fauna” does not offer such a definition, but it compliance with the Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian contains certain provisions concerning the legal status national legislations is a difficult and complicated mat- and treatment of habitats of biodiversity components. ter, since these countries have no integrated systems in Article 1 of the Belorussian Law defines the cate- place for regulating this multifaceted natural system. The gories “fauna” and “components of fauna” that have legislation on natural resources has traditionally regu- different meanings. These norms seem to need amend- lated the issues of use and protection of separate natural ing. Article 9 of the Law reads that “local Councils features or sites. The environmental legislation systems within their competence shall address the issues of using of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine have a propensity for an fauna components under their jurisdiction”. It remains approach based on “natural resources”. In other words, unclear in what way local Councils can use animals in the environmental legislation is classified on the basis of private or collective property (as the category “fauna dividing the environment into natural features (land, components” would include animals withdrawn from 72 Balashenko et al. their natural habitats). Article 7 (Section II “Public (Article 21); conservation of habitats of fauna compo- Administration in the Sphere of Fauna Protection and nents (Article 22); protection of rare, threatened and Use”) establishes five basic principles of public adminis- endangered fauna components (Article 24). In order to tration in the sphere of protection and sustainable use of use fauna components, legal entities need long-term fauna (e.g. ensuring that fauna is used in a fashion licenses (issued on a competitive basis, whenever excluding violent treatment of animals, humane attitude demand is high), while individuals need a single regis- to fauna, etc). It is obvious, though, that the principles tered license. The licenses indicate the terms of use (Arti- cited above are not, in essence, principles of public cle 33), namely: kinds of use, list of fauna components in administration. Furthermore, Section III entitled “Pro- use, boundaries of the territory of use, and the time- tection of Fauna” regulates, inter alia, rights and respon- frames of use. Besides, the Law lists the kinds of use of sibilities of the officials of specially authorized state bod- fauna components (Article 34). Economic regulation ies of fauna protection and use (see Articles 32-35). (Article 50) envisions the following: establishing and reg- Whereas there is no doubt that the social and economic ulating economic relations, stock-taking and economic security of the latter is essential, Section III still does not assessment of fauna resources; forming a system of pay- seem an appropriate place for incorporating such provi- ments for the use of fauna, a system of fines and claims; sions. Relations regulated in the respective articles are safeguarding economic interests of the state; protecting not relations of fauna protection and use, and the use of economic interests of fauna users. Further improvement weapons against people has nothing to do with hunting. of legislation on fauna will involve the passage of the According to Article 36 of the Law under consideration, Law of the Russian Federation “On Fishing and Protec- “fauna users can be individuals and legal entities of all tion of Aquatic Biological Resources” and of a series of forms of ownership, including foreign ones, foreign federal laws on conservation and use of sturgeon states and international organizations”. It seems neces- (Acipenseridae) and salmon (Salmonidae) species, as well sary to delete foreign states from the above list of fauna as of other valuable aquatic biological resources. users. The Law also sets up minimum terms of leasing The application in the riparian countries of a model hunting and fishing areas at 10 and 15 years, corre- law “On Fauna” approved on 8 June 1997 by the Inter- spondingly, which norm contradicts the provisions of national Assembly of the CIS member-states will be con- Article 59, as the right to use fauna is subject to termina- ducive to the harmonization of the Dnipro Basin coun- tion or limitation even in the case when the need for tries’ legislation on fauna. such use ceases to exist or the right to use is surrendered. Equally arguable are the provisions of Article 63, Section Legal protection of flora. Flora, with its variety of V, under which the system of payments for the use of species and areas of growing, is defined in the environ- fauna comprises fines and court claims for the violation mental legislation of the three riparian countries as a of legislation on fauna protection and use and for exces- separate object of legal protection. At the same time, sive withdrawal of fauna components from their habi- member-countries’ Forest Codes regulate only some rela- tats. The distinction should be drawn between the tions pertaining to the protection and use of flora. How- notions of “payments” and “sanctions for non-compli- ever forests and flora should not be regarded as equiva- ance”, to which fines should be referred. lents, as there is a certain relation of subordination Thus, numerous norms and provisions of the Law of between them. Forest should be viewed as a part of the Republic of Belarus “On Protection and Use of flora. As matters stand, forest law regulates relations in Fauna” need revising and amending, which will be bene- respect of forest tree vegetation (lignosa). As for flora ficial for the conservation and protection of biodiversity outside forests, its protection and use are regulated in an components. unsystematic, fragmentary manner in the legislation on The Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On land, water, mineral resources and specially protected Fauna” determines property rights in respect of fauna areas. It is doubtful that the above manage to cover the components (Article 4). The Law provides for the keep- entire spectrum of plants that do not belong to forest ing of state inventory of fauna components and their vegetation. In Ukraine, the Law “On Flora” was use, as well as for the introduction of the state cadastre adopted in 1999 to regulate relations in the sphere of of fauna components and state monitoring thereof (Arti- protection, use and restoration of Ukraine’s flora. cle 15). The protection and use of fauna components is According to this Law, the following requirements carried out based on the established limits, standards, should be met in undertaking activities affecting flora: norms and rules (Article 17). The legal protection of conservation of natural geographical, species, population fauna components includes: development and implemen- and coenotic diversity of flora; conservation of natural tation of state programs of protecting and using fauna habitats of wild plants and original plant communities; components (Article 18); organization and management sustainable and scientifically justifiable use of natural of fauna protection (Article 19); establishment of restric- plant resources; practical measures aimed to restore flora tions and prohibitions for the use of fauna components components (Article 5). Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 73

The following flora protection measures are fore- or the Code on Administrative Infractions of the Repub- seen in the Law: lic of Belarus, for example) ever mentions the notion of “the CIS Red Book”. Therefore this notion (the CIS Red • establishing norms and rules of the protection, Book) should be introduced into the national legislations use and restoration of flora components; of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and • prohibiting and limiting the use of natural plant Ukraine. The entering of certain plant or animal species resources when necessary; into the national Red Books has the following conse- • conducting environmental assessment and taking quences: universal withdrawal of the corresponding other steps to prevent damaging flora compo- species from economic circulation; complete prohibition nents in the course of economic activities; of picking, storing, shooting and entrapping animals, • protecting land grown with flora components gathering fruit, destroying plans or other such actions from erosion, mudflows, floods, waterlogging, jeopardizing rare or endangered species or changing eutrophication, salinization, soil drought, solidifi- their natural habitats. Users of natural resources are in cation, littering, contamination with industrial charge of special protection of these species, while enter- and municipal waste and discharges, with chemi- prises, institutions and individuals are responsible under cal and radioactive substances, etc; law for their illegal acquisition or destruction. The pro- • creating components of natural reserve stock; cedure of issuing licenses for the acquisition (collection) • organizing research that facilitates the conserva- of animals and plants belonging to the species included tion and restoration of flora components; into the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus was • developing an information system on flora com- adopted by the Collegium of the State Committee of the ponents and raising public awareness of the Republic of Belarus for Environment on 1 March 1993. necessity to protect them; In the Republic of Belarus, such licenses are issued only • establishing a state inventory system of flora to legal entities. Applications from individuals for components and conducting state monitoring of licenses for the acquisition (collection) of rare animals flora protection, use and restoration; and plants are not accepted or considered. • entering rare and endangered plant species into the Red Book of Ukraine, and rare plant commu- Legal treatment of specially protected areas. On of the nities – into the Green Book of Ukraine; areas of activity under the Convention on Biological • envisaging responsibility under law for breaking Diversity is “establishing a system of protected areas, the rules of protecting and using natural plant rehabilitating and restoring degraded ecosystems”. resources (Article 26). Some of the Dnipro tributaries flow in the territory In the Republic of Belarus, a draft law “On Flora” of the Republic of Belarus, namely: the Berezina, Pryp- was passed in the first reading in December 2002. In the iat’, Desna, Psiol, Vorskla and Ingulets. Part of the Russian Federation, these relations are not regulated by Berezina River belongs to Berezinsky biosphere reserve. law. Therefore, there is a need for the Republic of Prypiat’ national park has been created in the country. Belarus and the Russian Federation to adopt their In 1991, the outcropping of an interglacial peat-bog national laws “On Flora”. “Nizhninsky Rov” on the Dnipro left bank in Mogiliov Oblast was declared a natural landmark. Several reserve Legal protection of rare and endangered species. areas are located in the Dnipro Basin on the territory of According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ukraine. These are: Dnipro-Orelsky nature reserve one of the measures promoting the conservation and sus- (3,766 hectares) and Kanivsky reserve (2.027 hectares). tainable use of biodiversity to be taken by all Parties to Desna-Starohutsky national park has been established the Convention is the development and implementation on the River Desna, the Dnipro tributary. Regional land- of legislation and other regulations with a view to pro- scape parks have been created in the low flows of the tecting threatened and endangered species and popula- Dnipro – “Kinburnska Kosa” (17,890 hectares) – and of tions. The notion of “rare and endangered species” is the Prypiat’ – Prypiat’-Stokhod (22,628 hectares). The defined in the Agreement on a Book of Rare and Endan- legal status of the above areas is regulated by the Law of gered Animal and Plant Species – Red Book of the CIS the Republic of Belarus “On Specially Protected Areas” Member-States dated 23 June 1995, the Republic of of 1994, amended on 23 May 2000, by the Law of the Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine participat- Russian Federation “On Specially Protected Areas” ing in this Agreement as the CIS member-states. How- dated 15 February 1995 and by the Law of Ukraine “On ever the entering of certain plant or animal species into Natural Reserve Stock of Ukraine”. the CIS Red Book has no legal implications, i.e. does not Biosphere reserves: The major aims of setting up entail any limitation of their use, being a mere formality. biosphere reserves is an on-going environmental moni- The reason is that not a single regulatory instrument toring, unusual for other types of reserves. In the case of (including the Criminal Code of the Republic of Belarus biosphere reserves, attention is focused on constant 74 Balashenko et al.

observation of anthropogenic changes in the environ- vehicle traffic out of roads, except for the vehicles ment, their study and forecasting. In this regard, bios- engaged in agricultural and forest management works; phere reserves, being sites of the least affected environ- felling of major use trees and grazing cattle in places des- ment, serve as a background, and as a benchmark ignated in the Regulations. The construction of buildings against which deviations from the established standards and houses, electric power lines, roads, pipelines and of environment quality in adjacent areas are assessed. other engineering communications, development and The above is important for the Republic of Belarus exploitation of common mineral resources in the terri- because the only natural reserve area in this country is tory of preserves for internal needs can be carried out in Berezinsky biosphere reserve. As the biosphere reserves strict compliance with the legislation of the Republic of have far broader and more diverse functions that the Belarus and upon approval of the Ministry of Natural other reserve areas, the usual practice is to divide them Resources and Environmental Protection of the Republic into several sections (zones) each performing its specific of Belarus and Ministry of Architecture and Construc- functions. Thus, the legal treatment of biosphere reserves tion of the Republic of Belarus. The preserve establish- also should be different from that of other types of ment in a certain territory does not suppose the confisca- reserve areas, and as such it should be regulated by the tion of land plots from their land users. The land users Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Specially Protected whose land plots are included into the territory of Areas”. The Law should make a provision stipulating “Dnipro-Sozhsky” preserve are to observe the rules and that biosphere reserves are environmental institutions of regulations regarding the preserve and use environmen- international importance. Their legal treatment should tally friendly technologies. be specific in that it should provide for a functional zon- The Law of the Russian Federation “On Specially ing of their territory, which is inadmissible for the other Protected Areas” establishes several categories and types types of reserve areas. The Law of the Russian Federa- of specially protected areas depending on their specific tion “On Specially Protected Areas” of 15 February regimes and the status of environmental institutions con- 1995 defines the status of state natural biosphere tained within their territory (Article 2). The largest and reserves as “reserve areas included into the international most essential categories, forming the structure of spe- system of biosphere reserves conducting the global envi- cially protected areas, are represented by the state nat- ronmental monitoring” (Article 10). The Law of Ukraine ural reserves, including biosphere ones, and national “On Natural Reserve Stock of Ukraine” contains a spe- parks. Other categories are: natural parks, state natural cial section entitled “Biosphere Reserves”, which deter- preserves, natural landmarks, dendrological parks and mines the status and objectives of biosphere reserves, botanic gardens, recreational areas and resorts. Pro- their territory structure and management procedures. tected zones with a regulated regime of economic activ- Another common type of specially protected areas is ity can be created in the lands or water surface areas a preserve. The legislation defines preserves as “territories adjacent to specially protected areas. Within specially under protection established in order to conserve, reha- protected areas, special protection regimes are estab- bilitate and restore natural complexes and sites, natural lished to ensure that the functions of the relevant cate- resources of one or several types in combination with a gories and types of specially protected areas are duly ful- limited and coordinated use of other natural resources”. filled and their objectives are met. Any activities The Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Repub- breaching the established regime are prohibited in spe- lic of Belarus dated 5 August 1999 established the cially protected areas; sometimes any human interference national biological preserve “Dnipro-Sozhsky”. Accord- into natural processes is excluded (Articles 9, 15, 21, 24, ing to Item 1 of the Regulations on the National Biologi- 27, 29, 32). Administrative responsibility for the breach cal Preserve “Dnipro-Sozhsky”, it was formed to con- of the established regime of specially protected areas serve valuable forest formations and meadow envisages fines amounting from one to forty non-taxable communities with complexes of rare and endangered minimum personal incomes; criminal responsibility is plant and animal species entered into the Red Book of also foreseen. In any case, the damage is to be indemni- the Republic of Belarus. The following activities are pro- fied (Article 36). hibited in its territory: irrigation, drainage and other operations leading to the change of natural landscapes Legal treatment of territories contaminated with and existing hydrological regime; disturbance of natural radionuclides. Apart from specially protected areas soil continuum, with the exception of parcels of agricul- established with the purpose of biological diversity pro- tural land, and of cases connected with forest manage- tection from adverse anthropogenic impact, there are a ment activities; burnout of dry vegetation and fire slash number of other territories with a special regime. Given removal; discharge of untreated or under-treated waste that since 1986 the Dnipro Basin in the lower flow of water, industrial and consumer waste into water bodies the river has been exposed to radioactive contamination, and watercourses; setting up stationary tourist camps, such territories include the zone of compulsory evacua- fires and parking lots in non-assigned places; motor tion and the isolation zone set up after the Chernobyl Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 75 accident. The isolation zone has the area of about 170 administration’s permission and upon approval of the thousand hectares; it is part of Polessye radiation-envi- Ministry for Emergency Situations. ronmental reserve, the legal status of which is deter- The legislation regulating the legal status of the terri- mined in the Regulations on Polessye State Radiation- tories subjected to radioactive contamination needs spe- Environmental Reserve approved by the Order of the cial consideration. In the Republic of Belarus, the core of Ministry for Emergency Situations and Protection of the this legislative framework is the Law “On Legal Status of Population from the Consequences of the Chernobyl Territories Subjected to Radioactive Contamination Accident of the Republic of Belarus dated 5 August Resulting from the Chernobyl NPP Accident” adopted on 1995. This reserve is set up to prevent the radionuclide 12 November 1991 and amended on 12 May 1999. The transport beyond the contaminated zones, to maintain Law establishes the legal status of the territories in the environmental balance of natural systems, to conduct Republic of Belarus that have been exposed to radioac- radiation-and-environmental monitoring of flora and tive contamination since the Chernobyl accident; it aims fauna, to carry out radio-biological research and to to reduce the radiation impact on the population and develop principles of sustainable use of natural resources ecological systems, to promote rehabilitation and restora- and environmental protection. The reserve is an environ- tion activities, to ensure sustainable use of the natural, mental research institution of national importance with economic and research potential of the area. The follow- a special land use regime (Item 1.2). Land of the reserve ing criteria are used to classify the territories subjected to is under conservation. The types of activities allowed radioactive contamination: here are aimed at ensuring radiological safety of the ter- 1. suitability for human residency (mean annual effec- ritory, environmental protection, research and experi- tive dose of people’s exposure to radiation); mental work; limited economic activities are allowed in 2. level of radioactive contamination of the territory specifically assigned plots to satisfy the internal needs of (density of radioactive contamination); the reserve. The conservation of biodiversity was one of 3. possibility of obtaining products in which the con- the objectives of establishing Polessye radiation-envi- tent of radionuclides does not exceed the nationally ronmental reserve (Item 2.1). Any transfer of land into established maximum admissible levels (agricultural temporary use, removal of soil, mineral resources and and forestry produce, peat, water and other kinds of other values from the territory of the reserve are prohib- products and raw materials). ited unless sanctioned by its administration and approved by the Ministry for Emergency Situations of According to Article 3 of the Law, the territory con- the Republic of Belarus. It should be noted, however, taminated with radionuclides is part of the territory of that the institution and the territory in question should the Republic of Belarus where a long-term environment not have been granted the status of “environmental” contamination with radionuclides occurred as the result because the aims and objectives of this reserve differ of the accident at the Chernobyl NPP, the density of soil from those of the other reserve areas. The entire terri- contamination with radionuclides of Caesium-137, tory of the reserve lies within the zone of compulsory Strontium-90 or Plutonium-238, 239 and 240 being, evacuation and isolation, surrounding the Chernobyl respectively, 1.0; 0.15 and 0.01 Curie per square kilome- NPP. These zones are protected by the reserve guards ter or higher; as well as other territories where the mean and officers of the Ministry of Interior against unsanc- annual effective dose of people’s exposure to radiation tioned trespassing by people, all land transportation can exceed the natural or technogenic background level means and other vehicles. All activities are strictly regu- by 1.0 m3b per year, and the territories where it is lated. For example, the following is prohibited in the impossible to obtain products with the concentration of reserve territory: permanent residing of the population; radionuclides below the admissible levels. unsanctioned stay of people, unsanctioned entry of all transportation means and other vehicles; timber float- Legal regulation of water protection; legal treatment of ing; all economic activities unrelated to the reserve riverbanks and water protection zones. The Preamble objectives (except for specifically assigned plots used for to the Water Code of the Russian Federation emphasizes the internal needs of the reserve); any activity that is that “water provides necessary conditions for the exis- directly or indirectly harmful to the natural complexes; tence of flora and fauna”, in other words, the existence employing individuals without required medical certifi- of biological diversity. This provision is made in Article cates or their consent; unsanctioned removal of materi- 3, which defines the conservation of biological diversity als and constructions, machines and equipment, individ- of water ecosystems as one of the essential objectives of uals’ personal belongings, timber, soil, peat, loam, sand the national legislation on water. This legislation also and other mineral resources, plant-growing produce, regulates relations concerning forests, flora and fauna medicinal herbs, mushrooms, berries and other by-prod- arising in the course of use and protection of water bod- ucts (except for research samples). All types of activities ies, to the extent necessary for the sustainable use and in the reserve territory can only be carried out with its protection of water objects (Article 5). The Preamble to 76 Balashenko et al.

Water Code of the Republic of Belarus stipulates that its ing risk of producing uncontrollable organisms with main aim is to create conditions for sustainable use and unpredictable characteristics and, consequently, is pos- protection of water resources, rehabilitation of water ing a threat to biodiversity. bodies, conservation and improvement of water ecosys- The Law mentioned above regulates relations in the tems. However, the effective legislation should be further sphere of the use of natural resources, environmental amended to regulate in a greater detail all issues relating protection and ensuring environmental security that to riversides and water protection zones, particularly in arise in connection with gene-engineering activities (Arti- respect of preserving biological diversity in the Dnipro cle 1). Among the main areas of state regulation are: a) Basin. Water protection zones are created to prevent the improvement of living conditions of human beings and contamination, littering and exhaustion of water bodies, human healthcare; b) environmental protection and to conserve the flora and fauna habitats on the land rehabilitation, conservation of biological diversity (Arti- adjacent to watercourse channels or other water bodies cle 5). According to the Law, in conducting genetic engi- (Article 77 of the Water Code of the Republic of neering activities the biological and physical protection Belarus). A special regime of economic activity is estab- of natural environment should be guaranteed (Article 7). lished in water protection zones. In the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine, there is no leg- The Dnipro River is a large river. Until recently, islative framework regulating this kind of relations. At there had been no legally determined procedure for the same time, a draft law was developed in Belarus that determining the dimensions and marking the boundaries regulates relations connected with the use of genetically of water protection zones and riverbanks of such rivers. modified organisms. On 5 March 2002, the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus passed a Resolution called “On Legal support to cooperation among Approving the Regulations on Water Protection Zones three riparian countries in the and Riversides of Large and Middle Rivers”. According Dnipro Basin management to it, the following activities are forbidden within the water protection zones of such rivers: At present, there is no unified institution in place to coordinate the three riparian countries’ activities with regard to • using aviation to disperse chemical weed and pest biodiversity conservation in the Dnipro Basin. As matters killers and mineral fertilizers on agricultural land stand, each country has separate governmental agencies in and in forests; charge of environmental and water protection activities at • locating and building premises for storing toxic a national level. Therefore, the need for establishing a con- substances, chemical weed and pest killers, min- trol system based on a reasonable combination of basin eral fertilizers and oil products, as well as indus- planning and territorial administration is self-evident. It trial enterprises and sludge tanks; should be borne in mind that the use and protection of • setting up sites for filling equipment with chemi- water resources (directly relating to biodiversity conserva- cal weed and pest killers, etc. tion) are two components of the same process, as the qual- Certain types of activity are banned within the ity of transboundary rivers and of entire biodiversity in any Dnipro riverside, which is most likely to facilitate the particular basin is dependent on their users. Besides, fore- conservation of biodiversity. At the same time, the Regu- casts, plans and assessments of potential environmental lations in question apply only to the Dnipro-adjacent impacts of certain factors should be developed not for an territories beyond the boundaries of cities, towns and individual site (which is a current practice of environmen- urban settlements. Yet the Dnipro flows through the tal authorities in the three countries) but for the whole ter- cities and towns of Smolensk, Mogiliov, Loyev, ritory and all natural sites and features of the basin. The Rechitsa, Kiyv, Cherkassy, Dniprodzerzhinks and others following steps should be made to implement the basin where the anthropogenic pressures on the river are very approach to environmental management: intense. The role of water protection zones is enhancing. • the three neighboring countries should sign a Therefore, the riparian countries should develop specific basin agreement; regulations on water protection zones, riversides and • the neighboring countries should carry out inde- waterfronts within city and town boundaries. pendent water protection and water management activities within the established limits and given Legal regulation of genetic engineering activities. In the the control of specially authorized bodies (inter- Russian Federation, the Law “On State Regulation of state commissions); Genetic Engineering Activities” has been adopted. The • each country should adhere to the basin approach development of biotechnologies, including genetic engi- in its activities. neering, or creating new forms of organisms by changing their genetic system with the aim of obtaining useful and In the Russian Federation, a combination of the highly efficient organisms, is accompanied with a grow- basin and administrative-territorial principles in manag- Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 77 ing environmental protection and use of natural • Water resource management in the Republic of resources is applied. Unlike that, the legislation of the Belarus is based on the administrative-territorial Republic of Belarus makes no provision as to the basin principle (republic – oblast – district). Similar management of water bodies. This gap in the legislation organizational principle is applied in the Russian should be filled so that the work of conserving biodiver- Federation and Ukraine. Accordingly, river sity in the Dnipro Basin could be more effective. basins are not major units of water resource The most instrumental in addressing the above chal- management. The notion of the “basin manage- lenge is the Integrated Water Resource Management ment” is not to be found in either the1998 Water Concept that has been implemented in the countries of Code of the Republic of Belarus or any other leg- Western Europe and Northern America since the 1970s. islative acts. The Water Codes of the Russian Its major provisions are reinforced in the Ministerial Federation and Ukraine (1995) lay down the Declaration on Water Security in the 21st Century, principle of basin management, but so far it has adopted in March 2000 at the Second World Water not been widely applied in practice, with the only Forum in the Hague, and in Directive # 2000/60/EC of exception of the Russian experiment. the European Parliament and EU Council of October 23, • There is no legal mechanism for policy develop- 2000. The main principles of an integrated management ment and implementation in the sphere of water of river basins (based on the international practice, resource management within the river basin; including French experience and an experiment currently thus, none of the countries currently designs under way in Russia) are as follows: plans of the river basin development. • Local governments and self-government bodies • basin approach recognizing the river basin in its take part in decision-making on water resource hydrographic borders, including ground waters, management; however, it is done within the as a major management unit; administrative-territorial units of the three coun- • setting up an agency for special management of tries rather than at the river basin level. Besides, water resources; water users are not involved in management deci- • using effective management methods and tech- sion-making in this area of legal relations. niques (developing a general plan of the basin • The “polluter pays” principle is not fully imple- management and development); mented since the existing methods of calculating • involving all water users and policy-makers of all charges for contaminant release (discharge) into levels into the management of a given water environment and water preclude levying fines for economy complex; diffuse contamination of water bodies amount- • informing water users about all management ing, according to expert estimations, to 70%- decisions; 90% of the total contamination scope in the • covering all costs of provided water services, three riparian countries. So the existing charging including the cost of environmental and water system in water economy does not reflect the resource protection, based on economic analysis actual situation with specific water bodies. The and the “polluter pays” principle; and “water pays for water” principle is not imple- • using financial incentives (“water pays for water”). mented either, as at present the payments for water use and fines for contaminating water bod- Levels of river basin management. The current interna- ies are channeled to the budgets of different lev- tional practice is for the river basin management agen- els, including to the budget environmental funds, cies to comprise two levels: and only insignificant part of these payments is used for the “preservation and rehabilitation of • decision-making level represented by the Basin water ecosystems”. The existing system of privi- Council consisting of water economy complex leges in payments for water use in municipal participants (representatives of state executive housing sector is also at variance with the princi- power bodies, water users, non-governmental ples “water pays for water” and “polluter pays”. organizations); • The legislation of the Republic of Belarus lays • executive level, responsible for policy develop- down the principle of multitude of public admin- ment in the sphere of river basin management istration agencies in the sphere of water use and (program-oriented planning) and for the imple- protection; local councils, executive and adminis- mentation of made decisions and provision of rel- trative bodies, the Ministry of Natural Resources evant funding. and Environmental Protection and the Ministry In light of the above-cited principles, the situation of Housing and Municipal Economy having pri- with water resource management in the Republic of mary competence in the sector. As estimated by Belarus is characterized by the following: experts, such a distribution of management func- 78 Balashenko et al.

tions is not conducive to the implementation of water users’ involvement in the decision-making the concept of integrated water resource manage- processes. The Basin Council should have the follow- ment; it allows for addressing the consequences ing functions: (1) conducting environmental assess- rather than the causes of contamination and ment of the current situation in the basin (river exhaustion of water resources. ecosystem, water quality and amount, types of water use related to the economic and other activities in the The system of water resource management in the basin) in terms of its compliance with the policy of Dnipro Basin should be based on the basin principle. integrated river basin management, on the basis of The system of water resource management in the Repub- materials prepared by the Basin Administration; (2) lic of Belarus should be reformed to accommodate the setting priorities, aims, objectives and principles of principles of territorial management and to ensure a water use policy in the river basin; (3) providing a gradual transition to the basin-wide management. forum for various participants of basin-wide water 1. The system of water resource management agencies economy complex and enabling them to voice their should incorporate two two-tier subsystems. problems and needs; (4) approving the River Basin First: Management and Development Plan developed by • National level of management, the Basin Administration; (5) making decisions con- • Basin level of management. cerning the basin budget expenditures. Second: 4. An executive body responsible for the practical day- • Decision-making level,` to-day management of the river basin is the Basin • Decision implementation level (executive). Administration. For this institution to operate effec- 2. The following institutional framework is to be tively, hydrographic borders of river basins should established: be established, marked and determined in relevant Decision-making bodies: legislation. The Basin Administration is responsible • Water Councils in the member-countries for the preparation of the River Basin Management (national level), and Development Plan and the long-term Basin Tar- • Dnipro Basin Council (inter-state basin level). get Program of Sustainable Water Use. Executive bodies (or bodies in charge of implement- The Basin Administration is established to fulfill ing decisions): the following functions: (1) analyzing the state of • Water Service (Water Committee or Water water economy; (2) implementing the main areas of Department) within the system of state executive state water policy in the basin; (3) organizing and power bodies in the sector of environmental pro- conducting the monitoring of the river basin situa- tection and use of natural resources of individual tion; (4) designing the River Basin Management and countries (national level), Development Plan and the long-term Basin Target • Basin Administration (river basin level). Program of Sustainable Water Use, and controlling 3. Water Councils at the national level should have their realization; (5) organizing the development of members representing highest legislative and execu- water economy balances, territorial schemes of tive power bodies (ministries in charge of water water use and protection; (6) placing governmental resource management, ministries of finance and contracts for the development on water economy economy), water users, research and academic com- balances, for research, experimental and exploration munities. Water Councils should be advisory bodies work, and for the construction of water economy for developing major areas of public policy in the facilities in the river basin; (7) conducting, within its sphere of water resource management as well as pro- competency, the state environmental assessment and posals on improving the effective regulatory frame- coordinating pre-project and project documentation work, methodology and technical standards. The regarding the construction and reconstruction, Basin Council should unite representatives of state expansion and re-equipment of water economy power and public administration bodies of the three facilities; (8) supervising the implementation of countries and of main water users. The Basin Coun- agreements on joint use and protection of trans- cil should be responsible for the development and boundary water bodies and of water use contracts; approval of the River Basin Management and Devel- (9) coordinating the cooperation of oblast, city/town opment Plan and of the long-term Basin Target Pro- and district inspections of the use and protection of gram of Sustainable Water Use. In the suggested water resources. management system, the Basin Council is an advi- 5. Responsibilities should be clearly distributed between sory body. It is an essential integral part of the man- general and special agencies of water resource management system since it enables the participating agement, and the duplication of functions (planning, countries to implement one of the fundamental prin- licensing, monitoring, control, standardization, data ciples of integrated river basin management, namely, management, information collection, etc) should be Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 79

eliminated. At the national level, a specially estab- procedures of public monitoring and control shall be lished Water Service (department or committee) regulated by the legislation of the Republic of should perform the functions of coordination and Belarus and charters of non-governmental organiza- management. tions”. This provision is extremely important as it 6. Financial and economic schemes of water resource opens up opportunities for introducing new forms of management and a plan of forming basin budgets public control by envisaging them in NGO charters. should be developed. The cash flow formed of water Thus, according to the Law “On Legal Status of Ter- charges should be determined. The major part of ritories Subjected to Radioactive Contamination these funds should be used for various basin pro- Resulting from the Chernobyl NPP Accident”, non- grams and plans. In order to realize the “polluter governmental organizations active in assisting the pays” principle, the rates of environmental tax for people who suffered in the Chernobyl accident, upon contaminant discharges into water bodies should be being accredited in an established order, can conduct established with due regard both of the toxicity of radiation monitoring and control of products and discharged substances and of the sanitary conditions environment (Articles 41-42). and category of receiving water body at the dis- 2. Public has an important role to play in controlling charge point. Based on the “polluter pays” princi- the environmental decision-making in the Dnipro ple, an environmental tax for contaminant discharge Basin within the frameworks of public environmen- into water bodies should be established for water tal examination. The citizens are interested in and treating facilities of municipal sewerage systems, entitled to participating in the environmental impact taking into account major indicators characterizing assessment procedures and evaluating their results. municipal wastewater. The environmental tax for In the international practice, a legal form of public specific contaminants characteristic of industrial involvement in the environmental impact assessment wastewater should be levied on the relevant indus- procedures is that of public hearings. However, the trial enterprises. Regulations on Environmental Impact Assessment 7. The organization of monitoring, management of of the Russian Federation, approved by the Order of data and information flows that are important tools the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian of water resource management should be revised Federation of 18 July 1994, and the Instruction on and updated. Procedures of Assessing Environmental Impact of 8. The Dnipro is a transboundary river. This should be Planned Economic and Other Activities in the taken into consideration in organizing water use Republic of Belarus, approved by the Ministry of management activities, which means that the man- Natural Resources and Environmental Protection of agement system should target internationally recog- the Republic of Belarus of 6 February 2001, give the nized norms and principles of using transboundary consumer a choice of either public hearing or pro- water bodies. The timing seems appropriate for ject discussion in the mass media. The latter offers acceding to the existing international conventions the interested public fewer opportunities for and agreements (including the CIS ones) and start- expressing their attitude to discussed projects. It ing negotiations with a view to concluding bilateral seems more appropriate for the basin countries’ leg- and multilateral inter-state agreements on trans- islation to give preference to public hearings as a boundary water bodies. These agreements should form of public participation. determine regimes and quality of transit water at 3. The citizens’ environmental rights and responsibili- border river stations under the conditions of differ- ties in the sphere of conserving biodiversity in the ent water content. They should also formulate the Dnipro Basin cannot be fully exercised unless they programs of water protection and other environ- have access to environmental information and take mental activities within the controlled drainage area. part in environmental decision-making, in particular with regard to conservation and sustainable use of Legal Substantiation of the Public Support biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin. The constitutional to and Participation in Preserving Biodiversity legislation regulates the right to receiving, storing in the Dnipro Basin and disseminating complete, accurate and timely information on environmental situation (Article 34 1. One of the forms of public participation in conserv- of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus) and ing biodiversity can be public environmental control. the right to reliable information on environmental According to the Law of the Republic of Belarus situation (Article 42 of the Constitution of the Russ- “On Environmental Protection” of 17 June 2002, ian Federation). An instrument of international law the work of state power bodies and officials can also regulating legal aspects of ensuring access to environ- be subjected to public monitoring and control. The mentally relevant information is the Convention on laws of the Republic of Belarus stipulate that “the Access to Information, Public Participation in Deci- 80 Balashenko et al.

sion Making and Access to Justice in Environmental works for biodiversity conservation in the Dnipro Matters. This Convention was ratified by Ukraine River Basin. and the Republic of Belarus. Its ratification by the 3. Fulfilling its international obligations, the participat- Russian Federation would foster a more active public ing countries have developed their National Strate- involvement in the process of making environmen- gies and Action Plans of Conservation and Sustain- tally relevant decisions for the Dnipro Basin. able Use of Biological Diversity (in Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus these instruments were adopted Strategic Recommendations in 1997). The State Strategy of Sustainable Develop- ment of the Russian Federation made a number of The legislation in the three Dnipro Basin countries regu- provisions concerning biodiversity conservation, but lates some aspects of biodiversity conservation. At the that seemed insufficient. So in 2002, the Russian same time, the mechanisms of implementing norms of Federation designed the National Strategy of Con- national environmental legislations are not effective serving Biological Diversity as part of its State Strat- enough. There are a number of challenges caused by egy of Sustainable Development. organizational, legal and economic factors, as well as by 4. The evaluation of a legislative framework in sup- the existing imbalance in the legislative regulation of the port of biodiversity in the Dnipro Basin, in terms of right of ownership in natural resources and natural com- its compliance with the Russian, Belorussian and ponents, the right to use natural resources, on the one Ukrainian national legislation, is a difficult task hand, and the formation of new economic relations on since in these countries there are no integrated sys- the other. tems for regulating this multifaceted natural system. The national legislations on natural resources Basin-wide International Agreements have traditionally regulated the use and protection of separate natural features and sites. The environ- 1. The Dnipro Basin plays an exceedingly important mental legislation systems of Russia, Belarus and role in biodiversity conservation in general. There- Ukraine tend to take an approach based on “nat- fore, it is highly recommended that the riparian ural resources”. countries develop and conclude an international agreement on biodiversity conservation in the Fauna and Flora Protection Dnipro Basin. The agreement should lay down the following Of special importance for the conservation of biodiversity basic principles: are the provisions of laws and other regulatory acts on the • ensuring environmentally and economically feasi- protection and use of fauna. The Law of the Republic of ble and sustainable use and protection of water Belarus “On Protection and Use of Fauna” needs revising resources; and updating. Further improvement of legislation on • preventing, limiting and reducing water contami- fauna will involve the adoption of the Law of the Russian nation for priority provision of the population Federation “On Fishing and Protection of Aquatic Biolog- with high-quality drinking water; ical Resources” and of a series of federal laws on conser- • maintaining and rehabilitating, when necessary, vation and use of sturgeon and salmon species, as well as water and related ecosystems; of other valuable aquatic biological resources. • barring, in the countries’ respective territories, In order to harmonize the Dnipro Basin countries’ unilateral actions detrimental to the other Con- legislation on fauna, it is desirable that, while amending tracting Parties’ interests; their laws, the riparian countries use a model law “On • envisaging environmental responsibility for the Fauna” approved on 8 June 1997 by the International breach of the agreement; Assembly of the CIS member-states. • promoting the introduction, in the countries’ respective territories, of environmental insurance 5. The Law “On Flora” was adopted in Ukraine in systems in compliance with the national legislations 1999, whereas in the Republic of Belarus and the with a view to enhancing environmental safety of Russian Federation these relations are yet to be regu- production and creating favourable conditions for lated at the legislative level. Therefore, one of the pri- life and economic activities of the population. ority objectives is to fill in this gap in the environmen- The agreement will mark a further progression tal legislation of the Republic of Belarus and the towards the implementation of the UN/ECE Con- Russian Federation and to prepare and adopt national vention on the Protection of Transboundary Water- laws “On Flora”. courses and International Lakes. 6. Since the three basin countries signed the “Agree- 2. All three riparian countries should further improve ment on a Book of Rare and Endangered Animal and harmonize their national legislative frame- and Plant Species” – Red Book of the CIS Member- Review of Dnipro Basin Biodiversity Legislation 81

States dated 23 June 1995, the national legislatures Natural Resources of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine should formulate and incorporate the 11. The Dnipro River Basin embraces the territories of notion of the “CIS Red Book”. several countries. All of them have their own, sometimes conflicting, interests in what concerns the use Specially Protected Areas of natural resources. To address this challenge the countries should set up a management system that 7. It should be recognized that the legal regime of bios- would combine basin-wide planning with the exist- phere reserves is different from that of other types of ing administrative-territorial management. The legis- reserve areas and stipulated as such in the Law of the lation of the Republic of Belarus is different from Republic of Belarus “On Specially Protected Areas”. those of the Russian Federation and Ukraine in that 8. Along with specially protected areas established it does not provide for the principle of basin manage- with the purpose of biological diversity protection ment of water bodies. The resolution of this problem from adverse anthropogenic impact, there are a will foster a more effective cooperation towards con- number of other territories with a special regime. serving biodiversity in the Dnipro River Basin. Given that since 1986 the Dnipro Basin in the lower The system of water resource management agen- flow of the river has been exposed to radioactive cies should incorporate two two-tiered subsystems. contamination, such territories include the zone of First, compulsory evacuation and the isolation zone set up • National level of management after the Chernobyl accident. The isolation zone is • Basin level of management part of the Polessye radiation-environmental reserve. Second, However, granting the status of “environmental” to • Decision-making level the institution and the territory in question seems • Decision implementation level (executive) unjustified since the aims and objectives of this reserve are unique in and of themselves, and differ Using this approach, the following institutional from those of the other reserve areas. Thus, the leg- framework is to be established: islation should distinguish “natural” reserve areas Decision-making bodies: from “other types” of reserves. • Water Councils in the member-countries 9. The Dnipro River flows through the cities and (national level) towns of Smolensk, Mogiliov, Loyev, Rechitsa, • Dnipro Basin Council (inter-state basin level) Kiyv, Cherkassy, Dniprodzerzhinks and others where anthropogenic pressures on the river are very Executive bodies (or bodies in charge of implement- intense. The role of water protection zones is ing decisions): expanding. Therefore, the riparian countries should • Water Service (Water Committee or Water develop specific regulations on water protection Department) within the system of state executive zones, riverbanks and waterfronts within city and power bodies in the sector of environmental pro- town boundaries. tection and use of natural resources of individual countries (national level) • Basin management (river basin level) Genetic Engineering

10. In the Russian Federation, the law “On State Regu- Public Involvement lation of Gene-Engineering Activities” has been adopted. The development of biotechnologies 12. An instrument of international law regulating legal including genetic engineering, or creating new forms aspects of ensuring access to environmentally rele- of organisms by changing their genetic system with vant information is the Convention on Access to the aim of obtaining useful and highly efficient Information, Public Participation in Decision Mak- organisms, is associated with a growing risk of pro- ing and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. ducing uncontrollable organisms with unpredictable This Convention was ratified by Ukraine and the characteristics and, consequently, poses a threat to Republic of Belarus. Its ratification by the Russian biodiversity. It is recommended that in the course of Federation would promote a more active public considering a similar draft law, the Belorussian leg- involvement in the process of making environmen- islators take into account the objective unification tally relevant decisions for the Dnipro Basin. tendencies currently under way in the legislations of 13. It is advisable that the legislation of the Republic of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation. Belarus envisage new forms of public involvement in It is also recommended that a similar law be pre- the environmental examination procedures, follow- pared in Ukraine. ing the example of the Russian law “On Environ- 82 Balashenko et al.

mental Examination” that regulates in detail the Acknowledgements public participation in environmental examinations on the basis of transparency, openness, respect of This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.2 of the public opinion, etc. Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC 14. It seems appropriate for the legislation of the Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following Republic of Belarus to regulate the procedures of Project Team members: public examination in their correlation with the Russia: Y.G. Grigoryev, V.V. Vladimirov; state environmental inspections. In particular, Belarus: S.A. Balashenko; Y.V. Layevskaya, V.Y. Liz- regional and local agencies of the Ministry of Nat- garo, T.I. Makarova, A.A. Scherbina ural Resources and Environmental Protection Ukraine: A.Y. Mykytiuk, V.A. Tarasenko, S.Y. Popovich should be entitled to approve the conclusions of public examinations, provided the latter were con- Reference ducted in compliance with all requirements and that their findings are beyond doubt. Whenever the con- Balashenko SA, Laevskaya EV, Makarova TI, Lizgaro VE, clusions of public environmental examinations are Scherbina AA, Grigoriev EE,Tarasenko VA. 2003. submitted to the agencies of the Ministry of Natural Review of Dnipro Basin biodiversity legislation ensur- Resources and Environmental Protection, the Min- ing public participation and support. Final report. istry itself or its territorial agencies should initiate a Dnipro Environmental Project, Kyiv, Ukraine. (In state environmental inspection. Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Regional Strategy for Conserving Biological and Landscape Diversity in the Dnipro Basin

Viktor D. Romanenko,1 Sergey A. Afanasyev,1* Mikhail D. Grodzinsky2 and Volodymyr M. Bilokon3

1Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine 2Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Kyiv, Ukraine 3UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Environment Programme, Kyiv, Ukraine

The Regional Strategy for Biological and Landscape Diversity Conservation (BLDC) in the Dnipro Basin was developed in order to consolidate the efforts of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine in conserving and restoring the biological and landscape diversity in the region. Major problems in the main ecosystems (forests and agricultural landscapes, marshes, meadows and steppes, natural areas of preferential protection, and waters), and the key threats to their biodiversity were identified and their scale and scope assessed. An in-depth cause-effect analysis was conducted, identifying root and immediate causes and effects and threats to biological and landscape diversity loss. The suggested strategic activities were geared towards eliminating the root causes of the loss of biodiversity, rather than towards rectifying some of their effects. The strategy for reaching the objectives through specific short and long-term measures at political, legislative, government and public administration levels was developed to address the commitments under the international BLDC conventions, which all three riparian countries have signed and ratified.

Key words: biodiversity conservation strategy, biological and landscape diversity, Dnipro River Basin

Introduction diversity in the Dnipro Basin is a global challenge to be addressed jointly by the Dnipro Basin countries. The Dnipro Basin is an epitome of the Eastern Slavic The Regional Strategy for Biological and Landscape nations’ kinship. Its territory is exceptionally rich in bio- Diversity Conservation (BLDC) in the Dnipro Basin will logical species, their communities, ecosystems and land- be instrumental in: scapes. Located in four zones, from the Euro-Siberian coniferous forest to Mediterranean coast, it plays an • consolidating the efforts of the Republic of important role in preserving the gene pool of biodiver- Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine in sity-forming species – from boreal taiga to xerophytic conserving and restoring the diversity of biologi- steppe. Given that these physical-geographical zones cal populations, communities, ecosystems and change one another within a territory stretching only landscapes in the Dnipro River Basin; over 1040 km along meridian, the Dnipro Basin is a • identifying root causes and consequences of the unique European region, with diverse types of zonal loss of biodiversity, defining long-term (target) ecosystems and landscapes. Preserved areas with indige- indicators of natural environment quality in nous vegetation in the Dnipro valley and on the beach respect of biodiversity; and terrace slopes, in particular the natural areas of preferen- • designing strategic activities to reach the above tial protection located here, will serve as a basis for the indicators within the agreed timeframes; establishment of the Dnipro ecological corridor, an • estimating financial and economic aspects and essential component of the presently formed Pan-Euro- mechanisms of the BLDC Strategy implementation. pean Ecological Network. Of equal pan-European signif- The suggested strategic activities are geared, primar- icance is the ecological corridor to be set up along the ily, towards eliminating the root causes of the loss of Dnipro tributaries – the Prypiat and Desna Rivers. biodiversity, rather than towards rectifying some of their Therefore, the conservation of biological and landscape consequences (effects, symptoms). The Strategy has been developed in pursuance of the * Corresponding author; [email protected] Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine’s Editor’s note: This paper presents an abbreviated version of international commitments under the international con- the full report under the same title (80 p.), which is avail- ventions relating to biological and landscape diversity able from www.dnipro-gef.net conservation, which the above riparian countries signed

83 84 Romanenko et al. and ratified or to which they acceded. The Strategy leans For empirical material, the Strategy relied on spe- upon the main provisions of the Convention on Biological cific projects implemented within the UNDP-GEF Diversity adopted at the UN Conference on Environment Dnipro Basin Environmental Program that were admin- and Development (Rio de Janeiro 1992) and Pan-Euro- istered by IDRC and coordinated by the Biodiversity pean Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Sofia Regional Thematic Center. The projects covered a wide 1995). It was prepared with due regard of other interna- range of issues concerning the Biological and Landscape tional instruments regulating biological and landscape Diversity Conservation (hereinafter – BLDC) in the fol- diversity conservation (see Table 1). lowing sectors and areas: The Regional Strategy has incorporated the priori- • agriculture; ties set in the three Dnipro Basin countries’ National • fisheries; Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation. • forestry; • assessment of reserve areas, priority and “problem” Goals and Objectives ecosystems with regard to threats to biodiversity; • comparative analysis of the basin countries’ bio- In full compliance with the aims and objectives of the diversity legislation and that of the EU. UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Environmental Program, the Strategy focuses on the priorities and main challenges to Analytical data of the Transboundary Diagnostic the conservation of habitats and species diversity, which, Analysis, Dnipro Basin Environmental Report, Report in view of their range and significance, acquire a global on the Dnipro Basin Socio-Economic Analysis, as well as or regional status. the materials obtained in the course of preparing the

TABLE 1. International conventions on biological and landscape diversity conservation and the participating Dnipro Basin Counties.

Country/status

No. Instrument title The Republic of Belarus The Russian Federation Ukraine

12 3 45 Convention on Wetlands of International Acceded on 05.25.99 1975 Acceded on 10.29.96 Importance,especially as Waterfowl Habitat, February 2, 1971 The Convention on International Trade Acceded on 12.20.94 Acceded on 03.03.73 Acceded on 05.14.99 in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, March 3, 1973 The Convention Concerning the Ratified on 10.12.88 Signed in 1998 Ratified in 1988 Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972 The Convention on the Protection and Acceded (Decree #161 of the Signed on 03.18.92 Acceded on 08.16.99 Use of Transboundary Watercourses President dated 04.21.03) Ratified on 11.02.93 and International Lakes (Helsinki, 1992) Convention on Access to Information, Signed on 16.12.98 Γ. Did not accede Signed on 06.25.98 Public Participation in Decision- Ratified on 03.09.00 Ratified on 11.18.99 making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, June 25, 1998 Convention on Environmental Impact Signed on 02.26.91 Signed on 06.06.91 Signed on 02.26.91 Assessment in a Transboundary Ratified on 07.20.99 Context, February 21, 1991 Convention on Biological Diversity, Signed on 06.11.92 Signed on 06.13.92 Signed on 06.11.92 June 5, 1992 Ratified on 09.08.93 Ratified on 04.05.95 Ratified on 02.07.95 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Adopted on 01.29.00 Did not accede Acceded on 09.12.02 to the Convention on Biological Acceded on 05.06.02 Diversity Convention on the Conservation of Acceded (Decree #102 of the Acceded in 1983 Enacted on 11.01.99 Migratory Species of Wild Animals President dated 03.12.03) for BAT1, SBS Convention to Combat Desertification Acceded on 08.29.01 Did not accede Acceded on 07.04.02 Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 85

Strategic Action Program for the Dnipro Basin Environ- implementation and estimating international mental Rehabilitation and respective National Action donors’ possible contribution to it. Plans, were used in developing the Regional Strategy. The Strategy is based on the Belorussian, Russian Methodology and Ukrainian experts’ recommendations to the National Strategies for Conserving Biological and Landscape The general methodology applied in the Strategy recog- Diversity in the Dnipro Basin. Those recommendations nizes that the BLDC strategy is part and parcel of the proved especially valuable in formulating the basin-wide process of the Dnipro Basin countries’ transition to sus- problems, conducting their cause-and-effect analysis, tainable development. Thus, the Regional Strategy defining the aims of the Dnipro Basin environmental regards biodiversity conservation both as a goal and as a rehabilitation, working out program proposals on further means to address a number of other environmental chal- rehabilitation activities in the region, and estimating lenges of global and regional importance. Among the lat- financial and economic aspects and mechanisms of the ter are upholding the biosphere processes on the Earth, BLDC Strategy implementation. creating favourable environmental conditions for human The main goal of developing the Strategy is to life, designing various biological products, accumulating improve the state environmental policies of the three information on life regularities and properties, restoring Dnipro Basin countries in the sphere of biological and and preserving aesthetical functions of the environment. landscape diversity conservation and facilitate their The Strategy methodology is based on the assump- implementation at the highest level of public administration that the task of eliminating most of the existing tion in the riparian countries. threats to biological and landscape diversity is closely The implementation of improved policies will be linked with the following global objectives: conducive to preserving and restoring the diversity of Preservation of the gene pool (genetic resources) as a natural and natural-anthropogenic systems, from popu- basis of diversity of species and intra-species diversity; lation to landscape level, and to maintaining the diver- • Conservation and recovery of community (bio- sity of all life forms in the Dnipro Basin at a level secur- coenosis) diversity as a prerequisite of ecosystem ing their long-term stable existence and sustainable use. sustainability; It will also help to achieve an environmentally sustain- • Conservation and recovery of the biotope (habi- able condition of forest, wetland, meadow, steppe and tat, landscape, ecosystem) diversity as a precondi- littoral ecosystems, of aquatic areas, floodplains and tion of conserving the diversity of species, com- agro-landscapes, which will, in turn, contribute to the munities, (biocoenoses) and ecosystems. conservation of species diversity, species distribution areas, population structures and ecological frame contin- In practice, the above objectives can be gained in uum in the Dnipro Basin. two ways: by preventing or reducing threats to the gene In line with its main aim, the Strategy strives to pool, and by maintaining biotope and landscape diver- reach the following objectives: sity in habitats, the underlying theoretical postulation being that the preservation of habitats, landscape struc- • to identify major problems in BLDC and deter- tures and species variety of the region conditions the sur- mine their scope and scale; vival of basic community types characteristic of this • to reveal and analyze the root causes and conse- basin. Hence, two fundamental theoretical approaches quences of habitat deterioration and existing predetermine the resolution of practical issues pertaining imminent threats to biological species; to propose to BLDC, namely: priority measures for the basin environmental • population-and-species-oriented, that considers rehabilitation in what concerns BLDC, aimed pri- genetically related systems in the population- marily at the elimination of root causes rather species hierarchy; and than their effects; • ecosystem-oriented, that studies ecological sys- • to formulate long-term BLDC goals, i.e., the tems of different levels. environmental conditions viewed as desirable and attainable in the long-range outlook, which fully Based on the two approaches mentioned above, the meet the requirements of habitat restoration to Strategy highlights the necessity to conserve the follow- an intended level and the achievement of which ing hierarchically linked objects: organism – population will remove threats to biodiversity of species; – species – community of organisms – biotope (habitat) – • to substantiate specific recommendations on the ecosystem – landscape seen as a set of ecosystems within BLDC Strategy implementation one territory. Biodiversity conservation in the three for- • to study environmental and economic feasibility mer objects leans, predominantly, on the population- of the activities proposed in the BLDC Strategy and-species-oriented approach, whereas in the four latter by analyzing the cost-effectiveness of the Strategy objects – on the ecosystem-oriented one. 86 Romanenko et al.

The Regional Strategy implementation is geared natural resources, frequent reorganization of towards taking practical steps, differentiated for various environmental authorities and downgrading of habitats of living organisms. The following habitat types their status; are designated as playing priority role in biodiversity • Underdevelopment of the state systems of envi- conservation in the Dnipro Basin: ronmental monitoring and monitoring of natural resources utilization; • Natural areas of preferential protection and areas • Non-existence of an effective system for inter- to be incorporated in the ecological network; state and nation-wide exchange of environmental • Forest ecosystems; information. • Marshland (wetland) ecosystems; • Meadow and steppe ecosystems; • Water ecosystems; Current International and National Policies of • Agro-landscapes and other areas of intensive Conserving Biological and Landscape Diversity agriculture. International legal framework. The fundamental principles underlying the international and the Dnipro Basin Identifying Problems in Biological and Landscape countries’ national policies of biological and landscape Diversity Conservation; Assessing diversity conservation were laid down in the Convention their Scale and Scope on Biological Diversity signed by 150 world countries at the UN Conference on Environment and Development Social and Economic Conditions and their Impact held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. All three riparian countries on Biological and Landscape Diversity signed and later ratified the Convention. The Convention Conservation recognizes each state’s sovereignty over its biological resources while simultaneously stipulating each country’s Social and economic development in the three basin responsibility for preventing damage to the environment countries has its specifics affecting (adversely, for the of other countries or regions beyond its national jurisdic- main part) the biological and landscape diversity conser- tion. The said Convention was further elaborated and vation. They are as follows: interpreted in the Pan-European Biological and Landscape • Disparity in social and economic development of Diversity Strategy approved by the environmental minis- different regions within the Dnipro Basin; ters of 55 European countries in 1995. • High energy and resource intensity (consumption The Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and rates); Ukraine also cooperate within the frameworks of other • Transitional (and therefore transient) nature of international conventions related to biological and land- socio-economic development; scape diversity conservation, the most important of • Lack of objective assessment of the region’s bio- which are listed in Table 1. International cooperation on diversity status viewed as a key element of its BLDC between the three Dnipro Basin countries is now natural resource potential; based on bilateral agreements on specific aspects of bio- • Heavy reliance of the region’s economic and logical and landscape diversity (see Table 2). No trilat- social development upon its natural and biologi- eral agreement on BLDC in the Dnipro Basin has been cal resources (water, timber, fish, etc.); reached, however, and the drafting and signing of such • Society’s overwhelming consumerism in treating an agreement must be viewed as the highest strategic pri- natural resources, characteristic of the public pol- ority for the three countries. icy and the population’s attitudes; low ecological awareness of the population and lack of under- National BLDC legislations. Editor’s note: This subject standing of the need to conserve biological and is treated separately in Balashenko et al. in this issue. landscape diversity; • Insufficient regard of long-term strategic goals, Defining Problems in Preserving Main Habitats, attaching priority to short-term and middle-term Identifying and Assessing Key Threats to Species tactical objectives in environmental planning; • Deficiency and inconsistency of environmental Forest ecosystems. Forests are a key landscape and envi- legislation, inadequate regulation of the use of ronment-forming element in the Dnipro Basin. They natural resources, land-owners and land-users’ cover 124,800 km2, including 46,700 km2 in Belarus’ rights and responsibilities; part of the basin (40.1% of its area), 26,900 km2 in Rus- • Poor observance and enforcement of national leg- sia’s part (27.2%) and 51,200 km2 in Ukraine’s Dnipro islations; Basin (16.8%). Average percentage of forest land in the • Weakened state control and supervision in the basin is 24.8%. This is obviously insufficient for ensur- sphere of environmental protection and use of ing the proper role of forests in biodiversity conservation Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 87

TABLE 2. Existing bilateral BLDC agreements between the Dnipro Basin countries

No. Agreement Date of signing 1. Agreement between the governments of the Russian Federation and Ukraine on joint 10.19.1992 use and conservation of international water objects 2. Agreement between the governments of Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus on joint Approved by the Enactment use and conservation of international waters of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of 02.28.2002 3. Agreement between the governments of Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus on joint 05.27.2002 use and conservation of international waters 4. Agreement between the governments of the Russian Federation and Ukraine on 06.26.1995 cooperation in environmental protection 5. Agreement between the governments of Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus on 12.16.1994 cooperation in environmental protection 6. Agreement between the governments of Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus on 06.05.1997 cooperation in environmental protection

and providing a high-quality environment for man. Esti- Threats to biodiversity. mated optimum percentage of forest land for different At the local level (individual forests): regions of the Dnipro Basin that takes into account their 5. Disappearance and decrease of the size of some pop- natural features varies greatly, ranging from 40% for ulations of forest animals and plants. marshy woodlands to 8% for dry steppe. Presently, per- 6. Drastic reduction in species diversity of forest asso- centage of forest land is below these optimum figures. It ciations when a single tree species is introduced and is the highest in the marshy woodlands, where it ranges large areas of even-age plantations or when a single from 10% to 60%. The basin’s forest-steppe area has an tree species are created. average of 12.5% of forest land; forests here are mostly 7. Disappearance and decrease in the quantity of small and adjoin farmed lands. The basin’s steppe part hunted species of animals and harvested plants and has forests in the north, where they cover 3.6% of the mushrooms. land near gullies and river banks. Key BLDC problems of forest ecosystems stem from Marsh ecosystems. Almost all species of marsh fauna their insufficient area in the Dnipro Basin and environ- and flora are rare or vulnerable because they are found mentally unsound forest management and reforestation only in marsh biotopes (habitats). Now, as the result of technologies. They are: amelioration and peat extraction, only small sections of Problems: marshes have survived, and so most marsh species live in 1. Low percentage of forested land and forest clearing. isolated local groups. 2. Environmentally poor forest management and refor- Un-drained marshes purify water and accumulate estation technologies. various chemical elements that come with precipitation, dust, floods and groundwater. In drained marshes, min- Threats to habitat diversity. eralization of peat produces water-soluble decomposition At the global level: products, which enter water intakes and pollute the water 1. Loss of biodiversity of forest ecosystems and reduc- consumed by people far away from the marsh. Annually, tion of their ecological functions resulting from the the Prypiat and the Dnipro bring into the Black Sea small area of forest landscapes. nearly 1.5 million tons of mineral substances and up to 2. Loss of biodiversity, sustainability and integrity of 700 tonnes of aggressive water-soluble organic matter. forest ecosystems in the result of environmentally The marshes and wide waterlogged flood-lands of unsound forest management technologies. the Prypiat, the Desna and the Dnipro source and delta 3. Degradation of biodiversity as the result of insuffi- are of special significance for European and global bios- cient control over the use of forests and species of phere processes and biodiversity conservation. Most of trees used for forest plantations. them are situated on the two migration paths of marsh Threats to genetic diversity of species. birds: the Big Dnipro and the Marshy Woodlands paths. At the global and regional levels: Marshes and waterlogged flood-lands are not only 4. Extinction of fauna and flora species (including places of recreation but also very important nesting globally endangered species) of forest ecosystems areas for many endangered birds of Europe. due to the risk of man-caused disasters (forest fires, As the result of large-scale drainage, the area of pest outbreaks, etc.). drained land in the Dnipro Basin has reached almost 88 Romanenko et al.

4 million hectares (see Table 3). This has significantly 4. Extinction and reduction of the number of commer- affected peatbogs – very fragile natural complexes that cial species of vertebrate animals and plants. are critical for landscape diversity and sustainability of the entire marshy woodlands region. The total area of Meadow and steppe ecosystems. Grasslands in the drained peatbogs in the Prypiat basin is 1.2 million Dnipro Basin occupy the area of 7.2 million hectares. hectares. Disturbances of hydrological regime of marshes Land for agricultural use (hayfields, pastures and fallow directly affect landscape diversity of large territories. lands) dominates in this area, while natural meadows This is detrimental to biodiversity of marshes that have and steppe comprise a smaller area and the plots are not been drained but are now affected by the drainage small in size. The role of ecosystems in biological and works that have been created. landscape diversity conservation in the Dnipro Basin is Consequently, there are two major problems of determined by their significance as a habitat for numer- BLDC in marsh ecosystems: 1) loss of biological and ous species of plants and animals as well as by the landscape diversity of drained marshes; and 2) loss of importance of these ecosystems for biological and land- biological and landscape diversity of un-drained lands scape diversity conservation in forests and agricultural affected by drained territories. landscapes, where they play the role of environment-stabilizing elements, and for water ecosystems, for which Problems: floodplains and meadows play a water-storing role. 1. Decreasing area of marshes as the result of drainage Odd and small-contour remainders of virgin and and unjustified use of marshes for farming. long-fallow steppe and meadows on the slopes of river 2. Degradation of biological and landscape diversity of valleys are gradually degrading under the influence of un-drained lands in the result of the influence of sur- such anthropogenic factors as over-pasture, construc- rounding drained areas. tion, recreation, contamination, etc. Despite the decrease These problems have resulted in a number of threats to of pasturing loading on grass ecosystems over the last biological and landscape diversity by marshes and asso- years, prevalent areas of natural pastures still are in the ciated ecosystems. The following global and regional third and fourth stage of pasture digression. Continuous threats may be identified within the global threat to stay of isolated steppe areas in this condition leads to habitat diversity: irreversible losses of their biological diversity. 1. Structural changes in and complete loss of some The main problems with biological and landscape types of natural landscapes and their ecological diversity conservation in meadow and steppe ecosystems capacity as a result of drainage. are connected, first of all, with their small area in the 2. Changing biosphere functions of marshes in the Dnipro Basin, which is insufficient for them to fulfill result of drainage and unjustified use for farming. their biosphere functions. Secondly, they are connected with the degradation of existing grass ecosystems result- A cause of high concern on the local level is: ing from their ecologically unjustified utilization for eco- 3. The threat of disappearance or decrease in area of nomic purposes. marsh biotopes. Problems: Threats to genetic diversity of species on the global, 1. Loss of biological diversity and biosphere functions by regional and local levels are as follows: meadow and steppe ecosystems due to their small area. 1. Threats of extinction of marsh fauna and flora species 2. Degradation of grass ecosystems diversity as the (including globally endangered species) in the result of result of their ecologically incorrect utilization for the decreasing area of marshes and economic activity. economic purposes. 2. Replacement of marsh species by non-marsh species. 3. Extinction and reduction of the number of some Within the framework of the global threat to the habitat populations of marsh fauna and flora. diversity, the following issues are of global and regional importance: 1. Changes in the structure and total loss of certain TABLE 3. Area of waterlogged and drained land in the types of natural landscape and its ecological capac- Dnipro basin ity as the result of the decrease in the area of Country Waterlogged land, km2 Drained land, km2 meadow and steppe ecosystems. Belarus 41,900 20,000 2. Degradation of floodplain meadows due to the change in the hydrological regime of rivers (primar- Russia 18,216 3800 ily, of their flood regime). Ukraine 30,800 19,470 (without shoals of At the local level: storage reservoirs 3. Some parts of meadows and steppe are getting over- on the Dnipro) grown with shrubs. Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 89

4. Degradation of suburban meadows, especially on 4. Insufficient development of environmental norms floodplains and river terraces as the result of and regulations, non-observance of the effective extremely high recreation loading. environmental legislation. Within the framework of the global threat to genetic Aftermath of the crisis in agriculture weakened con- diversity of species on the global and regional levels, trol over the activities of rural producers and land-manag- these are: ing services. The absence of appropriate control over land 5. Threat of disappearance of meadow and steppe use, as well as the absence or the use of outdated land- species of animals and plants (including the threat of management plans, maps of agro-productive land groups, global extinction) as the result of the decrease in soil maps, cadastral (registry) assessment of land and grass ecosystems area and economic activity. other materials lead to the exhaustion of soil resources, 6. Disappearance of animal species that live in forest- unsustainable use of biotic capacity of agro-landscapes. edges. The listed problems caused the emergence of a set of threats to biological and landscape diversity of agricul- At the local level: tural and adjacent territories. Within the framework of 7. Decrease in the number of certain populations of the global threat to the diversity of habitats, the follow- meadow and steppe species of animals and plants. ing issues are of global and regional importance:

Agricultural landscapes and other 1. Fragmentation of natural vegetation cover due to territories of intensive economic activity the excessive ploughing of lands. 2. Beginning of the formation of a large degraded zone Agricultural lands in the Belarusian part of the Dnipro in Polissia connected with a large-scale drainage and Basin comprise the territory of 5126.4 hectares, amount- misuse of drained lands. ing to 43.2% of its total area. 3196.7 hectares of this 3. Changes in the structure and total loss of some types territory are arable land. In the Russian part of the of natural landscape and its ecological capacity as basin, the area of agricultural grounds amounts to the result of inconsistency in the territorial land 6025.5 thousand hectares (59.5% of the total basin composition. area), arable lands – 4360 thousand hectares (41.4%). At the regional and local levels the threats are connected The largest area of agricultural and arable lands is in the with: Ukrainian part of the Dnipro Basin – 19,910 thousand 4. Loss of biological and landscape diversity, as well as hectares and 15,516.0 thousand hectares, respectively, loss of aesthetic functions of agricultural landscapes amounting to 68.3% of its total area. These indicators as the result of weakened control of land use. are several times as big as those of the river basins of the Central and Western Europe and they constitute a set of In the framework of global threat to genetic species threats to biological diversity. The common reason for diversity on the global and regional levels a core threat them is excessive fragmentation of the natural vegetation lies in the following: cover, which does not allow biological populations to 5. A loss of species diversity of ground flora and fauna achieve the quantity enabling their natural self-regulation because of the irrigation and drainage of agricul- and survival. tural soils, the absence of modern land surveying A lot of farming methods used in the Dnipro Basin plans, soil and factory-farm soil group maps, and countries are not ecologically friendly and lead to such cadastral land valuation (land registry). processes as the degradation of biological diversity of At the regional and local levels, the threats to biological organisms living in soil, the contamination of agricul- diversity are as follows: tural landscapes with decay products of chemicals and 6. A decrease of species variety and degradation of fertilizers, excessive pasture loading, water and wind land associations, located in areas affected by agri- erosion, etc. cultural lands and cattle-breeding complexes. Strategically important for biological and landscape 7. Disappearance and decrease in the number of some diversity conservation is the transition of agriculture in native species populations. the Dnipro Basin to the principles of sustainable and ecologically sound agriculture. To achieve this, the following groups of problems must be solved: Natural Areas of Preferential Protection (NAPP) and potential territories of ecological network Problems: 1. Inconsistency between territorial composition of A further development of NAPP system is of strategic agricultural lands and natural landscape structure. importance, particularly, in terms of a prospective estab- 2. Adverse transformations of soils and soil organisms. lishment on its basis of an ecological network of the 3. Drainage and irrigation. Dnipro Basin seen as an integral part of the basin coun- 90 Romanenko et al.

tries’ national eco-networks and of the Pan-European vive in a wide range of conditions, upsets the natural bal- Ecological Network. The following large-scale problems ance towards self-contamination and decreased self- are to be resolved in order to implement this strategy: purification capacity of reservoirs. In the Dnipro Basin, this may be clearly observed in the cascade reservoirs. Problems: Blue-green algae blooms occur in the reservoir shallow 1. Insufficient area of natural areas of preferential pro- waters (hence, considerably increasing the organic tection and their uneven territorial allocation. washout into the Black Sea), despite a powerful self- 2. Poor coherence of natural areas of preferential pro- purification potential of benthic communities and active tection. consumption of organic matter by wetland communities. 3. Insufficiently effective and substantiated manage- Therefore, given that major problems have been ment of natural areas of preferential protection. caused by the formation of the cascade system on the The following threats to biological diversity have global Dnipro River as well as by the over-regulation of its trib- importance: utary flows, this Strategy is oriented towards the conser- 1. A threat of species dying out and degradation of vation and maximum recovery of biological diversity communities, not covered by the NAPP network, as under the conditions formed by the above fundamental the result of small NAPP sizes and their uneven dis- changes in the basin natural environment. tribution in the territory of the Dnipro Basin. Problems: 2. A threat of disappearance of landscapes and territo- 1. Biological diversity degradation due to insufficiently ries whose size is insufficient for the reproduction justified regulation of the Dnipro River and its trib- and sustaining of populations in environmentally utaries. normal conditions. 2. Biological diversity degradation due to incorrect fish- 3. A threat of extinction and shrinking in the popula- farming practices, absence of effective system for tion of migrating species is posed by the atural native fish species and invertebrates reproduction. biotopes that do not have a status of protected nat- 3. Decrease in the number of aquatic biota, fish kills ural territories. caused by contamination of waterbodies. On a local level (within NAPPs and their parts) the The above-mentioned problems have led to a number of threat to biological diversity lies in the following: threats to biological diversity of water ecosystems. 4. A threat of dying out of certain plant and animal Within the framework of global threat to diversity of populations, loss of biological diversity within habitats, threats to the following habitats have global NAPPs due to poor efficiency of NAPP management. and regional importance: Water ecosystems. The importance of biological diver- • Riverside (littoral) biotopes sity conservation and recovery in the Dnipro Basin water • Routes of free migrations of fish, water-depen- ecosystems is determined by the fact that there are dent invertebrates and vertebrates 15,380 different tributaries (with the total length of • Biotopes serving as spawning grounds and water- 67,156 km) within this territory. As many as 504 reser- fowl nesting places voirs with the total area of water surface of 767 km2 and In the framework of global threat to genetic species capacity of 2.2 km3 have been set up here; small rivers diversity on the global and regional levels these are threats have 12,570 ponds with the total area of 1086 km2 and of the disappearance of species, subspecies, morphs; on capacity of 1.54 km3. A cascade system of 6 reservoirs the regional and local levels these are threats of the disap- with the total area of 6950 km2 and full volume of inter- pearance and reduction of certain populations: cepted water of 43.8 km3 has been constructed on the Dnipro River. Over-regulation of the Dnipro River has • Migratory fish species led to the changing of relations between marsh, lake and • Lithoreophylic fish and invertebrates river ecosystems, as well as to the emergence of new • Native fish and invertebrates ecosystem types, in particular: reservoirs and polders. In • Species valuable for commercial fishing fact, a new ecological situation, in need of optimization, • Littoral plant species has appeared in the Dnipro Basin hydro-ecosystem. • Amphibian and water-dependent vertebrate Self-purification and self-contamination processes species are under way in water bodies due to the functioning of water communities. The change in community structure Cause-Effect Analysis resulting from the changed quantitative correlation between species, coupled with the disappearance of The cause-effect analysis was aimed at the identification species sensitive to contamination (mostly, native species) of root and immediate causes and effects of biological and and with the massive reproduction of species able to sur- landscape diversity loss in the Dnipro River Basin. Any Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 91 factor of intensive anthropogenic interference resulting in • Establishment of an eco-network in the trans- large-scale or other consequences and the emergence of boundary areas of the Dnipro Basin, including problems in the sphere of biological and landscape diver- provisions on the formation of bilateral protected sity conservation is considered an immediate(direct) cause. territories; The consequences of social and economic development, • Coordination of timeframes and scopes of with- legacy of the past, major faults in environmental policy drawing live water resources in the trans-bound- and legislation are regarded as root causes. Effects are the ary areas of the Dnipro Basin. changes and other natural processes, reflecting different The above issues could be addressed and resolved aspects of biological and landscape diversity loss. most effectively in the course of the Dnipro Convention drafting. Assessment of Priority Areas Note: Individual measures to achieve the objectives and Targets of Intervention of the proposed strategy are listed in the full report (Romanenko et al., this issue) on all action levels (politi- This section is treated in the papers by Aleksandrova et cal, i.e., .international and national legislation, public al. and Pugachevsky et al. in this issue, as well as in the administration, and practical measures level ), with a full report by Romanenko et al., also in this issue. time frame of 3-5, 10 and 15 years and over to implement, at estimated cost, sources of funding, benefit Strategy for Reaching the Objectives assessment and potential donors. Following are the brief summaries for each type of the Dnipro basin ecosystems: Attaining of the mentioned objectives (LTEQO) requires the introduction of a system of measures at political, legislative, government and administrative levels and practi- Environmental and Economic Feasibility cal implementation of specified measures at the level of of Activities to Ensure Optimal Forest Area central and local governments. The optimal forest area can be reached by expanding the At the international policy level, the achievement of acreage of forest land (up to 0.8 million hectares and each of the following objectives is conditional on the more) at the expense of agricultural land, by reserving adoption of a trilateral (Belarus-Russia-Ukraine) docu- forest land for ecological network formation, by plant- ment addressing the harmonization of the Dnipro Basin ing young forest along the banks of rivers, lakes and countries’ national legislations in the spheres of: water reservoirs, including on erosion-prone slopes. The • Forest use and reproduction, forest landscape width and location of forest belts along the banks of conservation; rivers and other bodies of water depend on the length • Sustainable use of marshes and territorial plan- and regime of river flow, the character and activity of ning of their drainage areas; erosion and riverbed evolution processes, the type of • Sustainable use and territorial planning of mead- land use and territorial geo-morphological specifics. In ows, steppes and agro-landscapes; order to sustain environmental balance, preserve original • Coordination of NAPP categories, functional sites of nature, and protect wild flora and fauna species, zoning and protection regimes of territories and activities to establish local and regional ecological corri- sites of natural reserves; dors that will connect forest areas and NAPPs in the • Sustainable use of water resources and runoff Dnipro Basin, are designed and implemented. Forest for- regulation; mation will entail expenditures for territory planning, soil • Sustainable use of live resources, including management and stabilization, planting and sowing of migrating species. trees and other vegetation, fertilizer application, agro- technical and other measures. The estimated cost of The document should lay down the three countries’ ensuring optimal forest area in the Dnipro Basin amounts commitments with regard to the following: to USD 79.6 million (see Appendix A). • Conservation of forests and coordination of plans for forest management and forest rehabili- Environmental and Economic Feasibility tation in the trans-boundary areas of the Dnipro of Activities to Restore Wetlands Basin; • Conservation of wetlands and coordination of Wetlands are to be restored, primarily, in the upper and plans for their territorial management in the mid flow parts of the Dnipro Basin. In order to achieve trans-boundary areas of the Dnipro Basin; environmental balance and restore wetlands, the follow- • Use of agro-landscapes and coordination of ing activities are to be implemented: expansion of wet- plans for their territorial management in the land area, conservation of marshes and marshy land- trans-boundary areas of the Dnipro Basin; scapes, rehabilitation of ameliorated marshes that used 92 Romanenko et al. Cause-effect analysis of threats to biological and landscape diversity (forest ecosystems). Fig. 1. Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 93 Cause-effect analysis of threats to biological and landscape diversity (marshland ecosystems). Fig. 2. 94 Romanenko et al. Cause-effect analysis of threats to biological and landscape diversity (meadow steppe ecosystems). Fig. 3. Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 95 Cause-effect analysis of threats to biological and landscape diversity (agro-landscapes). Fig. 4. 96 Romanenko et al. Cause-effect analysis of threats to biological and landscape diversity (water ecosystems). Fig. 5. Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 97 to be zones of biological sanitation of river water and operating costs (salary, depreciation, expenses for petro- sources of biodiversity development. Amelioration leum, oil and lubricants, equipment storage costs). works will entail expenditures for the reconstruction of Water protection measures include: grass sowing on drainage facilities, land clearing, restoration of meadow riverside plough fields and tilled native grasslands, and wetland vegetation, territorial planning, etc. The improving grass stand on native grasslands, planting funds required for the establishment of an environmen- protective forests along the banks of rivers and other tally sound and cohesive network of wetland conserva- water bodies, reclamation of degraded lands, moving tion and restoration are estimated at USD 19.2 million. buildings and other constructions farther away from riversides. The estimated cost of activities aimed at opti- Environmental and Economic Feasibility mizing agro-landscapes and establishing conservation of Activities to Ensure an Environmentally areas on agricultural lands in the Dnipro Basin amounts Sustainable Condition of Meadows and Steppes to USD 147.9 million.

The Strategy foresees an environmental restoration of Environmental and Economic Feasibility of grassland vegetation on the area of over 1 million Activities to Establish an Environmentally Sound hectares currently used as agricultural land, highly and Optimized Network of Natural Areas of degraded. Among the restoration techniques are sowing Preferential Protection and Eco-corridors meadow grass on arable land, creating meadow and steppe buffer belts along rivers, lakes and water reser- Development of conservation areas in the Dnipro Basin voirs, primarily on erosion-prone slopes, both at the is one of the strategic tasks in achieving its sustainable local (1500 km) and regional (about 500 km) levels. An condition. 0.6 million hectares of forest lands are to be effective priority activity in protecting minor rivers and reserved, new NAPPs are to be organized on wetlands bodies of water is cultivating meadows on all arable and peateries by transferring undistributed peateries into lands and tilled native grasslands located along river- reserve land stock. Meadows and steppes are to be sides. Tilled grasslands are to be sown with a mix of expanded by reserving plots in flood lands. State-owned perennial grasses depending on soil conditions. Thus agricultural land plots (over 500 thousand hectares) are meadowed plough lands and native grasslands can be to be reserved, the land use regime in conservation areas used for haymaking. Aggregated cost of ensuring the being regulated with due regard of the designed purpose. environmentally sustainable condition of meadows and The formulated long-term objectives can be attained steppes includes expenditures for land clearing (remov- through conservation activities aiming to expand the ing litter, stones, tussocks, etc.), amelioration (slitting, network of water bodies essential for fish reproduction chiseling, mole draining, gully control), sowing native and likely to receive the status of NAPPs or ecological grasses, meadowing (soil management, erosion preven- network sites. The number and acreage of NAPPs can be tion), territory planning and improvement, etc. The esti- enlarged by extending their borders to cover adjacent mated cost of meadow and steppe rehabilitation in the lands with preserved natural biotopes of floral, faunal, Dnipro Basin is USD 56.8 million. coenotic or landscape value, and by creating two transboundary international natural reserves. The funds Environmental and Economic Feasibility of required for the establishment of environmentally sound Activities to Create an Environmentally Sound and optimized network of conservation areas and eco- and Optimized Network of Conservation Areas corridors are estimated at USD 8.2 million. and Agro-Landscapes Environmental and Economic Feasibility of Proposed conservation activities will be carried out on Activities to Achieve Ecologically Sustainable agricultural land. They include: contour ameliorative ter- Condition of Water Areas, Flood Lands and ritory planning, agro-technical erosion-control measures, Riverside Ecosystems, and Balanced degraded land rehabilitation, including land meadowing; Reproduction of Indigenous, Endemic lime treatment of acid soil; creation of water-protection and Transitory Fish Species zones and belts along bodies of water receiving harvested runoff, etc. The contour ameliorative territory The Strategy proposes to expand the network of pro- planning (over 1 million hectares) envisions: territory tected water areas, floodplains, rivers and riverside and crop-rotation planning, land meadowing, gully flat- ecosystems, as well as bodies of water essential for fish tening, flood-gully leveling, etc. The types and scopes of and invertebrates reproduction in the territory of about agro-technical erosion-control measures depend on the 100 thousand hectares. Costs of reserving relevant terri- nature of erosion processes and the area of eroded land. tories include expenses for the examination of water The cost of erosion-control activities consists of capital bodies in the Dnipro Basin for their reserve capacity and costs (anti-erosion equipment, territory planning) and surface run-off, for the preparation of models and pro- 98 Romanenko et al. jects of territory planning for water areas management. The defined goal envisions the bringing of land- Feasibility of reserving water bodies for fish reproduc- scape territorial composition, NAPP structure, eco- tion and surface run-off regulation is to be determined nomic management and practices of agriculture, with due regard of regional specifics. A series of other forestry and fisheries in conformity with environmental conservation activities are to be carried out at a later capacities of the territory. stage, including lime treatment, fertilizer application, Attaining this goal foresees a gradual implementa- stocking water bodies with fish, fish adjustment to new tion of a system of measures. Immediate activities (for habitats, etc. The estimated cost of supporting environ- the period of 1-5 years) include policy decisions, whose mentally sustainable condition of water areas, river adoption will provide a solid legislative and administra- flood lands and riverside ecosystems, and of balanced tive basis for the introduction of environmental princi- reproduction of indigenous, endemic and transitory fish ples of agricultural production, forestry and fish indus- species is USD 11.8 million. try. Of top priority are the improvement of national legislations and their harmonization with the interna- Environmental and Economic Feasibility of tional law. Mid-term activities (for the period of National Legislation Development and 5-15 years) will result in a transition of the Dnipro Basin Improvement of Biodiversity Management economy to the use of environmentally sustainable technologies. Therefore, at this stage, the introduction of Expected outcomes of the Dnipro Basin project are con- environmentally friendly methods and techniques in the ditional on the following: abovementioned sectors is of great importance. Long- term activities (for the period over 15 years) include • improving legislative and regulatory framework actions requiring considerable material and financial for sustainable development of ecosystems and resources; they aim to trigger natural processes of biodiversity; ecosystems self-rehabilitation. For example, even given a • introducing integral biodiversity planning and successful implementation of all planned activities elimi- management at the national level (ministries and nating threats to forest ecosystems, the restoration of agencies); biological diversity of these ecosystems will take • creating and developing effective environmental decades, since it is subject to the laws of nature where and economic mechanisms for the use of natural human intervention is practically impossible. resources (standardization and certification for biodiversity, registration and cadastre/registry of natural resources, taxation, etc.); Immediate Activities • ensuring a comprehensive multidimensional (implementation period: 1-5 years) approach to territory planning and biodiversity In the light of the necessity to coordinate the Dnipro conservation (land use planning and control, Basin states’ activities aiming to conserve and rehabili- research, enhancing local governments’ powers in tate biological and landscape diversity, and of the need respect of biodiversity conservation). to carry out this work in line with the effective interna- Organizational measures include the forming and tional conventions and other instruments in the BLDC functioning of joint mechanisms for inter-state biodiver- field, the primary goal is to harmonize the three Dnipro sity management in the Dnipro Basin. To this end the Basin countries’ national legislations with the interna- Biodiversity RTC is instrumental, provided its active tional law and across the basin. The most important task cooperation with the national Academies of Sciences, is to bring the national legislations in conformity with branch academies and other stakeholders under the the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Pan-Euro- guidance of the SAP Coordination Group. The estimated pean Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy, the cost of the project implementation is USD 3.5 million Convention on the Conservation of Wild Fauna and (see Appendix A). Flora and their Habitats in Europe, the Convention Con- cerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Nat- Conclusions ural Heritage, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, the Convention on The overall goal of biological and landscape diversity Conservation of Wetlands of International Importance, conservation in the Dnipro Basin envisages the environ- the European Landscape Convention, the Convention on mental sustainability of forests, meadows and wetlands, Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision- agricultural landscapes, water areas, flood-lands and making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, riverside ecosystems, which will ensure the conservation and the Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans- of species variety, species habitats, the structures of bio- boundary Watercourses and International Lakes. logical populations and communities, and the continuity Harmonization of the national legislations with the of environmental framework. abovementioned documents will considerably facilitate Strategy for Conserving Biodiversity 99 the matching of the three Dnipro basin countries’ BLDC system of control and information support required for legislations, which is to be carried out within the next environmentally sound management of agriculture, for- 1-5 years. The top-priority issue in this field is to harmo- est and water economy. These measures could be imple- nize the three countries’ legislations on natural areas of mented within 5-15 years. preferential protection, forest use and forest rehabilita- The implementation of the above and other mea- tion, forest landscapes protection, sustainable use of sures will lead, in 5-15 years, to a transformed territor- wetlands and territory planning within their drainage ial composition of landscapes, approaching the required areas, expanding of grass plantations and environmental environmental indices (optimal forest area, number of optimization of their use, environmental standards of nature reserves, bogging, etc.). Thus, in the next agriculture and water economy, NAPPs development 15 years, the acreage of natural areas of preferential and integration into the environmental network. protection in the Dnipro Basin is expected to grow to The amending of the Dnipro basin countries’ BLDC 12% of its territory, while around 1.3 million hectares laws and regulatory instruments will establish a sound of ploughed land, which is low-productive, erosion- regulatory framework for efficient decision-making at prone and degraded, will be withdrawn from agricul- the public administration level. The top priorities in this tural use, with further restoration of natural ecosystems field include the development of comprehensive national in these territories. programs for NAPPs network development, extending These changes in the Dnipro Basin landscape compo- the forest-covered areas in the Dnipro Basin, environ- sition, as well as the introduction of new, effective land mental optimization of the agro-landscape structure, use techniques, will be conducive to a more intensive transition to sustainable forest economy principles, environmental optimization in the long-term perspective. rehabilitation and sustainable use of marshes, meadows and steppes, conservation and rehabilitation of water Long-term Activities ecosystems biodiversity. (period of implementation: 15 years and more) The above national programs and a trilateral BLDC agreement that the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Fed- The long-term activities are designed for achieving long- eration and Ukraine are likely to sign within 3-5 years term environmental quality indicators formulated in this will provide a starting point for coordinated decision- Strategy, namely: for forming an environmentally sus- making and implementing of the middle-term measures. tainable agro-landscape composition; for reaching an Based on this agreement, a prospective network of the optimal area of forest land in the Dnipro Basin, for Dnipro Basin transnational NAPPs will be developed to attaining a balanced condition of hydro-ecosystems and become a core of the basin eco-network. a required correlation between wetlands, meadows and steppes, for developing a network of natural areas of Mid-term Activities preferential protection and for creating the Dnipro Basin (implementation period: 5–15 years) environmental network. These goals entail large-scale changes in the entire Dnipro Basin environmental sys- The improved legislation, developed and adopted national tem, envisage fundamental transformations in the land- programs and trilateral BLDC agreement will allow the scape composition and, therefore, can be implemented implementation of activities expected to ensure a transi- only within a longer timeframe. tion, over the next 5-15 years, of the riparian countries’ Although the final realization of the above activities economy to environmentally friendly technologies. is likely to take more than 15 years, the work will con- In the mid-term perspective, it is important to tinue towards a gradual attainment of the established develop and apply new, environmentally acceptable LTEQI, concurrently with the activities at the earlier management methods, capable of eliminating the root stages of the Regional Strategy implementation. causes of the loss of biological and landscape diversity. Special significance should be attached to envi- Expected Environmental Effect ronmentally safe timber cutting, in particular, to the introduction of selective felling; to the formation of Phased implementation of the above activities will ensure poly-dominant plantations; to the introduction of a a comprehensive, multidimensional approach to biodiver- contour-reclamation agro-landscapes design on erosion- sity conservation in the Dnipro Basin, improve the plan- prone soils; to the use of meadow-circulation technique ning of forest and water ecosystem management and for hayfields and pastures; to the reintroduction of abo- guarantee NAPPs development. Benefits of applying the riginal flora and fauna species; to the mastering of soil multidimensional approach are manifold: national bene- tilling techniques that prevent threats to soil communi- fits will ensue from the increased sustainability in the use ties biodiversity, etc. of natural resources, improved performance of the nature The mid-term activities also include the establish- management sector, reduced costs of the use of natural ment of an effective biodiversity monitoring system, a resources and better understanding and appreciation in 100 Romanenko et al. the society of contemporary environmental challenges Acknowledgements and problems of natural resources degradation; global This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.4 of the Bio- benefits will be derived from the preservation of local diversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF IDRC Dnipro fauna and flora in the Dnipro Basin, the restoration of Basin Environment Program by the following experts: environmental cohesion of forest, marsh, meadow, steppe and riverside ecosystems and habitats, including ecologi- Project Team members: cal corridors important for the biota development; from Belarus: M.E. Nikiforov, N.N. Bombalov, A.V. Kozulin; the environmental rehabilitation and reproduction of Russia: V.N. Kostiushenkov, A.M. Gordeyev, A.I. Biz- forests, meadows and wetlands; from the involvement of iukov, A.E. Kukhta local communities and governments in conservation Ukraine:V.D. Romanenko (Project Manager), M.D. activities and from a wider spreading of viable environ- Grodzinsky, S.A. Afanasyev; General mental management practices. The governments’ efforts Economic assessment team: will facilitate the biodiversity conservation and rehabilita- A.A. Kovalchuk (Belarus); I.K. Komarov (Russia); B.M. tion in the Dnipro Basin, the expansion of natural areas Danylyshyn (Project coordinator), O.A. Kucher of preferential protection, the improvement of land com- (Ukraine) position and environmental condition. International Editing: V.N. Bilokon, O.L. Dronova (Ukraine). donors will create prerequisites for effective biodiversity management, for the attainment of project aims and Reference objectives and for the development of the Dnipro Basin most valuable ecosystems. Other stakeholders’ involve- Romanenko VD, Afanasyev SA, Grodzinsky MD, Bilokon ment (including that of national NGOs) will be con- VN. 2003. Regional strategy for conserving biological ducive to a better societal awareness of the need for the and landscape diversity in the Dnipro basin. Final Dnipro Basin environmental rehabilitation. Report. www.dnipro-gef.net. Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept for Transboundary Areas of the Dnipro River Basin

Mikhail D. Grodzinsky,1* Viktor D. Romanenko2 and Yuriy R. Sheliag-Sosonko3

1Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Kyiv, Ukraine 2Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine 3Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

Establishment of ecological corridors in the Dnipro River Basin, to integrate with the European and national eco-networks was proposed. Goals, objectives and overall strategy for developing the transboundary Dnipro Basin eco-network were specified. Criteria for identifying territories to be included in the eco-network, and legal and regulatory framework governing the creation of the eco-network, were identified. The key issues which require immediate attention include absence of clearly-defined criteria for locating natural eco-network cores, which are consistent with European standards; gaps in the legal and regulatory framework governing eco-networking, absence of an agreed common strategy for designing an eco-network (particularly at the national level), application of the Basin-wide approach to eco-network designing, and absence of a list of network-building measures ranked on a regional basis. Implementation strategies for the eco-network concept were recommended.

Key words: ecological corridors, transboundary areas, Dnipro River Basin

Introduction plete understanding of these issues impedes efforts to create national eco-networks (Belarus, Russian and The idea of establishing an ecological (eco-)network is Ukraine) or the Dnipro Basin transboundary eco-net- considered as integral to organising the conservation of work and to integrate the latter into the European eco- landscape and biodiversity and is key to implementing network. The key issues which require immediate atten- the European strategy aimed at conservation of land- tion include: absence of clearly-defined criteria for scapes and biodiversity (Sofia, 1995). The environmental locating natural eco-network cores, which are consistent network being created is viewed as a Euronetwork with European standards; gaps in the legal and regula- intended to cover the whole European continent. That is tory framework governing eco-networking, absence of why special importance is attached to studies that focus an agreed common strategy for designing an eco-net- on designing eco-networks that will cover large areas of work (particularly at the national level), application of Europe and will be subsequently integrated into the the Basin-wide approach to eco-network designing, and European eco-network. The importance of these studies absence of a list of network-building measures ranked increases even further when it comes to transboundary on a geographical (regional) basis. Apart from this, regions. This reasoning provided the basis for the imple- enhanced landscape and biodiversity zones which should mentation of this Project. The Project focused on two be looked upon as regional eco-network constituents major goals. First of all, it sought to develop principles, have still not been identified in the Dnipro Basin. These legal and regulatory framework and overall strategy for and a number of other issues were identified as the Pro- and ways of establishing an eco-network in the trans- ject main objectives. boundary Dnipro River Basin. All this as well as analysis of regional parameters of landscape and biodiversity of Goals, Objectives and Overall Strategy the Dnipro Basin provided a methodological basis for for Establishing the Transboundary Dnipro the Project second and the main goal: to develop a mas- Basin Eco-Network ter diagram of the eco-network for transboundary areas of the Dnipro River Basin. The eco-network of transboundary areas of the Dnipro The urgency of research on the development of an River Basin should form part of the European eco-net- eco-network of the transboundary Dnipro Basin may be work which means that the two networks’ major goals explained not only by the significance of this problem should coincide. The European strategy of landscape and both at the European and national level but also by a biodiversity conservation defines the European eco-net- great number of outstanding issues in this field. Incom- work goals as follows: 1. Ensure conservation of the whole variety of ecosys- * Corresponding author; [email protected] tems, habitats, biological species and their genetic

101 102 Grodzinsky et al.

diversity as well as of landscapes of European sig- 1. Assign environmental corridor functions to ecosys- nificance; tems of rivers, floodplains and river valley terraces; 2. Provide biological species with territories that are 2. Conserve and restore riverside biotopes and land- large enough to sustain them in normal environmen- scapes of the river valley as landscape and biological tal condition; diversity centers; 3. Provide scope for migration and expansion of species; 3. Ensure migration links among landscape and biolog- 4. Arrange for restoration of key elements of disturbed ical diversity centers located in different countries by ecosystems; creating transboundary environmental corridors; 5. Protect ecosystems from potential environmental 4. Create transboundary (bilateral and trilateral) land- threats. scape and biological diversity centers. These overall goals represent major goals of the The aforesaid goals are of strategic importance and designed network of the Dnipro Basin environmental involve fulfilling a number of specific objectives by corridors. At the same time, the Dnipro eco-network, means of creating a network of environmental corridors particularly its transboundary section, must fulfill sev- in the Dnipro Basin. The main specific objectives are eral specific goals, namely: summarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Objectives of creating a network of environmental corridors in the Dnipro Basin

No. Objective

International 1 Create an environmentally-sound regional Dnipro River basin system 2 Preserve and restore biodiversity and landscapes of European and basin-wide significance 3 Protect intercontinental and continental bird migration routes 4 Create a unified network of nature reserves of different rank and type

Regional 5 Discover and enhance protection of biodiversity centers for Dnipro tributary sub-basins 6 Conserve the biological variety of concrete types of flora and certain landscapes 7 Create a natural framework (carcass) for establishing regional landscape parks

Local 8 Increase and support the ecological capacity of communities and ecosystems 9 Renaturalise especially valuable ecotopes, i.e., eco-network elements 10 Protect local animal migration routes 11 Protect land adjacent to the environmental corridors against deflation and erosion 12 Protect agricultural land adjacent to the environmental corridors against pests and other factors that reduce their productivity 13 Reduce noise pollution of areas adjacent to the environmental corridors

Ecological 14 Ensure an exchange of genetic material and species migration and expansion throughout biodiversity centers 15 Protect rare species diversity from actual and potential hazards 16 Expand and enrich the evolutionary space for relict, endemic and vanishing species

Landscape-related 17 Increase landscape diversity 18 Increase the ecological capacity and stability of landscapes 19 Stabilize erosion, deflation and other abiotic degradation processes affecting landscapes 20 Increase the water protection capacity of landscapes 21 Increase the self-purification capacity of landscapes 22 Increase the recreational potential of landscapes 23 Improve landscape aesthetics

Social 24 Preserve historical and cultural heritage and unique nature management methods 25 Promote the development of eco-tourism and environmentally-friendly recreation 26 Promote environmental education and raise environmental awareness of the public 27 Enhance responsibility of local authorities and the population Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept 103

The above goals and objectives of the transbound- the local level. This hierarchical design strategy enables ary Dnipro Basin eco-network predetermine the overall us to integrate local eco-networks into a unified system strategy for designing it. Since the transboundary Dnipro and to connect the Dnipro Basin eco-network to the Basin eco-network is expected to occupy a vast area it is European eco-network being currently designed. The designed on a basin-wide international scale. This overall eco-network design strategy for the Dnipro Basin includes constructing an eco-network master diagram, is presented in diagram form in Fig. 1. which will serve as a reference point at the subsequent In the course of an analysis of the Dnipro Basin design stage to be implemented on a regional scale. transboundary areas our primary concern is to locate Finally, a detailed eco-network design plan is created at areas that can be viewed as biological and landscape

Fig. 1. Overall strategy of designing of the Dnipro Basin Eco-Network. 104 Grodzinsky et al. diversity conservation centers and are important for the Therefore, the primary criterion for identifying environ- entire territory under examination as eco-network cores. mental corridors is a migration criterion, namely, an These should be interconnected by a network of environ- environmental corridor is one or several areals that may mental corridors. At the basin-wide eco-network design serve as a conduit for an exchange of genetic material level the main task is to identify regions (zones) where it and migration between biocenters (regional and natural is advisable to create environmental corridors of basin- cores) of an eco-network. This is possible subject to the wide and regional importance. Another important task is following conditions: the demarcation of the Dnipro Basin into areals (ranges) 1. The length of an environmental corridor does not that differ from one another based on the necessity and exceed migration distances of most species inhabit- expected efficiency of environmental corridors of regional ing biocenters. and local significance. The eco-network master diagram 2. The width of an environmental corridor enables provides insights into its general appearance. Subsequent populations to effectively use it as a migration and design tasks are resolved at the regional and local level. expansion (colonization) channel. 3. Edaphic conditions in an environmental corridor are Criteria for Identifying Territories identical or close to those of the biocenters (natural to be Included in the Eco-Network cores) it connects. 4. An environmental corridor does not pose migration Only territories which meet one or several of the follow- barriers and is free from other factors impeding ing general requirements were selected as natural cores migration and expansion of most species. (territories) of the Dnipro Basin eco-network. These conditions are used to establish criteria for 1. They are characterized by enhanced or otherwise identifying areas as environmental corridors (See Table 3). unique biodiversity; 2. They represent extant natural landscapes of high interregional significance; Legal and Regulatory Framework Governing 3. They represent man-transformed landscapes of the Creation of the Eco-Network interregional cultural and historical importance. A distinctive feature of the Dnipro Basin eco-network is These general requirements are used to establish a that from the legal standpoint it is subject to three legis- set of criteria for identifying natural cores of an eco- lations. First of all, being designed as a constituent part network. (See Table 2) of the European eco-network, the Dnipro Basin eco- In establishing criteria for designating areas as envi- network must conform to respective international legal ronmental corridors it is assumed that an environmental rules. Second, the Dnipro Basin eco-network is being corridor is intended to serve as a connecting spatial link created as an interstate network and consequently must between biocenters and eco-network natural cores. be based on trilateral and bilateral agreements of the

TABLE 2. Criteria for identifying areas to be designated as natural cores of an interregional eco-network

Index Criterion Compliance with a criterion BE Bio-ecological criteria BE-s Sozological Protected territories recognized by the Council of Europe and/or awarded a European diploma BE-p Population Areals densely populated by rare, endemic and relict species BE-c Cenosis Areals inhabited by biotic communities that are important on a regional scale in terms of their dominants and edificators BE-r Representativeness Areals inhabited by flora and fauna that have retained their native or almost native state and are representative of natural zones of the Dnipro Basin L Landscape criteria L-n Naturalness Areas with landscapes in their native or almost native state L-u Uniqueness Unique landscapes in their native or almost native state L-d Landscape diversity Areals characterized by a great number of different and contrasting landscapes L-r Representativeness Areals with landscapes in almost native state, which are representative of the Dnipro Basin L-c Cultural significance Landscapes of inter-regional historical and cultural significance T Territorial criteria T-a Sufficiency of size The size of an areal is large enough for its bioecological, landscape and other features to manifest themselves on a basin-wide and/or larger scale. T-c Territorial integrity Areals whose biocenters are linked by means of an environmental corridor network into a single interdependent structure Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept 105

Dnipro Basin countries. Finally, within the confines of the necessary criteria required to be awarded the Euro- each of the above-said countries the eco-network is sub- pean diploma or included in the wetlands list of the ject to national environmental laws of that country. Ramsar Convention or, for local nature reserves and This situation brings into sharp focus the following national parks to be recognized by the Council of problems: 1) bringing legal rules in force at the three lev- Europe as having the European status, they have still not els is a fairly complex task, 2) effective interstate cooper- been granted this status. Therefore, in the light of the ation agreements do not address all transboundary issues task of creating the Dnipro Basin eco-network as a con- related to the creation of the eco-network, and 3) rele- stituent part of the European eco-network, the major vant national laws of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine some- strategic task now facing the Dnipro Basin countries is what differ and have been finalized to varying degrees. to step up and coordinate their efforts to have these pro- Nevertheless, the existing regulatory and legal acts tected areas certified at the international level. provide a basis for creating the Dnipro Basin eco-net- It is possible to determine eco-network natural work. Since the eco-network is expected to be incorpo- cores, i.e., landscapes of cultural and historical signifi- rated into the European eco-network, it is necessary to cance, on the basis of the criteria set out in the Conven- resort to the relevant international legal documents. The tion on Worldwide Heritage adopted at the UNESCO major document in this field is the European strategy in general Conference in 1972. The Convention’s signifi- the field of biological and landscape diversity (Sofia cance for the conservation of cultural landscapes 1995). To set up a network of interstate environmental increased even further after the adoption in 1992 by the corridors it is also necessary to take account of the Bonn UNESCO Worldwide Heritage Committee of revised cri- Convention on the conservation of migratory wild animal teria to be adhered to in the course of the implementa- species (1979). The Dnipro Basin countries, which are not tion of the Convention. part of the European Union, should identify natural cores The European Landscape Convention (Florentine of an eco-network of European significance taking into Convention) adopted at the 718th meeting of the Coun- account the Convention on the conservation of wild flora cil of Ministers of the Council of Europe on July 19, and fauna and their natural habitats (Bern 1979) and rele- 2000 created a very favourable environment for interna- vant resolutions of the Convention standing committee tional cooperation in the field of assessment and recogni- that defined “areas of special conservation interest”. tion of cultural, historical and natural merits of land- These areas must be integrated into Europe’s Emerald scapes. So far the Dnipro Basin countries have not Eco-Network, which is considered to be analogous to the signed it. However, we think that joining the Conven- NATURA-2000 network for the EU member states. tion is necessary not only for the purposes of setting up In the case of the Dnipro Basin, the natural cores of an eco-network but also for resolving other numerous European significance are represented by areas listed in issues related to the conservation of landscape diversity. the Ramsar Convention on wetlands, protected areas The interstate legal mechanisms according to which awarded the European Diploma and areas designated as the three countries should cooperate in setting up the biogenetic reserves by the Council of Europe. Unfortu- Dnipro Basin eco-network have not been fully developed nately, even though the Dnipro Basin countries have and this is hardly surprising since the idea of creating unique areas not found anywhere in Europe and charac- such a network is still in the process of being worked out. terized by relatively intact natural complexes, so far they Should this idea be officially approved it will be have done very little to have these protected areas certi- anchored by legal means. But even at this point in time fied at the international level. In spite of the fact that the existing interstate agreements on environmental pro- most of the protected areas in the Dnipro Basin meet all tection provide us with some legal mechanisms that

TABLE 3. Criteria for identifying areas as environmental corridors

Index Criterion Compliance with a criterion C-d Effective length The length of an environmental corridor must not exceed migration and expansion distances of population individuals to be protected by means of an eco-network

C-w Effective width Environmental corridor must be wide enough for populations to expand and migrate through it with sufficient effectiveness C-e Ecotopical Edaphic conditions in an environmental corridor must be similar to edaphotopes of the biocenters it connects C-c Territorial continuity An environmental corridor may be continuous or discontinuous. In the latter case discontinuities must not prevent the migration of species C-h Hydroecological The area and/ or water area of a hydroenvironmental corridor must exhibit rich diversity and allow for the migration of species 106 Grodzinsky et al.

enable us to design an interstate eco-network. In the first ally accommodate environmental corridors of different place these include legal rules governing the creation of orders. This choice is also the most realistic one due to transnational nature reserves which have a great role to availability of “natural material” for the regional biodi- play as natural cores of the eco-network. Within the versity centers and regional environmental corridors. transboundary Dnipro Basin such cores are first and Inasmuch as biodiversity conservation is the primary foremost represented by transnational protected areas objective of the eco-network, it is essential that we choose which are already regulated by respective interstate as natural cores of the eco-network, the areas which are agreements. These include the Pripiat-Stokhod National home for most of the species that need to be preserved. Park (Belarus, Ukraine), “Briansk and Starogut Forests” For the purpose of designing the interregional eco-net- biosphere reserve (Ukraine, Russia), and “Western Pole- work we may assume that the species in need of conserva- siye” biosphere reserve (Belarus, Ukraine and Poland). tion are those included in the national endangered-species It is apparent that the Dnipro Basin eco-network lists (national red books). If we determine their areals and cannot be built now since there are too few bilateral and superimpose them on one and the same map we may trilateral interstate protected areas in the region. Thus, obtain a map showing the distribution of these endan- the strategic priority for action is to create transbound- gered species. By processing such maps using GIS-based ary nature reserves in the transboundary Dnipro Basin. tools we can determine areas which are more densely inhabited by these endangered species (i.e., species listed The Transboundary Dnipro Basin Eco-Network in the red books) than others. By way of illustration, such maps for Ukraine are shown in Fig. 3 and 4. Natural diversity cores and zones. Given its fairly high In addition, using the same method we located terri- woodiness, the transboundary Dnipro Basin is character- tories that accommodate a great number of areals ized by a fragmented vegetation cover. This fragmenta- (ranges) of valuable and endangered biotic communities. tion is the result of a great number of small and In so doing we referred to the community types listed in medium-sized forests and of the fact that large tracts of the national “green books”. forest are broken up into smaller ones. The extent of this fragmentation and the location of fragmented areas in Landscape diversity cores and zones. The cores and the transboundary Dnipro Basin are shown in Fig. 2. strips examined above were singled out due to the fact On the map, continuous tracts of land with natural that their biological diversity (fauna, flora and cenoses) vegetation cover are marked light green while the areas is richer than the ambient diversity levels. Besides these dominated by zones which have natural vegetation cover cores and zones, the natural cores of the interregional but are small in size, have “holes” and are covered by a and regional eco-networks of the Dnipro Basin should dense network of roads, drains, channels, etc. are include cores characterized by rich landscape diversity marked dark green. Despite their high woodiness, these (See Table 2 for the landscape diversity criterion for zones are very fragmented. Thus, the light green zones identifying areas as natural cores – L-d). To reveal these may be considered as cores wherein landscapes are cores we compiled a map showing landscape diversity maintained in their natural state since the natural vegeta- across Ukraine (See Fig. 5). tion cover here is the least fragmented (in fact, fragmen- The landscape diversity map demonstrates that the tation is zero here). richest diversity is found in the areas encompassing land- The wooded areas with fragmented vegetation cover scapes that belong to different natural zones and have are areas that have proper environmental conditions for interregional and intraregional environmental corridors. These areas have clearly delineated zones which can ide-

Fig. 3. Areas characterised by elevated concentrations of Fig. 2. Zones where landscapes are maintained in their nat- endangered plant species and their concentration density. ural state. Interregional (red line); regional (pink line). Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept 107

Fig. 4. Areas characterised by elevated concentrations of Fig. 5. Landscape diversity in Ukraine (contour curves indi- endangered animal species and their concentration density. cate the number of landscape types encountered in the circles Interregional cores (red line); regional cores (green line). 30 km in diameter). different morphotectonic structure. Here one comes scape is typical of both the left-bank and right-bank of across not only landscapes that differ only by type but the Pripiat River Basin. That is why the Pripiat River also diametrically different landscapes. This further breaks up the western branch of the Pripiat-Desna zone enhances the role of these areas as landscape cores of the of environmental corridors into two wide interregional interregional eco-network. The transboundary Dnipro environmental corridors, which may be called the left- Basin accommodates 8 such cores. These in turn make bank Pripiat corridor and the right-bank Pripiat corridor. up 2 enhanced landscape diversity zones, which extend A distinctive feature of the left-bank Pripiat corridor in the latitudinal direction. is its well-preserved and sparsely fragmented vegetation cover. Since the right bank of the Pripiat River repre- Major Territorial Elements of the Eco-Network sents a continuous wide environmental corridor there is no need to design here any regional and local eco-net- The proposed eco-network of the transboundary Dnipro works or to create new natural cores. Such natural cores Basin is fairly complex and ramified. It consists of 74 nat- already exist here. These are two reserves of national sig- ural cores interconnected by 106 environmental corridors. nificance – the Vygonoschanskiy lake and hydrological The eco-network is built around a well-defined frame- reserve and the Baranovichskiy floral reserve (Belarus). work which connects it with the European eco-network. The right-bank Pripiat environmental corridor has a This framework consists of natural landscape zones (See somewhat more fragmented vegetation cover. Still, large- Fig. 2) which attract most of the cores and zones charac- size natural landscape cores are also present here, that is terized by enhanced biological and landscape diversity in the eastern part of this environmental corridor. In con- (See Fig. 3 through 5). We singled out 3 zones of environ- trast, in the western part of the corridor the degree of mental corridors that have European significance, namely, fragmentation of the vegetation cover increases. That is Pripiat-Desna, Southern Polesiye and Dnipro. It is here why from the Rovensko-Olmansk natural core the right- that the major environmental corridors of interregional bank Pripiat environmental corridor forks into three significance are located. branches. Each branch extends through the zones with the least fragmented vegetation cover and joins together Pripiat Desna. Pripiat-Desna Zone of Environmental important regional centers of biological and landscape Corridors is the widest one. It extends for 550 km within diversity. Such structure is advantageous in that it offers the transboundary Dnipro Basin and for 80-100 km species alternative migration routes – relatively narrow through Poland and at least for 150-200 km through environmental corridors in a way duplicate one another southern Russian Polesiye. The axis of the western by extending in the latitudinal direction at a distance of branch of this zone is the Pripiat River. A significant part up to 80 km from one another. Due to this structure, this of this zone has been ameliorated. It has the highest pop- transboundary environmental corridor has high continu- ulation density in Polesiye and is criss-crossed by numer- ity and runs through stretches of almost unbroken forest. ous traffic routes. On the whole, the landscapes of the Although the Pripiat River divides the Pripiat-Desna Pripiat River valley have undergone rather significant zone of environmental corridors into two wide interre- anthropogenically-induced changes. Unlike the Pripiat gional environmental corridors - the left-bank and the River valley, the Pripiat River basin has undergone much right-bank corridors- it too represents an important less anthropogenically-caused transformation and its veg- environmental corridor. Therefore, it is advisable to etation cover is much less fragmented. This type of land- view the river floodplain and the first terraces located 108 Grodzinsky et al. above the flood plain as an environmental corridor of its great landscape and biological diversity and cultural interregional significance. At the basis of this corridor and historical significance this corridor is truly European lies the natural core (“Middle Pripiat”), which is a land- and is being designed as such. scape reserve of national significance (Belarus). Besides, the Pripiat River floodplain is flanked with another Slobozhansk. The Southern Polesiye environmental corri- 5 natural cores which are mainly located on its terraces. dor is located on the right bank of the Dnipro River, the However, the existing protected areas in the Pripiat Slobozhansk corridor is situated on the left bank, which is River floodplain are not nearly enough to ensure its covered by forests and steppes. Due to extremely environmental integrity. The regional natural diversity unfavourable local conditions it is impossible to set up a centers proposed in the master diagram may improve continuous eco-network here. Practically the whole vege- migration links among its natural ecotopes. This in turn tation cover has been cleared. Natural vegetation in a con- should help restore high biodiversity levels here. siderably modified state has survived only on some slopes Unlike the Pripiat environmental corridor, the and floodplain strips of the left-bank Dnipro tributaries. Desna environmental corridor lies in the area with a Whereas the above eco-networks are centered considerably more fragmentated vegetation cover and around the existing natural cores most of which have a more anthropogenically-transformed landscapes. There- certain protection status, the Slobozhansk region is prac- fore, it represents a fairly complex system of environ- tically devoid of such cores. In order for a continuous mental corridors ranging in width from 3 - 4 km to eco-network to be created here the existing environmen- 10 - 12 km rather than a continuous wide strip of land tally degraded areas must be renaturalised. In the entire as is the case with the left-bank Pripiat environmental left-bank Dnipro Basin there appears to be only 7 areas corridor. Thus, the Desna environmental corridor is of which potentially may serve as regional biodiversity cen- interregional and even European significance but it con- ters. Coupled with the stretches of extant natural vegeta- sists of regional environmental corridors. tion they form the Slobozhansk regional eco-network. In fact, this network embraces only river valleys and does Southern Polesiye. The Southern Polesiye environmental not include watershed plains. This is related to environ- corridor represents a relatively narrow strip running from mental conditions in the left-bank forest-steppe zone and the southern outskirts of Kiev to Rostochiye and then to high industrial density typical of this region. the city of Tarnobzhega (Poland). It is more than 850 km long and runs within 120 to 240 km of the Ukrainian- Dnipro. The Dnipro system of environmental corridors Byelorussian border. Therefore, from the geographical is of European significance. The system is unique: extend- standpoint its transboundary status cannot be assumed. ing in the meridional direction it traverses all the natural However, its biotic, migration and hydroecological para- zones from the northern borders of the southern taiga up meters betoken its transboundary character. The Southern to the arid sub-zone of the steppe zone. This transzonal- Polesiye environmental corridor is closely linked to the ity is not found anywhere else in Western or Central Pripiat and Dnipro environmental corridors. It accommo- Europe. It is due to this transzonality coupled with the dates the sources and upper reaches of the rivers which diversity of ecotopes, that the Dnipro River valley has flow into the transboundary Dnipro Basin and shape always been used as a migration route by propagating water quality and biodiversity of such transboundary plant and animal species. The Dnipro River valley is also watercourses as the Pripiat, Goryn, Styr, Stokhod and a transcontinental migration route of migratory birds. Dnipro rivers. In addition, this corridor serves as a con- At the same time, massive anthropogenically induced necting link between the Pripiat and Dnipro environmen- transformations of the landscapes located in the Dnipro tal corridors and the environmental corridors that make River valley considerably complicate the task of creating up the Ukrainian and Polish national eco-networks. an eco-network of required integrity and continuity. The Southern Polesiye environmental corridor tra- Therefore of special importance are those stretches of the verses Ukraine’s axis of great landscape diversity and is river valley which may potentially become renaturalisa- extremely rich in endemic, relict and vanishing species. tion zones. These stretches are mainly encountered in the Adjoining this axis are many areas which are densely pop- Upper Dnipro River. At the same time, the middle ulated by endangered plant and animal species. A complex stretches of the river valley may be only nominally (con- variety of alternating landforms and vegetation types (oak ditionally) considered as an environmental corridor. and pine forests) form landscapes of great aesthetic value. Due to fragmentation of the vegetation cover of the Apart from its environmental significance this corri- Dnipro River valley, the Dnipro environmental corridor dor is extremely rich in landscapes of great cultural and is designed as a system of environmental corridors rather historical interest. The cultural landscapes like the Dub- than a continuous strip of land. It represents one unbro- nenskiy, Zbarazhskiy, Kremenetskiy and many others ken strip stretching from the Dnipro River mouth up to are important not only for Ukraine but also for represen- the Ukraine’s border with Belarus and Russia at which tatives of other nations, especially Poles and Jews. Given place it branches out into three regional corridors, each Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept 109 running along the river valley of one of the major first- the Polish eco-network via the Rostochiye natural core, order tributaries of the Upper Dnipro River: Berezina, which even though it is not part of the Dnipro Basin is Sozh and the Upper Dnipro rivers. All of them are inter- closely linked to it by a network of environmental corri- connected by latitudinal regional and local environmen- dors and consequently serves as a migration link tal corridors thereby forming a continuous network of between the transboundary Dnipro Basin and south- the interregional Dnipro environmental corridor. Zones eastern parts of Poland. encompassing the Berezina, Upper Dnipro and Sozh The proposed diagram of the transboundary Dnipro regional environmental corridors represent practically Basin eco-network was designed as a constituent part of unbroken stretches of well-preserved natural woodlands, the entire Dnipro Basin eco-network. So far, the diagram meadowlands and wetlands. of the latter network has not been designed. However, physical, geographical, hydroecological and other para- Integration of the Eco-Network into the European meters of the Dnipro Basin suggest that its transbound- and National Eco-Networks ary part should serve as a basis (“axis”) for creating the eco-network of the entire Dnipro Basin. It was with due The proposed diagram of the transboundary Dnipro regard for this “axial” role of the transboundary Dnipro Basin eco-network has been so designed that, on the one Basin that the diagram of the transboundary Dnipro hand, it is relatively self-sufficient (internally continuous) Basin eco-network was designed. and, on the other, that it is tightly linked to the territo- The intent was to subsequently extend this eco- ries of which this transboundary area is an integral part. network over the whole Dnipro Basin. To this end, we The Dnipro Basin eco-network is integrated into envisaged 16 link-up natural cores in the transboundary the European eco-network through its natural cores that eco-network diagram. From these cores environmental are directly linked to the natural cores of the designed corridors extend further into the Dnipro Basin. Polish eco-network. We propose organizing two natural The prepared diagram also allows for the designed cores along Belarus and Ukraine’s borders with Poland eco-network be linked to eco-networks of neighbouring within the transboundary Dnipro Basin - Shatsk and river basins by means of environmental corridors. For Narva natural cores. These cores merge with those of this purpose, we designed natural cores and environmen- the Polish eco-network. The Shatsk core merges into the tal corridors extending over the watersheds and into the Polish eco-network core of international significance neighbouring river basins. We envisaged 3 such environ- (index 27M) and embraces the Shatsk National Park mental corridors on the Russian-Ukrainian border for (Ukraine) along with the protected area surrounding the the Oka River Basin, 2 for the Southern Bug, 4 for the Seliakha biosphere reserve (Belarus). Thus, this core is Dniester and 4 for the Western Bug. practically trilateral. In addition, its uniqueness and The integration of the Transboundary Dnipro Basin European significance is further increased given the fact eco-network, which has an international status, into the that it is situated in the watershed area between the national eco-networks of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia is Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins (Dnipro River and a fairly complex task. The reason for this is that despite Western Bug River). Thus, the Shatsk core serves as a the fact that all these countries signed the European connecting link not only among the three countries but Strategy Concerning Biodiversity (Sofia 1995) thereby also between two river basins. assuming the responsibility for creating national eco- The Narva core has been so designed that it is networks, they progressed towards this goal at a differ- located in proximity to the 28M core of the Polish eco- ent rate. Ukraine is well ahead of its neighbours in this network, which is of international importance. Since it is field. More specifically, it developed and signed into a a juncture of two diverging environmental corridors law a Program for the Establishment of the National which extend to the north and to the west of Europe, Eco-Network. Scientific research and a range of actions the link-up between this core and the Dnipro Basin eco- provided for in the Program will help substantially refine network is very important. The situation is complicated the eco-network diagram, however, its framework will by the fact that so far this area has not been identified as not be radically changed. That is why the proposed eco- a protected one. Nevertheless, it may be identified as a network of the transboundary Dnipro Basin is compati- natural core given the fact that it consists of extensive ble with the framework of Ukraine’s eco-network being and almost native tracts of forest and wetlands. now created. To achieve this compatibility it was The common border between the transboundary decided to identify one and the same environmental cor- Dnipro Basin and Poland is no more than 180 km ridors as the most important environmental corridors of long. The two proposed natural cores adjacent thereto the two networks – the national eco-network of Ukraine account for approximately 80 km of this border which and the transboundary eco-network. The only difference is more than enough to ensure an effective connection was the degree of detail with which these corridors were between the Dnipro Basin eco-network and the Euro- delineated and the degree of their saturation with pean eco-network. Besides, the former is connected with regional biological and landscape diversity cores. 110 Grodzinsky et al.

Regional Eco-Network Development Priorities not allow them to effectively perform their function. Therefore, the expansion of the nature reserve network The proposed strategy for designing the eco-network should be considered as a top-priority task for Little places special emphasis on dividing the Dnipro Basin Polesiye. In addition, unlike the other regions Little Pole- into regions ranked in terms of their ability to accommo- siye accommodates many natural cores and environmen- date regional and local eco-networks as constituents of tal corridors situated in direct proximity to large popu- the transboundary Dnipro Basin eco-network and in lated centers which have a certain impact on it. Special terms of the priority rating assigned to the creation of priority must be assigned here to the regulation of recre- these networks in these regions. ational activities, hunting and construction of cottages The zoning was performed taking into account the (country houses) in those city green belts which have degree of fragmentation of the natural vegetation cover, been identified as environmental corridors. availability of nature reserves and protected areas, geo- In the Desna region of the eco-network, top priority graphical distribution of endangered species’ areals and should be assigned to the creation of large biogenetic areas of great landscape diversity. The zoning map is reserves since the MSOP’s formal criteria currently require shown in Fig. 6. that only one core (biosphere reserve “Starogut and Bri- Depending on the type and priority rating of mea- ansk Forests”) be attributed to the natural cores of the sures needed to create the eco-network the transbound- European eco-network. It is necessary to create several ary Dnipro Basin is divided into three regions: the right- natural cores of regional significance in order to enhance bank Polesiye, Desna and the left-bank Slobozhanschina. continuity of this eco-network. Top priority should be A distinctive feature of the right-bank Polesiye given to efforts to create such cores and environmental region is that much of it is already an environmental cor- corridors in the districts of the Sumy region (Ukraine) ridor and consequently there is no need to create one located on the Ukrainian-Russian border because of here. The natural cores located within the southern strip breaks in many environmental corridors that go to Russia. of this region (Little Polesiye) are typified by substantial The left-bank Slobozhanschina region of the eco-net- landscape and biological diversity. However, most of work has its own specific features. Due to high fragmen- them are small in size and their protection status does tation of the vegetation cover it is fairly difficult to create a ramified regional eco-network here and this task is not considered a priority. In contrast, great importance is attached to the migration links between the remaining small biocenters because of their importance for biodiversity conservation and particularly restoration efforts. That is why it is advisable to design and create local eco- networks here to offset inadequate continuity and other flaws of the regional eco-network. Creation of the local and regional eco-networks depends for its success on the identification and assessment of stretches that may potentially become renaturalization zones and over the longer term evolve into regional elements of the eco-networks.

Fig. 6. Zoning of the transboundary Dnipro Basin on the basis of the priority rating attached to the creation of envi- Eco-Network Concept ronmental corridors and possibility of the creation of envi- Implementation Strategies ronmental corridors: 1. Creating environmental corridors makes no sense since The implementation of the proposed concept for the prac tically the whole area is covered by forest, (priority rating – 0). transboundary Dnipro Basin eco-network depends on 2. It is impossible to create environmental corridors since the coordination of national and international efforts to 100% of the area is arable land (priority rating – 0). resolve numerous scientific, legal, organizational and 3. Significant density of natural vegetation stretches educational problems involved in the creation of the eco- requires creating several environmental corridors (prior- network. Listed below are top priority areas that are of ity rating – 3). 4. Creation of an environmental corridor network should strategic importance for the sustainable development of be considered a top-priority task given the medium frag- the Dnipro Basin. mentation of the vegetation cover (priority rating – 4). Since the existing network of protected areas and 5. High fragmentation of the vegetation cover complicates sites in the Republic of Belarus, Russian Federation and the process of creating environmental corridors (requires Ukraine cannot effectively serve as a basis for an eco-net- a lot of effort) (priority rating – 2). 6. Since arable land accounts for much of the area the task work that meets all the criteria and requirements estab- of creating environmental corridors is extremely difficult lished for the European eco-network, first priority should (priority rating — 1). be assigned to the expansion of protected areas and sites Development of the Ecological Corridor Concept 111 located in the transboundary Dnipro Basin. This task • Creation of contiguous protected areas along the involves resolving the following strategic issues: Polish border and integration of the Dnipro Basin eco-network into the Polish national eco-network • Identify (make an inventory of) areas with extant (EECONET-Poland). elements of natural landscapes and assess whether it is possible and worthwhile to grant them the Given the fact that creating eco-networks is a new status of protected areas; area in the environmental field, a great many legal and • Expand the existing protected areas and sites regulatory issues remain unexplored and unregulated. which are part of the Dnipro Basin eco-network; Therefore legal regulation of the efforts to create the • Increase protective buffer zones around the exist- transboundary eco-network is a strategic challenge to ing protected areas and sites located in the trans- the Dnipro Basin countries. This strategic task involves boundary Dnipro Basin. addressing the following priorities: Since the Dnipro Basin eco-network extends into the • Development of state programs aimed at the cre- three countries it is necessary to create transboundary ter- ation of national eco-networks in the Republic of ritorial elements of this eco-network and to establish con- Belarus and the Russian Federation and adoption sistent eco-network management regimes (methods). This of appropriate laws. Upon their approval, the three task involves resolving the following strategic issues: sides will be faced with a task of coordinating them insofar as they relate to the Dnipro Basin; • Creation of contiguous protected areas in the bor- • Adoption of regulatory and legal acts with the der districts. In particular, paramount importance aim of regulating relations among subjects in the should be attached to the creation on the Belarus- area of development of national eco-networks and Ukrainian border of the West Polesiye biosphere the Dnipro Basin eco-network. Top priority reserve, Rovenskiy nature reserve, and the Pripiat- should be assigned to the adoption of legal rules Stokhod international park; and on the Russian- to coordinate activities carried out in certain Ukrainian border, the Snovskiy nature reserve, branches of nature management in order to facili- Starogut and Briansk Forests national park, and tate the development of eco-network constituents; the Slobozhanskiy national park; • Adoption of regulatory and legal acts relating to • Development and approval by the three countries the establishment of environmental corridors and of a common trilateral long-term network of buffer zones of the eco-network, establishment of transnational protected areas and sites; protection regimes and regulation of their utiliza- • Development and approval of land management tion for business purposes. Of special importance is projects to be implemented on either side of the the harmonisation of rules established by legal and state border in the areas where transboundary ter- subordinate legal acts for sanitary protection zones, ritorial elements of the eco-network are located; functional zones of nature reserves, water protec- • Coordination and approval of projects focusing tion zones, protective shore-line strips and other on water protection zones along the transbound- zones used for environmental protection purposes. ary stretches of international watercourses. Apparently, this will call for the introduction of Of paramount importance is the creation of the amendments and changes into the Water Code, Dnipro Basin eco-network as a constituent part of the Land Code, Forest Code, national environmental European eco-network and of national eco-networks of laws and other national environmental documents; the riparian countries. This strategic task involves • Development of regulatory and legal acts that addressing the following priorities: establish permissible anthropogenic loads for eco-network territorial elements. Given current • International certification of the existing pro- nature management practices and existing legisla- tected areas and sites of the Republic of Belarus, tion in this field, priority should be assigned to Russian Federation and Ukraine as protected the adoption of laws establishing rules for and areas of international significance; regimes of using eco-network areas for recre- • Development of transboundary protected areas in ational purposes; compliance with criteria established for nature • Of paramount importance is the creation of an reserves of international significance; environment conducive to unconditional compli- • Making an inventory and assessment of cultural ance with adopted laws and regulations governing and historical landscapes with a view to includ- the creation and functioning of the eco-network. ing them in the UNESCO’s list of landscapes of global cultural importance; Since in terms of its content the eco-network con- • Recognition of wetlands as areas of international cept is complex and innovative the resolution of many significance (in accordance with the Ramsar Con- attendant issues is hindered by lack or inadequacy of vention); respective scientific approaches. 112 Grodzinsky et al.

Consequently, strategic significance is attached to Since the eco-network will encompass a large area the scientific justification of the Dnipro eco-network. and will require the implementation of a variety of com- The scientific tasks that need to be addressed in the first plex measures entailing significant cash injections, strate- place include: gic significance is attached to the mobilization of financial resources required to establish the Dnipro Basin • Determination of optimum parameters of the eco-network. The first-priority tasks include: eco-network (sizes of natural cores of different orders, length, width and configuration of envi- • Identification of eco-network self-financing ronmental corridors, width and structure of sources such as natural resource usage fees (wild buffer protection zones, etc.); game, pharmacological plants, timber, etc.) and • Compilation of scientific maps needed to design establishment of mechanisms whereby the pro- and create eco-networks. Priority should be ceeds will be used for their intended purposes; assigned to landscape, geobotanical and hydroe- • Development and establishment of special nature cological maps for the Dnipro Basin. In so doing management standards to regulate the use of land strategic significance should be attached to the and soil, biological and water resources as well as harmonization of contour templates and explana- air pollution within certain territorial eco-net- tory legends of maps that are being created in the work elements. riparian countries; • Development of environmentally-friendly forms • Development of scientific methods of assessing of tourism within the eco-network area; the current ecological state of populations, habi- • Integration of financial resources obtained from tats, ecosystems and landscapes; different sources for the purpose of implement- • Development of scientifically grounded methods ing the multifaceted eco-network development of identifying and assessing the environmental, program; historical and cultural importance of ecosystems • Attraction of foreign investment to finance the and landscapes; eco-network development projects. • Development of scientific methods of assessing Due to its novelty, the idea of creating an eco-net- and preventing risks posed to eco-networks; work has not as yet taken root in the minds of ordinary • Development of scientific foundations of moni- people. This may strongly reduce its prospects for suc- toring and maintaining a cadastre (inventory) of cess and the very chance of it ever being realized. There- the eco-network and its individual elements. fore, an important strategic plan of action is to popular- Since the creation of the transboundary eco-net- ize the eco-network and to assign to it educational, work for the Dnipro Basin is related to activities of cultural and public-awareness raising functions. The numerous government bodies and affects different envi- first-priority tasks include: ronmental objects (areas and sites) there is a need for • Develop programs involving public participation organizational support in order to shore up measures to in the creation of the Dnipro Basin eco-network create the Dnipro Basin eco-network. The first-priority and local eco-networks which constitute it; tasks include: • Conduct pubic awareness campaigns to notify • Development of a master diagram of the Dnipro the public of the eco-network and its role; Basin eco-network and of regional eco-network • Conduct public hearings of regional and local diagrams compatible therewith; eco-network development projects; • Establishment of mechanisms for coordinating • Use the eco-network to develop environmental eco-networking activities of central and local awareness among the citizenry, in particular by executive bodies, local government bodies and using some environmental corridors as nature public environmental organizations; trails and tourist routes. • Formation of the riparian countries’ common database on the state of the eco-network sites References and areas and creation of the eco-network geo- information system; Grodzinsky MD, Romanenko VD, Sheliag-Sosonko YR. • In the long term particular significance will be 2003. Development of the ecological corridor concept attached to the establishment of a common trilat- for transboundary areas of the Dnipro River Basin. eral monitoring center which will monitor the Dnipro Environmental Project, Kyiv, Ukraine. Final state of the entire Dnipro Basin eco-network. report (In Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Scientific Substantiation for the Creation of a Protected Area in the Floodplain of the Dnipro in the Stretch of Zhlobin-Rechitsa as a Component of the Dnipro Basin Environmental Network

Natalia A. Yurgenson1 and Mikhail E. Nikiforov2*

1National Centre for Territorial Cadastre, Minsk, Belarus 2Institute of Zoology, National Academy of Science, Minsk, Belarus

The Project was designed to develop scientific substantiation of the need to establish a specially protected area (SPA) on this territory; define the status of the new SPA within the unified Dnipro Basin environmental network (currently under formation), and the SPA estimated boundaries and regimes; coordinate creation of the SPA with local environmental protection authorities, local government and self-governing bodies, and secure support from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection to the inclusion of the new SPA into the Chart of Sustainable Distribution of Specially Protected Areas of the Republic of Belarus.

Key words: protected areas, biodiversity, Dnipro River Basin

Introduction inclusion of the new SPA into the Chart of Sus- tainable Distribution of Specially Protected Areas Creation of specially protected areas (SPAs) is one of the of the Republic of Belarus. most important national objectives of the day. It is defined as such in the National Strategy and Action Plan The Project executing agency was the non-governmen- for Preservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diver- tal organization “Akhova Ptushek Belarusi” (Protection of sity, which was developed and adopted within the Belorussian Birds) renowned for its extensive experience frameworks of the Convention on Biological Diversity and expertise in the implementation of various projects ratified by the Republic of Belarus in 1992. and programs, including international ones, in the sphere The overall objective of the Project was to ensure of preserving biological diversity, environmental awareness the preservation of biological and landscape diversity in raising and involving the public in environmental activities. the Dnipro Basin by creating a specially protected area Two interdisciplinary field studies were conducted in the floodplains of the Dnipro, which have undergone within the Project in order to collect primary data on the little transformation, in the stretch between the towns of landscape structure of the area, its flora and fauna. The Zhlobin and Rechitsa. major threats to natural complexes and objects were The Project was designed to achieve the following identified. The boundaries and status of the future pro- objectives: tected area – national landscape preserve “Streshinsky” – were established. Plans of creating the preserve were dis- • Develop scientific substantiation of the need to cussed with the main land users as well as with the envi- establish a specially protected area on this territory; ronmental authorities in Zhlobin and Buda-Koshelevsky • Define the status of the new SPA within the uni- districts, in Zhlobin and in Buda-Koshelevsky district fied Dnipro Basin environmental network (cur- executive committees. rently under formation), and the SPA estimated Based on the collected data, the Final Report on the boundaries and regimes; Project and the accompanying Strategic Resume were • Coordinate creation of the specially protected compiled. A digital map of the future landscape preserve area with local environmental protection authori- “Streshinsky” (scale 1:200,000) was produced with the ties, local government and self-governing bodies. use of the MapInfo software. This map served as a foun- • Secure support from the Ministry of Natural dation for the setting up of an electronic database on Resources and Environmental Protection to the unique and rare natural sites and objects (of landscape, flora and fauna), on phenomena threatening their safety * Corresponding author; [email protected] and on the current land use system and practices.

113 114 Yurgenson et al.

Results steppe) ones. The Dnipro valley serves as a migration channel along which certain species travel far distances to The proposed landscape preserve “Streshinsky” is located the south or to the north of the main area borders. In this in the flooded areas of the Dnipro River within the bor- territory, Western European flora complexes meet with ders of Zhlobin and Buda-Koshelevsky districts of Gomel the Eastern European ones. For many of them, the river is Oblast. It stretches from the town of Zhlobin along the a natural barrier to their further migration to neighbour- Dnipro left bank to the mouth of the Berezina River. ing territories. Over 600 species of highest vascular plants The preserve is located in the zone of intensive urban (tracheophytes) were identified in the preserve flora, development and economic activity. Trans-European which is a high indicator for flood-land territories. communications corridor #9 Helsinki – St. Petersburg – Vegetation of the left-bank valley of the river (espe- Pskov – Vitebsk – Kyiv – Chisinau runs along its eastern cially of its floodplains) is well preserved, which differs boundary. As envisaged by the General Plan of Compre- favourably from other parts of the Dnipro valley. Most hensive Territorial Management of the Republic of typical human activities are grass mowing and, to a lesser Belarus, Zhlobin district, where most of the preserve ter- extent, cattle grazing, both auspicious for the biodiversity ritory is situated, it is characterized with a high density of preservation. Flooded meadows with strips of oak forests population and intensive agriculture. The greater part of (Quercetum) and pine forests (Pinetum), as well as vari- the land in Buda-Koshelevsky district has been radioac- ous types of flood-land willow-shrubs (Salicetum) prevail tively contaminated since the Chernobyl nuclear accident, in the vegetation. Elevations, or “isles”, situated between the mean contamination density being over 5 Cu/km2. the dead channels of the river play an important role in The territory of the future preserve “Streshinsky” is preserving biodiversity. Since these “isles” are located confined to the Dnipro Lowland and is located entirely near the original bank vault and are of substantial size, within the river valley. The Dnipro valley at this stretch they have a special type of vegetation, namely: shrubs and is 5 to 10 km wide; its right bank vault is predominantly flood-land oak forests with rare and extinct plant species. high and steep, with numerous gullies and ravines, The boundaries of distribution areas of at least 70 whereas its left bank is low and flat. In the valley, there plant species lie close to the borders of the future preserve, are floodplains and two upper terraces particularly dis- which testifies to the flora value of the preserve territory. tinct on the left bank. Among the plant species are Jurinea cyanoides Jurinea In terms of landscape zoning of the Republic of cyanoides, Mountain arnica Arnica montana, Germani Belarus, this area lies within Dnipro-Sozh district of broom Genista germanica, Tatar honeysuckle Lonicera Polessye landscape province. Its greater part is repre- xylosteum and others. Within the preserve area, 8 plant sented by floodplain and alluvial-terrace landscapes. species were registered whose distribution areas are typi- This stretch of the Dnipro flood-lands, which have cally located much farther northwards (gray alder Alnus undergone little transformation, belongs to the natural- incana) or southwards (forest-steppe and steppe species). and-territorial complexes unique for Belarus and for the Lands of the forest stock occupy 37% of the preserve Dnipro valley at large. territory, 28% of this territory being covered with forest. The Dnipro channel in the area of the future preserve All forests belong to the first group of forests and to two is highly meandering, with numerous dead channels, but protection categories, namely: forests of the forestry sec- navigable. Water level cycle of the river includes a stable tion of green belts (11.6%) and riparian (water-conserva- 3-4 month long period of low water levels in the winter, tion) forests (88.4%). Pine forests dominate in forest for- a summer-fall period of mean water levels, occasionally mations, accounting for 45% of forest-covered area. Oak intermitted with rain floods, and a period of spring groves and black alder groves (Glutinoso-Alnetum) make floods when the water table rises by 3-3.5 m. In the pre- up as little as 11.7% and 12.3% of the area, respectively. serve territory, the Rivers Dobysna (right tributary) and Willow shrubs cover 23% of the area, while birch groves Okra (left tributary) flow into the Dnipro. (Betula pendula and B. pubescens) – only 9.7% of it. In geo-botanical terms, the preserve area can be Aspen forests (Populus tremula) are found very seldom referred to as two sub-zones, namely: sub-zone of horn- (1.6%), as well as plantations of ash and hornbeam trees. beam – oak – dark coniferous forests (Checher-Dnipro As for the age composition of the forests, young district of Berezina-Polessye geo-botanical region) and forests prevail, constituting 57.2% of all plantations. that of deciduous – pine forests (Gomel-Dnipro district Average age of the stand is under 30 years. The maxi- of Polessye-Dnipro geo-botanical region) of the Euro- mum age of oak groves is 140 years, that of pine forests pean deciduous forest zone. The boundary of regions is 120 years, of fir forests – 100 years and of birch and districts runs through the preserve territory north of groves – 55 years. The oldest black alder groves are 45, the village of Streshin. and the oldest aspen forests are 55 years old. Flora of the future preserve is a complex combination In the territory of the future specially protected area, of species of different origin. Northern (boreal) species are 32 types of 22 forest type series belonging to 9 forest found here together with southern (forest-steppe and formations were identified. The forest typology spectrum Creation of Protected Area in Dnipro Floodplain 115 is rather wide: from heather pine forests (Pinetum cal- Apart from meadows, 15 other categories of highly lunosum) to weed-gout oak groves (Quercetum aegopo- valuable areas were identified in the preserve territory. diosum) and meadov-sweet black alder groves (Gluti- These include: old-age floodplain oak groves; black alder noso-Alnetum filipendulosum). Oak groves are sporadic, forests in lower stream marshland; communities in a for- commonly represented by single trees or sparsely grow- mation of ash forests, rare for the preserve area and for ing groups of trees, more seldom by separately preserved Belarus in general; middle-age hornbeam forests of strips on crests. Some oak trees reach 150 years of age. mixed composition, with sporadic deciduous species; Brake fern oak forest (Q. pteridiosum) growing in the ecosystems of open up-river and down-river sedge elevated and, therefore, seldom flooded parts of the marshes, with a complex of marsh flora and fauna; flood-lands are of special interest. They have a high aes- unique ecosystems of dead channels, bayou lakes and thetic value and are commonly used as recreation zones. shallow parts with rare protected species (see Fig. 1). Intensive forestry activities in some parts of elevations between flood-lands and in forests growing on the Rare and Protected Plant Species terraces above the flood-lands resulted in a practically complete replacement of indigenous oak groves with Protected plants of the Red Book of Belarus (1993): pine plantations. Fragments of pine forests of the moss- 1. Siberian iris Iris sibirica. Is widely spread through- grown type (P. pleuroziosum) are observed in some parts out the whole preserve territory, its projective cover of high crests. Vegetation of this group is particularly degree sometimes reaching 40-60%. The population susceptible to forest fires. Strips of willow (white Salix found in the preserve area is one of the largest and alba and fragile Salix fragilis) grow at the Dnipro bends most viable in the country. and on bayou lakesides. 2. Salvivia natans Salvinia natan. This population is Particularly valuable is the meadow vegetation of the situated in an isolated locality beyond the northern floodplains, serving as a habitat and a migration stopover border of the area of distribution and, most proba- for numerous birds, and playing an important role in the bly, has a relict character. traditional way of life of the local population. In the pre- 3. Water nut Trapa natans. It is a relict species indica- serve area, this vegetation is represented by almost all tive of the river water clarity. It was registered in species, ranging from partially peat-covered meadows to dead channels and natural channels of the Dnipro wetlands and marshlands. Herbage is characterized by a River. high forage value and productive surface phytomass. 4. Small naias Caulinia minor. It was identified to Eleven unique and valuable communities of herba- grow in a dead channel of the Dnipro. The popula- ceous plants were identified in the area, including the tion is in a satisfactory condition. This species is Beckmannietum eruciformis communities, uncommon extremely rare for large rivers of the Dnipro Basin. for the territory of Belarus and Europe at large. They are most valuable forage herbs whose area of distribution in In order to preserve the populations of salvivia Belarus is restricted to the Dnipro flood-plain down- natans, water nut and small naias in a natural condition, stream of the town of Zhlobin. it is necessary to maintain the existing hydrological As any large river with a series of oxbow lakes, regime, to prevent water contamination and to prohibit channels, pools, dead channels and small rivers, the net fishing in this part of the river. Dnipro is an intricate combination of aquatic plant com- Along with the protected plant species included in plexes. Of these, bayou lake communities are the most the 2nd edition of the Red Book of Belarus (1993), noticeable for their rare protected species, including 5 other species were registered in the preserve area that water nut Trapa natans , small naias Caulinia minor, sal- are to be entered into a new edition of the Red Book of vivia natans Salvinia natan, elatine alsinastrum Elatina Belarus. These are gentiana pneumonanthe Gentiana alsinastrum and others. pneumonanthe, rossica aster Galatella rossica, ukrainian The Dnipro floodplain within the preserve territory sorrel Rumex ucrainicus, mikeli bulrush Dichostilis abound in shallow stretches with scarce vegetation com- michelliana and Elatina alsinastrum. The preservation of munities comprising protected species. Identification of the population of gentiana pneumonanthe and rossica some species in this territory allowed to shift the area aster will require a prohibition or restriction of cattle boundary 100-120 km to the north. Among the above grazing in the identified spots of their distribution and a species, that can be regarded as belonging to reference prevention of grass burning practice. Optimal conditions communities not only for the Dnipro but also for other for the populations of ukrainian sorrel, mikeli bulrush Belorussian rivers, are ukrainian sorrel Rumex ucraini- and Elatina alsinastrum can be provided by maintaining cus, mikeli bulrush Dichostilis michelliana, crypsis the existing hydrological regime. schoides Cripsus schoenoides, cyperus fuscus Cyperus A number of species found in the area of the future fuscus, pycreus flavescens Pycreus flavescens, water ger- landscape preserve belong to the category of wild-grow- mander Teucrium scordium, etc. ing decorative, medicinal, edible and other useful plants 116 Yurgenson et al.

Fig. 1. Analysis of the flora complex.

that need to be protected preventively and used in a sus- sedge Carex aquatilis, veronica catenata Veronika cate- tainable manner. Besides, several species that entered nata and others. It is noteworthy that jurinea cyanoides into the Red Books of neighboring countries were regis- is a species included into the European Red List. tered in the preserve area. They are pycreus flavescens, In the course of fieldwork, the fauna of land verte- jurinea cyanoides, crypsis schoides, fen violet Viola brates in the preserve area was observed to consist of stagnina, small-flowered bittercress Cardamine parvi- 46 mammal species, 163 bird species, 5 reptile species, flora, koeleria delavignei Koeleria delavignei, water 10 species of amphibia and 42 fish species. Among the Creation of Protected Area in Dnipro Floodplain 117 above are 38 animal species cited in the Red Book of dozens of thousands (counted from helicopter) (see Ram- Belarus, including 4 mammal, 31 bird and 3 fish species. sar Criterion 5: wetland area has an international signifi- The fauna of the floodplain meadows in the pre- cance if it regularly sustains over 20,000 waterfowl). serve area is typical for flooded meadows of lowland The Dnipro floodplains sustain the populations of rivers of Polessye. It is characterized by a great variety of the following bird species that have a national signifi- bird species, on the one hand, and a poor species compo- cance: gadwall (Anas strepera 200 couples), northern sition of mammals and amphibians, on the other. The shoveler (Anas clypeata 200 couples) and eurasian oys- reason for the latter lies in frequent overflowing of the tercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus 40-50 couples). area during spring floods. All species of river ducks 31 bird species entered into the Red Book of Belarus inhabiting Belarus are to be found in this area; the popu- were identified within the boundaries of the future land- lation of sandpiper is also rather big, being represented scape preserve. 18 of these species build their nests here, by 12 species that sometimes form large colonies. Flood- namely: little grebe (Tachibaptus ruficollis), large bittern land meadows are the main spawning areas of the (Botaurus stellaris), small bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), majority of fish species registered here. black stork (Ciconia nigra), lesser spotted eagle Aquila The combination of rarely visited waterlogged pomarina, greater spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), com- forests and open floodplain meadows creates favorable mon kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), eurasian hobby (Falco conditions for a lot of species of predatory birds and subbuteo), eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostrale- large mammals. For example, 11 species of accipitral gus), terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus, little gull (Larus family (Accipitridae) have their habitat in the preserve minutus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), common area, as well as several species of amphibia typical for kingficher (Alcedo atthis), bluethroat (Luscinia svecica), flood-land forests. savi´s warbler (Locustella luscinioides), eurasian pendu- Floodplain pools, lakes and dead channels play an line (Remiz pendulinus), great gray shrike (Lanius excu- essential role in preserving the diversity of species of bitor), Ortolan bunting (Emberiza hortulana). The list of waterfowl, amphibia and fish in the preserve area. As a rare protected bird species inhabiting the area of the rule, these are water bodies, the shores of which are future preserve “Streshinsky” is given in the table below, overgrown with willow-shrub, reed or cattail (reed with the indication of their protection status. mace), with a small open area of water surface. Some Practically all species of mammals associated with lakes, entirely overgrown with immersed vegetation, the floodplain communities of large Belorussian rivers have large colonies of marsh species of tern. are represented in this area. American mink (Mustela The territorial space distribution of the most valu- vison), musk beaver (Ondatra zibethica), otter (Lutra able fauna complexes is shown in Fig. 2. lutra) can be commonly found on the riverbanks and The outcomes of the field study testify that the terri- shores of other water bodies. Polecat (Mustela putorius), tory of the future preserve is of an international signifi- least weasel (Mustela nivalis) and ermine (Mustela cance with regard to the preservation of populations of a erminea) were registered in the flood-lands, especially on number of rare and extinct species of European fauna. elevations covered with forests and shrubs. European The greatest value of this territory is in that it has beaver (Castor fiber) inhabits the area along riverbanks become a permanent habitat for considerable popula- and flood-land lakesides. tions of globally threatened bird species and some Almost all aboriginal species of ungulate animals species of a similar status, in particular: greater spotted were observed to inhabit the territory of the future pre- eagle Aquilla clanga, corncrake Crex crex and great serve, including elk (Alces alces), wild boar (Sus scrofa) snipe Gallinago media. The Dnipro floodplains within and roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus). In dry riparian the preserve area provide good conditions for the conser- forests there are populations of european hare (Lepus vation of corncrake and great snipe populations. The europaeus), and in the flood-lands and marshlands – number of corncrake birds, which are an extinct species those of alpine Hare (Lepus timidus). The following car- in Europe, in this part of the flood-lands is estimated at nivorous mammals are common for this area: raccoon over 1000 cocks, and that of great snipe birds – at dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and red fox (Vulpes 150-200 cocks (Ramsar Criterion 2). vulpes); less common are wolf (Canis lupus), common The preserve territory is of great importance for marten (Mustela putorius) and stone marten (Martes migrating waterfowl. Thus, the number of migrating foina). Some dormice, such as: edible lormouse (Glis ruffs (Philomachus pugnax) that stop over in this area for glis), garden (Eliomis quercinus) and tree (Dryomis nit- rest and feeding exceeds 30,000 birds. It is in the Dnipro edula) ones, also live in deciduous forests. flood-lands that flocks of greater white-fronted goose The previous research testifies to the absence in the (Anser albifrons), bean goose (Anser fabalis), and given territory of a number of species that are known to eurasian widgeon (Anas penelope) concentrate in the have inhabited this area before. They are European periods of their spring passage. In such periods, the over- mink, raccoon, red deer and badger. The population of all number of geese in the flood-lands amounts to several elk has decreased dramatically over the last years, while 118 Yurgenson et al.

Fig. 2. Analysis of the fauna complex. Creation of Protected Area in Dnipro Floodplain 119

TABLE 1. List of rare protected bird species

Level of threat Level of protection Red Book No. Species in Europe in Europe (SPEC) category in Belarus 1 Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica V3I 2 Little Grebe Tachibaptus ruficollis SII 3 Great Bittern Botaurus stellaris (V) 3 II 4 Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus (V) 3 II 5 Great Egret Egretta alba S III 7 Black Stork Ciconia nigra R 3 III 8 White Stork Ciconia ciconia V2 9 Mute Swan Cygnus olor SV 10 Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus V1 11 Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope SIV 13 Northern Pintail Anas acuta V3II 16 Goldeneye Bucephala clangula S III 18 Goosander Mergus merganser SII 21 White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla R3I 22 Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus R3I 25 Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina R 3 III 26 Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga E1I 27 Osprey Pandion haliaetus R3I 28 Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus D3II 29 Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo SII 34 Corncrake Crex crex V1 35 Common Grane Grus grus V3II 36 Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus S III 37 Dunlin Calidris alpina Vw 3w III 39 Great Snipe Gallinago media (V) 2 41 Black-tailed Godwid Limosa limosa V2 42 Common Redshank Tringa totanus D2 44 Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus (S) III 45 Little Gull Larus minutus D3II 46 Herring Gull Larus argentatus S III 53 Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus (V) 3 II 54 European Nighjar Caprimulgus europaeus (D) 2 55 Common Kingficher Alcedo atthis D 3 III 65 Bluethroat Luscinia svecica S III 73 Savi´s Warbler Locustella luscinioides (S) 4 IV 82 Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata D3 87 Eurasian Penduline Remiz pendulinus (S) III 89 Great Grey Strike Lanius excubitor D 3 III 96 Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana (V) 2 III those of musk beaver and river beaver have grown mental threats are: environmental pollution and conta- owing to the reduced poaching pressure. mination of water bodies; forest felling; depletion of Over the study period, the population of American biological diversity of plant and animal species resulting mink has increased considerably, this species having from forestry and lumbering operations (sanitary felling replaced the aboriginal one of European mink. and improvement felling, slash removal, etc.); spring Fish species included in the Red Book of Belarus burn-outs; forest fires; cattle grazing; ploughing up of (sterlet Acipenser ruthenus, barbel Barbus barbus and natural meadows; biological contamination of natural vimba Vimba vimba) were registered in the Dnipro River ecosystems resulting from expansion of species alien to and other water bodies in the preserve area. Besides, the aboriginal natural communities; growing predatory and Dnipro is the habitat of 16 fish species (asp Aspius competitive pressures of synanthropic (crow, magpie, aspius, wells Silurus glanis, zige Pelecus cultratus, etc.) gray rat) and domestic (cat, dog) species; impact of anx- protected under the Berne Convention. iety factor upon wildlife resulting from widespread As the future landscape preserve is located in the hunting, pouching and radiation pollution of the terri- vicinity of a large industrial center and in the zone of an tory (see Fig. 3). active economic development, the environmental back- The field studies and follow-up research confirmed ground will be unfavourable for a sustainable function- the significance of the territory under analysis for the ing of natural ecosystems. Among the major environ- preservation of biological diversity of the Dnipro valley 120 Yurgenson et al.

Fig. 3. Analysis of anthropogenic pressures (load).

and the need to grant it a special protection status. The According to the above law, a separate legal entity – Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Specially Protected State Institution for Environmental Protection – was Territories” (2000) establishes the following categories established to manage reserve areas and national parks. of specially protected territories: reserve area (nature The land in reserve areas is withdrawn from agricultural reserve), national park, preserve and natural landmark. and other commercial use. The land of national parks is Preserves are further classified into several kinds, such let for permanent use to the State Institution for environ- as: landscape or integrated, biological, wetland, hydro- mental protection in charge of managing a relevant logical, geological and paleontological. national park; it may also include land parcels of other Creation of Protected Area in Dnipro Floodplain 121 land users. As a rule, no legal entity is created to manage communities were identified in the territory under the preserve. Environmental protection activities in the analysis. Among these are flood-land oak groves, ash preserve territory are organized and carried out by a and hornbeam forests, open up-river and down-river state organization and transferred for day-to-day man- sedge marshes, bayou lakes and shallow parts with rare agement. Landowners and land users are allowed to protected species. keep their land parcels, provided they observe the rules A considerable area of the flood-lands and mosaic of the preserve use and protection. Particular rules of use landscape create favorable habitat conditions for a vari- and protection are coordinated for every individual pre- ety animals and birds. Numerous predatory birds, all serve with landowners and land users whose land parcels species of river duck registered in Belarus and 12 species are located within the preserve borders. of sandpipers (that sometimes form large colonies) are to Maintaining commercial activities traditional for the be found in this territory. area in question (mowing, cattle grazing) is one of the In the course of fieldwork, the fauna of land verte- essential conditions for conserving habitats of rare pro- brates in the preserve area was observed to consist of tected bird species (especially sandpipers), since complete 46 mammal species, 163 bird species, 5 reptile species, withdrawal of this territory from economic use will lead 10 species of amphibia and 42 fish species. Among the to its overgrowing with shrubs. Given this and serious above are 38 animal species cited in the Red Book of economic losses the local population is likely to suffer, it Belarus, including 4 mammal, 31 bird and 3 fish species. does not seem feasible or justifiable to grant the status of The territory of the future preserve is of an interna- a reserve area to this territory. As matters stand, the terri- tional significance with regard to the preservation of tory should not be given the status of a national park populations of a number of rare and extinct species of either, as in this case a special park administration will European fauna. The greatest value of this territory is have to be formed and the existing land property relations that it has become a permanent habitat for considerable will have to undergo substantial revision. Therefore, the populations of globally threatened bird species and some only suitable form of protection of the natural complex in species of a similar status, in particular: Aquilla clanga, question is that of a preserve. As this specially protected Crex crex and Gallinago media (Ramsar Criterion 2). territory is created for the conservation of the whole nat- The preserve territory is of great importance for migrat- ural complex, rather than its inevitably separate compo- ing waterfowl: Philomachus pugnax, Anser albifrons, nents, it should be granted the status of a landscape pre- Anser fabalis and Anas Penelope (Ramsar Criterion 5). serve of national significance. Besides, international The preserve territory supports the populations of such environmental significance of the preserve “Streshinsky” species as Anas strepera, Anas clypeata and Haematopus should be recognized and it should be included in the list ostralegus that have a national significance. of key ornithological territories formulated in the Direc- As the future landscape preserve is to be located in tive on Preservation of Wild Birds in Europe. the vicinity of a large industrial center and in the zone of an active economic development under the immediate Project Contribution to the Strategic Action Plan impact of trans-European transportation corridor, the for the Dnipro River Basin environmental background will be unfavorable for a sustainable functioning of natural ecosystems, unless they Our research proves the necessity to establish the are given a special protection status. national landscape preserve “Streshinsky” in the Dnipro Unusual biodiversity of the territory, its location in flood-lands at the stretch Zhlobin-Rechitsa. This terri- the Dnipro flood-lands and its important role in sustain- tory is a component of a migration corridor of European ing populations of a number of globally protected significance. The Dnipro left bank floodplains that have species are all factors necessitating the establishment of a been preserved in their original state, represent a unique landscape preserve in this territory, which will be a cru- natural landscape. The Dnipro River serves as a natural cial step towards the formation of an environmental cor- migration channel along which certain species travel far ridor within the Pan-European environmental network. distances to the south or to the north of the main area Within the frameworks of this project the establish- borders. Therefore the flora in this area is a unique com- ment of the national landscape preserve “Streshinsky» in plex of species of various origins: of the northern, of the the flood-lands of the Dnipro River at the stretch moderate climatic zone, and the southern (forest-steppe Zhlobin-Rechitsa was substantiated from environmental and steppe). Over 600 species of highest vascular plants perspective. All required documentation was prepared (tracheophytes) were identified in the preserve flora, (including the map of land under the preserve (scale including 8 rare and protected species. 1:50,000), draft Regulations on Landscape Preserve, Meadow flora dominates over other types of vege- boundary specifications, etc.). The plans to establish the tation, being represented by almost all species present in preserve were tentatively coordinated with the relevant Belarus, including 11 rare and valuable ones. Alongside local self-government bodies. Based on the research find- meadow flora, 14 categories of highly valuable plant ings, a petition was submitted to the Ministry of Natural 122 Yurgenson et al.

Resources and Environmental Protection for including tions of black older, ash and hornbeam should be the landscape preserve “Streshinsky” into the Chart of prohibited in the course of forestry activities. All Sustainable Distribution of Specially Protected Territo- types of felling of major commercial trees should be ries of the Republic of Belarus, and another petition for banned in the most valuable communities of aborig- additional funding to complete its establishment. inal old-age floodplain oak groves, ash forests, aspen forests of rare structure, old-age fir woods, Strategic Recommendations hornbeam forests, in the most valuable parts of old- age pine forests on the flood-land terraces of the 1. It is recommended that the national landscape pre- Dnipro River. Given the high fire risk, fire slash serve “Streshinsky,” covering an overall area of removal should be prohibited and spring burnouts 6,867 hectares, be established in the territory of should be prevented. Forest regeneration works Gomel Oblast in Zhlobin and Buda-Koshelevsky should be oriented to natural growth in wood cut- district. This territory is a strip of land, 500–4000m ting areas after clear-cutting of major utility trees. wide and 32km long, stretching from the north to 6. Since this territory has an important role as a the south of the town of Zhlobin, almost to the con- trans-continental ecological corridor, the environ- fluence of the Berezina and Dnipro. mental significance of the Streshinsky preserve and 2. The future preserve territory is to include lands its status as a Ramsar Site should be internation- belonging to 18 land-users (including 15 large agri- ally recognized. cultural enterprises, one farm, Zhlobin and Buda- 7. Cattle grazing should be limited in the valuable Koshelevsky forestries), a section of the Dnipro and areas; net-fishing should be prohibited in the areas Okra water areas, and several bayou lakes that are where protected aquatic and littoral plants grow part of the reserve land stock. Every land user’s extensively; bans on spring hunting should be intro- lands are commonly represented by several land duced periodically (once every 2-3 years) to protect parcels, which means that the land use in the terri- bird populations. tory is of mosaic structure. The land of agricultural 8. Area Management Plan should be developed and enterprises makes up 57% of the overall preserve implemented to ensure effective protection of area, that of forestries – 38%, that of reserve stock – ecosystems and habitats of rare and extinct species. 5%. Percentage of forest land in the territory 9. Additional funding for the project extension, includ- amounts to 24 %. Marshes and swamps make up ing international financial assistance (TACIS, FAR, over 10%, while another 6% of area is under water. GEF), will be required for the implementation of the 3. A special regime of environmental protection should activities described above. be introduced in the “Streshinsky” preserve territory, banning or limiting the activities detrimental to Acknowledgements the sustainable development and functioning of ecosystems, changing the historical landscapes and This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.1.b.3 of the breaking the structure of the most valuable plant Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC communities and animal habitats. Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following 4. The following activities should be banned in the Project Team members from Belarus: whole preserve territory: irrigation, drainage and M.E. Nikiforov (Project Manager), N.A. Yurgenson, I.G. other operations leading to the change of natural Khasdan, G.I. Martsynkewich, I.M. Stepanovich, landscapes and existing hydrological regime; extrac- A.N. Skuratovich, G.V. Dubovik, A.V. Kozulin, tion of minerals, mowing of natural meadows; use G.V. Duduko, T.A. Seniuk, I.V. Martinovich. of herbicides and other chemical plant protection means; discharge of untreated or insufficiently- Reference treated waste water into receiving waters, setting up stationary tourist camps and parking lots in non- Yurgenson NA, Nikiforov ME. 2003. Scientific substantia- assigned places; motor vehicle traffic off the roads, tion for the creation of a protected area in the flood- except for the vehicles engaged in agricultural and plain of the Dnipro in the stretch of Zhlobin-Rechitsa forest management works. as a component of the Dnipro Basin Environmental 5. In the whole preserve territory, clear and gradual Network. Final report. Dnipro Environmental Project, felling of major use trees in oak groves and planta- Kyiv, Ukraine. (In Russian). www.dnipro-gef.net. Creation of the Dnipro Source Nature Reserve

N.N. Mankov,1* A.I. Biziukov1 and V.N. Kostiushenkov2

1Renaissance of the Dnieper River Environment Fund, Smolensk, Russia 2GUPROOS, Smolensk Oblast, Smolensk, Russia

The Dnipro River source was identified as a nature heritage site of regional significance. However, taking into account that the Dnipro River is one of Europe’s major rivers, and considering the uniqueness of the area adjacent to the river source, which represents a watershed separating the basins of three major rivers, it is advisable to elevate the entire area to specially protected areas of a higher status, and declare it a state complex landscape preserve “The Dnipro River Source.”

Key words: nature reserves, protected areas, the Dnipro River

Introduction reach of the Dnipro River source, namely to the north, north-east and west of the river source. The Dnipro River (Dniepr in Russian, Dnieper in Eng- Within several hundred meters to the north of the lish), which is one of the largest of Europe’s rivers, rises river source stood the village of Klechi. Approximately in the vicinity of the village of Dudkino (Sychev district, 1 km west of it was the village of Aksenove, further on Smolensk region) and flows across the three Slavic coun- was located the village of Zabolotiye and northward the tries – Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. The river-head area village of Dudkino. Located approximately 2 km fur- represents a gently sloping and hilly plain, gradually ther downstream was the village of Stvolovka. Of all descending into a gently wavy morainic plain which in these villages only the village of Dudkino has survived places becomes marshy. to this day with only a few people still living here. Its The lowering of the ground level is most visible to chance of survival is practically nil. The villagers farmed the east of the river source, i.e., in the watershed area only nearby land and some stretches along the left bank separating the Dnipro Basin from the small river sub- of the Dnipro River. basins of the Volga River Basin. The area is distinguished At the present time the watershed area is almost by underdrained depressions of ground level represented completely covered by forest and shrubbery. All this by peatlands with the largest ones being located in the land has not been farmed since the early nineties. Over watershed area. These are represented by surface deposits the past 10 years scrub forest and shrubbery have and are located to the south of the Akseninskiy Mokh replaced most of the arable land, particularly along the and Lavrovskiy Mokh and to the west of Ushynskiy Dnipro River banks. Land surrounding to the villages Mokh – the area where the Dnipro River originates. and on the left bank of the Dnipro River is owned by a The river headwater area represents a unique water- private farm. The remaining watershed area is covered shed juncture of the sources of Europe’s three major by forests managed by the State Forestry Fund. rivers – the Volga, the Dnipro and the Western Dvina. It By resolution of the regional executive council on is within this area that the watershed line between these 10/01/1981, the Dnipro River source was identified as rivers lies and in this sense this region is unique and dis- a nature heritage site of regional significance. How- tinct from all the others. Here within an area of several ever, taking into account that the Dnipro River is one tens of square kilometres rise the Dnipro River proper, of Europe’s major rivers, and considering the unique- its several small tributaries, the Obscha River (one of its ness of the area adjacent to the river source, which major tributaries), the Western Dvina (at its source), its represents a watershed separating the basins of three several small tributaries and a Volga River tributary of major rivers, it is advisable to elevate the entire area to th th the 4 - 5 order (part of the Vazuza River Basin). specially protected areas of a higher status, and This area has always been sparsely populated declare it a state complex landscape preserve “The because of its numerous wetlands which cannot be con- Dnipro River Source”. verted to agricultural land. Most of this area is covered The contributing factors include: environmental by forests. Populated centers were mostly located in the conditions only slightly affected by human activity, low upper part of the watershed area which is within easy population density, and almost complete absence of agricultural land. Hence, the river flow formation and con- * Corresponding author; [email protected] ditions have remained almost unchanged.

123 124 Mankov et al.

Thus, the reserve will embrace the sources of the The area is very diverse and rich in plant and animal Dnipro, Dneprets and several nameless watercourses species, many of which are listed in the regional Red flowing into the Dnipro River as well as of the rivers Book of endangered species. such as Viazovets, Obscha, Chernogrizka (Western In addition it has an important international role in Dvina River basin), Vodlivka, Krmena, Rakitnia, and preserving some rare and vanishing species found in Lussa (Volga River Basin). Europe. The report sets out the findings of a survey of legal When creating a hydrological preserve, it will not documents establishing specially protected areas, prelim- suffice to establish a management regime that will help inary estimates of the environmental potential of the sur- preserve natural river flow formation conditions but it is veyed area (climatic conditions, physical, geographical also necessary to examine ways to exploit its tourist and landscape characteristics, and biodiversity). The potential. This preserve has the potential to and should report also presents the rationale of the proposal to iden- be turned into an interesting tourist attraction. tify this area as a specially protected area. The report The Dnipro River source is a site which will be of includes proposals to grant this area a federal status as interest not only to the residents of the Smolensk region well as proposals concerning the regulation of economic, but also to visitors from many other parts of the country legal and other activities and the geographic demarca- as well as from the near and far abroad. Like the Volga tion of borders of the proposed specially protected area. River source, the Dnipro River source is something like a holy place for many Russians - the fact that should The Dnipro River Source undoubtedly be used in developing the recreational Landscape Reserve Complex potential of the region. Undoubtedly, in order to attract tourists it is neces- Practical experience and scientific research have demon- sary to develop the river source area and primarily to strated that so far the network of specially protected enhance the aesthetics of this place and develop it in the areas being created on the basis of the Scheme is not rep- best possible way. To do so will require the adoption of resentative of all valuable ecosystems and species. The a land development project designed on a competitive results achieved have fallen short of the target of estab- basis by landscape design experts and designers includ- lishing an integrated and comprehensive system of pro- ing Belarus and Ukrainian specialists. tected areas in the valleys of the Dnipro, Desna and Sozh The area must be planted with aesthetic forest-plan- rivers. Migratory species are still at risk. tations and be developed in such a way as to provide The Project will provide the scientific rationale for comfortable access to water in that part of the river val- identifying the Dnipro River Source complex landscape ley where the water flow stabilizes. In future a small reserve as a specially protected area and will identify the hotel or other type of accommodation for tourists status and borders and the management regime of this should be built in the village of Bocharove. It is well to area. It is expected that the necessity of creating a new organize here a small Dnipro River museum enlisting the protected area will be preliminarily discussed and coor- supporters of this idea from Belarus and Ukraine. dinated with local environmental bodies, local adminis- The findings of the comparative analysis of esti- trations and self-government bodies. The Project final mated indicators could be used to resolve many practical goal is to include the newly-established specially pro- issues. In particular, these findings could be used to jus- tected area into the new revised version of the Scheme of tify the distribution and transformation of farmland, rational distribution of specially protected areas of the conversion of agricultural land to non-farm uses, and to Russian Federation. improve land use. They could also be used to identify The 1st phase resulted in the preparation of basic those crops that are best suited to the local natural con- cartographic and forest management materials and col- ditions and to rationally distribute them in the area lection and analysis of available information. In June occupied by a farm, and to ensure maximum use of such and July 2002 a comprehensive scientific field study of rotation crops which are best suited to the local soil the area was conducted. characteristics and economic conditions. A preliminary analysis and generalization of the Narrow strips within water protection zones of data obtained indicate that the establishment of a new rivers, lakes and water reservoirs are reserved for protec- protected area (preserve) – the Dnipro River Source – tive shorelines where restrictions on economic and any will significantly contribute to biodiversity conservation other activity are even tighter than those imposed in efforts in the Dnipro Basin. This area is a constituent water protection zones. Water protection zones and pro- part of a migration corridor of European significance. tective shorelines of rivers, lakes and other water bodies According to preliminary data it is home for at least are subject to special land management regime which 12 rare endangered plant species listed in the red books involves the imposition of restrictions on certain rights of the Smolensk region and the Russian Federation. or bans on the exercise of certain land ownership rights Creation of the “Dnipro Source” Nature Reserve 125 of life owners, users or holders whose land plots are sures such as forest clearing, afforestation and land culti- located within the above-said zones. vation in the water protection zone of the Dnipro River The state of water protection zones is a major factor and adjoining areas. influencing the state of large and small rivers, lakes and Under the Water Code of the Russian Federation, water reservoirs. In addition, floodplains located within all water resources must be protected from pollution, water protection zones are the best pastures in summer- contamination and depletion which may cause damage time while bottomland is best suited to growing many to human health, reduce fish stocks, adversely affect field crops. Forests and shrubbery growing in water pro- water supply and have other negative effects due to tection zones – above the floodplain and on slopes of changes in physical, chemical and hydrobiological bed-rock banks, ravines and gullies - prevent erosion of properties of water and deterioration of its self-purifi- banks and soil slips, river-channel silting and influence cation capacity. the river flow and water quality by reducing its hardness Enforcement of a special management regime in and turbidity. Therefore, the disappearance of forests in water protection zones is key to improving the hydrolog- water protection zones for various reasons may have ical, hydrochemical, hydrobiological, sanitary and eco- very negative implications for water bodies. logical parameters of water bodies and developing and Cultivation of floodplains which are part of water improving their shorelines. protection zones and protective shorelines leads to the The size and borders of water protection zones and destruction of soil microrelief resulting in the deteriora- protective shorelines as well as management regime tion of the river flow, excessive soil humidification and therein are established taking into account physical, geo- subsequent swamping of floodplains. Cultivation of graphical, soil, hydrological and other characteristics floodplains causes damage not only to water bodies but with due regard for projected changes in the waterline of also to soil due to the loss of warp, which is the most water bodies. fertile soil layer. Normally even very high flood water The Regulation on water protection zones and pro- does not wash out this layer as the vegetation cover tective shoreland of water bodies was endorsed by a res- effectively prevents flood-lands from erosion. Flood- olution of the government of the Russian Federation lands are severely damaged by heavy agricultural (No. 1404 of 23/11/1996). machinery that leaves deep ruts in the ground which The Regulation requires that the width of water pro- turn into large pools of stagnant water. Subsequently tection zones and protective shoreline strips be established swamping extends into adjacent areas. • for rivers, lakes and oxbows – from the average Historically, floodplains have always been used for multi-annual waterline in summertime; grazing. Overgrazing is common and leads not only to • for swamps – from their boundary (zero depth of the destruction of meadow phytocenoses but also to the peat deposits). degradation of floodplain ecosystems. Floodplain relief undergoes changes with hillocks, As regards swamps located in river source areas and bars and holes becoming a regular sight here. The pre- swamps that shape the river flow in catchments water vailing plant species are grasses resistant to grazing: protection zones are established in the adjoining areas. wormwood, dock, ranunculus, koliuchnik and bluet, etc. The minimum width of water protection zones is Affected are not only meadows but also brushwood and established depending on the distance from the river forests. Overgrazing among other things leads to the source: appearance of cattle tracks and formation of cracks Up to 10 km – 50 m; which accumulate water in fall. During frosty spells the From 10 to 50 km – 100 m; water freezes widening cracks and pushing them further From 50 to 100 km – 200 m; inland. The banks subsequently slide and collapse. From 100 to 200 km – 300 m; We should also mention the role of forests adjacent From 200 to 500 km – 400 m; and to the Dnipro River source, which is even more signifi- From 500 km – 500 m. cant relative to other river stretches. First, given the small size of the catchments it is not unlikely that 100% In river sources water protection zones must be at or most of the forests may be cleared resulting in the least 50 m wide. The minimum width of water protec- deterioration of soil alimentation and river shallowing. tion zones of lakes and water reservoirs is 300 m (for Second, because of the small input of water from tribu- those with a water area of up to 2 square km) or 500 m taries it is highly likely that the river will get silted up. (for those with a water area of 2 square km and more). Third, shoreline trees and brushwood play an important The same rule applies to swamps that form the flow of role in preventing bank erosion and abrasion and reduc- constant watercourses. ing evaporation and absorbing heat. All this must be Thus, water protection zones in the Dnipro River taken into account when conducting agrotechnical mea- source area are from 300 to 500 wide and those along 126 Mankov et al. the river stretch from the Dnipro River source up to As regards protective shorelines, in addition to the village of Bolshevo (Novo-Duginskiy district) are restrictions imposed by Paragraph 6 of this Regulation 100 m wide. the following activities are prohibited: The minimum width of protective shorelines of • land cultivation; rivers, lakes, water reservoirs and other water bodies is • application of fertilizers; established in Table 1. • dumping of eroded soils; The width of protective shorelines in the area under • grazing and summer pastures (except for usual examination varies from 25 to 35 m. watering-places), cattle washing; The following activities are prohibited within water • erection of seasonal fixed-site holiday camps, protection zones: construction of summerhouses, gardening, veg- • aerial spraying and sowing; etable growing and home building; • application of pesticides and herbicides; • road traffic of motor cars and tractors except for • application of manure effluents; special-purpose motor vehicles. • construction of warehouses for storing pesticides, Protective shoreland may be allotted for construc- fertilizers, fuels and lubricants, pesticide filling tion of water supply facilities, recreation facilities, fish- grounds, livestock farms, storage and burial sites eries and game reserves, water intakes, ports and for industrial, domestic and agricultural wastes, hydrotechnical structures subject to availability of a cemeteries, livestock burial grounds, and wastewater use licence requiring compliance with the water water ponds; protection regime. Protective shorelines must be covered • storage of manure and garbage; by durilignosa or converted to meadowlands. • fuelling, washing and servicing of cars and other The responsibility for maintaining water protection transportation means and machinery; zones, protective shorelands and water protection zones in • construction of summerhouses, gardening and proper condition rests with water users. The landowners, vegetable-growing if the water protection zone is landholders and users who own water protection zones less than 100 wide and the rate of adjoining and protective shorelines must comply with the land man- slopes is over 3 degrees; agement regime established for these zones and strips. • car parking including on summerhouse grounds, The establishment of water protection zones does in gardens, and vegetable gardens; not entail the confiscation of land from landowners, • clean felling; landholders and land users. Nor does it prohibit land • construction and remodelling of buildings, struc- transactions except as otherwise provided by law. tures, communication lines and other facilities, Violators of the management regime in water pro- mining activities as well as excavatory and other tection zones and protective shoreline strips are held works without the permission of basin-wide and liable in accordance with the existing legislation. regional water management and protection bod- The responsibility for exercising state control over ies of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the compliance with the rules for establishing sizes and bor- Russian Federation. ders and with the management regime established for Owners of small holdings, summerhouses, gardens water protection zones and protective shorelines rests and vegetable gardens located within water protection with executive bodies of subjects of the Russian Federa- zones are required to observe management regulations tion, basin-wide and regional water management and that prohibit pollution, contamination and depletion of protection bodies of the Ministry of Natural Resources water bodies. of the Russian Federation, authorized state environmen- Selection felling and other forest management activi- tal bodies, state bodies for control over land manage- ties aimed at water protection are not prohibited in ment and protection and authorized forestry manage- water protection zones. ment bodies within the limits of powers vested in them.

TABLE 1. The minimum width of protective shorelines of rivers, lakes, water reservoirs and other water bodies.

Width of protective shorelines (m) as a function of the steepness of slopes of adjoining areas Land adjacent to the water body Adverse or zero slopes Slopes of up to 3 degrees Slopes of more than 3 degrees Arable land 15-30 35-55 55-100 Meadowlands and hayfields 15-25 25-35 35-50 Forests and shrubbery 35 35-50 55-100 Creation of the “Dnipro Source” Nature Reserve 127

In cases where a river or another water body (nat- 2. The new preserve should be listed among the tourist ural hydroecosystem) is of special environmental, scien- attractions located in the eastern part of the tific, cultural, aesthetic, recreational or sanative signifi- Smolensk region. It may include such interesting cance it may be declared a specially protected water sites as Khmelita, Vysokoye (Count Sheremetiyev’s body. These water bodies in part or in full for a specified Palace), Lipetsy (Zagon tract) and others. or indefinite period of time are excluded from economic 3. Based on the analysis of the natural conditions of activity (economic activities are banned here). Such the area under examination and taking into account water bodies include wetlands, watercourses and ponds the location of populated centers, roads, tracts of which are part of unique natural landscapes, spawning forests, and agricultural lands, it is advisable to areas of valuable fish species and protection zones in the demarcate the proposed specially protected area upper reaches and estuaries of water bodies, etc. within the following borders: Cultivation of shorelines causes soil and bank erosion From the influx of the Dneprets River into the and river-channel silting. Therefore one of the effective Dnipro River, along the Dneprets River valley water protection methods is conversion of arable shore- upstream up to the border between the Smolensk lands to meadowlands or their afforestation, depending on region and the Tver region. Then, the border local terrain features, withdrawal of arable land from use. extends north coinciding with the border between Forest shelterbelts consolidate river banks, protect the Smolensk and Tver regions, until it reaches the them from erosion, silting and contamination, divert Viazovets River wherefrom it runs eastward up to surface run-off to groundwater aquifers and improve the Korbutovka tract, where it turns south and runs water quality. along the tracts of forests of the State Forestry Fund The Project provides for afforestation of shoreline until it reaches the Dneprovets River mouth (Dnipro hayfields and pastures. River left-bank tributary). A survey of forest-plantations covering an area of Thus, the specially protected area will accommo- 14.8 ha was conducted. When selecting trees to be date the sources of the Dnipro, Dneprets, Viazovets, planted it is necessary to take into account agro-amelio- Obscha, Kremena, Vodlivka, Rakitnia and Lussa rivers. rative conditions which depend on the steepness of In addition, it will include the watershed area separat- slopes and soil types. The selection of seedlings and ing the basins of the Black, Baltic and Caspian seas. It plants of trees and brushes, planting dates, subsequent occupies an area of 32.3 sq. km. It is necessary to estab- management of forest-plantations, achievement of an lish a special land management regime here by imposing adaptability rate of at least 70%, are all expected to be a ban on land reclamation activities, peat mining, and done under the direction and guidance of an experienced forest clear-cutting. forester or by a local contractor that is a specialized forestry organization (see Table 2). 4. Management of the new preserve will fall to the state agencies and governmental bodies of the Russ- Strategic Recommendations ian Federation. 5. In the future, the Project may provide the basis for 1. The Project’s strategic goal is to create a specially creation of specially protected areas of national and protected area—the state complex landscape preserve international significance in the upper reaches of the “The Dnipro River Source”—and have it endorsed by Desna, Sozh and Oster rivers, which will form a uni- the state executive bodies of the Smolensk region and fied environmental network for the purpose of pre- the Russian Federation in coordination with environ- serving biodiversity not only in the Russian Dnipro mental organizations and local governments. Basin, but also basin-wide.

TABLE 2. Explication of Land types in the specially protected area of the Dnipro River source (Sychev district, Smolensk region) as of 01.09/2002

Area of the protective shoreline, ha

Districts and land Classified by land type holdings traversed by the Dnipro River Total Arable land Hayfields Pastures Forests Swamps Shrubbery Sychev district, total 32.3 0.5 1.3 0.5 29.2 0.4 0.4 Including: private farm “Dnipro 19.1 0.5 0.9 0.5 16.5 0.3 0.4 River Source” Sychev PLKH 16.1 — 0.4 — 15.6 0.1 — 128 Mankov et al.

As part of the preparation of the SAP, we propose Acknowledgements establishing new specially protected areas such as nature reserves, landscape preserves, and other types of pro- This report was prepared jointly as Project 5.1.b of the tected areas in the Dnipro Basin. Biodiversity Activity under the UNDP-GEF-IDRC The outputs of this Project will be used in the prepa- Dnipro Basin Environment Program by the following ration of the SAP for the upper reaches of the Dnipro Project Team members: River. The outlines of future projects have been refined N.N. Mankov (Project Manager), A.I. Biziukov, N.A. in principle and will require further regional, national Matveenkov, V.A. Shkalikov, M.A. Erashov, and and international efforts. V.N. Kostiushenkov Note: for the map and location of the proposed “Dnipro Source” Nature Reserve, see the final report Reference (Mankov et al. 2003). Mankov NN, Biziukov AI, Kostiushenkov VN. 2003. Cre- ation of the Dnipro Source Nature Reserve. Final report. Dnipro Environmental Project, Kyiv, Ukraine. (In Russ- ian). www.dnipro-gef.net and www.idrc.ca/oceei. Assessment of Risks Related to the “Hot Spots” Impact on Environmentally Vulnerable Zones in the Dnipro Basin

Sergey A. Afanasyev1 and Mikhail D. Grodzinsky2*

1Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine 2National Taras Shevchenko University, Kyiv, Ukraine

A methodology for assessing risks associated with the impact of “hot spots” on ecologically sensitive zones in the Dnipro Basin was developed, together with approaches to conducting on-site express assessments, with an analysis of field surveys and research data and the impact of the ten most significant “hot spots” on water ecosystems. A description of the surveyed hot spots and assessment of environmental risks associated with them was provided. A protocol for identifying and examining the hot spots was developed. A joint action plan to reverse detrimental changes at the hot spots was proposed. Key words: risk assessment, pollution hot spots, Dnipro River Basin

Introduction research data on the impact of the most important “hot spots” on water ecosystems. Over the last decade, both Europe and America have 4. On-site studies of 10 most important hot spots that displayed a strong tendency towards developing biolog- have a significant influence on the Dnipro Basin ical assessment methods within the framework of the transboundary contamination. “ecosystem approach in integrated water manage- 5. Analysis of data on hot spots and eco-sensitive ment”. Water ecosystems are viewed as unified entities zones identified as part of the UNDP-GEF Program. and with due regard for the qualitative assessment of 6. Analysis of information on the impact of the 10 abiotic and biotic components as well as their interac- most important hot spots on the water ecosystems, tion. In this case, both biological parameters and the which was provided by local monitoring agencies. quality of habitats are assessed. Under the Helsinki 7. Description of the surveyed hot spots and assess- Convention, this assessment method must also be ment of environmental risks associated with each applied to transboundary watercourses. At the same one of them. time, radical socio-economic changes in Russia, 8. Development of a protocol for identifying and exam- Ukraine and Belarus urgently call for the reformulation ining hot spots; development of a joint action plan to of domestic approaches and environmental assessment reverse hazardous changes at hot spots and the devel- standards which are directly dependent on socio-eco- opment recommendations on the surveyed hot spots. nomic factors. Potent integration processes unfolding in Europe and worldwide require that coordinated General Concepts and Definitions approaches to assessment and control issues be implemented on the global scale. A “hot spot” is a territory characterized by This project was designed to establish an effective and certified environmental risk assessment methodol- • presence of rare and vanishing species; ogy, using an integrated approach, involving hydrobio- • a combination of threats to biodiversity; logical, hydrological and hydrochemical methods to • presence of a variety of potent point pollution assess the state of water bodies and the adjacent areas. sources; The project objectives were: • presence of a variety of point and non-point pollution sources; 1. Definition of a hot spot to be used by the GEF Pro- • presence of pollution sources in the Dnipro Basin gram projects. transboundary stretches. 2. Development of a methodology for assessing risks • In addition, a hot spot may not be defined as a associated with the impact of “hot spots” on eco- territory but rather as a point pollution source sensitive zones in the Dnipro Basin. that has an adverse impact on the respective 3. Development of approaches to conducting on-site ecosystem. express assessments, analysis of field survey and The main idea is that in cases where the protection * Corresponding author; [email protected] of rare species and habitats is viewed as a priority a hot

129 130 Afanasyev et al. spot is defined as a territory which has many such Terminology species and habitats and therefore it is identified as a problem (‘hot”) zone which requires investments for Since, for the time being, some terms relating to the conservation purposes. Also, it is not necessary that this problem of hot spots, biological assessment of ecosys- zone be exposed to the risk of being contaminated by tems and environmental risks have not yet been uni- pollutants or to any other anthropogenic impact at a formly defined, we provide our own definitions, which given point in time. This approach to the definition of a were used in this survey (Table 1). Because our approach hot spot can be found for instance in the GEF Hot Spot to assessing the environmental status of water ecosys- Identification Project implemented in the Russian Arctic tems is similar to that proclaimed in the EU Framework zone or the WWF Ladoga Lake Project. At the same Directive and the risk assessment methodology devel- time, there are definitions (for example, the one offered oped by us is to a large extent based on the “Canadian” by the WHO) that give priority to human health in methodology (Canadian Council of Ministers of the which case a hot spot is defined as territory with point Environment 1996), these definitions are rather close to and non-point pollution sources. For the TDA purposes, those provided in the said documents. At the same time, the critical factor is the presence of pollution sources in we pay attention to the recent works in this field as well the Dnipro Basin transboundary stretches. as to the scientific and terminological traditions main- The UNIDO Hot Spot Identification Project defines tained in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. hot spots as pollution sources, for example, such as industrial and municipal effluent discharges, as well as Environmental Risk Assessment Methodology non-point pollution sources such as agricultural and urban runoffs. They pose a threat to human health and This methodology is an adaptation of the “General lead to environmental degradation, particularly, in the Guidelines for Environmental Risk Assessment” of the zones where biodiversity is at the greatest risk of being Ministry of the Environment of Canada (Canadian decimated. This approach derives from the “industrial” Council of Ministers of the Environment 1996) in light focus of UNIDO activities and the need to prepare the of the Project objectives. We have also taken into Priority Investment Portfolio. In other words, it involves account some methodological techniques of assessing the identifying a concrete recipient of funds to reduce pollu- state of water ecosystems as well as of risk analysis and tion levels. The resulting classification of hot spots into assessment that are proposed in (Norton et al. 1988; “transboundary hot spots”, “national hot spots” and EPA 1993; Crowford-Brown 1997; Voit and Schubauer- “local hot spots” is based on concentrations exceeding Berigan 1998; Afanasiyev 2001). the MACs values (maximum acceptable concentrations). The proposed methodology in some ways goes Thus, in fact there exist two approaches to defining beyond the scope of the possible full assessment of envi- hot spots and both of them have been implemented under ronmental risks implemented under this Project. How- various GEF-financed programs. First, a hot spot is ever, taking into account the fact that one of the Project defined as an ecologically important zone (which, for main goals is to devise an environmental risk assessment example, in the case of a nature reserve may be eligible for tool in order to meet not only Project needs but also pos- financing) and, second, a hot spot is specified as a source sible future needs it was deemed feasible and necessary that has an adverse impact on the respective ecosystem. that the environmental risk assessment methodology Proceeding from the rationale for the implementa- should be developed in its final shape (finalized). We tion of the unified UNDP-GEF Program, we could not, were also fully aware that in some countries certain for the purposes of this Project, radically modify the def- questions would remain unanswered and that the indica- inition of a hot spot as proposed by the main Hot Spots tors used might somewhat vary from country to country. Project implemented under this Program, according to The reason for this is a tight time schedule, different which a hot spot is defined solely as a pollution/contami- accessibility of the information in the three countries and nation source. different level of professional skill of the three countries’ Nevertheless, we consider that the two approaches experts. Since these very factors could restrict the future may be “reconciled” with each other to a certain extent use of the methodology we drafted the in situ survey if we examine the issues pertaining to the determination procedure and made environmental risk calculations in of environmental effects and risks associated with the such a way as to minimize errors in the results obtained. impact of pollution sources on eco-sensitive zones. In so doing we may subsequently try to identify where invest- In situ Survey Methodology ments should be channeled in each particular case – i.e., a pollution source provided it increases the probability An in situ survey includes sample collection and the bio- of negative changes or an eco-sensitive zone, even when logical assessment of the impact exerted by a hot spot at a specific pollution source under examination does not various distances from it: immediately downstream of pose any threat. the point of polluted water discharge (within tens of Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 131

TABLE 1. Main definitions

Term Definition Note Environmental status determination of characteristics of the structure EU Framework Directive and functioning of water ecosystems Hot spot pollution/ infection source that poses a variety If natural living conditions of aquatic communities of threats to biodiversity, individual biota in a given river are maintained, it is assumed components, functioning of biotic communities that the environmental status of such river and that jeopardizes the natural development is at least satisfactory (EU Framework of nature complexes. Directive) and that the water quality meets the water user’s needs. Biological assessment regular use of biological responses for the purpose of monitoring and assessing environmental changes, i.e., the state of an ecosystem. Bio-indication water quality assessment at the sampling site of water quality on the basis of the analysis of a group of organisms (or a part thereof) inhabiting a water body at a given sampling site Risk probability that an adverse event will take place Environmental risk probability that an ecosystem will undergo changes resulting in its degradation, disappearance or transformation into the state that will pose a human health threat and/or leading to the loss of is economic significance. Risk assessment scientifically substantiated judgement about the Risk assessment includes 2 components: probability of an adverse event and the 1- assessment of the probability of a risk, magnitude of its adverse effects. and 2 – assessment of a extent of a risk. Both of them can be quantified, or can be assessed in a qualitative sense. In any case, this judgement is made based a stringent procedure. Environmental scientifically substantiated judgement about Anthropogenic pressures include both the types risk assessment the probability that an ecosystem or its and regime of the use of an ecosystem in the components will undergo adverse changes economy and the types and levels of pollutants under anthropogenic pressures and about the released to it. magnitude of these changes Probability of an probability that a certain event that is classified Probability is assessed for one or several time environmental risk as undesirable for a given ecosystem and is intervals (for example, 1, 3 and 10 years). detrimental to it will occur. These assessments may also be made for concrete scenarios under which a given hot spot is used and depending on the area affected by this hot spot. Extent of an assessment of the damage caused to an ecosystem The damage may be of different nature environmental risk if a risk materializes (environmental, economic, human health, esthetic, etc.) Therefore, the extent of a risk should be assessed in terms of assessment characteristics (for example, the number of diminishing species, species loss, water quality deterioration, etc.) Receptor constituent material part of an ecosystem that Examples: individual organisms, populations, may undergo adverse anthropogenically- communities, water medium of an ecosystem, induced changes bottom sediments, etc. Risk indicators characteristics of an ecosystem or components Examples: indicator types of water quality, thereof which are used for assessing the onset saprobiological index, Trent biotic index, pH, and the extent of a risk number of species, etc.

meters in the case of a point pollution source), within meters, etc., depending on the volume of a discharge and 1 kilometer under visual and instrumental control over the river dilution capacity, and finally up to the zone resuspension trail (temperature, pH, O2), within 3 kilo- where biotic communities do not display any noticeable 132 Afanasyev et al.

structural deviations from the natural conditions. While pling site. 70% of data were entered immediately on selecting sampling sites we ensured that the sites had site while the rest of data were entered only after the similar terrain and biotopical characteristics. For refer- primary processing of samples under laboratory condi- ence purposes, we collected samples and described com- tions at which stage the major listed groups of inverte- munities upstream of the discharge site for biotopes brates and the number of species in these groups were identical to those in the surveyed sites. In addition, eco- identified and at least one total animal abundance indi- sensitive and environmentally important zones were sur- cator was established. veyed, namely in the protected water areas located Presence of indicator animal groups in the samples within 15 km from a hot spot. were marked as “*” in the Protocol and specified after General characteristics of biotic communities were the primary processing of samples under laboratory con- described in terms of the development and distribution of ditions. The groups were arranged in order of decreasing macroforms (higher aquatic plants, confervoid algae, sensitivity to pollution and their distribution in time macroinvertebrates). Samples of zoobenthos, zooperiphy- roughly agrees with the 5 water quality classes. ton and, where possible, of phytoplankton and zooplank- Plecoptera - class 1, b- oligosaprobic ton were taken. Ichthyofauna diversity was assessed Ephemeroptera (excluding Baetis), Trichoptera based on information gathered from local residents and (excluding Ecnomus), Gammaridae – class 2, inspection of fish catches of amateur fishermen. a-oligosaprobic, b’ – mesosaprobic The following background abiotic characteristics Odonata, Bivalvia (excluding Sphaeridae), Gas- were monitored: hydrochemical: dissolved oxygen, pH, tropoda , Bryozoa - class 3, electric conductivity (mineralization); hydrophysical: b’’ mesosaprobic, a’-mesosaprobic. water temperature, transparency, color index, water Spongia, Asellus, Hirudinea, Sphaeridae class 4, a’’- velocity (rough estimates). mesosaprobic Samples of nitrogen and phosphorus-containing Chironomidae, Tubificidae class 5, polysaprobic. forms, BOD and other hydrochemical parameters were 5 The column “Other” contains organisms not collected wherever possible. Plankton samples were col- included in the above-mentioned groups lected on the water surface. Phytoplankton samples were Macrozoobenthos – populations inhabiting unconsol- sealed in 5-liter containers. Zooplankton was concen- idated bottom substratum (such as sand, silt, etc.) trated 100 liters through the planktonic net with a milling Survey technique – the specification of the sampling gas N 73. Zooplankton was dyed by “Sudan rose” to technique used is necessary determine the proportion of killed species. Zoobenthos Total abundance – at least one of the indicators and zooperiphyton samples were taken taking into (number/m2 and/ or g/m2) account visually detected homogeneities (uniformities). If Ichthyofauna – fish species caught by local residents necessary, light-duty diving equipment was used. In and commercial fishing data biotopes with unconsolidated bottom sediments a box- type sampler with a working width of 100 cm2 or a Indicator species – species identified as a result of Petersen bottom scoop with a working width of 0.25 m2. inspection and laboratory processing of samples with Overgrowings from solid substratum were collected with established saprobic valencies x – xenosaprobic zone, o – a scraper with a blade width of 5 cm. Some stones lifted oligosaprobic zone, b – betamesosaprobic zone, a – to the water surface were washed out. Macroforms were alphamesosaprobic zone, and p – polysaprobioc zone, or registered with the help of a coil (frame) (0.5 x 0.5 m). All else the saprobiological index S. It is assumed that the ratio the samples were fixated by Formalin (formaldehyde solu- of saprobic valencies is representative of saprobic condition) and were processed under laboratory conditions in tions at a given point of a water body. Trend Biotic Index accordance with the standard procedure. is calculated based on the number of revealed groups of The materials were statistically processed and mea- indicator organisms (Woodiwiss1964; Metcalfe 1989). sured using software applications of WACO-type, which were developed by the Hydrobiology Institute, NAS Screening Assessment Ukraine. Biotic homogeneities (uniformities) were identified The input data used at this assessment level includes lit- based on the comparison of species diversity of different erature on the subject, archives, and information gath- groups of hydrobionts found at the sampling locations ered from local specialists. Of special importance are using the Serensen index (qualitative analysis) and the data contained in field protocols which are completed Chekanovski-Sörensen index (quantitative analysis). for each spot. The “FIELD PROTOCOL, biological assessment At this assessment level we must address issues sum- of the impact of a point pollution source on water marized in Table 2. It should be noted, however, that a ecosystems” (Appendix 1) was filled in at each sam- particular spot is usually “hot” because it is unique and Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 133

TABLE 2. Issues addressed at the screening assessment level for each surveyed spot

No. Issues addressed

Description of receptors and risk indicators

I-R1 Overall description of a hot spot I-R2 Biocenosis I-R3 Water medium of the respective ecosystem I-R4 Ichthyofauna I-R5 Ornithofauna I-R6 Presence and characteristics of protected ecosystems and terrains I-R7 Presence and characteristics of sensitive ecosystems I-R8 Presence and characteristics of recreational areas I-R9 Selection of risk indicators

Perceived impacts

I-Im1 Make a list of pollutants released to a hot spot I-Im2 Determine the volume and other quantitative parameters of pollutants released to a hot spot I-Im3 Determine the number of accidental spills I-Im4 Determine the routes along which these pollutants are transported across the trophic network of the respective ecosystem I-Im5 Determine the geographic area affected by a hot spot I-Im6 Quantify the buildup of pollutants in the ecosystem components I-Im7 Other issues characteristic of a hot spot

Threats

I-T1 Identify pollutants whose concentrations in water and other media pose a threat to human health and biodiversity I-T2 Examine the probability of cumulative effects I-T3 Assess the probability of accidents occurring at a hot spot I-T4 Identify endangered ecosystem components I-T5 Identify protected and vulnerable ecosystems and recreational objects exposed to risks

Environmental risk assessment

I-ER1 Classify environmental risks by type I-ER2 Assess probability of each type of risk I-ER3 Assess the extent of each type of risk I-ER4 Identify types of environmental risks that need to be pre-assessed I-ER5 Predetermine risk prevention priorities and the extent of prevented damage has certain features that do not fit into the prescribed may engender other types of risks in which case the list standard (including the standard list of questions pre- below should be extended: sented in Table 2). Therefore, in each particular case it makes sense to put additional questions, other than Preliminary Assessment of Risk Probability those listed in Table 2, that are necessary for the accomplishment of the main objective of the screening risk As was pointed out above, preliminary quantitative risk assessment at a given spot – that is, to identify potential assessments are tentative by nature and as such they do adverse changes in local ecosystems. Methodological not need to be very accurate or very reliable statistically. instructions how to anwer individual questions in the This allows us to use rough assessment methods for the screening assessment (Table 2) are given in Aphanasyev purpose of assessing the probability of an event. The and Grodzinsky 2004 (English version). express procedure used in this Project for gathering field We assume that risk indicators (See Table 1 for the data on the state of and pressures experienced by definition) are parameters listed in Table 3 below. hydroecosystems calls for methods that are different Even though for each hot spot and spots located at from most of the standard mathematical and statistical different distances from it, types of risks and hence their methods for assessing probability (in particular based on combinations are unique, we propose a general risk the frequency of an event and the distribution function) typology (see Table 4). In addition to the risks referred which are inadequate for this purpose. Risk probability to in Table 4, each particular case (specific hot spot) may be tentatively assessed by two methods – an assess- 134 Afanasyev et al.

TABLE 3. Risk indicators

No. Risk indicator Indicative of 1 Trent Biotic Index for periphyton Quality of the hydroecosystem water medium Number of species (groups) 2 Trent Biotic Index for benthos Bottom sediment quality Number of species (groups) 3 Saprobiological index S for benthonic fauna Organic contamination of bottom sediments Number of species (groups) 4 Saprobiological index S for fish Organic contamination of the hydroecosystem water medium Number of species (groups) 5 Saprobiological index S for higher aquatic plants Organic contamination of the hydroecosystem water medium Number of species (groups)

ment method based on the variation of risk indicator The probability that the environmental risk of x values and an expert’s assessment. The answer to the type will evolve over the time interval Δt is calculated as question as to which one to use (or whether to use both follows: of them) depends on existing assumptions about the Px = 1-qx. (3) magnitude of variation in risk indicator values. The risk probability assessment method based on The above risk probability assessment method yields the variation of risk indicator values is centered around reliable results only if we have sufficiently accurate and the following assumption. If for the risk indicator x we statistically_ reliable estimates of statistical parameters assume a certain range which, if exceeded, suggests that such as x ? σx. (arithmetic mean and root-mean-square an ecosystem has undergone undesired changes, the deviations). No such accuracy or reliability can be probability of this event (i.e., risk) is lower, the wider is assumed if we apply an express-method for assessing this range, the further from the limits of this range environmental risk indicators. However, to make a (xmax and xmin) the risk indicator value x is located rough assessment of the_ risk probability qx, we may use and the smaller is the variability of these values over a expert’s estimates of x ? σx instead of those calculated specified time interval Δt or within a given area of the based on statistical populations. territory ΔS. Given this, the probability that the risk It is proposed that the value of the environmental indicator will lie within the permissible range can be cal- risk indicator x measured at a spot for which risk is culated as follows: assessed should be adopted as its arithmetic mean value (the necessary data are given in the respective columns of the field protocol). (1) It is possible to adopt the estimate of σx, calculated based on the sample of values of the variable x measured where: qx(Δt) – probability that the risk indicator x at all sampling sites on a given river (i.e., at the hot spot will lie within a given range over a time interval of Δt; and other spots located at different distances from it) as xmin and xmax - maximum and minimum values of the a substitute for the root-mean-square deviation. It risk indicator x, which limit the ecologically safe range should be noted, however, that in this case σx values over which the risk indicator may vary; and f(x)- density will be the same for all sampling sites and will be some- of distribution of x. what overrated. It is obvious that in the case of a hot Absent any other assumptions, it is assumed that the spot (wastewater discharge site) the variation in time distribution of values of the environmental indicator x is and space of the environmental risk indicator _given its a Gaussian one (which is acceptable for the purposes of “worse” (in environmental terms) mean value x will be preliminary risk assessment). In this case, equation (1) narrower than the spatial variation of the variable x, takes the following form: which is calculated for all surveyed sampling sites on the river. Likewise, given the “better” mean value of x at the reference spot (upstream of the point of discharge), the (2) variation of x will be also smaller. Therefore, we can tentatively agree that the root-mean-square variation σx where: Φ – function of the normalized normal distri- calculated for all spots on a given river must be read- bution whose values are tabulated and listed in any justed for each concrete spot. Readjustment coefficients mathematical statistics handbook; σx – estimate of the by which the mean value of σx “averaged throughout root-mean-square variation of the value x. the river” should be multiplied are given in Table 5. Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 135

TABLE 4. Environmental risk typology

Index Type of environmental risk Note H Hydroecosystems HW Water medium HWR River water pollution In-depth quantitative risk assessment should include assessing risks associated with contamination by various pollutants (such as organics, chlorinated organics, surfactants, heavy metals, etc.) HWS Contamination of bottom sediments Same HB Structures of biological communities HBP Degradation of communities of higher • Assessment of community diversity loss (in terms of loss aquatic plants of species and groups) • In-depth quantitative risk assessment should include assessing risks of decimation of population numbers of each species/ group. HBINV Degradation of macroinvertebrate communities Same HBSF Degradation of benthonic fauna communities Same HBPHPL Degradation of phytoplanktonic communities Same HBZPL Degradation of zooplanktonic communities Same HBZBT Degradation of zoobenthos communities Same HBZPR Degradation of zooperiphyton communities Same HBF Degradation of ichthyofauna communities Same E Land-based ecosystems EUF Saturation of the floodplain and the first terrace The risk is assessed for stretches of the river valley located located above the floodplain by polluted at different distances from a point pollution source river water (i.e., hot spot) EWR Contamination of surface waters used for The risk is assessed for each recreational site located within recreational purposes a distance of up to 15 km downstream of a hot spot EPR Degradation of biological communities of Same for nature reserves ecosystems of nature reserves EFR Degradation of biological communities of Same for sensitive ecosystems sensitive ecosystems EBWF Degradation of water-fowl communities EBF Degradation of bird communities nesting on the river floodplain and terraces EMF Degradation of mammal populations dwelling in riparian biotopes

Readjustment coefficients given in Table 5 should be assessment of the probability of an event by each expert viewed as tentative (unbinding) and the ones that may be of the field study team and the subsequent calculation of revised in each particular case depending on the type of the arithmetic mean. Each member of the field study distribution of sludge, volume of discharge, river self- team makes an expert assessment of the probability dilution capacity, morphology of the river floodplain (varying from 0 to 1) of each type of environmental risk and channel. for each surveyed station. This work should not be It is advisable to use the expert’s risk probability started until all field protocols have been completed, rele- assessment method in cases where no assumptions can be vant information has been obtained from local organiza- possibly made with respect to the root-mean-square vari- tions and available data on all spots have been analyzed. ation σx of the risk indicator x. This situation is typical Even though in each particular case (for each hot of many types of environmental risks referred to in Table spot and other spots located at various distances from 4. Among the existing expert appraisal methods the one it), the selection of the method for assessing the proba- which is best suited to the goals of this study involves the bility of an environmental risk (either the calculational

TABLE 5. Readjustment coefficients k to be applied to the root-mean-square variation estimates

Distance from the Reference spot (upstream 0 discharge site, km of the discharge site) (hot spot) up to 1 km up to 3 km up to 5 km up to 15 km k value 3.0 3.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 136 Afanasyev et al.

method or the expert appraisal) may be governed by cer- Boundary estimates of risk probability (pl – lower tain considerations, Table 6 gives recommendations on and pu - upper) set a certain range within which the true how to choose the assessment method in order to assess risk probability estimate may lie: pl < p < pu. We leave the probability of different types of environmental risks. out the mathematical and ecological justification of the Once we have assessed the probability of each type method whereby these estimates are obtained. Below are of environmental risk pi, we can calculate the probability given the formula for calculating boundary estimates of of a combination of risks of different types by multiply- risk probability for any specified time interval Δt, if this ing the probabilities according to the following formula: probability has been assessed for the time interval δt:

(4)

Also, among other things, we can determine the probability that no environmental risk of any type will occur in a specified ecosystem over a specified time (6) period:

(5)

where: n – number of types of environmental risks If we can measure the time period Tr after which an intrinsic to a surveyed spot. ecosystem will be exposed to environmental risk, the As was pointed out in the note to the definition of boundary estimates of risk probability for a specified the term “probability of an environmental risk” (See time interval Δt may be determined by one of the follow- Table 1), it is desirable to assess such probability for sev- ing equations: eral time intervals (1 year, 3 years, etc.). It is possible to obtain accurate estimates only at the third risk assessment level (detailed quantitative assessment). At the preliminary quantitative assessment level, we can obtain tentative risk probability estimates for different time (7) intervals by the method of boundary assessment of fail- ure probability as proposed in and adapted by for the purpose of assessing sustainability of ecosystems.

TABLE 6. Recommended methods for the preliminary assessment of probability of environmental risks

Index of risk type Environmental risk indicator Recommended method

HWR Concentrations of pollutants in river water (data provided by Calculation (subject to availability of data), relevant organizations) TBI for periphyton expert appraisal HWS Concentrations of pollutants in bottom sediments (data provided Same by relevant organizations), TBI for benthos HBP Saprobiological index S for higher aquatic plants Expert appraisal, calculation HBINV Number of species for macroinvertebrate communities Same HBSF Saprobiological index for benthonic fauna, TBI for benthonic fauna Calculation HBPHPL Risk of degradation of phytoplanktonic communities Expert appraisal HBZPL Risk of degradation of zooplanktonic communities Expert appraisal HBZBT TBI for benthos Calculation HBZPR Risk of degradation of zooperiphyton communities Calculation (TBI), expert appraisal (if available data are fragmentary) HBF Saprobiological index for ichthyofauna Calculation, expert appraisal (if available data on species variety are fragmentary) EUF Groundwater level Expert appraisal EWR Risk of contamination of surface water used for recreational purposes Expert appraisal EPR Population diversity of ecosystems of nature reserves Expert appraisal EFR Population diversity of sensitive ecosystems Expert appraisal EBWF Population diversity of water-fowl communities Expert appraisal EBF Population diversity of bird communities nesting on the Expert appraisal river floodplain and terraces EMF Population diversity of mammal communities of riparian biotopes Expert appraisal Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 137

Although by using the above formulas we can calcu- extent of a risk and the assessment of the degree of late the probability of an environmental risk for any undesirability of a risk. specified time interval Δt, in our opinion it is appropriate The substantive assessment of the extent of an envi- for the purposes of this Project to adopt the intervals ronmental risk amounts to justifying a set of indicators Δt = 1 year, Δt = 3 years, Δt = 5 years, Δt = 10 years, which are indicative of potential implications of (damage Δt = 50 years as such “standard” time intervals caused by) an environmental risk. It also involves the tentative quantitative assessment of these indicators. Preliminary Assessment of the Extent of Risk Table 7 summarizes recommended indicators of the extent of environmental risks. The notion of the “extent of an environmental risk” as defined in Table 1 is interpreted as the extent of poten- Assessment of the Degree of tial damage caused to an ecosystem if a risk materializes. Undesirability of Environmental Risk Such damage may be of a vastly different nature (from the ecological one, like decreased population diversity of In many cases it is extremely difficult to make a substan- communities, to the loss of aesthetic value of ecosys- tive assessment of environmental risks due to the incom- tems). The screening assessment level is designed to iden- pleteness of initial data, uncertain behavior of hot spots tify and rank these threats (See Table 3, questions I-Im1 and indeterminacy of their future uses in the economy as through I-Im5 and I-ER4) whereas the preliminary risk well as due to a variety of other factors. Apart from this, assessment level is designed to make tentative quantita- substantive assessments of the extent of risk differ in tive estimates of the extent of these risks. “nature” from one another and in particular in the units This assessment includes two stages which may be of measurement used. Therefore, it is impossible to com- called the substantive (content-based) assessment of the pare them or to reduce them to some integral assessment

TABLE 7. Indicators representative of preliminary estimates of the extent of environmental risks

Index of risk type Indicator of the extent of risk

HWR • Concentrations of pollutants in river water • Amount of excess over MACs • Length of the river stretch where pollution levels exceed MACs HWS Same for bottom sediments HBP • Extent of species diversity loss in higher aquatic plant communities • Extent of a decrease in population numbers (or density) HBINV Same for macroinvertebrate communities HBSF Same for benthonic fauna communities HBPHPL Same for phytoplanktonic communities HBZPL Same for zooplanktonic communities HBZBT Same for zoobenthos communities HBZPR Same for zooperiphyton communities HBF Same for ichthyofauna communities EUF • River valley area flooded by contaminated river water • Arable land flooded by contaminated water • Meadowland cenoses flooded by contaminated water • Area of floodplain forests and shrubbery flooded by contaminated water EWR • Size of recreational zones flooded by contaminated water • Number of holiday makers (person-days) in recreational zones flooded by contaminated water EPR • Size of protected areas (nature reserves) which will be affected by risk impacts • Protection status of affected protected sites • Extent of a species diversity loss for communities inhabiting nature reserves • Extent of a decrease in population numbers (or density) • Extent of a decrease in productivity (biomass values) of individual populations EFR • Size of sensitive ecosystems that will be affected by risk impacts • Extent of a species diversity loss for communities inhabiting sensitive ecosystems • Extent of a decrease in numbers (or density) of individual populations • Extent of a decrease in productivity (biomass values) of individual populations EBWF • Extent of a species diversity loss for water-fowl communities • Extent of a decrease in numbers (or density) of individual populations • Extent of a decrease in productivity (biomass values) of individual populations EBF Same for bird communities nesting on the river floodplain and terraces EMF Same for mammal communities inhabiting riparian biotopes 138 Afanasyev et al.

of the extent of risk. So, it makes sense to assess the extent of different types of environmental risk using the (9) same units of measurement – for example the degree of undesirability of a risk which can be obtained on the basis of the Hurringtom desirability function (Harring- where: di – undesirability of a risk of an i-type, num- ton 1965). This function is quite widely used in the ber of types of risks, ai – estimate of significance of a risk experimental design theory to assess integrated responses of an i-type (ai may be taken as 1 for all risk types). of various systems to external influences. The oversim- The closer the values of di and D get to 1, the more plified version of this function was used in the ecological undesirable the extent of an environmental risk. The field to make a comprehensive assessment of responses Hurrington scale (See Table 8) is divided up into intervals of water ecosystems to water medium contamination. corresponding to qualitative degrees of undesirability. The method described below enables us to switch over from the denominate variable xi to the unitless In situ Surveys assessment of the degree of undesirability of this value - di [0, 1]. Once we have calculated the degree of unde- For the purposes of projects implemented under the sirability for all variables (risk indicators), we can make UNDP-GEF Dnipro Basin Environment Program, a an integral assessment of undesirability of anticipated “transboundary hot spot” is defined as a pollution source changes in an ecosystem D [0, 1]. responsible for elevated concentrations of pollutants as This method includes the following steps: compared to MACs in water bodies of the riparian countries. A number of transboundary hot spots were assessed 1. We assume the optimal (most desirable) value as in terms of environmental risks posed by them. The most well as the environmentally “worst” value of an significant “transboundary hot spots” in the Republic of indicator of an environmental risk of x-type – Belarus include water treatment facilities of the KUP xopt and xcr, respectively. These values have their “Rechitsa Vodokanal”, KPUP “Gomelvodokanal” and corresponding desirability estimates d=1 (for x ) opt. the Open-End Joint Stock Company “Mozyr NPZ”, and d=0 (for x ). These values are adopted based cr. which discharge wastewater within 100 km of the on substantive considerations. Thus, for TBI Ukrainian border. x =1, while x may be assumed to be equal to cr opt The Russian Federation hot spots are the water treat- the TBI value at the reference sampling site and ment facilities of the cities of Smolensk and Kursk and a may vary from 7 to 9. The worst value of the meat-processing plant on the Upper Vorsklitsa River. saprobiological index S is x =4,0, and it may be cr For Ukraine these include the water treatment facili- assumed that its xopt is the value recorded at the ties of “Lutskvodokanal” (city of Lutsk), the Joint Stock reference site. The latter should vary from 1.1 to Company “Rovnoazot” (city of Rovno), treatment facility 1.5 for Polessiye rivers and from 1.5 to 2.0 for the “PUVKH Kherson City” (city of Kherson). In addition, it Dnipro estuary (for the hot spots in the vicinity of was anticipated that an environmental risk analysis would Kherson city). also be made for the enterprise “Khersonnefteper- 2. We assume that the value of an indicator of an envi- erabotka” which was found to discharge its effluents into ronmental risk of an x-type will be x when a risk risk the PUVKH (water supply and sewage collection network) materializes. There is no question that it must meet the condition: xopt < xrisk xrisk > xcr. 3. We assess the degree of undesirability of an environmental risk of an x-type according to the modified TABLE 8. Degree of undesirability of the extent of an Hurrington desirability formula environmental risk Degrees of Qualitative assessment undesirability of the degree of (8) Undesirability according to undesirability of di or D Hurrington an environmental risk 0.00 – 0.20 Very good Practically insignificant 4. An integral assessment of the undesirability of the 0.20 – 0.37 Good Of little significance state into which an ecosystem passes once all types 0.37 – 0.63 Satisfactory Of medium significance of environmental risks materialize is made according 0.63 – 0.80 Bad Undesirable 0.80 – 1.00 Very Bad Extremely undesirable to the following formula: Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 139 of the city of Kherson. Also, separate surveys were con- References ducted in the area supposedly affected by wastewater discharges of the cities of Tsiuriupinsk and Golaya Pristan Afanasyev S. 2001. The development of European approaches (Kherson region). to biological assessment of hydroecosystems needed for the monitoring of rivers of Ukraine. Hydrobiological Conclusions Journal 35(5):3-18. Afanasyev SA, Grodzinsky MD. 2004. Methodology of eco- The main conclusion resulting from this Project is that logical risk assessment related to the impact of pollu- for the Dnipro Basin transboundary stretches the great- tion hot spots. IDRC Kiev. (In Russian, abbreviatied est environmental risks are not associated with the rela- English version). [email protected]. tively large-scale point pollution sources but rather with Crowford-Brown DJ. 1977. Theoretical and mathematical the combined impact of non-point and small point pollu- foundations of human health risk analysis: biophysical tion sources, which compromise the self-purification theory of environmental health science. Kluwer Acade- capacity of the river. mic Publishers, Boston. Hence, the main proposals concerning the Dnipro EPA. 1993. Assessment and remediation of contaminated Basin Strategic Action Plan (SAP) may be divided into sediments program: risk assessment and modeling the following four groups: overview document. EPA/905/R93/007, Great Lakes Group 1 –Methodology: It is necessary to further National Program Office, Chicago, IL. refine and harmonize biomethods of assessing the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1996. state of the Dnipro Basin hydroecosystems as part of Framework for ecological risk assessment: general the efforts to further develop provisions of the “EU guidance. The National Contaminated Sites Remedia- Framework Directive”, “Helsinki Convention” and the tion Program. “Guidelines for Monitoring and Assessment of Trans- Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1997. boundary Rivers” Framework for ecological risk assessment: technical Group 2 – Appraisal: This series of proposals is appendices. The National Contaminated Sites Remedi- aimed at consolidating efforts to identify and assess ation Program. point pollution sources located in the Dnipro Basin and Harrington EC. 1965. Industrial Quality Control 21(10): to develop the methodology of assessing and examining 494-498. risks posed by non-point pollution sources. Metcalfe JL. 1989. Biological water quality assessment of Group 3 – Research: These proposals address issues running waters based on macroinvertebrate communi- related to the assessment of the self-purification capacity ties: history and present status in Europe. Environmen- of small rivers and water reservoirs. tal Pollution 60:101- 139. Group 4 – Remedial action: Since the issues such as Norton S, McVey M, Colt J, Durda J, Hegner R. 1988. compliance with discharge limits established for treat- Review of ecological risk assessment methods. Pre- ment facilities and the reduction of the volume of pared for U.S. EPA, Office of Planning and Evaluation, untreated effluent discharges have already been exam- ICF Inc., Fairfax, VA. ined, of prime importance today are remedial actions Voit EO, Schbauer-Berigan M.K. 1998. Canonical model- aimed at restoring the environmental potential of the ing as a unifying framework for ecological and human Dnipro Basin rivers. The EU’s experience shows that risk assessment. In: Newman MC. and Strojan CL. investments in remedial activities and the construction of (ed.), p. 101-139. Risk assessment: logic and measure- bio-positive structures may be substantially smaller than ment. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, Michigan. those required for the additional wastewater treatment Woodiwiss FS. 1964. The biological system of stream classi- and, at the same time, may produce a significantly fication used by the Trent River. Board. Chem. Indust. greater effect. 11:443-447. 140 Afanasyev et al.

Appendix 1. Field Protocol Form:

«FIELD PROTOCOL» «Biological Assessment of the Impact of a Point Pollution Source on Hydro-ecosystems»

Water Body / Hot Spot Station Number Location

Date Weather:

DESCRIPTIVE BLOCK

Distance from the “hot spot” and localization (upstream/ downstream)

Terrain and Biotopical Characteristics: Type of a water body - (river, water reservoir, channel, estuary …) State of a floodplain - (undisturbed, transformed 2 and 3 terraces, completely transformed into an industrial area…) Shoreline structure - (natural, stony, faced, banked up, …) Width of a water body (m) Depth (mean m) Current (estimated visually – rapid, moderate, slow, absent…) Predominant substratum - (concrete, stones, pebbles, sand, silted sand…) Water use - (human consumption, recreational uses, land reclamation, nature reserve…..) Visible pollution – (foam, stains of oil products…) Visible kills of aquatic organisms – Temperature °C Color scored on the chromatic scale Transparency assessed with the aid of the Secchi disk pH O2 Electric conductivity Additional information (transboundary stretch, wintering pit, nature reserve, reproduction site)

Description of Biocenosis Survey technique – (diving inspection, manual gathering, Petersen bottom scoop…) Macrophytes (proportion overgrown, % dominant) Macroalgae (proportion covered, % predominant group)–none Macroinvertebrates (dominant) – Total abundance number/m2 g/m2 Ichthyofauna Assessment of Risk related to the “Hot Spots” Impact 141 Technology for Eliminating Dreissena Biofouling in Hydrofacilities

Sergey Afanasyev,1* Sergey Shcherbak,2 Pavel Gusak,3 Stanley Ross4 and Julia Gromova1

1Institute of Hydrobiology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine 2Independent Environmental Safety Services, Kyiv, Ukraine 3Institute of Economy and Information in Fishery Industry, Moscow, Russia 4Marine Physics Corporation, Newton MA, USA (deceased)

A series of hydropulses released under high pressure and at various temperatures was chosen as the technique for removing Dreissena. The approach included both killing the molluscs and also reducing the physical volume of their remains. This was achieved by reducing shells to fragments small enough to be carried away easily by water current passing through grids and filters, and by crushing their soft parts to enhance bacterial decomposition.

Key words: zebra mussel, biofouling, control methods, hydropulses

Introduction valchuk 1996; Klerman and Kolotilova 1998; Mishina and Vladimirova 1996; Vavilova et al. 1998; Ussery et al. Many power plants and industrial firms suffer significant 1998; Rusznak et al. 1994; Taylor et al. 1996; Dauber- economic losses because of various types of bio-handicaps schmidt et al. 1996; Wildridge et al. 1998; Dietz et al. that arise in their water supply systems. Arriving from an 1995; Chalker-Scott et al. 1994). In addition, during the external water source and settling directly in water pipes, past decade, ten international conferences on the zebra hydrobionts affect the normal functions of pumps, heat- mussel and aquatic nuisance species have been held, all of exchangers and other equipment, seriously complicating them having extensive sessions on control methodology. the normal operation of power plants by risking the over- The present work does not intend to review all heating of critical units, or by clogging service-water existing methods of controlling Dreissena populations; pipes. Specific performance losses due to bio-handicaps we note only that all of them can be subdivided into the include the significant over-consumption of fuel, which following major classes: also results in atmospheric emissions of sulfur dioxide, ashes and other pollutants. In addition, the ecological Chemical properties of water delivered to consumer sites also may become deteriorated. Most evident are the handicaps Directed towards the destruction and/or the sterilization caused by biofouling. An appreciable quantity of papers of molluscs with the help of anti-biofouling paints - mol- within the world scientific literature is devoted to descrip- luscicide additives in particular - by introducing special tions of such biohandicaps, their localization, and the reagents into the water they presently inhabit, or are development of different ways of pest control. These pub- likely to inhabit. Chemical methods are the most effec- lications underline the fact that biofouling affected almost tive and are rather cheap, however their application all systems of water supply including heat-exchange pipes causes the greatest harm to the environment, and it is of large atomic power station turbines, exposing them to poorly predictable on a complete scale, due to the infestation (Dreissena 1994; Shevzova 1996; Kharchenko unknown rates of toxicant migration and accumulation and Liashenko 1997; Railkin 1998; Kurbatova 1998). within food webs. First in the Old World and now in the New, the greatest economic losses in fresh-and saltwater are due to Physical molluscs of the genus Dreissena. Efficient methods of controlling their propagation and influence are being Which include the mechanical removal of biofouling by actively developed at present, a fact proved by the mechanical or thermal impact, or by subjecting the fouled increasing quantity of publications devoted to this subject surfaces to ultrasound, electric current or electric charge. (see, e.g., Gvozdiak at al.1997; Gubosarian andKo- As a rule, physical methods require high material expenditures. Also there is an inevitable problem of disposing * Corresponding author; [email protected] the remnants of biogenic material such as their shells and

142 Technology for Eliminating Dreissena Biofouling 143 the remains of their soft parts, which in themselves are an ments which stiffen in water. The force of attachment to intensive secondary source of water pollution. a smooth surface is of order 2-3 N. Dreissenae can form multilayer settlements with biomass of tens of kg/m2. Biological When the mollusc closest to the substrate collapses, the connection with the substrate is severed and the settle- Directed towards the reduction of Dreissena biofouling ment becomes unfastened; all shells bound together drift by applying the methods of genetic engineering; or with along with the current. The mollusks are dioecious and the help of predators, parasites or other species-specific achieve sexual maturity when their shell becomes greater epizootics. Biological methods are the safest from a bio- than 6-7 mm. Reproduction begins when the ambient logical aspect, however their application is limited by water temperature reaches 14-15 °C and continues virtue of a narrow range of species-specific parasites. throughout the summer with a degree of intensity that Moreover, the biological approach is excluded from nar- depends on the ambient environmental conditions. In row water pipes, whose thermal and hydrodynamic con- high summer (temperatures exceeding 26-28 °C) mass ditions and substrate features provide very attractive destruction of juveniles may occur, and if such high tem- habitat for such animals. peratures persist for more than three days, adults may However, a combination of the approaches listed also die. Dreissena larvae (veligers), typically between 70 above is possible, for example, when the mechanical to 250 microns in size, normally float freely for 7-14 days removal of Dreissena is accompanied by the introduc- in midstream; however, after the autumn drop of temper- tion of some molluscivore fishes, e.g., Mylopharyno- ature, some of the veligers can be found in the deeper of godon piceus Richardson, or when adding molluscicides water. This risk of off-season Dreissena larvae invasion in nonlethal concentration is amplified by increasing the remains till the spring. (See also: Antonov 1997; Mills et temperature. al. 1996; Stanzhykowska 1997; Stanzhykowska et al. In the present study, a series of hydropulses released 1997; MacIsaac 1996). under high pressure and at various temperatures was chosen to remove Dreissena. The approach not only kills Materials and Methods the molluscs, but also reduces the physical volume of their remains. This was achieved by (1) reducing shells Mollusks of the species Dreissena polymorpha Pallas to fragments small enough to be carried away easily by were used as the main material for our researches, water currents passing through grids, filters, etc., and (2) although some control experiments were undertaken by crushing their soft parts to increase the speed of bac- using Dreissena bugensis (Andrusovi). Mollusks were terial destruction. collected monthly from July 2000 until September 2001 Thus, the purpose of the work described here was from the Irpen’ water-pumping station, situated on the the development of a technology for the destruction of Kiev reservoir. Maximum sampling depth was 6m, the Dreissena foulings by means of high pressure substrate was of concrete and steel design. Average tem- hydropulses of special thermal and dynamic parameters. perature maximum in July was 22 °C, minimum in Janu- A database was developed co-relating hydropulse para- ary – 2 °C. River freeze-over extended from the middle meters and the expected physical characteristics of the of November until early in March. biological objective, e.g., efficiency of removal of the Dreissena population, size of splinters, degree of crush- Equipment Configuration ing of the soft parts. Seasonal biological changes to the characteristics of Dreissena shells were taken into Water pulses were ejected through any one of a set of account, as were the orientation of the shell axis to the interchangeable nozzles whose diameters range from destructive pulse stream, and the form and size of the 0.45 mm to 1 mm. Control of pulse duration, number of settlement clusters (singles, brushes, druses). Environ- pulses per series, and inter-pulse interval were all con- mental consequences of applying each variant of the trolled with a personal computer (1) to an accuracy of method were also evaluated for minimization of a nega- pulse duration of +/- 0.25 sec. Controlling the flow of tive impact on water quality and loss of biodiversity in water at very-high-pressure requires considerable force, the Dnipro River Basin. and generating perfect short-duration square pulses requires precise, accurate switching as well. The flow of Brief Overview of Dreissena Biology water was to be modulated, but the modest output current levels available directly from the computer could not Dreissena (Dreissena polymorpha Pallas) is a bivalve be used to control water at such high pressure levels. mollusc which is a feeding - active filtrator. The Dreis- Therefore a cascade of two mechanical valves and one sena shells may achieve maximum lengths of 45-50 mm, electronic valve was employed. Compressed air stored but usually are about 25-30 mm. The mollusc fastens to within a standard steel bottle provides the force necessary a substrate by means of byssus, which are sticky fila- to open and close a heavy-duty diaphragm valve in very 144 Afanasyev et al. rapid sequence to control the high-pressure water pulses. of an original design. Fixed to metal sieve, the aggrega- The primary mechanical valve regulates the exit of high- tion of mollusks was subjected to bombardment. A pressure water from within the supply source. The sec- holder containing a shell, or a sieve with a druse, were ondary mechanical valve controls the abrupt release and located in a 60-liter aquarium filled with reservoir water. truncation of compressed air to drive the primary valve, A method was developed for fastening and pointing the and it in turn is switched by controlling the electrical cur- head of the pressure washer apparatus (4), which rent from an ordinary 220V laboratory supply. The allowed the distance to the object to be adjusted to an switching signals that control the secondary mechanical accuracy within 1 mm. A laser aiming device provided valve are actuated by low-voltage signals released under high accuracy in axial pointing direction. program control through the computer’s RS-232 port. To evaluate the consequences to water quality The water-supply source is an Aqua Blast Corp. resulting from the destruction of the Dreissena shells and (Decatur, IN) Model P5500EH pressure washer (2), which soft tissues, we measured the biochemical oxygen maintains a supply of water at arbitrary pressure levels demand (BOD5) in the aquarium water used during this controllable to a maximum 5000, with refreshment rates test. Shell fragments and splinters were sorted into six as high as 5.5 gal/min. An oil-fired burner pre-heated the size groups ranging from 0.25 to 10 mm. Molluscs, shell water supply to desired temperatures just short of boiling. splinters and the remains of soft parts were weighed on The primary mechanical valve was a Badger Corp. an analytical scale with accuracy up to 0.1 g. Processing Type 1711 heavy-duty globe control bonnet (diaphragm) of the test result data was performed using a standard valve, capable of modulating high-pressure flows of Microsoft Excel package. water at temperatures as high as 1000 F; it was tripped A schematic diagram of the equipment switching by compressed air stored at 85 PSI in a common steel arrangement is presented in Fig. 1. laboratory bottle. The flow of carbon dioxide is itself modulated by an Asco “Red Hat”-series Model 8223 Results and Discussion solenoid valve (3), maximum working pressure 1500 PSI. Finally, a standard 220V electrical source to drive As stated above, the primary goal of the approach the Red Hat solenoid valve is switched on and off from described here was not only the destruction of Dreissena, the computer’s RS-232 port by a Black Box Pow-R- but also the reduction of all ecological consequences of Switch, Model 1M. The net result is that water under the present technology. A secondary goal was to develop given high pressure and at a given temperature is an efficient way to get all the disposals compacted and sprayed through a nozzle (7) of chosen diameter and utilized. The development of technology for eliminating directed mechanically at the object of bombardment (8). biofouling included a list of tasks, beginning with a For evaluating hydropulse power characteristics choice of technical options available for control, up to there was a “test - target”, assembled using an electro- using the new knowledge about this biological object generator and a gauge. To display the development of with respect to the problem under consideration. energy along the time axis a rotating disk was covered with layer of plasticine; qualitative information about Database the pulse energy was presented by the depth of the jet trace in the plasticine. Single shells were fixed in various A database structure was defined to accommodate the positions relative to the hydroimpact axis in the holders entire array of available parameters. The entire set of the

Fig. 1. Block diagram of the test configuration. Technology for Eliminating Dreissena Biofouling 145 independent variables is divided into two groups consist- tings, an increase in nozzle diameter from 0.45 to ing of uncontrollable and controllable parameters, 0.5mm results in an insignificant gain in shell- respectively. splitting effect; this effect was observed as a reduction of large splinters and simultaneously a The uncontrollable parameters: reduction in percentage of soft parts preserved. • water temperature in the reservoir; • deploying a nozzle of 1 mm diameter at ranges of • season (F1 - spawning, starting of growth; F2 - less than 5 cm intensifies the effect. summer growth; F3 -winter); • nozzles of smaller diameter become more effec- • mussel size {Z1:< 5mm, Z2:6-10mm, Z3:11- tive at increasing ranges 15mm, Z4:16-21mm, Z5:22-26mm, Z6:>26mm}; • the process is by its nature somewhat inexact. • aspect angle Pp (posterior), Pt (top), Pm (medial), Many biological characteristics exert influence on Pd (dorsal). the stability of a shell in response to a The controllable parameters: hydropulse. Of greatest importance are the linear • diameter of selected nozzle (N); size of a mollusc, i.e., durability of the shells • air pressure (Pa); grows with increased shell length. • water pressure (Pw); Accordingly, for mollusc sizes of 10-15 mm, guaran- • distance (D) to the target; teed splitting of shells at a range of 5 cm is achieved with • programmed duration of the impulse (Ip); Pw - 1500 PSI, Pa – 34 PSI, Ip – 0.25 sec. • temperature of water pulse (T). Species specificity also plays a role, for it was noted In addition, it was taken into account that real pulse that Dreissena bugensis has a somewhat stronger shell duration (Ir) cannot be exactly the same as was pro- than Dreissena polymorpha. Treatment of 18-20 mm grammed (Ip). In fact, Ir as measured during a test dif- molluscs of these two taxa by hydropulses with identical fered from Ip by a value which depends on the entire set characteristics (Pw - 1500 psi, Pa –42 PSI, Ip – 0.5 sec) of control parameters as well as pulse energy, E. resulted in splitting 62% of the former shells, but only The effect of the choice of values for the control 43% of shells of the latter. On the basis of this result the parameters influenced the following dependent variables: further use of Dreissena bugensis as an object for testing - distribution of splinters by size groups {% mass for seems unnecessary for the obvious reason that all results f1:< 1mm, f2:1-3mm, f3:>3-5mm, f4:>5-7mm, valid for Dreissena polymorpha remain correct for f5:>7-10 mm, f6:>10mm}; Dreissena bugensis. It was confirmed quantitatively that for shells of • deviation from maximum size of fragments (mm) similar size the use of the same parameter values during - “fm” various seasons will change the spectrum of splinters • soft parts preserved (%), “c” (Fig. 2). For instance, from spring to early autumn the • preserved conches (%), “b” percentage of largest-size splinters is appreciably reduced • preserved part of biomass (%), “s” in favor of corresponding increase in mid-range size. Also, the amount of preserved soft part fragments and Interpretation of Results general mass of the remains is increased somewhat. This points out that the Dreissena shell has lesser durability The Excel database, replenished constantly as experi- during the summer period; therefore, in some sense the ment results were received, may be considered a basic pulse efficiency during summer can be said to increase tool which allowed one to estimate the influence of con- relative to its winter values. Seasonal change of shell trol value choice, to perform comparisons of the result- durability is easy to explain since summer is a period of ing effects, and also to anticipate to some degree the intensive shell growth without any appreciable shell ranges of dependent variable values, and thereby to thickening, whereas shell development subsides in select appropriate controls for correcting the test results. autumn’s colder temperatures. This thesis finds confir- The accumulated data file allowed the following conclu- mation and good agreement with known data on sea- sions to be drawn regarding stability of Dreissenae to sonal change of shell weight (Galperina et al. 1983). In applied hydropulses. our research, shell weight was observed to be minimal in • to ensure the splitting of the Dreissena shells summer and maximal in winter; the greatest difference from a distance of 5 cm, hydropulse parameters in shell weight (up to 25%) was exhibited among mol- were set to the following initial values irrespec- luscs within the 10-15 mm size range. tive of season, mollusc size or orientation to As biofouling molluscs can have various orienta- pulse direction: tions relative to the substrate surface, the effect of shell • Pw- not less than 2000 psi, Pa - not less than orientation on efficiency of the hydropulse was investi- 51 PSI, Ip - not less than 0.5 sec. Under these set- gated It was established that the greatest shell breakage 146 Afanasyev et al.

The analysis of splinter sizes requires not only comparisons with the aperture sizes of lattices or filters, but also the development of a general strategy of bombardment for specific hydrofacility geometries. In particular, using the splinter size distributions contained in the present database and knowing the ambient rate of flow it would be straightforward to estimate a priori the values of transport parameters required to flush all biogenic material through the system. In addition, the remains from bombardment occupy a considerably diminished volume; this exerts a significant effect on reducing expenses for removal, transport and disposal. As shown earlier (Protasov and Afanasyev 1984), Dreissena settlements assume friable structures which occupy significant volumes. The packing coefficient (ratio of total volume of mollusks to the total volume of aggregate) is 0.38 for brushes; 0.65 for druses and 0.30 for aggregations of druses. Obviously, molluscs are packed most densely in druses and thus occupy minimal volume for a given weight. As an example, biofouling volume-per-ton for Dreissena druses removed from the Irpen pumping station at Kiev reservoir varied from 3.2 m3 up to 7.3 m3; depending on seasonal fluctuations of mollusc size-age spectra. Average volume was about – 4.5 m3.The following results were obtained from bombardment of a reference mass of one ton: Half-shells and splinters of shells of sizes: greater than 10 mm - 3.5 m3 between 7-10 mm - 3.2 m3 between 5-7 mm - 2.1 m3 between 4-6 mm -1.6 m3 between 1-3 mm -1.4 m3 The percentage of broken soft parts resulting from several different tests ranged between 37 – 65% of the initial mass. In bombardments of one ton of molluscs using the least efficient control, viz. splinters presenting half- shells only and 65% of all soft parts remaining, the vol- 3 Fig 2. Splinter characteristics as a seasonal function. 1 to 6 – ume of biogenic material was reduced from 4.5 to 2.3 m . splinter length in mm; 0045/3000/3 – parameters of the If the bombardment strategy were to be optimized it experiment; 0045 – diameter of the jet/sprayer; 3000 – pres- should be possible to reduce the volume of biogenic mate- sure of the water jet; 3 – duration of the impulse (seconds). rial by 4.5 - 0.52 m3. This means that by effective use of the information contained in the database, and observing occurs among molluscs that present lateral or back sur- the extent of biofouling intensity, it should be possible to faces to the hydropulse axis. The greatest resistance to select the most efficient parameters of hydropulses corre- hydropulses occurred among shells oriented with their sponding to the prevailing circumstances. top parts to the direction of impact. At large scales of application of this technology ques- Analyzing the structure of splinter material (Fig. 3), tions inevitably arise about the consequences of introduc- it was noted that bombardment of the shell’s lateral ing significant amounts of mantle liquid and soft-part aspect results in finer splinters than when the hydropulse remains into the water flow. This point has two aspects, is directed to the back edge. In turn, the size structures environmental - involving the pollution of natural waters of splinters resulting from bombardment from directly by organic substances; and technical - as when a deterio- above, or from directly behind, were quite similar and ration of quality in water supply systems results in unde- differed from the axial cases described above by even sirable engineering consequences, e.g., the formation of greater prevalence of large fractions of splinter material. biofilm in heat exchangers sharply reduces their operat- Technology for Eliminating Dreissena Biofouling 147

based on the application of high-pressure hydropulses. Besides the applicator equipment, it includes a database of test results which allow one to choose an effective and economical mode for treating biofouled surfaces. The results not only allow the efficient removal of Dreissena settlements, but also reduce considerably the amount of biogenic remains, as much as 88% of the initial volume. The information stored in the database plays an essential role in this strategic approach. The technology also allows the intensity of bacterial destruction of soft parts to be controlled by available means. The point is important not only in an environmental sense but also in preventing critical levels of biopollution in the water supply. The testing established that the shells of Dreissena bugensis are generally less resistant to mechanical shock than shells of Dreissena polymorpha. Increase of mollusc size raises its resistance to physical impact. Seasonal differences in resistance to pulse shock are related to the seasonal growth characteristics of their shells. Late summer is the most effective period for application of the hydropulse method. Depending on the direction of pulse application relative to the body axes, the mollusc shell exhibits varying degrees of resistance to applied mechanical shock, the greatest resistance being to bombardment from above, and the least resistance to bombardment from the side. Fig 3. Splinter characteristics as a function of the control parameters. T,A,D,M indicate position of the shell under the Acknowledgements water jet (T - top of the shell, A - abdominal part, D - dorsal part, M – medium part). The work reported on in this report was performed for Marine Physics Corporation, Newton MA, USA, in part ing efficiency. As previously shown (Afanasyev et al. under the scope of US Army Corp of Engineers Contract 1991), the decomposition of 1 g Dreissena remains in DACW39-98-K-0043. 1 liter of water results in an increase of BOD5. Preparation and publication of this paper was sup- Such rate of organic materials at a temperature of ported by IDRC. 25 C° and an initial level of BOD5 = 2.1 mg/L may triple We would also like to extend our thanks to Mihail the rate of biofilm formation on turbine condenser pipes. Gorgol’, Alexander Gorohovsky, and Vasiliy Popov for These tests only recorded the chemical parameters of technical assistance. the water, in which the bombardment of fixed weights of shells was performed, and therefore no general dependen- References cies between control parameters and increase in of BOD5 was established. Nevertheless, the data does show that a Antonov PI. 1997. Some eco-physiological characteristics of greater degree of soft part destruction produces an imme- Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) (Molluska, Bivalvia). diate increase of BOD5 followed by a more rapid fall Ecological situation of Chapaevka river in conditions thereafter. This implies an increase of bacterial destruc- of antropological -effects: Bioindication. Tolyatti tion rate, and accordingly a more vigorous effort by the 177-182 (in Russian). ecosystem to restore a balance. Finally, we note that Afanasyev SA, Romanova EG, Slepnev AE. 1991. Bacterial water heated to 80 °C prior to bombardment increased Fouling of Heat Exchange Equipment. Gidrobiol. zhur- the initial level of BOD5 by 1.5 – 2 times. nal. 27(5):56-61. (In Russian). Chalker-Scott L, Scott J, Titus J. 1994. Brief exposure to Conclusions ultraviolet radiation inhibits locomotion of veligers and juvenile D. polymorpha. 37 th Conf. Int. Assoc. Great A new technology for destroying Dreissena settlements at Lakes Res. and Estuarine Res. Fed., Windsor, June 5-9: engineering structures has been developed and tested. It is Program and Abstr. – [Windsor], p. 61. 148 Afanasyev et al.

Dauberschmidt C, Dietrich DR, Schlatter C. 1996. Toxicity quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), a second species of of organophosphorus insecticides in the zebra mussels, freshwater dreissenid introduced to North America. Dreissena polymorpha P. Arch. Environ. Contam. and Amer. Zool. 36(3):271-286. Toxicol. 30(3):373-378. Mishina EM., Vladimirova NP. 1996. New composite Dietz Thomas H, Lynn John W, Silvermann Harold. 1995. materials with antifouling properties. Fishing 5:36. (In Method for controlling bivalves such as zebra mussels: Russian). Pat. 5417987 USA, MCI6 A01N 59/00, A01N 59/08/; Protasov AA, Afanasyev SA. 1984. On spatial types of Louisiana State University; Agricultural and Mechani- colonies of Dreissena in the pond-cooler of the Cher- cal College. – No. 123613; Published 23.05.95; NKI nobylsky atomic Power Plant. Zhurnal obshchey biol., 424/661. 272-277 (in Russian). Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) (Bivalvia, Dreissenidae) Railkin AI. 1998. The process of colonization and protec- 1994. Systematics, ecology, practical value. (ed. Y.I. tion from biofouling. St. Peterb: State Univ. Ed. (In Starobagatov), M.: Nauka, 240 p. (in Russian). Russian). Galperina N, Zagranichniy N, Lvova N. 1983. Seasonal Rusznak L, Mincar G, Smolik N. 1994. Chlorine dixide- a changes of the size-weight characteristic of Dreissena molluscicidal agent for adult zebra mussel eradication. polymorpha (Pallas) from Northern Caspian sea. In: Int. Water Conf.: Offic. Proc. 55 th Annu. Meet., Pitts- Biological resurses of the Caspian sea. M., 111 -118 (in burgh, Pa, Oct. 31-Nov., Pittsburgh (Pa), 18-23. Russian). Shevzova LV. 1996. A fouling control of Dreissena (Dreis- Gvozdiak PI, Nikonenko VU, Tchehovskaya TP. 1997. Pre- sena polymorpha Pall., D. bugensis Andr.) in pipelines venting of biofouling of a production equipment in of water–supply system. Gidrobiol. zhurnal. 32(3): production of artificial filaments. Water Chemistry and 58-64. (In Russian). Technology 19(2):212-216. (In Russian). Stanzhykowska A. 1997. Review of studies on Dreissena Gubosarian LA, Kovalchuk YL. 1996. Dynamics of fouling polymorpha (Pall.). Pol. arch. hydrobiol. 44(4): of anticorrosion surface containing Mg and Ba salts. In 401-415. Biodamage, fouling and protection against it: climatic, Stanzhykowska A, Lewandowski K, Swierczynski M. 1997. biochem. and ecotoxicolog. Factors. Institute of of Summary of studies on Dreissena polymorpha (Pall.) ecology and evolution problems, Rus. Acad. of Sc.; conducted in the period 1993-1995 in the Massurian 67-77. (In Russian). and Pomeranian Lakelands. Pol. arch. hydrobiol. Kharchenko TA, Liashenko AV. 1997. Growth and pro- 44(4):517-520. duction of Dreisssena in conditions of artificials water Taylor E, Arthur JS, Bowen JD. 1996. Kill or cure? Control flows. Gidrobiol. zhurnal. 33(4):3-16. (In Russian). of aquatic molluscs pests slug. and snail pests. Agr.: Klerman AK, Kolotilova EV. 1998. Influence of a mineral Proc. Symp., Kent, 24-26 Sept., Farnham, 1996, structure of the environment and blue-green algae on 199-204. veligers of Dreissena polymorpha. (Pall.). Ecologia Vavilovova LA, Krasjuk VV, Schliapnikov SV. 1998. The 6:476-478. (In Russian). system of ecological protection of water organisms Kurbatova SA. 1998. A role of Dreissena polymorpha from hit in water input facility. Energetic (12):21-23. (Pall.) in a water body and its influence on zooplank- (In Russian). ton community. Biol. vnutrennih vod 1, 39-46 (in Ussery T, Milelr AC, Payne BS. 1998. Effects of forced hot Russian). air on zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) survival. MacIsaac HJ. 1996. Potential abiotic and biotic impacts of J. Freshwater Ecol. 13(3):365-367. zebra mussels on the inland waters of North America. Wildridge PJ, Werner RG, Doherty FG, Neuhauser EF. Amer. Zool. 36(3):287-299. 1998. Acute toxicity of potassium to the adult zebra Mills EL, Rosenberg G, Spidle AP, Ludyanskiy M, Pligin Y. mussel Dreissena polymorpha. Arch. Environ. Contam. 1996. A review of the biology and ecology of the and Toxicol. 34(3):265-270. Review of IDRC’s Involvements in Environmental Management of the Dnipro River Basin: 1994–2004

Ken Babcock*

International Development Research Centre, Office for Central and Eastern Europe Initiatives, 250 Albert Street, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1G 3H9

An overview of International Development Research Centre’s (IDRC) projects conducted in two phases during 1994-2000 on the environmental management of the Dnipro River Basin in Ukraine, with additional extension to the riparian countries of Belarus and the Russian Federation during 2001-2003, is presented. The rationale for Canadian assistance through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is given. Major components of this programme are summarized, particularly transboundary pollution, water toxicology, drinking water quality, capacity building, environmental audits, as well as others.

Key words: Dnipro River Basin, environmental management, biodiversity, transboundary water pollution

Introduction signed by the two organisations on 14-15 August 1997 and which ran until 31 December 2000. In 1994, the International Development Research Centre Ukraine is one of the most environmentally (IDRC) and the Department of External Affairs initiated degraded republics of the former Soviet Union, with a programme of activities entitled Environmental Man- 70% of its population living in environmentally danger- agement Development in Ukraine (EMDU), to be man- ous areas. There is, however, no reliable overall picture aged through IDRC’s newly formed Office for Central of the state of the environment. Environmental degrada- and Eastern Europe Initiatives (OCEEI). The suite of tion in the Ukraine includes contamination by radiation activities focused on the Dnipro River Basin and pursued from the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, excessive use of a multi-faceted approach to environmental management toxic pesticides and herbicides in agriculture, soil salini- capacity building in relevant Ukrainian ministries, sation from irrigation, and high levels of air pollution. research and educational institutions, and NG0s. Ulti- These are also the main sources of pollution for the mately, the programme was transferred to the Canadian country’s largest river: the Dnipro. International Development Agency (CIDA) and officially The contamination of the water supply is especially came to a successful close in late 1997. serious because Ukraine has limited sources of freshwa- Despite its limited size and duration, EMDU made ter. The average amount of available freshwater per significant headway in key areas of capacity building, capita is well below the average levels available in other but much remained to be done. Before taking steps to former Soviet Republics. The most important source of develop further programs in the region, however, OCEEI water is the Dnipro river, which drains some 60% of the needed clarification from IDRC’s Board of Governors on surface area of Ukraine and provides drinking water to its support for work in the region. On July 9, 1996, the some 70% of the population. Board of Governors approved the development of a pro- The nearly 20 billion cubic meters of untreated gram in East and Central Europe, giving OCEEI the sup- effluent dumped into the Dnipro each year represents port to plan and work toward a longer term Program. over a third of the annual flowthrough of some 52 bil- OCEEI, therefore, proposed a second phase for lion cubic meters. Both industry, heavy as well as light, EMDU, to follow up in those areas where further work and municipal water users contribute to this problem. was needed and to move into vital new areas, which, The costs of this environmental degradation are with its experience in and partnerships with Ukraine, it enormous. In 1989, the supreme Soviet Environmental was now better able to identify. Thus, OCEEI proposed Committee reported that 80% of the diseases in the the Environmental Management Development in USSR relate, directly or indirectly, to environmental Ukraine, Phase 2 (EMDU-2) Programme, which gained problems. Unchecked pollution continues to retard agri- approval from CIDA through a Contribution Agreement cultural and industrial production and labour activity. The rundown and neglected physical infrastructure also * [email protected] exacerbates pollution problems.

149 150 Babcock

Addressing these problems requires major changes 2. Emphasis on short-term, relatively low-cost, high in policy and regulations, environmental practices in the payoff solutions, which can bring immediate productive sector, and a long-term program of invest- improvement. Support was given to environmental ment in both the public and private sectors. The capabil- audits in a few selected enterprises in one priority ity of the public sector to manage these changes must be industrial sector, food processing, and in one munic- strengthened and better coordinated. ipal water agency, Zaporizhzhia Vodokanal. These The program was to contribute to the environmen- audits were to identify low cost “housekeeping” tal rehabilitation of the Dnipro river system through the measures able to significantly improve water and collaborative efforts of Ukrainian and Canadian institu- energy management and to lead to the introduction tions and organizations. The program had a number of of new waste treatment, “green” technologies in interrelated activities in recognition of the need to food processing plants. develop a multidisciplinary approach to river management, and was designed to support and to strengthen the EMDU-1 Components on-going reform process in Ukrainian institutions for better environmental protection activities, improved eco- This 5 million CAD Project was designed for three years. nomic policies, and increased environmental awareness. It had two components comprising seven activities:

Outline and Objectives Environmental Management Capacity Building The Ukrainian government has given a high priority to Human resources development. Support for training of the rehabilitation of the Dnipro and requested assistance selected decisionmakers and senior inspection and tech- for this activity. IDRC and the Canadian Bureau of nical managers from the Ministry of Environmental Pro- Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe have cooper- tection and Nuclear Safety (MEPNS) and the Ukrainian ated in developing the EMDU Project. State Committee for Water Resources (USCWR) central The goal of the Project was to contribute to the and regional offices (primarily Zaporizhzhia). Preference environmental rehabilitation of the Dnipro river system was given to short-term, on-the-job training, and through the collaborative efforts of Ukrainian and Cana- demonstration of modem methods of river basin and dian institutions and organizations. The Project had a water quality management. This also included objective- number of interrelated activities in recognition of the oriented workshops in Ukraine and carefully prepared need to develop a multidisciplinary approach to river study tours in Canada. Most of these activities were tied management. to and complemented other projects. The general Project objectives were: • to strengthen the capacity of Ukrainian institu- Environmental management information system - the tions to manage the Dnipro River system, partic- EMIS. It was designed for the Dnipro River Basin and it ularly its water quality; is reviewed with the large number of institutions who • to identify means of reducing water pollution in would use this system. A pilot information system was the Dnipro River, specifically in the Zaporizhzhia tested in Zaporizhzhia and after modification, manuals region; were produced and training courses provided. Other • to foster long-term collaborative links between information technologies such as remote sensing or GIS, Canadian and Ukrainian public and private sec- which can add a powerful new dimension to environ- tor environmental organizations; mental management, and which are already used in • to encourage the exchange of information and some institutions have been incorporated into this activ- experience between Ukrainian scientists and pol- ity. Regional environmental management capacity in the icy-makers and between these two groups and Zaporizhzhia oblast has been strengthened by intensive their counterparts elsewhere; training, and integration of existing databases. • to complement GEF-UNDP activities in the Dnipro Basin. Policy and public education. This component strengthened the economic analysis capability for MEPNS and The Project’s delivery strategy is based on two regional enviromnent management. Capacity was weak- principles: est in this area in Ukraine and OCEEI had devoted con- 1. Regional focus on the southern Dnipro sub-basin, siderable time but limited expenditure in this area. A more precisely on Zaporizhzhia city and oblast number of training courses and policy-oriented research (Russian term for Region). Zaporizhzhia is one of projects have been conducted. This activity also sup- two major industrial cities located on the southern ported development of a more effective planning process Dnipro, with municipal and industrial plants as and project selection criteria for the National Dnipro major sources of water pollution. Rehabilitation Plan. Review of IDRC’s Involvements in Dnipro River Basin 151

The public education activity supported the develop- Ukrainian technology which was underutilized then. Pri- ment and distribution of environmental education mate- ority was given to demonstration of such technologies rials (primarily brochures, pamphlets) and the shooting which could be easily implemented and which had and exchange of TV documentaries. Water pollution potential for replication in other enterprises. Technolo- control and water saving was emphasized. Examples gies which could have a direct positive impact on health were drawn from existing Canadian and international were also demonstrated under this activity group. materials, which could be adopted to Ukrainian environment, translated and published at low cost. Municipal water pollution control. The Vodokanal authority in Zaporizhzhia is responsible for water supply Water Pollution Control and treatment of wastewater in the city. Its treatment plant on the left bank of the Dnipro is the second largest Baseline water quality study. Existing data on the source of pollution in the region. This activity supported Dnipro’s water quality was unreliable. A diagnostic an audit of the Vodokanal operations to identify low study was a prerequisite for any future activities aimed cost, “housekeeping” improvements; training of the at reducing water pollution in the Dnipro. Therefore, plant’s management; and demonstration of selected tech- three Ukrainian institutes, the Ukrainian Scientific Cen- nologies, leak detection and water metering, which can tre for Protection of Water (USCPW), the Institute of reduce the volume and toxicity of effluent and improve Hydrobiology and Hydromet undertook a Baseline drinking water quality. Water Quality Study of the Dnipro river in the Spring of 1994. These institutes requested and received external EMDU-2 Components support for sampling and analytical methodology training, as well as for obtaining key pieces of modem labora- The EMDU-2 program was initiated in 1997 and encom- tory equipment. Two parallel expeditions (land and passed a total of nine projects, which were broken down river) were undertaken. Samples of water, soil from sedi- into specific activities as the program unfolded. Nearly ment and organic materials from fish were collected at every project had a category entitled “Conferences and key points along the planned route by the participating Training” that encompassed conference attendance or ships and mobile laboratories. The results of the study training not associated with a particular activity. were published in the Water Quality Research Journal of The programme objectives were: Canada in 1998 (Vol. 33, No. 4). • to promote business/investment activities that have a favourable impact on the environment of Environmental audits. The agroindustrial sector which the Dnipro Basin; is an important source of pollution was selected as a pri- • to improve environmental management in manu- ority for environmental audits because the long term facturing, the residential sector, municipalities, economic prospects for this sector were promising. Four and agro-industry; enterprises within this sector (a sugar-beet processing • to increase the Ukrainian public’s environmental plant, a meat processing plant, a dairy and an alcohol awareness through the media and educational producing plant) were chosen for the audits, conducted institutions; during the Summer of 1996. A Ukrainian-Canadian • to promote measures to improve the provision team developed a short-term action plan designed to and optimise the use of drinking water; improve plant safety procedures, institute aggressive • to improve environmental management practices inplant sweeping and cleaning programs, repair operat- through training; and ing and control equipment to reduce leaks and emis- • to enhance international environmental manage- sions, institute operating plans to reduce energy and ment of the Dnipro River through cooperation water use, identify waste minimization opportunities and with riparian and other international partners. improve management of waste including contaminated hazardous wastes. Environmental audits were shown to Water Toxicology be a useful step in preparation for any subsequent restructuring and privatization of industry. WaterTox was one of the more fundamental research components of the IDRC Program Branch’s project “Green” follow-up technologies. There were opportuni- “Integrated Approaches to Safe Drinking Water.” It ties to significantly improve environmental conditions at aimed to demonstrate the validity of a battery of six minimal cost by introducing new technology. This com- inexpensive and simple, yet effective, bioassays to test ponent supported research and testing of new technolo- for the presence of toxins like pesticides, heavy metals, gies existing elsewhere that could be used in the food and organic chemicals in water. processing plants as recommended by the environmental These methods enabled better assessment of toxicity audits. This also involved the testing of some existing at a significantly lower cost than fish or chemical-based 152 Babcock methods. Specific laboratory equipment was required for 3. Regional Environmental Management Information the tests to calibrate the results of participating laborato- Systems (REMIS) continued work in the Zapor- ries that differ in technical abilities. Support for the izhzhia oblast, completing the second stage of attendance at workshops was also required. regional information systems to support environmen- Because of its international nature, the project pro- tal management in the lower Dnipro Basin. The sys- vided the fringe benefit of plugging Ukraine into interna- tem now provides information support for water tional networks, in some cases re-establishing with the management and environmental activities. The activ- developing world the important ties that were severed ity also assisted with the linking of this regional sys- following the collapse of the Soviet Union. tem to the whole Dnipro Basin information system. Other aspects of research included conducting stud- 4. Optimisation of River Management. To fulfill the ies for using biotesting under real conditions in the National Program’s needs, the State Committee for Dnipro, particularly for measuring effluent quality. Water Management was tasked to create a system Training was also needed for persons engaged in carry- for managing and controlling water levels and flows ing out biotests. of reservoirs and surrounding hydrological territo- One of the main problems recognised with regard to ries. The activity’s objectives were to design and WaterTox activities from the Ukrainian side was the dis- implement a computer system for reservoir manage- persal of expertise and facilities across different institu- ment, while processing existing information about tions, so that some specialised activities should logically the River, and to develop and adapt forecasting fall under one institution, while others under another. algorithms for events like floods or anoxic condi- Approval of the program was based on agreement of the tions. A system for predicting water levels and, laboratories and institutions to work together in coordi- where appropriate, quality was needed to enhance nating activities, particularly in disseminating results the capacity to understand the relationship between from the WaterTox project among institutions collecting river levels and groundwater and flooding condi- the water quality data. tions on lands adjacent to the river. 5. The Interdepartmental Database activity aimed at creating an analytical information system and data- Transboundary Pollution and EMIS base for Dnipro Basin surface water quality using Given the impending GEF Dnipro River transboundary various water parameters. A software package was project, it was important to work closely with other put together to control primary data reliability, regional GEF projects and the Dnipro riparian partners data-input, and for automated processing and visu- of Russia and Belarus. Therefore, activities like attending alisation of data, and for information management training sessions and conferences dealing with interna- and analysis. tional cooperation questions and coordination meetings 6. The Dnipro Environmental Management Informa- with Russian and Belarusian authorities were being tion System (DEMIS) activity focused on the infor- sponsored. The successful installation and operation of mation needs to ensure Ukraine’s full and effective the Environmental Management Information Systems participation in the GEF Dnieper Transboundary (EMIS) under EMDU-1 has been expanded, with an Programme. Issues such as the long-term sustain- enlarged scope that includes international monitoring ability of the management systems, clear definition and reporting for the Dnipro Basin. of linkages between EMIS and REMIS, and improved accessibility, were addressed. The grant 1. The GEF Transboundary Pollution activity aimed to enabled the Department for Dnipro and Water assist with the launching of the Global Environment Ecosystem Problems of MEPNS to leverage the Facility (GEF) funded project, “Transboundary results of the previous information system initiatives Diagnostic Analysis for the Dnieper River Basin.” (EMIS, REMIS, BEMIS) and lay the foundation for Different mechanisms used for the management of the implementation of a basin-wide system, known international rivers and water bodies were reviewed as DEMIS. DEMIS now provides information sup- and analysed. port for managing water supply and environmental 2. Environmental Management Information Systems activities as set out in the National Program. (EMIS) aimed to further develop and implement the 7. The Water Quality Expedition in Ukraine con- information system started in EMDU-1, providing ducted field studies to document the current status management assistance in the implementation of the of water quality in the river basin and its major trib- National Program for the Dnipro River Basin. EMIS utaries in Northern Ukraine. It determined levels of assisted with the decision making process for the cross-border contaminant runoff, and contamina- planning, implementation, and monitoring of the tion in the Dnipro estuaries below Kherson to National Program at both local and national levels. obtain information on the ecological status and Review of IDRC’s Involvements in Dnipro River Basin 153

quality of water, and to ascertain the impact of the River, internet connectivity, and informational CD- Dnipro discharge on the Black Sea. ROMs were among the activities to be carried out. The project did not only educate students and the public As a follow up to the one in 1994, a new river expe- about the Dnipro , but also allowed greater access to the dition was conducted to complement the work being ministries and institutions involved in EMDU through carried out in Russia and Belarus in collecting river data. such means as the world-wide web. Information gathered was fed into the Trans-boundary Diagnostic Analysis and the Strategic Action Plan developed by the GEF project. Environmental Audits and Clean Production • Hydro-chemical results: 18 samples of river This project put in place a program of environmental water and 21 samples of fish and mollusc tissue audits and clean manufacturing in major industrial were tested for copper, lead, cadmium and zinc. plants in the Dnipro Basin, with a focus on the Zapor- Additionally, under laboratory conditions, river izhzhia-Dnipropetrovsk corridor. Building on EMDU-I, water samples were tested for total Fe, alu- the project worked with food processing plants, but was minium, surfactants, carbonic acid, sodium and not confined to them. The audits were carried out by potassium. Levels of pesticides in crossborder Ukrainian audit experts, working with support from rivers were tested in 19 water samples, 19 silt Canadian experts where necessary. Recommendations samples, 28 samples of fish organs and tissue, arising out of the audits were developed jointly by the and 5 samples of mollusks. Water quality in the auditors and plant personnel. river was satisfactory where tested and met Before the audits took place, plant managers were requirements established for drinking water given an introduction to enviromnental audits as a sources and fish-ponds. means to identify problems and opportunities for reduc- • Hydrobiological results: based on their chloro- ing input costs and waste output requiring treatment, as phyll content, the rivers of Horyn, Styr, Stviha well as training on clean production concepts. An effort and Ubort were found to be oligotropic; the was made to engage plant managers in this process by rivers Prypiat, Desna, the Dnipro at the point of emphasising economic principles of cost-benefit analysis Kyiv water reservoir, and river Seym were so that cost-recovery periods and the economic benefits mesotropic; while the Kyiv water reservoir and of clean production were clearly demonstrated. It was the Dnipro below Kyiv and the City of Kherson hoped the effort to get a “buy-in” is aided by the fact were eutrophic . Examination of the zooplank- that environmental audits are recognised in the Ukrain- tons showed low diversity levels, with the rivers ian National Environmental Plan. Only plants in which Ubort, Horyn, Seym as most contaminated. the management is committed to follow through on • Biotesting: results demonstrated that in all water implementing the low- and moderate-cost recommenda- samples bacteria were not toxically affected, tions arising from the audit took part. Results of the whereas in several samples the situation of bacte- audits and waste and pollution reduction activities were ria luminescence was registered as compared to documented for each plant by follow-up visits by the the control sample. Ukrainian audit experts. • Radio-ecological studies: on the whole, no deviations from the natural gamma-background were Solid Waste and Landfill Remediation detected. Radio-nucleide content in all water samples did not exceed allowable concentration Recognising the need to look at the broader question of levels according to Ukrainian drinking water solid waste, this project encompassed questions outside standards. the originally proposed landfill pilot study. The landfill • The parasitological survey of fish in Kyiv water component focused on a representative landfill where reservoir revealed that 70% of fish had gills and the extent and chemical composition of leachate pro- liver affected by myxosporidian. The probability duced by the landfill and its impact on the Dnipro River of this disease spreading further is at its maxi- will be determined. Studies were carried out through a mum in spring time flooding. hydrologic investigation to define water flow patterns near the disposal site and through the collection of sam- Public Outreach ples of contaminated ground water for analysis. Based on the hydro-geological and surface water These activities promoted environmental education, both flow investigations, a leachate collection system was in schools and for the public at large, principally designed and installed to intercept contaminated ground through the use of electronic media. Production of train- and surface waters from the disposal site and pump ing videos and environmental videos focussing on the them to a small treatment plant. 154 Babcock

Results of the study were transmitted to Ukrainian • Three water treaters were built in EMDU-1, and municipal and oblast authorities through seminars to a fourth in EMDU-2 They used various treatment help them develop policies for landfill siting and design methods (UV treatment, ozonization, filtration, as well as the management of existing un-engineered and sorbents) and were installed in various facili- landfills in order to reduce water pollution. At the semi- ties, such as schools and hospitals, to test their nar, state of the art criteria for the design of sanitary effectiveness on a wide range of parameters. All landfills were presented, together with the analysis of the four received certification from the Ministry of pilot site. Health and the State Standards Committee. • The simplest treater employing sorbents and UV Investment and Business Policy lamps, was manufactured by the Institute of Colloid Chemistry and Water Chemistry (ICCWC) for the The main objectives of this component were, first, to City of Kyiv, with a total of 30 treaters installed in examine business and investment policies and practices schools, hospitals, and other institutions. in the environmental sector in Ukraine, with a view to • Informational bulletins were published and dis- enhancing eventually the atmosphere for such activities tributed to MEPNS, Verhovna Rada, Cabinet of at the practical level. It was expected that pilot projects Ministers, Vodokanals, State Building and Archi- that are attractive to both domestic and foreign investors tecture Committee, Ministry of Public Health, etc. are prepared. Second, there was to be an attempt to involve Ukrainian, Canadian, and other international The potable groundwater assessment. The potable enterprises in environmental business projects. Ulti- groundwater assessment activity studied the state of mately, the project will promote environmental invest- groundwater in the Kharkiv region and analysed pollu- ment and entrepreneurship in the country. tion levels to assess the extent these sources could be used to supply drinking water. Drinking Water Quality • A database on hydro-geological, hydro-chemical, This project covered all municipal water activities, back- engineering-geological, and environmental-geo- ground and research studies, as well as technologies and logical data, and on human impacts (agricultural managerial enhancements. Four water treaters using var- and industrial) from the Kharkiv region was ious treatment methods were tested and installed and compiled. treater effectiveness was analysed. Another activity • Maps were generated based on the collected data. aimed at designing and testing a modular, portable pilot • Recommendations were made for improving mobile waste water treatment unit employing advanced, potable water supplies in the region. These were multistage biological and chemically enhanced treatment shared with city administration officials from technology. Simultaneously, drinking water laws in Kherson and local MENR officials. The main western industrialised nations and in Central European conclusions reached were that there was acceler- countries in transition were studied in order to inform ated contamination of surface waters of the the writing of a water law for submission to the Ukrain- Dnipro but limited penetration of pollutants into ian Rada. This project also covered groundwater studies groundwater zones. as the savings possible through the use of new ground- • Local staff was trained by Fenco MacLaren in water modelling programmes made their application Toronto on Canadian procedures, experience, possible in different regions of Ukraine on a cost recov- and practices in environmental investigation, ery basis. In many cities and villages of Ukraine, tapping GIS, monitoring, assessment, and management underutilised groundwater resources had been deter- programs in groundwater issues. mined to be a much cheaper means to supply municipal • Equipment was purchased and installed. water than treating highly polluted river water. Training components of each activity included senior vodokanal The mobile wastewater treatment unit. The mobile engineers and managers, as well as water policy-makers wastewater treatment unit activity aimed at designing and other officials. and testing a modular, portable pilot mobile treatment unit employing advanced, multistage biological and Drinking water technology. Constant changes in water chemically enhanced treatment technology. In conjunc- composition preclude the design of standard water treat- tion with Conestoga-Rovers & Associates (CRA), the ment facilities which work optimally on a regular basis. Institute of Municipal Facilities and Services developed This activity researched the different technologies avail- and implemented a sampling programme to provide data able for water treatment to offer more flexible solutions of sufficient quality to be used in process selection and to public water treatment facilities to deal with difficult/ optimization of treatment plans and for conceptual extreme conditions on site. design. Using the mobile unit, parameters for the opti- Review of IDRC’s Involvements in Dnipro River Basin 155 mization of wastewater quality from existing treatment the interests of environmental entrepreneurs in Ukraine facilities were developed to reduce effluent pollution and assist collaboration among Ukrainian, Russian and impact and sludge production quantities. Ultimately, the Belorussian partners. optimization data were used to design improvements to existing treatment facilities and to make concept design Joint Management and recommendations for new facilities. The unit also pro- End-of-Project Conference vided an on-site training facility for operators of new and existing treatment facilities. This item encompassed training with regard to project and environmental management. Attending workshops • Several pieces of equipment, including propellers, and conferences on environmental management, forming shafts, and agitators for mixer construction were links between EMDU and other environmental pro- purchased. grams, and training in particular aspects of project man- • Local staff received training in Canada, and con- agement were included under this rubric. sulted on the design and the building of the unit. One component is a series of training/administration meetings spaced out over the two and a half years of The drinking water laws. The drinking water laws EMDU-2. One of the lessons of EMDU-1 was the need activity studied water laws in western industrialised for face-to-face regular consultation sessions between nations and in Central European countries in transition Ukrainian and Canadian partners. These were done in order to inform the writing of a water law for the early in EMDU-1 on an ad-hoc basis but by the middle Ukrainian Rada. of the program the need for regular meetings had • Information on drinking water legislation was become apparent. The so-called Joint Management collected from selected developed countries and Committee (JMC) meetings, held alternately in Ukraine researchers travelled to Hungary, the Czech and Canada, provided opportunities for exchanges of Republic, and Poland to study national and ideas, approval of projects, review of program progress regional approaches to water legislation. and exploration of the progress and challenges regarding • Recommendations were made to feed into the Ukraine’s environmental management reforms, as well new Ukrainian water law, including issues such as the building of invaluable business and personal rela- as quality standards as related to allowable quan- tionships. tities of pollutants, water rights and ownership A similar approach was implemented in EMDU-2, questions, responsibilities of water suppliers and with a total of 4 meetings planned over the course of the users, and ownership of vodokanals and water program. They combined administrative functions with supply systems. study tours and site visits relevant to EMDU-2 projects. • A workshop was conducted to disseminate results. Finally, an end-of-project conference provided an oppor- tunity to assess results of the program, to map a plan for Environmental Consulting Firms future environmental activities in Ukraine, to bring together interested third parties, and to disseminate In conjunction with the Investment and Business Policy results. The conference was a much larger affair than the project, this project assisted most promising candidates usual JMC meetings and involved not just the two man- with training in the essential aspects of establishing and agement committees, but also people from the scientific, successfully operating small environmental consulting policy, and donor communities from both within and businesses in Ukraine. Training was built on the findings outside Ukraine. of a survey on major problems and challenges in environmental entrepreneurship in Ukraine which act as bar- References riers against success. Training modules covered both business management concepts and procedures and IDRC (International Development Research Centre). 1997. defined the role and services of an environmental con- Final Report to the Canadian International Develop- sulting service provider. The most promising participants ment Agency; Environmental management in ukraine. in the course then received coaching, both in Canada IDRC File No.93-0905-000-CE. Office for Central and and on the ground in Ukraine, to help them develop Eastern Europe Initiatives. their capacity to undertake a variety of environmental IDRC (International Development Research Centre). 2001. business. Furthermore, an International League of Envi- Final Report to the Canadian International Develop- ronmental Business Support in Ukraine was established ment Agency; Environmental management development by participants and their partners in order to represent in Ukraine: Phase 2. IDRC File No.97-0003-000-CE.