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Pre-law Study & Exams In this section you will find a definition and information on the three main types of law degrees: the Juris Doctor (J.D.), the Master of Laws (LL.M.), with the highest degree being the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.). Financial Aid Bar Admission Paralegal Education Types of Law Degrees

Law Schools Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Laws - Wikipedia Information The Doctor of Juridical Science is the highest law degree in the United States and is comparable to the Doctor of Philosophy for most other disciplines. The Doctor of Juridical Science program is research US Top Law Schools intensive and students are expected to know their research interests before beginning the application Law Degrees process. Cost Juris Doctor Degree - Wikipedia LSAT Students who want to practice law in the United States enroll in a Juris Doctor degree program. This Students Associations degree can be earned after three years of full-time study. However, many J.D. programs are often combined with other master's degree programs in a specific facet of law, business or public policy and Legal Career Center these programs take longer than three years to complete. Master of Laws - LLM - Wikipedia Employment Center The LL.M. (Master of Laws) is an internationally recognized postgraduate law degree. It is usually Career in Law obtained by completing a one-year full-time program. Law students and professionals frequently pursue Career Strategy the LL.M. to gain expertise in a specialized field of law, for example in the area of tax law or international Job Success law. Many law firms prefer job candidates with an LL.M. degree because it indicates that a lawyer has acquired advanced, specialized legal training, and is qualified to work in a multinational legal Changing Job environment. Job Hunting Three Main Law Degrees Job Strategy There are three main types of law degrees available in the United States. The first law degree is the Juris Job Networking Doctor (J.D.) and qualifies graduates to practice law in the U.S. The second advanced law degree is the Job References Master of Laws (LL.M.), and the third degree is the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.). The S.J.D. is an Resumes uncommon law degree only offered by a handful of law schools. Interviews

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The Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin Magister Legum or Legum Magister) is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the "Master of Laws" is the basic professional degree for admission into legal practice.

Contents

Background on legal education in common law countries International situation Types of LL.M. degrees Requirements Australia Canada China (Mainland) France[25] Germany Hong Kong India Ireland Italy Mauritius[27] Norway Pakistan Portugal Singapore South Africa United Kingdom Oxbridge United States Programs for foreign legal graduates International law and other LL.M. programs

See also

Magister Juris Master of Studies in Law List of Master of Laws Programs

References

1. "Do You Have to Have a J.D. to Be an Attorney?" (http://work.chron.com/jd-attorney-10582.html). 2. "So, You Want to Become a Lawyer - University of Toronto Faculty of Law" (http://www.law.utoronto.ca/admissions/y outh-outreach/so-you-want-become-lawyer). www.law.utoronto.ca. 3. Association of American Universities Data Exchange."Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education" (http://aaude.org/ documents/public/reference/glossary-graded.doc). Retrieved 2010-09-01. 4. National Science Foundation (2006)."T ime to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients" (https://web.archive.or g/web/20160308130032/http://spellmirelaw.com/). InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics. NSF. 06-312: 7. Archived from the original (https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06312/nsf06312.pdf) (PDF) on 8 March 2016. Under "Data notes" this article mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate. 5. San Diego County Bar Association (1969)."Ethics Opinion 1969-5" (http://www.sdcba.org/ethics/ethicsopinion69-5.ht ml). Retrieved 2008-05-26.. Under "other references" differences between academic and professional doctorates, and contains a statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate 6. University of Utah (2006)."University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook" (https://web.archive.or g/web/20080626081148/http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php). Archived from the original (http://www. gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-28. 7. German Federal Ministry of Education."U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080413192035/http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf) (PDF) on April 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-26. Report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate. 8. Encyclopædia Britannica. 3. 2002. p. 962:1a. 9. U.S. Department of Education (2008)."USNEI-Structure of U.S. Education - Graduate/Post Education Levels" (http s://web.archive.org/web/20071214142648/http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-profes sional-studies.html). Archived from the original (http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-p rofessional-studies.html) on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 10. College Blue Book (1999).Degrees Offered by College and Subject. New York: MacMillan. p. 817. 11. University of California, Berkeley. "General Catalog – Graduate Education – Graduate Degrees and Certificates" (htt ps://web.archive.org/web/20080521225217/http://www.berkeley.edu/catalog/grad/degrees.html). Archived from the original (http://www.berkeley.edu/catalog/grad/degrees.html) on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 12. University of Southern California (1995)."Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Programs" (https://web.archive.org/ web/20080422082839/http://www.usc.edu/dept/publications/cat95/acadpol/degreeprog.html). Archived from the original (http://www.usc.edu/dept/publications/cat95/acadpol/degreeprog.html) on 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 13. University of Melbourne. "About Use - The Melbourne JD" (http://jd.law.unimelb.edu.au/go/about-us/melbourne-jd). Retrieved 2008-05-26. 14. "Home" (http://www.ncble.org/). 15. itembridge.com. "VBBE - Welcome" (http://barexam.virginia.gov/). barexam.virginia.gov. 16. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100914204116/http://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/Requirements.aspx). Archived from the original (http://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/Requirements.aspx) on 14 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-24. 17. "BOLE- OFFICIAL PAGE NEW YORK STATE BAR EXAMINATION" (http://www.nybarexam.org/). www.nybarexam.org. 18. Government Decree on University Degrees (794/2004) section 31. Candidate of Laws was the pre-Bologna name for the graduate degree. [1] (http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2004/en20040794.pdf) 19. "Code of Judicial Procedure (4/1734) chapter 15 section 2" (http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1734/en1734000 4.pdf) (PDF). 20. "Articling" (http://www.lsuc.on.ca/articling/). 21. "CUPL - China University of Political Science and Law" (http://www.lawschoolchina.com). Lawschoolchina.com. Retrieved 2012-12-08. 22. "China-EU School of Law, CUPL" (http://www.cesl.edu.cn). Cesl.edu.cn. Retrieved 2012-12-08. 23. "Online Chinese Law Programs" (http://www.bfsulaw.com). Beijing Foreign Studies University. 24. "Beijing Foreign Studies University Announces Online LL.M. Programs" (http://www.llm-guide.com/article/694/beijing- foreign-studies-university-announces-online-llm-programs). Llm Guide. 2012-06-22. Retrieved 2012-12-08. 25. http://www.sorbonne-assas-ils.org/ 26. Hibernia moves to meet the demand for teachers by Margaret O'Brien, Sunday Business Post, 4 September 2011. 27. http://www.sorbonne-assas-ils.org/ 28. "This website was recently revamped" (http://www.unisa.ac.za/contents/faculties/law/docs/LLM_LLD_A5brochure_20 10_v2.pdf) (PDF). www.unisa.ac.za. 29. "This website was recently revamped" (http://www.unisa.ac.za/contents/myRegistration/docs/English+Brochures/LL M+and+LLD+2011.pdf) (PDF). www.unisa.ac.za. 30. University of Leicester (http://www.le.ac.uk/law/pg/index.html). 31. See generally: Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin). 32. "Posgraduate Law" (http://www.mcl.law.cam.ac.uk/the-faculty-of-law). University of Cambridge, Faculty of Law. Retrieved 13 August 2015. 33. "Postgraduate Study" (http://www.law.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate_study.php). University of Oxford. Retrieved 13 August 2015. 34. "BCL/MJUR Profile, Class of 2013/2014" (http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Gb19Mhd1oeE J:https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/published/postgraduate/BCL-MJurClassProfileBook2013.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=u k). University of Oxford, Faculty of Law. Retrieved 13 August 2015. 35. . University of Oxford, Faculty of Law https://web.archive.org/web/20150822211703/http://www.law.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate/ebrochure/oxford_bcl_15- 16.html (https://web.archive.org/web/20150822211703/http://www.law.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate/ebrochure/oxford_bcl_1 5-16.html). Archived from the original (http://www.law.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate/ebrochure/oxford_bcl_15-16.html) on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015. Missing or empty |title= (help) 36. Scott. "Foreign Lawyers Can Now Practice in Texas - JDJournal" (http://www.jdjournal.com/2014/06/13/texas-bar-ch anges-admission-guidelines-to-allow-foreign-lawyers/). 37. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100331044630/http://www.ncbex.org/fileadmin/mediafiles/download s/Comp_Guide/CompGuide_2010.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-31. 38. 22 NYCRR §520.6(b)(3)(vi)http://www.nybarexam.org/Rules/Rules.htm#520.6 39. "New York Court of Appeals Rules of Practice § 520.6" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100411141414/http://www.co urts.state.ny.us/ctapps/520rules.htm#6). Archived from the original (http://www.courts.state.ny.us/ctapps/520rules.ht m#6) on 11 April 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2010. 40. "Notre Dame LL.M. in International Human Rights Law Program" (http://humanrights.nd.edu/academic-programs/ll m/). Retrieved 2014-05-08. 41. "Master of Laws (LLM)" (http://www.utulsa.edu/law/llm). University of Tulsa. Retrieved 26 February 2016. 42. "ABA-Approved Law Schools | Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar" (http://www.abanet.org/legale d/approvedlawschools/approved.html). Abanet.org. Retrieved 2012-12-08. 43. "Graduate Course (LL.M. Program)" (https://www.jagcnet.army.mil/8525736A005BC8F9/0/CE89C60813E536118525 73550051C3D8?opendocument&noly=1). Jagcnet.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-12-08. 44. "LLM Online Masters Degree in Law" (http://www.law.ac.uk/postgraduate/llm/). www.law.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-02-26.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Laws&oldid=850166893"

This page was last edited on 14 July 2018, at 02:42 (UTC).

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Doctor of Juridical Science

Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor of the Science of Law, (in Latin) Scientiae Juridicae Doctor or Juridicae Scientiae Doctor (sometimes also referred to as a Doctor of Laws), abbreviated S.J.D. or J.S.D., respectively, is a research doctorate in law[1] equivalent to the more commonly awarded research doctorate, the Ph.D.[2][3] It is offered primarily in the United States (where it originated), and in Canada and Australia. As a research doctorate, it follows professional training in law (LL.B. or J.D.) and the first graduate degree in law (Master of Laws). It is primarily aimed at educating professors, legal scientists, and other scholars in law.

United States

The J.S.D., or S.J.D. is a research doctorate, and as such it is generally accepted as equivalent to the more commonly awarded research doctorate, the Ph.D.[4] It is considered the "most advanced law degree" by Duke Law School[5], Berkeley Law[6], Harvard Law School,[7] Yale Law School,[8] George Washington University Law School,[9] New York University,[10] Stanford Law,[11], and UCLA. According to Indiana University[12] it is the “terminal degree in law". The National Association of Legal Professionals states that the J.S.D./S.J.D. is "the most advanced (or terminal) law degree that would follow the earning of the J.D. and LL.M. degrees."[13]

Applicants for the program must have outstanding academic credentials[14]. A first degree in law (such as a J.D. or LL.B.) is required, as well as an LL.M..[15] Exceptions as to the latter condition (i.e. holding an LL.M.) are seldom—if ever—granted.[16]

The J.S.D. typically requires three to five years to complete[16][17]. The program begins with a combination of required and elective coursework. Then, upon passage of the oral exam, the student advances to doctoral candidacy. Completion of the program requires a dissertation, which serves as an original contribution to the scholarly field of law.[18]

Notable recipients of the degree of Doctor of Juridical Science include:

Sang-Hyun Song (Cornell Law School, 1970), President of theInternational Criminal Court (ICC) Harvey L. Strelzin (New York U., 1906), New York State Assembly member and professor at New orkY U.[19] Charles Hamilton Houston (Harvard, 1923), prominent civil rights attorney[20] Lowell Turrentine (Harvard, 1929), prominent professor of law at Stanford University[21] Justice Bernard Jefferson (Harvard, 1934), renowned legal scholar and appellate court[22] Pauli Murray (Yale, 1965), prominent civil rights advocate[23] Ayala Procaccia (University of Pennsylvania, 1972), Israel Supreme Court Justice John Cencich (Notre Dame Law School, 2008), Professor and former senior United Nations war crimes investigator at The Hague. Christos Rozakis (University of Illinois, 1973) (President of the Administrative ribunalT of the Council of Europe and former vice-president of the European Court of Human Rights Ma Ying-jeou (Harvard, 1980), President of the Republic of China Theodor Meron (Harvard Law School), professor of law (New York University) and president of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Hanoch Dagan, (Yale Law School, 1993), Stewart and Judy Colton Professor of Legal Theory and Innovation and former Dean of Tel Aviv University Faculty of Law, Justin D'Atri Visiting Professor of Law at Columbia University[24] Katherine Franke (Yale Law School, 1998), Isidor and Seville Sulzbacher Professor of Law; Director, Center for Gender and Sexuality Law at Columbia University[25] W. Michael Reisman (Yale Law School 1965), Myres S. McDougal Professor of International Law at aleY Law School[26] Lucian Bebchuk (Harvard Law School 1984), William J. Friedman and Alicia Townsend Friedman Professor of Law, Economics, and Finance Director, Program on Corporate Governance, Harvard Law School.[27]

See also Doctor of Law Legum Doctor (Doctor of Laws) (LL.D.) Juris Doctor (J.D.) Master of Laws (LL.M.) Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)

Notes and references

1. "Doctor of Juridical Science – Legal Definition" (http://www.yourdictionary.com/law/doctor-of-juridical-science). Yourdictionary.com. 20 August 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 2. "Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080211110810/http://www.law.unsw.edu.au/future _students/postgraduate/sjd.asp). Archived from the original on 11 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-11. 3. "LL.M. and S.J.D. Programs, Graduate Studies in Law" (http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/prospectives/grad/graduate. htm). Law.virginia.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 4. Doctorate document (http://www.ed.gov/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc) at US Dept. of Education 5. "S.J.D. Program" (https://law.duke.edu/internat/sjd/). law.duke.edu. Retrieved 9 April 2018. 6. "J.S.D. Program" (https://www.law.berkeley.edu/academics/doctoral-programs/jsd//). law.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 26 March 2018. 7. "S.J.D. Courses & Academics" (http://www.law.harvard.edu/academics/degrees/gradprogram/sjd/index.html). Law.harvard.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 8. "Yale Law School | Contact the Graduate Programs Office" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111028095731/http://ww w.law.yale.edu/admissions/ContactGraduateProgramsOffice.htm). Law.yale.edu. Archived from the original (http://w ww.law.yale.edu/admissions/ContactGraduateProgramsOffice.htm) on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 9. The George Washington University Law School. "Doctor of Juridical Science | GW Law | The George Washington University" (https://www.law.gwu.edu/doctor-juridical-science). law.gwu.edu. Retrieved 9 May 2018. 10. "NYU Law – LL.M. & J.S.D.: J.S.D. Program" (http://www.law.nyu.edu/llmjsd/jsdprogram/index.htm). Law.nyu.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 11. Stanford Law School. "Doctor of Science of Law (JSD) | Stanford Law School" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011072 0050139/http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/degrees/advanced/jsd/). Law.stanford.edu. Archived fromthe original (http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/degrees/advanced/jsd/) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 12. "S.J.D. Degree" (http://indylaw.indiana.edu/sjd/). Indylaw.indiana.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 13. "NALP - National Association for Law Placement | Working Glossary" (http://www.nalp.org/workingglossary). nalp.org. Retrieved 2 September 2016. 14. "SJD Degree" (https://law.duke.edu/internat/sjd/). law.duke.edu. Retrieved 26 March 2018. 15. "Doctor of Juridical Science Degree" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111105143245/http://www.law.gwu.edu/Academ ics/degrees/Pages/sjd.aspx). Law.gwu.edu. Archived from the original (http://www.law.gwu.edu/ACADEMICS/DEGR EES/Pages/sjd.aspx) on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 16. "Georgetown Law – Doctor of Juridical Science (Admissions)" (http://www.law.georgetown.edu/graduate/sjd_general. html). Law.georgetown.edu. 21 September 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 17. "Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) Requirements" (http://www.law.duke.edu/curriculum/degreerequire/sjd). Law.duke.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 18. "Tulane Law School Prospective Students" (http://www.law.tulane.edu/tlsadmissions/index.aspx?id=196). Law.tulane.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 19. "Press Release Archives #417-97 Leg. creating Harvey L. Strelzin Street" (http://www.nyc.gov/html/om/html/97/sp41 7-97.html). Nyc.gov. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 20. "Charles Hamilton Houston legal definition of Charles Hamilton Houston. Charles Hamilton Houston synonyms by the Free Online Law Dictionary" (http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Charles+Hamilton+Houston). Legal- dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. 22 April 1950. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 21. "Lowell Turrentine, retired Stanford law school professor, dead at 96" (http://news.stanford.edu/pr/92/920121Arc246 7.html). News.stanford.edu. 26 January 1988. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 22. "Justice Jefferson Remembered as Soft-Spoken Legal Giant" (http://www.metnews.com/articles/obit032002.htm). Metnews.com. 29 June 1910. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 23. Yardley, Jonathan (7 May 1987)."A Woman's Triumphs In a Fight for Justice" (https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsda y/access/104388271.html?dids=104388271:104388271&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+07% 2C+1987&author=By+Jonathan+Yardley.+Jonathan+Yardley+is+book+criticfor+Washington+Post+Book+World%2C +where+this+review+first+appeared.&pub=Newsday+(Combined+editions)&desc=A+Woman's+Triumphs+In+a+Figh t+for+Justice&pqatl=google). Newsday. Retrieved 30 March 2010. 24. "Login | Columbia Law School" (http://www.law.columbia.edu/fac/Hanoch_Dagan). law.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2 September 2016. 25. "Katherine Franke | Faculty | Columbia Law School" (http://www.law.columbia.edu/fac/Katherine_Franke). law.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2 September 2016. 26. "W. Michael Reisman - Yale Law School" (https://www.law.yale.edu/w-michael-reisman). law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2 September 2016. 27. Harvard Law School. "Lucian A. Bebchuk | Harvard Law School" (http://hls.harvard.edu/faculty/directory/10058/Bebc huk). hls.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2 September 2016.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Juridical_Science&oldid=843753506"

This page was last edited on 31 May 2018, at 06:56 (UTC).

Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country, and includes degrees such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D), Doctor juris (Dr. iur. or Dr. jur.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and Legum Doctor (LL.D.).

Contents

By country Argentina Brazil Canada Czech Republic and Slovakia (former Czechoslovakia) European and Commonwealth usage Finland France Jesus amongst the Doctors of the Germany Law, Master of Sigena, active at the Italy Monastery of Santa María de Sigena, Malta 1515–1519 (current location:Museu South Africa Nacional d'Art de Catalunya Sweden United Kingdom United States See also Notes and references

By country

Argentina In Argentina the Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of Jurisprudence.[1] To obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney.[2] (Título de Abogado). The doctorates in Jurisprudence in Argentina might have different denominations as is described as follow:

Doctorate in Law (Offered by the University of Buenos Aires, NU of the L, and NU of R) Doctorate in Criminal Law Doctorate in Criminal Law and Criminal Sciences Doctorate in Juridical Sciences Doctorate in Juridical and Social Sciences (Offered by the NU of C) Doctorate in Private Law (Offered by the NU of T) Doctorate in Public Law and Government Economics (Offered by the NU of T)

Brazil In Brazil, the Doctor of Laws degree, known in Portuguese as Doutor em Direito or Doutor em Ciências Jurídicas, is the highest academic degree in law available. In some of the country's most important universities there is a higher title known as livre docência, like the habilitation in some European countries. However, this higher title is not a degree in the strict sense, because livre docência nowadays is an internal title, that applies solely within the institution granting it.

In the past, livre docência was a degree in the fullness of the term, and a professor bearing the title would enjoy the privileges of livre docência if he transferred from one institution to another; there are still living professors who hold the "old" livre docência degrees; but all new titles of that name only confer privileges within the institution granting it.

The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the successful defense of a thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a livre docência. Two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are also required to earn a minimum number of credits.

Unlike the rules of other countries, the Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree. Nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institution's library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title.

If one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy the academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. In that case, the doctor asking for the validation of the title will present his thesis and other documents relating to his foreign doctoral course to a board examiners of the Brazilian University and the examiners will then pass judgement on whether the work done by the candidate adheres to the minimum standards of quality that are usually required by a Brazilian university when granting doctoral degrees.

Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a master's degree (the Master's in Brazil is a graduate degree and is not the first professional degree). Therefore, a bachelor of Laws (a bearer of the first professional degree), seeking the degree of doctor must usually complete a postgraduate course to attain the degree of Master of Laws (to attain that degree one must write and defend a dissertation before a panel of three professors, bearing the title of master, doctor or a "livre docência, and also complete credits), and only then, after being a Master of Laws, one will apply for admission to a doctoral course.

There are, however, a few universities that allow "direct" admission to the doctoral course without previous completion of the Master's course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in rare cases, a bachelor of Laws (i.e., a holder of the first professional degree), can be admitted directly to a doctoral course.

Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. So, if one were to graduate from Law School and immediately enter a Master of Laws course and a Doctor of Laws course in immediate succession, that person would become a doctor about seven years after graduating from the Law School. On the other hand, in the rare cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a "direct" doctorate, he is usually allowed five years time to complete the doctoral course.

Unlike the Master of Laws dissertation, the Doctoral Thesys must contain an original contribution to the field of Law under study.

Canada In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates: the Doctor of Laws (LL.D.); Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science (J.S.D./S.J.D); Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.); and the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). The Doctor of Jurisprudence (Juris Doctor or J.D.) is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law.

The first law degree was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.). However, since law schools in Canada generally insist on a prior degree or some equivalent in order to grant admission, it was a more advanced degree than the LL.B. degrees awarded by programs abroad, which would accept high school graduates.[3] The majority of Canadian universities now grant that degree rather than the LL.B.;[4] the University of Saskatchewan replaced its LL.B. with a J.D. in 2010, because the Canadian LL.B. is equivalent to the J.D.[5] All Canadian J.D. programs are three years, and all (except those in Quebec) have similar mandatory first-year courses: In "public", "constitutional," or "state" law;tort law; contract law; criminal law, and some sort of "professional practice" course. Beyond first year and the minimum requirements for graduation, course selection is elective, with various concentrations such as business law, international law, natural resources law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law.

After the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws (LL.M.) and after that, the Doctor of Law (LL.D.), at some Canadian universities. (The LL.D. is awarded by several universities only as an honorary degree, but when awarded by a law school is an earned degree). Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four (University of Ottawa,[6] University of Montreal,[7] Laval University,[8] and University of Quebec at Montreal)[9] offer LL.Ds, five (University of Alberta,[10] University of British Columbia,[11] Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, Dalhousie University,[12] and University of Victoria)[13] offer Ph.D.s, only one (University of Toronto,[14]) offers J.S.D./S.J.D degrees (Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science), and one (McGill University)[15] offers a D.C.L (Doctor of Civil Law). The differences largely reflect the divide between Canada's two legal systems (the common law and the civil law). Faculties that teach in the civil law tradition grant LL.D degrees, whereas those in the common law tradition grant either Ph.D.s or J.S.Ds. The York University Ph.D. in law was formerly termed Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.), until the name was changed in 2002.[16]

Czech Republic and Slovakia (former Czechoslovakia) In the Czech Republic and Slovakia the Doctor is a postgraduate degree in two types - as a traditional doctorate (JUDr) and the PhD doctorate.

JUDr (Juris Utrisque Doctor) is a degree with a tradition of several centuries, originally the highest possible degree. Nowadays, its scholar importancy is quite limited, but it serves as a traditional and popular badge degree, especially useful for attorneys. In older times with no master's degree, JUDr. served as the only law degree (and was roughly equivalent to the today's master's degree, plus a special exam). Requirements for obtaining a JUDr degree are a highly rated Master (Mgr.) degree in law, the compilation of a thesis (including successful defense) and passing an oral exam called Rigorosum. The thesis itself is also sometimes called Rigorosum. Many JUDr. theses are based on the students previous Master theses; however, nowadays universities require that the dissertation work is completely new.

Doctoral studies leading to PhD degree are different from the JUDr exam. PhD studies are internal (PhD student is at the same time teacher at the University), which lasts 3–5 years, and external up to 8 years long. PhD. students are obliged to pass some exams during the studies and mainly to work on their dissertation. The PhD is intended basically for candidates interested in an academic career, and it gives them the right to teach at a university.

The Czech system is in many ways similar to the German and Austrian systems. Therefore, a PhD degree is necessary for habilitation procedure. Through habilitation, the doctor of law who submits his habilitation work (similar to German Habilitationsschrift) can be given a capacity and title of Docent (Doc.), similar to German Dozent, Privatdozent or US Assistant Professor. Docent is not a degree, but a scholar title.

Only a docent can be appointed a professor through a special procedure. Unlike Germany (and unlike the traditional Czech practice), a professor is not a function (a seat, Cathedra) at a University, but a scholarly title. This leads to many problems, especially the phenomenon of so-called "flying professors", who are teaching at two or three universities at the same time and to the decline of academic life.

European and Commonwealth usage In the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, the degree is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of exceptionally insightful and distinctive publications that contain significant and original contributions to the study of law. Some universities, such as the University of Oxford, award a Doctor of Civil Law degree instead. In South Africa the LL.D. is awarded based upon research and completion of a Ph.D. equivalent dissertation; the LL.D. may also be awarded as an honorary degree based upon contributions to society; seebelow . Finland In Finland, the Doctor of Laws (Finnish: Oikeustieteen tohtori, OTT) (Swedish: Juris doktor, JD) is the highest academic degree in law, based on 60 credits of course studies and, most importantly, successful completion of a doctoral dissertation. The dissertation usually takes the form of a monograph at least of 250 pages in length, or of a series of published articles. A successful oral disputation is also required. It usually takes at least four years to complete the degree.

The degree of the Doctor of Laws does not qualify its holder for judicial offices. Instead, the degree of the Master of Laws (Finnish: Oikeustieteen maisteri) (Swedish: Juris magister) is the requirement for the membership of the Finnish Bar Association and for judicial offices. As the doctoral programs for the doctoral degree are, in principle, open for the holders of all master's degrees, the possession of the degree of the Doctor of Laws is not a guarantee for the possession of the Master of Laws -degree. However, it is very seldom that someone who has not graduated in law graduates for a doctor of law.

France In France, the Doctor of Law degree (doctorat en droit) is a PhD. The PhD in law is required to teach at the university level as a maître de conférences (lecturer). To become Professor of Law, holders of a PhD in law have yet to pass an additional competitive exam: the agrégation de droit. Only the first year (master 1) of the master's degree in law is necessary to pass the bar exam.

Germany The Doctor of Laws (Doktor der Rechte) is the terminal degree in law, abbreviated as Dr. iur. (Doctor iuris) or Dr. jur. (Doctor juris). The terminology varies: while most universities refer to the degree as Doctor of Laws (Doktor der Rechte (pl.), e.g. Munich, Münster, Berlin (HU), Cologne, Tübingen, Göttingen), some others refer to it either as Doctor of Jurisprudence (Doktor der Rechtswissenschaft, e.g. Heidelberg, Hamburg) or Doctor of Law (Doktor des Rechts (sg.), e.g. Berlin (FU)). It is conferred based on a thesis consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, and an oral examination (Rigorosum or Disputation). The thesis must have been published as a book or - less common - as a series of articles in a peer reviewed law journal before the degree can be formally conferred. Admission usually requires the grade of "Fully Satisfactory" (approximately top quintile of class) in the student's first Staatsexamen (the Master's level first professional degree). Having successfully passed the second Staatsexamen (the German equivalent to the bar exam) is not required.

The Doctor of Both Laws (Doktor beider Rechte), awarded as Dr. iur. utr. (Doctor iuris utriusque, conferred e.g. in Würzburg) is rare, since it means considering both Civil Law and Canonical Law. A doctorate solely in the latter area is the degree of Dr. iur. can. (Doctor iuris canonici).

Approximately ten percent of German law graduates hold a doctoral degree. However, the Doctor of Laws is still only the first step to tenure at German law schools. Despite the initiative to establish a junior professorship with tenure option after five to seven years, and special professorshipsspecializing in teaching (Lehrprofessur), to become a university professor of law ahabilitation (de iure not an academic degree) is still mandatory at most German law schools.

Italy In Italy, the title of "Magister Doctor of Law" (Dottore magistrale in Giurisprudenza) is the title given to students who complete the five-year Laurea magistrale degree.

Despite the adoption of theBologna process, in Italy law remains a field that retains the traditional Italian system.

Once a prospective lawyer has been awarded the Magister Doctor of Law and worked 18 months as a trainee lawyer, he or she is required to pass a state bar examination in order to be licensed to practice as an attorney at law (Avvocato). Previously, dottore in giurisprudenza was the title given to the students that completed the old (four-year) course of studies in law. After the five-year degree, it is possible to enroll in a Ph.D. course in a specific field of law ("Dottorato"), and the title obtained is "Dottore di ricerca" (Ph.D.). Malta In Malta, the European Union's smallest member state, the LL.D. is a doctorate-level academic degree in law requiring at least three years of post-graduate full-time study at the University of Malta,[17] Malta's national university. At least three years of previous law study are required for entry. Students are required to complete coursework in a number of core areas of law, as well as to submit a thesis which is to be "an original work on the approved subject or other contribution to the knowledge showing that he/she has carried out sufficient research therein".[18] It confers the title of Doctor, which in Malta is rigorously used to address a holder of the degree. The LL.D. is one of the requirements for admission to the profession of advocate in Malta (an advocate, as opposed to a legal procurator, has rights of representation in superior courts).

In Malta, practising lawyers are of three designations – notaries, legal procurators and advocates. The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. A one-year full-time taught post-graduate diploma of Notary Public (N.P.) is required after the LL.B. for admission to the profession of notary public, while a taught post-graduate diploma of Legal Procurator (L.P.) is required for admission to the profession of legal procurator. A legal procurator is a lawyer in Malta that has rights of audience in the lower courts, a profession that was existent in Malta as early, and even prior to 1553.[19] All three professions also require members to be holders of a warrant issued by the President of Malta, obtainable after a minimum of one year of work experience in that profession, and examination. It is not possible for a Maltese lawyer to hold a warrant in more than one of the professions at a time.

Notable holders of the LL.D. degree include Dr. Ugo Mifsud Bonnici (former President of Malta), Prof. Guido de Marco (former President of the United Nations General Assembly and former President of Malta), Dr. George Borg Olivier (first post-independence Prime Minister of Malta), Dr. Edward Fenech Adami (former Prime Minister and former President of Malta) and Dr. Lawrence Gonzi (former Prime Minister of Malta).

As of 2014 changes to the law course resulted from the implementation of the Bologna Process, will remove the Doctorate of Laws (LLD) title and replace it with Master of Laws (LLM). This means that prospective lawyers will not be honored with a doctorate degree and can no longer use the title "Dr". This was met by some contempt from prospective Law students mainly because the title "Dr" is seen to be of higher esteem in Maltese society. Students of other disciplines, however, welcomed the change. The program had always been in essence only a master's degree and was therefore viewed as discriminatory, especially by medical students.[20]

South Africa

See: Legal education in South Africa; List of law schools in South Africa; Bachelor of Laws#South Africa; Master of Laws#South Africa.

In South Africa the doctorate in law is offered as a research doctorate of at least two years duration,[21] in various specialised areas of law.[22] In general, South African universities offer either the PhD[23][24] or the LLD,[25][26][27] with no significant difference between these. (At UCT, UKZN and Wits, the PhD is the research doctorate, while the LLD is the higher doctorate;[28][29][30] SU and UWC offer the LLD to law graduates, and the PhD to other graduates researching a legal-related topic).[31][32] In order to obtain the degree, the student will complete a thesis under the guidance of a supervisor, after completion of a module in research methodology, University of Pretoria Faculty of Law the submission of a research proposal and an oral examination. The thesis will demonstrate evidence of in-depth independent research and understanding of the topic, and constitute an original scientific contribution. Admission is usually on the basis of anLLM , and in some cases an LLB.

Sweden In Sweden, the Doctor of Laws (LLD) is the highest academic degree in law. It is a research degree, which combines 240 credit hours (or equivalent of four full-time years of work). Candidates have the option to complete a dissertation or a monograph of a series of published articles. Although not required to practice law, the LLD is a prerequisite for an academic career.

United Kingdom In the UK, the degree of Doctor of Laws is a higher doctorate, ranking above the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a portfolio of advanced research. It is also often awarded honoris causa to public figures (typically those associated with politics or the law) whom the university wishes to honour. In most British universities, the degree is styled "Doctor of Laws" and abbreviated LL. D.; however, some universities award instead the degree of Doctor of Civil Law, abbreviated DCL.

In former years, Doctors of Law were a distinct form of lawyer who were empowered to act as advocates in civil law courts. The Doctors had their own Society called Doctors' Commons, but following reforms in the nineteenth century their exclusive rights of audience were shared with barristers and the last Doctor of Law died in 1912. Due to the possession of a Doctorate, the Doctors of Law had precedence equal to that of a Serjeant-at-Law and for this reason the convention remains that advocates holding junior doctorates (such as Doctors of Philosophy) should not be addressed as "doctor" in an English court.[33]

In 1953, a case was brought under long-dormant law in the High Court of Chivalry. The opening arguments in that case were by George Drewry Squibb who argued, to the satisfaction of the court, that since the modern class of Doctors of Laws were no longer trained as advocates, their role must necessarily be performed by barristers.[34] This was because Victorian reforms, which had unified the other classes of court attorney into the single profession of Barrister, had overlooked the Doctors of Law.

United States In the United States, the most common Doctor of Law degree is the Juris Doctor (or Doctor of Jurisprudence), abbreviated as J.D. It is the professional degree for lawyers, having replaced the Bachelor of Laws in the 20th century after law schools began to require a Bachelor's degree before admission to a J.D. program to study law for three years. A research dissertation is not required for the J.D., but the American Bar Association issued a Council Statement stating that the J.D. should be considered equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes.[35]

Additionally, some universities award a higher postdoctoral research degree in law, the Doctor of Juridical Science (or Scientiae Juridicae Doctor), abbreviated as S.J.D. or D.J.S. Applicants for S.J.D. programs must first earn a J.D., and some programs require both a J.D. and an LL.M. before admission.[36][37] Similar to the Ph.D., the S.J.D. is a research doctorate and has been described as the "highest degree in law" by the University of Virginia,[38] the "terminal degree in law" by Indiana University[39] and Harvard Law School [40] and as the "most advanced law degree" by Yale Law School,[41] Georgetown Law,[42] New York University [43] and Stanford University.[44] The National Association of Legal Professionals states that the S.J.D./D.J.S. is "the most advanced or terminal law degree that would follow the earning of the LL.M. and J.D. degrees."[45] It typically requires three to five years to complete, and requires an advanced study in law as a scientific discipline and a dissertation, which serves as an original contribution to the scholarly field of law.[37][46][47]

As with most other countries, in the United States theLegum Doctor (LL.D.) is granted only as an honorary degree.

See also

Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.) Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) Doctor Juris Utriusque (D.J.U.) Juris Doctor (J.D.) Legum Doctor (LL.D.) Master of Laws (LL.M.) Notes and references

1. National Commission of University Accreditation: Doctorate Engine Seeker (http://www.coneau.gov.ar/index.php?ite m=34&apps=1024&tpl=busc_posgrado) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070702010020/http://www.coneau. gov.ar/index.php?item=34&apps=1024&tpl=busc_posgrado) July 2, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. 2. "National Law of Higher Education" (http://www.coneau.gov.ar/archivos/447.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archiv e.org/web/20110706083538/http://www.coneau.gov.ar/archivos/447.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 3. Belford, Terrence. "Why Change To A JD Degree?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110620002834/http://www.globec ampus.ca/in-the-news/globecampusreport/why-change-to-a-jd-degree). Globe and Mail. Archived fromthe original (h ttp://www.globecampus.ca/in-the-news/globecampusreport/why-change-to-a-jd-degree/) on 20 June 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2011. 4. "Osgoode Law School "Dean Patrick Monahan on the Growing Number of Canadian Law Schools Switching from the LLB to JD Degree Designation" " (https://web.archive.org/web/20080610142423/http://osgoode.yorku.ca/media2. nsf/83303ffe5af03ed585256ae6005379c9/ef8025cc6549271e852574200056fcc8%21OpenDocument). yorku.ca. Archived from the original (http://osgoode.yorku.ca/media2.nsf/83303ffe5af03ed585256ae6005379c9/ef8025cc6549 271e852574200056fcc8!OpenDocument) on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2018. 5. "Become A Juris Doctor" (https://www.usask.ca/law/admissions/program_information/index.php). University of Saskatchewan Law School.Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110510074112/http://www.usask.ca/law/admiss ions/program_information/index.php) from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2011. 6. 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Retrieved 18 October 2011. 38. "LL.M. and S.J.D. Programs, Graduate Studies in Law" (http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/prospectives/grad/graduate. htm). Law.virginia.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100603093816/http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/pros pectives/grad/graduate.htm) from the original on 2010-06-03. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 39. "S.J.D. Degree" (http://indylaw.indiana.edu/sjd/). Indylaw.indiana.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201008 25215800/http://indylaw.indiana.edu/sjd/) from the original on 2010-08-25. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 40. "S.J.D. Courses & Academics" (http://www.law.harvard.edu/academics/degrees/gradprogram/sjd/index.html). Law.harvard.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100619094250/http://www.law.harvard.edu/academics/de grees/gradprogram/sjd/index.html) from the original on 2010-06-19. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 41. "Yale Law School | Contact the Graduate Programs Office" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111028095731/http://ww w.law.yale.edu/admissions/ContactGraduateProgramsOffice.htm). Law.yale.edu. Archived from the original (http://w ww.law.yale.edu/admissions/ContactGraduateProgramsOffice.htm) on 2011-10-28. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 42. The George Washington University. "SJD - The George Washington University" (http://www.gwu.edu/learn/graduatep rofessionalprograms/findagraduateprogram/fulllistofprograms/lawdoctorofjuridicalscience). Gwu.edu. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 43. "NYU Law - LL.M. & J.S.D.: J.S.D. Program" (http://www.law.nyu.edu/llmjsd/jsdprogram/index.htm). Law.nyu.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20101011220055/http://www.law.nyu.edu/llmjsd/jsdprogram/index.htm) from the original on 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 44. Stanford Law School. "Doctor of Science of Law (JSD) | Stanford Law School" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011072 0050139/http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/degrees/advanced/jsd/). Law.stanford.edu. Archived fromthe original (http://www.law.stanford.edu/program/degrees/advanced/jsd/) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 45. "The Association for Legal Career Professionals | Working Glossary" (http://www.nalp.org/workingglossary). NALP. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100928160204/http://nalp.org/workingglossary) from the original on 2010- 09-28. Retrieved 2010-10-11. 46. "Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) Requirements" (http://www.law.duke.edu/curriculum/degreerequire/sjd). Law.duke.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111015151452/http://www.law.duke.edu/curriculum/degreere quire/sjd) from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. 47. "Tulane Law School Prospective Students" (http://www.law.tulane.edu/tlsadmissions/index.aspx?id=196). Law.tulane.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111002070731/http://www.law.tulane.edu/tlsadmissions/ind ex.aspx?id=196) from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Law&oldid=846496623"

This page was last edited on 19 June 2018, at 03:42 (UTC).

The Juris Doctor degree (J.D. or JD), also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree (J.D., JD, D.Jur. or DJur), is a graduate-entry professional degree in law[1][2][3][4][5] and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States, and some other common law countries. It has the academic standing of a professional doctorate in the United States,[6][7][8] a master's degree in Australia,[9] and a second-entry, baccalaureate degree in Canada,[10][11][12][13][14] (in all three jurisdictions the same as other professional degrees such as M.D. or D.D.S., the degrees required to be a practicing physician or dentist, respectively).[15][16][17] Example of a diploma fromSuf folk The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was University Law School conferring the created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degree (such as the Juris Doctor degree Dottore in Giurisprudenza in Italy and the Juris Utriusque Doctor in Germany and central Europe).[18] Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the scientific study of law, it is a degree that in most common law jurisdictions is the primary professional preparation for lawyers. It involves a three-year program in most jurisdictions.[19][20]

To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a J.D. degree must pass a bar examination.[21][22][23][24] The state of Wisconsin, however, permits the graduates of its two law schools to practice law in that state, and in its state courts, without having to take its bar exam—a practice called "diploma privilege"—provided they complete the courses needed to satisfy the diploma privilege requirements. In the United States, passing an additional bar exam is not required of lawyers authorized to practice in at least one state to practice in the national courts of the United States, courts commonly known as "federal courts". Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the federal court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a federal district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court.

Contents

Etymology and abbreviations Historical context Origins of the law degree The history of legal training in England Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century U.S. Revolutionary approach: Scientific study of law

Creation of the J.D. and major common law approaches to legal education Legal education in the United States Creation of the Juris Doctor Major common law approaches Modern variants and curriculum Types and characteristics Standard Juris Doctor curriculum Replacement for the LL.B. Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S. Australia Canada China Hong Kong Italy Japan Mexico Philippines Singapore United Kingdom

In academia Use of the title "Doctor" See also Notes and references External links

Etymology and abbreviations

In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (J.D. or JD),[25] or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD or J.D.).[26][27] "Juris Doctor" literally means "Teacher of Law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence"—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means "Teacher of Legal Knowledge".

The J.D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). In institutions where the latter can be earned, e.g. Cambridge University (where it is titled Doctor of Law, though still retaining the abbreviation LLD) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctorate representing a substantial contribution to the field over many years, beyond that required for a PhD and well beyond a taught degree such as the J.D.[28] The LL.D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States.

Historical context

Origins of the law degree The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of theglossator school in that city. This served as the model for other law schools of the Middle Ages, and other early universities such as the University of Padua.[29] The first academic degrees may[31] have been doctorates in civil law (doctores legum) followed by canon law (doctores decretorum); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in the English universities.[32][33][34][35]

The history of legal training in England The nature of the J.D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law.[36] The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.[37] However, because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.[38]

In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.[39] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.[40] By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a proceedings observation.[40] By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose.[41] With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.[42]

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two 'Laws' in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the The Inns of Court of London served purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship program for as a professional school for lawyers solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the in England. apprenticeship programs for the trades.[43] The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728,.[44] William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.[44] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.[45]

The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either Law or Arts from Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree".[46] This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London,[47] and again in 1851 to include the new Queen's University of Ireland.[48]

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers.[38] Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.[38]

Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London)[49][50][51] were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in Arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took 6 years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and the BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms).[52][53] These degrees specialised in Roman Civil Law rather than English Common Law, which was the domain of the Inns of Court, and were thus more theoretical than practically useful.[54] Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA,[55] and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866.[56] The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982.[57]

Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality."[58]

Legal training in colonial North America and 19th century U.S. Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state.[59] Due to an initial distrust of a profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England.[60]

Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England.[61] A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730—at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four- year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination.[62] Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education.[62] But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique.

The clerkship program required much individual study and the mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed.[63] The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "commonplace book", which he would try to memorize.[64] Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers.[65] It was said by one famous attorney in the U.S., William Livingston, in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors "have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents."[64] There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.[64]

In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs.[66] The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.[67] The establishment of formal faculties of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century.[68] With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a U.S. university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.[69]

The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Tapping Reeve, founder of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including the first law school in [70] works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius. It North America, the has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be Litchfield Law School, in preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers.[71] At the LL.B. programs in 1773 the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics.[72] An LL.B., or Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LL. B.

In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.[73] The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.[73]

Revolutionary approach: Scientific study of law In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting.[74] U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century.[75] At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary.[76] Nonetheless there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell.[77][80] In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or Joseph Story, U.S. Supreme Court doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists.' "[81] Nonetheless, into the Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an and proponent of the scientific study apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law of law school or college.[76]

Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S. is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill,[82] implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study.[83]

Creation of the J.D. and major common law approaches to legal education

The J.D. originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the J.D., law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LL.B. persisted through the middle of the twentieth century, after which a completed bachelor's degree became a requirement for virtually all students entering law school. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the U.S., but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the M.D. and the J.D., are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ.

Legal education in the United States Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807,[84] but the professional law degree took more time. At the time the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing. The status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous; therefore, the development of the legal degree took much time.[85] Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree.[85] Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.[86] At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LL.B. degree.[87] This was somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England,[88][89] where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century.[90] Thus, even though the name of the English LL.B. degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the U.S. was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law.[91][92] Creation of the Juris Doctor In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. Christopher Columbus Langdell, who served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, dedicated his life to reforming legal education in the United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one—and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree."[18] This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate high level law degree was proposed, the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach.[93] According to professor J. H. Beale, an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools of Theology, Law, Medicine and Arts and Sciences were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore a second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LL.B. to J.D. was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree".[94] The J.D. was proposed as the equivalent of the J.U.D. in Germany to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer.

The University of Chicago Law School was the first to offer the J.D.[95] While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a J.D. program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale and Columbia refused to implement the degree. Indeed, pressure from them led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois) to abandon the J.D. and readopt the LL.B. as the first law degree by the 1930s.[96]

It was only after 1962 that a new push—this time begun at less-prominent law schools—successfully led to the universal adoption of the J.D. as the first law degree. Student and alumni support were key in the LL.B.-to-J.D. change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale, last, in 1971.[97] Nonetheless, the LL.B. at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners courses" of 1826 and was very different from the LL.B. in common law countries other than Canada.[74]

Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees.[98] Similarly, Columbia refers to the LL.M. and the J.S.D. as its graduate program.[99] Yale Law School lists its LL.M., M.S.L., J.S.D., and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs.[100] A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees in the United States.

Major common law approaches Christopher Langdell, one of the The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such scholars at Harvard who as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in established the J.D. the Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LL.B. eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LL.B. is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills the academic requirements for becoming a lawyer,[101] further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the Bar Professional Training Course[102] followed by Pupillage[103]) or as a solicitor (the Legal Practice Course[104] followed by a "period of recognised training"[105]) is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction.[58] The qualifying law degree in most English universities is the LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in Law.[106] Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline.[107] A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually integrated master's degrees denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or the bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program.[108][109] Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889, a university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship.[110] The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education.[111] The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement the changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law.[111]

Modern variants and curriculum

Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given, therefore law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic.[112] This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the J.D. which have been implemented around the world.

Until about 1997 the J.D. was unique to law schools in the U.S. But with the rise in international success of law firms from the United States, and the rise in students from outside the U.S. attending U.S. law schools, attorneys with the J.D. have become increasingly common internationally.[113] Therefore, the prestige of the J.D. has also risen, and many universities outside the U.S. have started to offer the J.D., often for the express purpose of raising the prestige of their law school and graduates.[113] Such institutions usually aim to appropriate the name of the degree only, and sometimes the new J.D. program of study is the same as that of their traditional law degree, which is usually more scholarly in purpose than the professional training intended with the J.D. as created in the U.S. Various characteristics can therefore be seen among J.D. degrees as implemented in universities around the world.

Comparisons of J.D. variants[114] Scholarly content Duration in Different curriculum from LL.B. Requires further training Jurisdiction absent? years in jurisdiction? for license? United Yes 3 No No States

Australia No 3–4 Yes[115] Yes Canada No 3 No Yes Hong Kong No 2–3 No Yes Japan No 2–3 Yes Yes Philippines No 4 Varies Yes

Singapore No 2–3 No Yes[116] United No 3–4 Yes Yes Kingdom

Types and characteristics Until very recently, only law schools in the United States offered the Juris Doctor. Starting about 1997, universities in other countries began introducing the J.D. as a first professional degree in law, with differences appropriate to the legal systems of the countries in which these law schools are situated.

Standard Juris Doctor curriculum As stated by James Hall and Christopher Langdell, two people who were involved in the creation of the J.D., the J.D. is a professional degree like the M.D., intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the Casebook and Socratic methods).[117] It has existed as described in the United States for over 100 years, and can therefore be termed the standard or traditional J.D. program. The J.D. program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived.[118][119][120][121] The program of study for the degree has remained substantially unchanged since its creation, and is an intensive study of the substantive law and its professional applications (and therefore requires no thesis, although a lengthy writing project is sometimes required[122]). As a professional training, it provides sufficient training for entry into practice (no apprenticeship is necessary to sit for the bar exam). It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While the J.D. is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix of "esquire" as opposed to the prefix "Dr." Although calling an American lawyer "doctor" would not be incorrect, provided the attorney has a J.D. or other doctoral degree (as opposed to an LL.B., which is a baccalaureate, not a doctorate), the title is more commonly used in Europe and Asia than in the U.S. or Canada.

Replacement for the LL.B. An initial attempt to rename the LL.B. to the J.D. in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities and by 1925 80% of US law schools gave the J.D. to graduate entrants, while restricting undergraduate entrants (who followed the same curriculum) to the LL.B. Yet the change was rejected by Harvard, Yale and Columbia, and by the late 1920s schools were moving away from the J.D. and once again granting only the LL.B, with only Illinois law schools holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The J.D. was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LL.B., again without any change in the curriculum, with many schools going as far as to offer a J.D. to their LL.B. alumni for a small fee.[123]

Canadian and Australian universities have law programs that are very similar to the J.D. programs in the United States. These include Queen's University, University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Victoria, Université de Moncton, University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Manitoba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, University of Western Ontario, York University[124] and University of Toronto[125] in Canada, RMIT and the University of Melbourne in Australia.[3] Therefore, when the J.D. program was introduced at these institutions, it was a mere renaming of their second-entry LL.B. program and entailed no significant substantive changes to their curricula.[126] The reason given for doing so is because of the international popularity and recognizability of the J.D., and the need to recognize the demanding graduate characteristics of the program.[127] Because these programs are in institutions heavily influenced by those in the UK, the J.D. programs often have some small scholarly element (see chart above, entitled "Comparisons of J.D. Variants"). And because the legal systems are also influenced by that of the UK, an apprenticeship is still required before being qualified to apply for a license to practice (see country sections below, under "Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.").

Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.

Australia The traditional law degree in Australia was the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws (LLB), however there has been a huge shift towards the JD in the past five years, with most Australian universities now offering a JD programme, including the country's best ranked universities (e.g. The University of New South Wales,[128] the University of Sydney,[129] the Australian National University,[130] the University of Melbourne[131]).

Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, though at some universities, only the JD is offered, and only at postgraduate levels. Due to recent changes in undergraduate degree structuring, some universities, such as the University of Melbourne,[132] only allow law to be studied at the postgraduate level, and the JD has completely replaced the LLB.

An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects if they wish for their students to be able to practice law in Australia. As with LLB graduates, graduates of the JD need to complete the practical legal training (PLT) requirement before they are eligible for admission to practice. Some universities, such as the University of Technology, Sydney, have begun offering PLT as part of the JD, though this is unusual, as PLT is most often undertaken in early employment.[133] On the Australian Qualifications Framework, the Juris Doctor is classified as a "Masters degree (Extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the title Juris Doctor (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree, and holders may not use the title "Doctor". Along with other extended master's degrees, the JD takes 3-4 years following a minimum of a 3-year bachelor's degree.[9][134]

Canada The J.D. degree is the dominant common law law degree in Canada, replacing the traditional LL.B. degree prominent in Commonwealth countries.[135] The University of Toronto became the first to rename its law degree from LL.B. to J.D. in 2001. As with the second-entry LL.B., in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of 2 or 3 years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored high on the North American Law School Admission Test.[136] As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian common law school,[137] although despite this it is, along with other first professional degrees, considered to be a bachelor's degree-level qualification.[14] All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years, and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses. The mandatory first year courses in Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law (i.e. provincial law, constitutional law, and administrative law), property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law, and legal research and writing.[138] Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law.[139] After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination, and a period of supervised "articling" prior to independent practice.[140]

Use of the "J.D." designation by Canadian law schools is not intended to indicate an emphasis on American law, but rather to distinguish Canadian law degrees from English law degrees, which do not require prior undergraduate study.[113] The Canadian J.D. is a degree in Canadian Law. Accordingly, United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts[141] do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.[142][143] This is equivalent to the manner in which United States J.D. graduates are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario.[144] To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools, such as the New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School,[145] the University of Ottawa Law School and the Michigan State University Law School or American University,[146] and the University of Windsor Law School and the University of Detroit Mercy Law School,[147] have developed joint American-Canadian J.D. programs.

Two notable exceptions areUniversité de Montréal and Université de Sherbrooke, which both offer a one-year J.D. program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New ork.Y [148][149]

York University offered the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) as a research degree until 2002, when the name of the program was changed to Ph.D. in Law.[150]

China J.D.s are not generally awarded in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). Instead, a J.M. (Juris Magister) is awarded as the counterpart of JD in the United States, the professional degree in law in China.[151] The primary law degree in the P.R.C. is the bachelor of law. In the fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a U.S.-style education and awards both a Chinese master's degree and, by special authorization of the government, a J.D.[152]

Hong Kong The J.D. degree is currently offered at The Chinese University of Hong Kong,[153] The University of Hong Kong,[154] and City University of Hong Kong. The degree is known as the 法律博士 in Chinese, and in Cantonese it is pronounced Faat Leot Bok Si.[155] The J.D. in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LL.B. and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines, but the J.D. is considered to be a graduate-level degree and requires a thesis or dissertation.[156] Like the LL.B. there is much scholarly content in the required coursework. Although the universities offering the degree claim that the J.D. is a two-year program, completing the degree in two years would require study during the summer term.[157] The JD is, despite its title, considered to be a master's degree by the universities that offer it in Hong Kong,[158][159][160] and it is positioned at master's level in the Hong Kong Qualifications Framework.[161] Neither the LL.B. nor the J.D. provides the education sufficient for a license to practice, as graduates of both are also required to undertake thePCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or a barrister pupillage.[162]

Italy No university in Italy awards a Juris Doctor degree, nor are there any plans to implement the degree. However, the law degree in Italy is longer (5 years of coursework) than a standard undergraduate program,[163] and lawyers in Italy often use the title of "doctor"[164] (Italian law authorizes all university graduates, including those from undergraduate programs, to use the title of doctor).[165]

Japan

In Japan the J.D. is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士).[166] The program generally lasts three years. Two year J.D. programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergraduate level law degree holders) are also offered. This curriculum is professionally oriented,[167] but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan, as all candidates for a license must have 12 month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing the bar examination.[168] Similarly to the US, the Juris Doctor is classed as a "Professional Degree" (専門職) in Japan, which is separate from the "academic" postgraduate sequence of master's degrees and doctorates.[169][170]

Mexico To become a licensed lawyer, a person must hold the Licenciado en Derecho degree obtainable by four to five years of academic study and final examination. After these undergraduate studies it is possible to obtain a Maestría degree, equivalent to a master's degree. This degree requires two to three years of academic studies. Finally, one can study for an additional three years to obtain the Doctor en Derecho degree, which is a research degree at doctoral level.[171] Since most universities and law schools must have approval from the ministry of education (Secretaría de Educación Pública) through the general office of professions (Direccion General de Profesiones) all of the academic programs are similar throughout the country in public and private law schools.

Philippines In the Philippines, the J.D. exists alongside the more common LL.B. Like the standard LL.B, it requires four years of study, is considered a graduate degree and requires prior undergraduate study as a prerequisite for admission, and covers the core subjects required for the bar examinations. However, the J.D. requires students to finish the core bar subjects in just 2½ years; take elective courses (such as legal theory, philosophy, and sometimes even theology); undergo an apprenticeship; and write and defend a thesis.[172][173]

The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which first developed the model program later adopted by most schools now offering the J.D.. After the Ateneo, schools such as the University of Batangas College of Law, University of St. La Salle - College of Law, and the De La Salle Lipa College of Law[174] began offering the J.D., with schools such as the Far Eastern University Institute of Law offering with De La Salle University's Ramon V. Del Rosario College of Business for the country's first J.D. - MBA program.[175] In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the J.D. on its graduates, the school choosing rename its LL.B. program into a J.D. because to accurately reflect the nature of education the university provides as "nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LL.B. is a professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree."[176] In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM) and the Silliman University College of Law also shifted their respective LL.B Programs to Juris Doctor -applying the change to incoming freshmen students for School Year 2009– 2010.[177][178] The newly established De La Salle University College of Law is likewise offering the J.D., although it will offer the program using a trimestral calendar, unlike the model curriculum that uses a semestral calendar.

Singapore The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) is offered at the Singapore Management University (SMU), and it is treated as a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore.[116] A graduate of this programme is a "qualified person" under Singapore's legislation governing entry to the legal profession, and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.[179]

However, like its counterpart the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), whether obtained from the National University of Singapore, Singapore Management University or recognised overseas universities ("approved universities"),[180] the SMU J.D. is not in itself sufficient for entry into the Singapore legal profession. Qualified persons are still required to fulfill other criteria for admission to the Singapore Bar, most importantly being the completion of Part B of the Singapore Bar Examinations, and completion of the Practice Training Contract.[181]

United Kingdom The Quality Assurance Agency consulted in 2014 on the inclusion of "Juris Doctor" in the UK Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that "doctor" should only be used by doctoral degrees. It was proposed that the Juris Doctor would be an award at bachelor level and would not confer the right to use the title "doctor".[182][183] This was not incorporated into the final framework published in November 2014.[184]

The only JD degree currently awarded by a UK university is at Queen's University Belfast. This is a 3–4 year degree specified as being a professional doctorate at the doctoral qualifications level in the UK framework, sitting above the LLM and including a 30,000 word dissertation demonstrating the "creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication" that must be passed in order to gain the degree.[185][186]

Joint LLB/JD courses for a very limited number of students are offered by University College London, King's College London and the London School of Economics in collaboration with Columbia University in the US, which is responsible for the award of the JD. These are four-year undergraduate courses leading to the award of both a British LLB and a US JD.[187][188][189]

Both the University of Southampton and the University of Surrey offer two-year graduate-entry LLBs described as "JD Pathway" degrees, which are aimed particularly at Canadian students.[190][191]

In academia

As a professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the M.D. or D.O. in the medical profession and the D.D.S in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D., D.O, or D.D.S.) is not a "research degree".[192] Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. as a prerequisite,[193] and the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.[193] However, the American Bar Association has issued a Council Statement,[194] advising law schools that the J.D. should be considered equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, the majority have a J.D. as their highest degree. Research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both J.D. and Ph.D. degrees, particularly at more highly ranked schools.[195] Some international commentators have called the Council Statement "self-seeking and egocentric", pointing out that it illogically compares the J.D. only to the taught component of the US Ph.D., ignoring the research and dissertation components.[196]

The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the J.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.[197] Among legal degrees, they accord this status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree.[197] In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy, stating that a first professional degree carrying the title "doctor" is not considered equivalent to a PhD.[198] The Dutch and Portuguese National Academic Recognition Information Centres both classify the US J.D. (along with other first professional degrees) as equivalent to a master's degree,[199][200] although the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland states with respect to US practice that "The '1st professional degree' is a first degree, not a graduate degree even though it incorporates the word 'doctor' in the title"[201] and Commonwealth countries also often consider the US J.D. equivalent to a bachelor's degree.[202] The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services has advised that while the J.D. is probably not at the same level as a Ph.D., it is "equivalent to, if not higher than, a master's degree".[203]

Use of the title "Doctor"

Presumably because it did not entirely replace the L.L.B. for new graduates until 1971, it has not been customary in the U.S. to address holders of the J.D. as "doctor". It was noted in the 1920s, when the title was widely used by people with doctorates (even those that, at the time, were undergraduate qualifications) and others, that the J.D. stood out from other doctorates in this respect.[204] This continues to be the case in general today.[205]

In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding J.D.s led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this.[206][207] These were then reinforced with a full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of "Doctor" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D. degree as a doctor's degree".[208] These opinions led to further debate.[209][210] The introduction of the new Code of Professional Responsibility in 1969 seemed to settle the question – in states where this was adopted – in favour of allowing the use of the title.[211] There was some dispute over whether only the Ph.D.- level Doctor of Juridical Science should properly be seen as granting the title,[212] but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed J.D.-holders to be called "Doctor", while reaffirming that the older Canons did not.[213]

As not all state bars adopted the new Code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor" continued.[214] While many state bars now allow the use of the title, some prohibit its use where there is any chance of confusing the public about a lawyer's actual qualifications (e.g. if the public might be left with the impression that the lawyer is also a medical doctor).[215] There has been discussion on whether it is permissible in some other limited instances. For example, in June 2006 the Florida Bar Board of Governors ruled that a lawyer could refer to himself as a "doctor en leyes" (doctor in laws) in a Spanish-language advertisement, reversing an earlier decision.[216] The decision was reversed again in July 2006, when the board voted to only allow the names of degrees to appear in the language used on the diploma, without translation.[217]

The Wall Street Journal notes specifically in its stylebook that "Lawyers, despite their J.D. degrees, aren't called doctor", although the title is often used (if preferred) for holders of the Ed.D, D.D.S., D.O., M.D., O.D., and Ph.D.[218] Many other newspapers reserve the title for physicians[219] or do not use titles at all.[220] In 2011, Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title Dr. based on her J.D. They later amended the article to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D.—and therefore conveys a false level of expertise".[221]

See also

Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.) Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.) Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.) Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Master of Laws (LL.M) Legal education Admission to practice law Accelerated JD program Law degree Law school in the United States — describes general characteristics of the J.D. curriculum in the U.S. Lawyer Notes and references

1. University of California, Berkeley. "General Catalog – Graduate Education – Graduate Degrees and Certificates" (htt ps://web.archive.org/web/20080521225217/http://www.berkeley.edu/catalog/grad/degrees.html). Archived from the original (http://www.berkeley.edu/catalog/grad/degrees.html) on 2008-05-21. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 2. University of Southern California (1995)."Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Programs" (https://web.archive.org/ web/20080422082839/http://www.usc.edu/dept/publications/cat95/acadpol/degreeprog.html). Archived from the original (http://www.usc.edu/dept/publications/cat95/acadpol/degreeprog.html) on 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 3. University of Melbourne. "About Use - The Melbourne JD" (http://jd.law.unimelb.edu.au/go/about-us/melbourne-jd). Retrieved 2008-05-26. 4. U.S. Department of Education (2008)."USNEI-Structure of U.S. Education - Graduate/Post Education Levels" (http s://web.archive.org/web/20071214142648/http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-profes sional-studies.html). Archived from the original (http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-p rofessional-studies.html) on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2008-05-25. 5. College Blue Book (1999).Degrees Offered by College and Subject. New York: MacMillan. p. 817. 6. National Science Foundation (2006)."T ime to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients" (https://web.archive.or g/web/20160308130032/http://spellmirelaw.com/). InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics. NSF. 06-312: 7. Archived from the original (https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06312/nsf06312.pdf) (PDF) on 2016-03-08. Under "Data notes" this article mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate. 7. San Diego County Bar Association (1969)."Ethics Opinion 1969-5" (http://www.sdcba.org/ethics/ethicsopinion69-5.ht ml). Retrieved 2008-05-26.. Under "other references" differences between academic and professional doctorates, and contains a statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate 8. University of Utah (2006)."University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook" (https://web.archive.or g/web/20080626081148/http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php). Archived from the original (http://www. gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php) on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-05-28. 9. "AQF qualification titles" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161213104206/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2 013/05/aqf-qualification-titles-pdf-2b3-1b.pdf) (PDF). Australian Qualifications Framework Council. June 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-qualification-titles-PDF-2B3-1b.p df) (PDF) on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 10. Kirsten McMahon (January 2008)."Making the grade" (http://www.canadianlawyermag.com/images/stories/pdfs/Law SchoolSurvey-Jan08.pdf) (PDF). Canadian Lawyer. 11. Lisa Jemison; Rosel Kim (29 November 2007)."A law degree by any other name" (http://www.queensjournal.ca/stor y/2007-11-29/news/law-degree-any-other-name/). Queen's Journal. Retrieved 15 April 2017. 12. "Admissions" (http://www.law.utoronto.ca/admissions). Faculty of Law. University of Toronto. Retrieved 15 April 2017. 13. "Juris Doctor Program" (http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/law/Juris_Doctor_Program.html). Faculty of Law Calendar 2011-2012 Academic Year. Queen's University. Retrieved 15 April 2017. 14. "Canadian Degree Qualifications Framework" (http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/Q A-Statement-2007.en.pdf) (PDF). Ministerial Statement on Quality Assurance of Degree Education in Canada. Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. Retrieved 2016-09-16. "Programs with a professional focus ... Some of them are first-entry programs, others are second-entry programs ... Though considered to be bachelor's programs in academic standing, someprofessional programs yield degrees with other nomenclature. Examples: DDS (Dental Surgery), MD (Medicine), LLB, or JD (Juris Doctor)" 15. Association of American Universities Data Exchange."Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education" (http://aaude.org/ documents/public/reference/glossary-graded.doc). Retrieved 2010-09-01. 16. German Federal Ministry of Education."U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080413192035/http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf) (PDF) on April 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-26. 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The Chinese University of Hong Kong.JD Programme Structure (http://ww w.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd01.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080703110734/http://ww w.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd01.html) 2008-07-03 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 29, 2008. City University of Hong Kong.Academic Programmes: Juris Doctor (http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programme s/courses/jd_faq.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080413234653/http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/pr ogrammes/courses/jd_faq.htm) 2008-04-13 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 29, 2008. 157. The University of Hong Kong.Juris Doctor (JD) Overview (http://www.hku.hk/law/jd/jd_overview.html) Archived (http s://web.archive.org/web/20081202084116/http://www.hku.hk/law/jd/jd_overview.html) 2008-12-02 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed December 15, 2008. The Chinese University of Hong Kong.The Juris Doctor (JD) Programme: Courses and Recommended Sequences (http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd03.html) Archived (http s://web.archive.org/web/20080610105524/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/law/prospectiveStudents/jd03.html) 2008-06-10 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 29, 2008. City University of Hong Kong.Academic Programmes: Juris Doctorate (http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2 0071224190014/http://www.cityu.edu.hk/slw/english/programmes/courses/jd.htm) 2007-12-24 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 29, 2008. (The City University website says at the top of the page that it is a two-year program, then later on the same page, and on other pages in the site, says that "normally, full-time J.D. students can complete the programme in 3 years.") 158. "FAQ: JURIS DOCTOR (JD)" (http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/en/study/jd_programme-faq.php). CUHK Law. Chinese University of Hong Kong. Retrieved 2016-09-16. "Is the JD Programme a doctoral or a master's degree? The JD Programme is formally classified as a taught master's degree programme and it is not customary for JD graduates to use the title "Doctor"" 159. "Masters Degrees" (http://www4.hku.hk/pubunit/calendar/2016-2017/a/c/32-2016-2017/393-masters-degrees). Calendar 2016–2017. University of Hong Kong. Retrieved 2016-09-16. 160. "Juris Doctor (JD) - Information for entrants to be admitted in 2013-14 & thereafter" (http://www6.cityu.edu.hk/slw/aca demic/postgraduate.html). School of Law. City University of Hong Kong. Retrieved 2016-09-16. "Although the award has the word 'Doctor' in its title, this is a traditional usage and it is not generally regarded as equivalent to the PhD degree or other doctoral awards. It is a first law degree for students who are already graduates in a non-law discipline." 161. "Qualifications Framework: Award Titles Scheme" (https://www.hkqf.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_16/HKQF_ATS_ E_2012_10.pdf) (PDF). Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Retrieved 2016-09-16. " 8. Providers may continue to adopt titles traditionally used for degree and sub-degree qualifications in the mainstream education (i.e. Associate at Level 4, Bachelor at Level 5, Master at Level 6, and Doctor at Level 7). 9. The following qualifications currently offered by the university sector are recognised globally. These award titles will continue to be recognised under QF although they do not conform to TS:A * Juris Doctor (JD) at QF Level 6" 162. Hong Kong Bar Association.General Admission (http://www.hkba.org/admission-pupillage/general/index.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080603052800/http://www.hkba.org/admission-pupillage/general/index.htm l) 2008-06-03 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed June 1, 2008. 163. The Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza is a second level (master's) degree, which does not require a previous bachelor's degree for the admission 164. Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates (http://www.hierosgamos.org/hg/db_lawfirms.asp?action=page&pcom p=35487) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090804100209/http://www.hierosgamos.org/hg/db_lawfirms.asp? action=page&pcomp=35487) August 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed February 16, 2009. 165. Regio Decreto 4 giugno 1938, n.1269, art. 48 (http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/lexs/1938/lexs_112065.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090809170627/http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/lexs/1938/lexs_112065.ht ml) 2009-08-09 at the Wayback Machine. (in Italian). Accessed February 16, 2009. 166. Justice System Reform Council (2001).For a Justice System to Support Japan in the 21st Century. 167. Yokohama National University Law School.Program Introduction and Dean's Message (http://www.iblaw.ynu.ac.jp/en glish/law/program_i.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090910032346/http://www.iblaw.ynu.ac.jp/english/ law/program_i.html) 2009-09-10 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed April 7, 2008. 168. Foote, D. (2005). Justice System Reform in Japan (http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/communication/docs/foote.pdf). Annual meeting of the Research of Sociology of Law, Paris. European Network on Law and Society. 169. "Degree Regulations of Nagoya University" (http://jalii.law.nagoya-u.ac.jp/stuwork/nurule416_104-420_109-a.html). Nagoya University. Retrieved 2016-09-16. 170. "Kobe University Degree Regulations" (http://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/documents/en/about-kobe-university/info-disclosure/ Kobe%2520University%2520Degree%2520Regulations.pdf) (PDF). Kobe University. Retrieved 2016-09-16. 171. "Doctorado en Derecho" (http://www.aragon.unam.mx/oferta_educativa/posgrados/derecho/doc_derecho.html). UNAM. Retrieved 2016-09-16. 172. "| Ateneo de Manila University" (http://ateneolaw.ateneo.edu/index.php?p=93&PHPSESSID=3de3cb420701c7a8049 5dc7f3ea2679c). Ateneolaw.ateneo.edu. 2017-02-10. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 173. "Ateneo de Manila Law School - Philippine Leadership Crisis and the J.D. Program" (https://web.archive.org/web/20 080508125109/http://ateneolaw.ateneo.edu/index.php?p=93&PHPSESSID=04d268c43e1b638ebebab5e5c486677 a). Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 174. Jerwin Lasin. "De La Salle Lipa College of Law" (http://www.dlsl.edu.ph/24ff42e5b65bf52e5fb66291233ecf6bbbc9d7 2bf34aff5a4b22ecde9fa6c8d4collegeoflawpage_redirect.asp?1c1d1cqueryPages=1159). Dlsl.edu.ph. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 175. Curriculum models (2006). Philippine Association of Law Schools. 176. University of Philippines College of Law. News (http://law.upd.edu.ph/news.php) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we b/20080531110210/http://law.upd.edu.ph/news.php) 2008-05-31 at the Wayback Machine.. April 25, 2008. 177. The Weekly Sillimanian Vol. LXXXII No.4: SU Law adopts Juris Doctor Program. By: Princess Dianne Kris S. Decierdo. Published July 15, 2009.Archived copies can be viewed and verified at the Sillimaniana Section of the Silliman University Main Library. 178. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090708125525/http://www.plm.edu.ph/curricula.html). Archived from the original (http://www.plm.edu.ph/curricula.html) on 2009-07-08. Retrieved 2009-07-14. 179. Rule 5A, Legal Profession (Qualified Persons) Rules (Cap. 161, s.2(2))[4] (http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/dam/minl aw/corp/assets/documents/linkclick0667.pdf), Ministry of Law (Singapore), Retrieved 14 February 2014. 180. List of approved universities (http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/unis/which-are-the-approved-universitie s.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140222174635/http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/unis/ which-are-the-approved-universities.html) 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine., Ministry of Law (Singapore), Retrieved 14 February 2014. 181. What admission requirements must I fulfill? (http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/admission/req/fulfil.html) Archived (https://archive.is/20140214140053/http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/practising-as-a-lawyer/admission/req/fulfil.html) 2014-02-14 at Archive.is, Ministry of Law (Singapore), Retrieved 14 February 2014. 182. "UK Quality Code for Higher Education Part A: Setting and maintaining academic standards The frameworks for higher education qualifications of UK degree-awarding bodies Post consultation draft (v4)" (https://web.archive.org/w eb/20170110105911/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/AboutUs/Documents/QAA%20Board%20Meeting%20-%20October%2 02014/QAA-Board-FHEQ-Part-A-Quality-Code-October-2014.pdf) (PDF). QAA. August 2014. pp. 34 & 35. Archived from the original (http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/AboutUs/Documents/QAA%20Board%20Meeting%20-%20October%2020 14/QAA-Board-FHEQ-Part-A-Quality-Code-October-2014.pdf) (PDF) on 2017-01-10. "Comment [s4]: Footnote as follows will need to be added depending on decision re the JD: •the award of a Juris Doctor is an exception to the principle that the title doctor should only be used for qualifications meeting the qualification descriptor for FHEQ level 8/SCQF level 12 on the FQHEIS in full •the Juris Doctor is not a doctoral qualification at level 8 of the FHEQ/SQCF level 12 but at level 6 of the FHEQ/SCQF level 10 on the FQHEIS (with some modules at level 7 of the FHEQ/SCQF level 11 on the FQHEIS) •holders of the qualification are not entitled to use the title Dr." 183. "CONSULTATION ON THE UK QUALITY CODE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION, PART A: SETTING AND MAINTAINING ACADEMIC STANDARDS, THE UK FRAMEWORKS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS" (https://www.ulster.ac.uk/academicoffice/download/TLC/18June2014/12-UKFrameworks.pdf) (PDF). University of Ulster Learning and Teaching Committee. 18 June2014. p. 6. 184. "The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies" (http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publicat ions/information-and-guidance/publication?PubID=2843#.V9wSNZMrIdV). QAA. November 2014. 185. "Programme Specification (2015-16)" (https://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/media/Media,531912,en.pdf) (PDF). Queens University Belfast. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 186. "Study regulations for research degree programmes" (http://www.qub.ac.uk/directorates/AcademicStudentAffairs/Aca demicAffairs/GeneralRegulations/StudyRegulations/StudyRegulationsforResearchDegreeProgrammes/). Queens University Belfast. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 187. "Joint LLB/Juris Doctor (JD) with Columbia University, New York" (http://www.laws.ucl.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/llb- degrees/joint-llb-jd/). University College London. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 188. "English Law & American Law LLB and JD" (http://www.kcl.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/courses/english-law-and-ame rican-law-llb-and-jd.aspx). King's College London. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 189. "Double Degree Programme: Columbia Law School" (http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/law/programmes/doubledegre e/guidelines.htm). London School of Economics. Retrieved 16 September 2016. 190. "M101 LLB Accelerated Graduate Programme (2 yrs)" (http://www.southampton.ac.uk/law/undergraduate/courses/M 101_LLB_Accelerated.page). University of Southampton. Retrieved 2016-09-17. 191. "Law (JD Pathway) LLB (Hons) – 2017 entry" (http://www.surrey.ac.uk/undergraduate/law-jd-pathway). University of Surrey. Retrieved 2016-09-17. 192. Kenneth Kaoma Mwenda, Gerry Nkombo Muuka (eds.), "The Challenge of Change in Africa's Higher Education in the 21st Century", Cambria Press (2009)[5] (https://www.amazon.com/dp/1604976101); see esp. Mwenda's comments on pp. 87–88, in the section labeled "The Academic Rank of a JD" and the quoted material from Pappas immediately preceding it. 193. "LL.M. Admission - Yale Law School" (https://www.law.yale.edu/studying-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-progra ms/llm-program/llm-admission). Law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 194. "Council Statements" (http://www.abanet.org/legaled/accreditation/Council%20Statements.pdf) (PDF). Abanet.org. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 195. Orin Kerr (October 22, 2015). "The rise of the Ph.D. law professor".W ashington Post. 196. Kenneth K. Mwenda (2007).Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools (https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambria Press. pp. 21–22. 197. "Structure of the U.S. Education System : Research Doctorate Degrees" (https://web.archive.org/web/201201270157 32/http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc). 2.ed.gov. Archived from the original (http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc) (DOC) on 2012-01-27. Retrieved 2017-04-17. 198. "PhD and Equivalent Doctoral Degrees: The ERC Policy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131106105821/http://erc.eu ropa.eu/sites/default/files/document/file/erc_policy_phd_and_equivalent_degrees.pdf) (PDF). European Research Council. Archived from the original (http://erc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document/file/erc_policy_phd_and_equival ent_degrees.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-05-25. "First-professional degrees will not be considered in themselves as PhD-equivalent, even if recipients carry the title "Doctor"." 199. "Recognition of Qualifications" (http://internacional.ipvc.pt/sites/default/files/Reconhecimento%2520de%2520qualific a%25C3%25A7oes_EN.pdf) (PDF). NARIC Portugal. p. 49. Retrieved 18 September 2016. 200. "The American education system describedand compared with the Dutch system" (https://www.epnuffic.nl/en/public ations/find-a-publication/education-system-united-states.pdf) (PDF). NUFFIC. p. 3. Retrieved 18 September 2016. 201. "Review of Professional Doctorates" (http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%2520of%2520Professional%252 0Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf) (PDF). National Qualifications Authority of Ireland. October 2006. p. 3. Retrieved 18 September 2016. 202. Kenneth K. Mwenda (2007).Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools (https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambria Press. p. 27. 203. Michael Aytes (2 May 2006). "AFM Update: Chapter 31: H-1B Cap Exemption for Aliens Holding a Master's or Higher Degree from a U.S. Institution. (AD06-24)." (https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/USCIS/Laws/Memorand a/Static_Files_Memoranda/Archives%201998-2008/2006/ac21_050206.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Retrieved 13 February 2017. 204. A. L. Crabbe (March 1925). "Who Is a Doctor?".Peabody Journal of Education. 2 (5): 268–273. JSTOR 1487677 (htt ps://www.jstor.org/stable/1487677). 205. Robert Hickey. "How to Address an Attorney or Lawyer In the United States" (http://www.formsofaddress.info/attorne y.html). Protocol School of Washington. 206. "Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics".American Bar Association Journal. 54 (7): 657. July 1968. JSTOR 25724462 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724462). "1001. A lawyer holding a J.D. degree may not ethically use, either orally or in print, the title "Doctor" professionally or socially." 207. "Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics".American Bar Association Journal. 55 (6): 589. June 1969. JSTOR 25724818 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724818). 208. "Opinions of the Committee on Professional Ethics".American Bar Association Journal. 55 (5): 451–453. May 1969. JSTOR 25724785 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724785). 209. David Hittner (June 1969). "The Juris "Doctor"—A Question of Ethics?".American Bar Association Journal. 55 (7): 663–665. JSTOR 25724845 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724845). 210. William H. Shields (June 1969). ""Don't Call Me Doctor" ". American Bar Association Journal. 55 (20): 960–963. JSTOR 25724927 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724927). 211. "Views of our Readers - Editor's Note".American Bar Association Journal. 55 (11): 1024. November 1969. JSTOR 25724947 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25724947). 212. S. C. Yuter (August 1971). "Revisting the "Doctor" Debate". American Bar Association Journal. 57 (8): 790–892. JSTOR 25725564 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25725564). 213. "Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics".American Bar Association Journal. 56 (8): 750. August 1970. JSTOR 25725213 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25725213). 214. Kathleen Maher (November 2006). "LAWYERS ARE DOCTORS, TOO: But There is No Clear Ethics Rule on Whether They May Say So".American Bar Association Journal. 92 (11): 24. JSTOR 27846360 (https://www.jstor.org/ stable/27846360). 215. S.A.P. (Mar 1, 2013). "Trust me, I'm a doctor of law" (https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/03/professional -titles). The Economist. 216. Gary Blankenship (July 1, 2006)."Debate over 'doctor of law' title continues" (https://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/ JNnews01.nsf/Articles/7CA2D2C795627B038525719A0047170E). The Florida Bar News. 217. Gary Blankenship (August 15, 2006)."Bar board settles Dr. of Law debate" (http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/J NNews01.nsf/Articles/E568F349EA03E82C852571C40052C818). The Florida Bar News. 218. Paul Martin (15 June 2010).The Wall Street Journal Guide to Business Style and Us (https://books.google.com/book s?redir_esc=y&id=3mjxg9iNAQUC&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false). Simon and Schuster. p. 72. 219. Robin Abcarian (February 2, 2009)."Hi, I'm Jill. Jill Biden. But please, call me Dr. Biden" (http://articles.latimes.com/2 009/feb/02/nation/na-dr-jill-biden2). LA Times. "Newspapers, including The Times, generally do not use the honorific "Dr." unless the person in question has a medical degree." 220. "Why Doesn't the Times Call Condi "Dr. Rice"?" (http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2000/12/ why_doesnt_the_times_call_condi_dr_rice.html). Slate. 27 December 2000. Retrieved 1 May 2017. "Most newspapers dispense with such formalities and on second reference call people only by their last names." 221. Tim Murphy (18 August 2011)."Michele Bachmann Is Not a Doctor" (https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/08/ michele-bachmann-not-doctor-phd). Mother Jones.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctor&oldid=849554419"

This page was last edited on 9 July 2018, at 20:02 (UTC).

The Bachelor of Laws (Latin: Legum Baccalaureus; LL.B. or B.L.) is an undergraduate degree in law (or a first professional degree in law, depending on jurisdiction) originating in England and offered in Japan and most common law jurisdictions—except the United States and Canada—as the degree which allows a person to become a lawyer.[1] It historically served this purpose in the U.S. as well, but was phased out in the mid-1960s in favor of theJuris Doctor degree, and Canada followed suit.

Historically, in Canada, Bachelor of Laws was the name of the first degree in common law, but is also the name of the first degree in Quebec civil law awarded by a number of Quebec universities. Canadian common-law LL.B. programmes were, in practice, second- entry professional degrees, meaning that the vast majority of those admitted to an LL.B. programme were already holders of one or more degrees, or, at a minimum (with very few exceptions), have completed two years of study in a first-entry, undergraduate degree in another discipline. Currently, Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law (both being pluralistic legal systems that are based partly on common law and partly on civil law) awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, respectively.

Contents

History of academic degrees Origin of the LL.B. Structure of LL.B. programmes Common law nations generally Australia Bangladesh Canada Hong Kong India Malaysia New Zealand Pakistan Singapore South Africa Lawyers Alternative titles and formats Irish B.C.L. and LL.B. Zimbabwe B.L. and LL.B. LL.B. in Pakistan Variations on the LL.B. United States Eligibility of foreign graduates in the U.S. Situation within the European Union Alternative degree route in the UK See also References

History of academic degrees The first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates.[2][3][4] The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were also schools of law.[5] The first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age.[6] While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman law (except for certain jurisdictions such as the Admiralty Court), and although the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge did teach canon law until the English Reformation, its importance was always superior to civil law in those institutions.[7]

Origin of the LL.B.

"LL.B." stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin. The "LL." of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum (of lex, law). Creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter (e.g., "pp" for "pages"), It is sometimes erroneously called "Bachelor of Legal Letters" to account for the double "L".

The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford and Cambridge.[8] The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics.[9] In continental Europe the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge.

The teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law.[10] Professional training for practising common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.[11] However, because of the lack of standardization of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.[12]

In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.[13] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.[14] By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose.[15] With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.[16]

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades.[17] The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729.[18] William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the programme for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.[18] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.[19]

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination, therefore in 1846 the Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in the United States.[12] Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.[12] When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, the LL.B. became the uniform degree for lawyers in common law countries.

Structure of LL.B. programmes Historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is much less common. However, a few institutions, such as Cardiff University's Department of Canon (Ecclesiastical) Law, and McGill University's and University of Ottawa's combined programme continue to offer alternatives to the common law.

Common law nations generally In most common law countries (with the exceptions of Canada and the US), the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school. In England and Wales it is also possible to study a programme for conversion to the legal profession following completion of a previous undergraduate degree unrelated to law (the Graduate Diploma in Law), which entitles graduates to take the vocational courses for entry into the legal profession. Master's courses are also offered to university graduates; those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL.M.

Australia The programme of study for the common law LLB can be either a graduate-entry degree programme requiring a prior bachelor's degree (the duration of which is usually three years) or can be undertaken directly after high-school (the duration of which is usually four years) or combined with another degree (i.e., BComm/LLB, BA/LLB, or BSc/LLB, the duration of which can vary between five and seven years, depending on the specific combination).

Additionally, of the thirty-six law schools thirteen of those universities have also started offering the Juris Doctor (JD) as a graduate- entry degree.

Bangladesh In Bangladesh, as in other common-law countries, obtaining a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree is a prerequisite of practising as an advocate in a court of law. Both LL.B. and LL.B. (Hons.) degrees are offered at public and private universities. Only seven public universities offer LL.B. (Hons.) degree. These universities also offer one-year LL.M. courses. Some private universities also offer four-hear LL.B. (Hons.) degrees and one-year LL.M. courses. The National University of Bangladesh also offers a two-year LL.B. degree to graduates of subjects other than law.

Canada Canada has a dual system of laws. In the province of Quebec, a system of civil law is used. At the federal level, as well as in every province or territory except Quebec, a system of common law is used. Because of this, there are two Canadian law degrees generally in use.

The programme of study for the common law LL.B. is an undergraduate, professional degree. It is now replaced by the J.D. at nearly all Canadian common law schools (McGill being the exception). While the degree awarded is at the first-degree level and admission may be granted to applicants with two or three years of undergraduate studies towards a degree, in practice, entrants to the programme generally hold an undergraduate degree before registration in the law programme. A significant number hold a graduate level degree as well. (SeeJuris Doctor in Canada)

The common law programme is three years in length. Upon graduation, one holds a Bachelor of Laws degree, but cannot yet practise law. To practise law, the graduate must obtain a licence from the Law Society of the province where he/she wishes to practise law, which also requires a year of articling. Those law graduates wishing to become law professors instead of lawyers often obtain a more advanced academic degree, such as theMaster of Laws (LL.M.) or the Doctor of Laws (LL.D, S.J.D or D.C.L).

The civil law programme in Canada is three years in length. The programme of study for the first degree in Quebec civil law (called LL.B., B.C.L. or LL.L.) is a first-entry degree programme. Like other first-entry university programmes in Quebec it requires a college diploma for entry. Law schools that offer civil law B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L. degrees include McGill University, Université de Montréal, Université de Québec à Montréal, Université de Sherbrooke, Université Laval and the University of Ottawa.

Because of Canada's dual system of laws, some law schools offer joint or dual degrees of common law and civil law. McGill University, Université de Montréal, Université de Sherbrooke and the University of Ottawa are law schools that ferof such degrees.

The law degree offered by McGill University is a mandatory joint common law LL.B. / Quebec civil law B.C.L. degree. The programme is four years in length. Admission to that programme is a first-entry programme in the case of Quebec students (as a college diploma is required) while it is a second-entry programme in the case of students from other provinces (since two years of university studies is required - effectively one extra year of studies more than for a college diploma). The University of Ottawa offers a civil law degree (LL.L.) on its own.

A number of Canadian law schools offer students the opportunity to earn, besides their three-year first degrees in common law, programmes in common law for holders of baccalaureate degrees in Quebec civil law enabling those individuals to earn the LL.B. in common law in two or three semesters, depending on the offering university's programme. Similarly, the University of Ottawa offers, besides its three-year LL.L. programme in Quebec civil law, a one-year LL.L. programme in Quebec civil law for holders of an LL.B. or J.D. degree in common law from a Canadian law school.

Additionally, some Canadian universities with common law law schools have an arrangement with a Canadian university with a Quebec civil law law school enabling students to obtain the home school's law degree in three years and the exchange school's law degree in the fourth year.

Hong Kong In Hong Kong, three universities, includingThe University of Hong Kong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, and City University of Hong Kong, provide legal studies with both LL.B degree or J.D. degree, where the former is for students right after high school, and the latter is for the degree holders. LL.B is 4 years in length, while J.D. is 2 years. Students who had an LL.B or J.D degree, whether conferred by local universities or the accredited universities overseas, would be eligible to apply for admission to PCLL, the 1-year legal qualification programme in Hong Kong.

On top of LL.B, University of Hong Kong offers a variety of Mixed-Degree programmes that allow students to take a first degree and then have an option to take a conjunctive law degree, including Bachelor of Business Administration (Law) (abbreviated as "BBA(Law)&LLB", or as B-Law), Bachelor of Social Science (Government & Laws) ("BSocSc(Govt&Laws)&LLB",or as G-Law), and Bachelor of Arts (Literary Studies) ("BA&LLB", or as A-Law). Previous mixed-Degree programme also includes Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering).

India In India, legal education had been traditionally offered as a three-year graduate degree conferring the title of Bachelor ofLaws (LL.B. / B.L.). The eligibility requirement for these degrees was that the applicant already have a bachelor's degree in any subject from a recognised institution. However upon the suggestion by the Law Commission of India and also given the prevailing cry for reform the Bar Council of India, the governing body of legal education in India, instituted upon an experiment in terms of establishing specialised national law universities solely devoted to legal education similar to Indian Institutes of Technology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Indian Institutes of Management, etc. to raise the academic standards of legal profession in India. Thus, the first National Law School of India was set up in Bangalore which was named as the National Law School of India University (popularly 'NLS' or 'NLSIU'). NLSIU offered and continues to offer a five years law course upon the successful completion of which an integrated degree with the title of "B.A., LL.B. (Hons.)" would be granted. Pursuant thereto, various other National Law Schools including the National Academy of Legal Studies and Research University of Law, Hyderabad (NALSAR) and National University of Juridical Sciences, Kolkata (WBNUJS) were established that administer a five-year (5 year) undergraduate degree programme and confer an integrated honours degree upon completion, such as "B.A., LL.B (Hons.)", "B.B.A, LL.B (Hons.)", "B.Sc., LL.B (Hons.)", "B.Com., LL.B (Hons.)" and "B.S.W., LL.B (Hons.)" . In the first two years of B.A., LL.B (Hons.) programme, students are taught Social Sciences (History, Political Science, Sociology and Economics) associated withB.A. alongside standard legal subjects, such as torts, contracts and constitutional law and in the B.Sc., LL.B (Hons.) programme, students are taught a combination of Physical, Life and Applied Sciences associated with B.Sc. alongside standard legal subjects, such as torts, contracts and constitutional law. In the first two years of B.B.A, LL.B (Hons.), B.Com., LL.B (Hons.) and B.S.W., LL.B (Hons.) programmes, students are taught regular subjects associated with B.B.A, B.Com. and B.S.W respectively along with the standard legal subjects as mentioned earlier. In the latter three years of all five programmes, legal subjects dominate the curriculum. The eligibility requirement for the five years integrated law degree is that the applicant must have successfully completed Class XII from a recognised Board of Education in India like CISCE, CBSE, etc.

For Accountancy, Taxation, Business and Companies Laws are thought by The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, The Institute Cost Accountants of India and The Institute of Company Secretaries of India and they designated after clearing examinations namely CA, CMA and CS

Both the types of degree are recognized and are also qualifying degrees for practice of legal profession in India. A holder of either type of degree may approach a Bar Council of any States of India and get upon compliance with the necessary standards, be enrolled on the rolls of the said Bar Council. The process of enrolment confers a licence to the holder to practise before any court in India and give legal advice. The entire procedure of enrolment and post-enrolment professional conduct is regulated and supervised by the Bar Council of India.

Today, almost all Indian universities offer five year integrated LL.B. programmes while others remain offering the traditional three- year programme. The College of Legal Studies at the University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun offers two six year integrated LL.B. programmes, the B.Tech Energy Technology + LL.B. (Hons.) with Specialisation in Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and the B.Tech Computer Science & Engineering + LL.B. (Hons.) with Specialisation in Cyber Laws & The Glocal Law School at The Glocal University offers five year integrated LL.B. programmes, the BBA-LLB Business Administration + LL.B. (Hons.) with Specialisation in Business Administration . Most other universities in India offer the five year integrated LL.B. programmes similar to the National Law Schools of India. The National Law School of India University, Bangalore still continues to be the premier law school of India and constantly ranks as the best law school in India.

Malaysia Malaysia inherited a common law system from the British colonial period. However, unlike the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, Malaysia adopted the fused legal profession with legal practitioners acting both as solicitors and in a way "barristers". Hence all are lawyers eligible and can be admitted to the High Court as a legal professional is entitled to be bestowed with the title "Advocate & Solicitor". This applies to both lawyers practising in the Peninsular Malaysia (Malaya) and the States of Sabah & Sarawak.

Under the Legal Profession Act 1976, a person is deemed to be a qualified person to be admitted as an Advocate & Solicitor if he/she completes and passed the course of Bar Vocational Course in UK & Wales from any Inns of Court, passed the Certificate in Legal Practice or completed a 4-year LL.B. (Honours) course from any of the following Universities:-

University of Malaya National University of Malaysia International Islamic University of Malaysia Mara Technological Institute University Malaysia Multimedia University Malaysian Northern University Sultan Zainal Abidin University

New Zealand An LL.B. is required to be able to practice law in New Zealand. An LL.B. typically takes four years to complete after high school, and is often combined with another degree program, such as a Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) or Bachelor of Arts (B.A.). Most New Zealand universities allow graduates of other degrees to complete an LL.B. in three years. Six New Zealand universities offer LL.B. programmes:[20]

University of Auckland Auckland University of Technology University of Waikato Victoria University of Wellington University of Canterbury University of Otago

Pakistan Pakistan is a common law country and to become a lawyer in Pakistan, one needs a law degree usually called LL.B. from a Pakistani or a foreign university from common law country recognized by the Pakistan Bar Council.[21] Lawyers in Pakistan are called advocates. An advocate has to be member of one of the provincial Bar Councils, i.e.,Punjab Bar Council, Sindh Bar Council, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Bar Council, Balochistan Bar Council or the Islamabad Bar Council.

Singapore In Singapore, the LL.B. may be conferred by either the National University of Singapore or the Singapore Management University after 4 years (8 Semesters) of study. Possession of an LLB with a Lower Second Class of honours from NUS[22] or a Grade Point Average of 3.00 from SMU[23] is required to be called to the Singapore Bar.

NUS also offers a 3-year LL.B. (Honours) course to graduate law students, with SMU offering an equivalent Juris Doctor programme.

South Africa In South Africa the LL.B. is offered both at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels.[24][25][26] As of 1996 it is the universal and only legal qualification for legal practice, superseding the existing B.Juris and B.Proc degrees.[27] The undergraduate programme, offered since 1998, requires four years of study. At the postgraduate level, the programme generally requires three years. Several South African universities offer B.A. and BCom degrees with a major in "Law", and these graduates then undertake a two-year postgraduate-programme. Some universities also offer a one-year programme for holders of the BProc degree.[28] University of Pretoria Faculty of Law The curriculum is typically structured around preliminary, core and advanced courses,[29] and most universities also offer elective coursework. The preliminary courses acquaint the students with both the background and the foundations of the South African legal system, and with legal thinking and analysis in general. The core subjects are those regularly required for legal practice.[27] The advanced courses (usually) comprise further study in these core subjects, deepening and / or broadening the student's knowledge as appropriate. The electives – often comprising these advanced courses, amongst others – allow students to specialise in a particular area of law, to an extent, by choosing from a range of optional courses. Some universities also require that students complete an experience based course ("Practical Legal Studies" / "Law clinic"); a credit comprising independent research exclusively is often offered as an elective, and at some universities is a degree requirement.[30]

The undergraduate LL.B. may depart from this structure. Depending on university, the curriculum will comprise legal subjects exclusively,[31] or may include humanities subjects so as to prepare graduates with a "broad-based" legal education.[29] Some undergraduate programmes do not offer any optional coursework. Credits in English and Afrikaans are also often included.[31] Along with Latin, these were, but are no longer, "subjects compelled by statute",[32] and were typically entrance requirements for the LL.B., having been studied as undergraduate modules. Similarly, Roman Law was previously a preliminary course, whereas, in both the post- and undergraduate degree, it is now offered as an elective.

Note that the structure of the undergraduate programme is under review. The issues noted are: graduates of these programmes are seen to be less prepared for the profession as compared to those pursuing the graduate LLB; only 20% of entrants complete the programme within four years; only about 50% of graduates here enter the legal profession at all.[33] Further, there are those who question the academic standard of the new degree.[34] Some universities have now discontinued the programme;[35] in other cases undergraduate students are required to initially register as Arts, Commerce or Science students – with first year law subjects – and, in the second year of study, only those meeting specified criteria may choose to pursue the four-year LLB.[36]

Lawyers

Upon completion of the LL.B. degree (or its equivalent), graduates are generally qualified to apply for membership of the bar or law society. The membership eligibility bestowed may be subject to completion of professional exams. A student may have to gain a further qualification at postgraduate level, for example a traineeship and the Legal Practice Course or Bar Vocational Course in England and Wales or the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws in Hong Kong.

In Australia some LL.B. graduates practice as a solicitor or barrister, while others work in academia, for the government or for a private company (i.e. not as a practicing solicitor or barrister). For LL.B. graduates who do choose to practice law, in some states of Australia (namely, Victoria and New South Wales), LL.B. graduates are required to undertake a 1-year articled clerkship or the Legal Practice Course (commonly Practical Legal Training or PLT) before applying for registration as a solicitor. In other states, (namely, South Australia) an LL.B. graduate is required to undertake a 6-week PLT course before applying to be admitted to the bar as a barrister and solicitor. Depending on the state where a lawyer is admitted to practice, membership in the Bar may be either restricted to barristers or open to both solicitors and barristers. In the states that maintain as split Bar system, barristers are a separate and distinct profession to that of a solicitor, and entry is attained through the successful completion of an exam and a 9-month reading period (in other words, tutelage) under a senior barrister.

In Canada, the lawyer licensing process usually requires the law graduate to (1) take further classroom law courses taught by the Law Society itself, and pass a set of written examinations, known as bar exams, related to the taken courses and (2) undertake an articled clerkship, commonly known as articling under the supervision of an established lawyer called a principal. The vast majority of law graduates article (i.e. work and learn) in a law firm, a government's legal department, a corporation's (in-house) legal department, a community legal clinic or some other type of non-profit organization involved in legal work; however, a small minority of law graduates (with exceptional academic records) undertake instead a judicial clerkship with a specific court and under the supervision of a judge instead of working in a more "lawyer-type environment". In either articling or clerkship, there is the expectation that the law graduate will work in a variety of legal fields and be exposed to the realities of legal practice that are absent from law school's academic atmosphere.

In the province of Ontario, for example, the licensing process for the Law Society of Upper Canada (Ontario's governing law society) consists of three mandatory components: The Skills and Professional Responsibility Program with assignments and assessments, Licensing Examinations (a Barrister Licensing Examination and a Solicitor Licensing Examination), and a 10-month Articling term.[37]

At the conclusion of the licensing process, the law graduate is "called to the bar" whereby he/she signs his/her name in the Rolls of the Court of Appeal for Ontario and the Superior Court of Justice[38] and swears lawyer-related oaths in a formal ceremony where he/she must appear in a complete barrister's gown and bow before judges of the local superior court and benchers of the licensing law society. After the call ceremony, he/she can designate him/herself as a "Barrister and Solicitor", and can practice law in the province in which they are licensed. In Ontario and other provinces, licensed lawyers may also exercise the powers of a Commissioner of Oaths. In the Province of British Columbia, licensed lawyers are automatically qualified to practice as a notary public subject to appointment. In Ontario and other provinces, a licensed lawyer must submit a form and pay a one-time fee to the provincial attorney general before he/she is appointed as a notary public. Although not required by the licensing process, many first- and second- year law students work in law firms during the summer off- school season to earn extra money and to guarantee themselves an articling position (with the same law firms) upon their graduation from law school, because there is always fierce competition for articling positions, especially for those in large law firms offering attractive remuneration and prestige, and a law graduate cannot become a licensed lawyer in Canada if he/she has not gone through articled clerkship.

Alternative titles and formats

Irish B.C.L. and LL.B. The four universities under the National University of Ireland (NUI) umbrella, award the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.). These are University College Cork, University College Dublin, NUI Maynooth and NUIG. Four Irish universities and two Northern Irish universities (the University of Dublin; NUIG; Queen's University Belfast; the University of Limerick; National University of Ireland, Maynooth[39] and the University of Ulster) award an LL.B. NUIG offer the LL.B. as a 1-year postgraduate course for holders of the BCorp(Bachelor of Corporate Law) or BA Law degrees.

University College Cork and the University of Limerick offer a two-year postgraduate LL.B to outstanding non-law graduates. These courses are Kings Inns approved.

Institute of Technology, Carlow and Institute of Technology, Waterford also offer an LL.B. degree programme. Two English universities (University of the West of England and Nottingham Trent University) and one Welsh university (University of Wales) award the LL.B. in Ireland as a professional degree in law (the latter three are run via local private colleges). (Independent Colleges LL.B.(Hons) in Irish Law is conferred by theUniversity of the West of England, LL.B.(Hons) in Irish Law atDublin Business School is jointly validated by HETAC and the University of Wales and the LL.B. in Griffith College Dublin and Griffith College Cork is jointly validated by HETAC and Nottingham Trent University.)

Ireland is a common law jurisdiction (in fact there are two common law jurisdictions on the island) and the expression "civil law" is used to differentiate common law fromecclesiastical law or Canon Law in the republic.

In the nineteenth century the University of London conferred degrees of LL.B. on clerical and lay students at St. Patrick's College, Carlow from 1840 onwards.[40]

The King's Inns Barrister-at-Law degree BL is a postgraduate degree and is required to practice as a barrister in Ireland.

Zimbabwe B.L. and LL.B. At the University of Zimbabwe, the first degree in common law is the Bachelor of Laws (B.L.), which is equivalent to the LL.B. in other common law jurisdictions. It is followed by a one-year programme at the university (analogous to post-LL.B. vocational programmes in other common law jurisdictions) at the end of which a second degree, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), is awarded. The curriculum has since been changed and now only one four-year honours degree is offered abbreviated as LL.B.[41]

LL.B. in Pakistan In Pakistan, to get admission in LL.B. degree course in any state university, one should have a bachelor's degree in any discipline. Before 1992, LL.B. degree course was of two years but now it is a three-year programme. Nowadays some colleges offering five years LL.B. programme. In Punjab, and Sindh Muslim Govt. Law College Karachi, for example, a five-year joint B.A./LL.B. degree is being offered by Punjab University and Karachi University. Actually it is a three-year LL.B. programme that includes two years of graduation studies (Graduation degree is usually awarded after fourteen years of full-time education). After obtaining an LL.B. degree, a person wishing to practise has to intimate the respective Provincial Bar Council that he is starting a six-month training/articleship under the supervision of a senior advocate who has a ten-year standing as an advocate.[42] After the completion of the articleship/pupillage, he will be asked to take a Bar admission test that consists one multiple choice questions/written test and a viva-voce (by a panel of Bar Council members). These days the University of London external programme has widely attracted many potential candidates who wish to pursue a career in Law in Pakistan.

Variations on the LL.B. Some universities in the United Kingdom and New Zealand offer variations of this degree, such as the LL.B. (Europe), which generally take four years to complete and include a wider range of topics as well as some degree of specialisation.

Various universities in the United Kingdom and Australia will allow a degree that combines study with a non-law discipline. For example, some universities in the United Kingdom offer a combined study of law and history leading to a B.A. degree that is accepted by the Law Society and Inns of Court as equivalent to an LL.B.

The University of London External Programme in Laws (LL.B.) has been awarding its law degree via distance learning since 1858. The LL.B. awarded by the University of London External Programme is of the same standard and quality irrespective of the mode or manner of learning.

At various universities in the UK such as Oxford, Nottingham and Cambridge the principal law degree is often a B.A., in either Jurisprudence or Law. The B.C.L and LL.M are second-entry and postgraduate degrees. The University of Cambridge has recently replaced their LL.B. degree with anLL.M.

Some universities in the UK including Bournemouth University have a four-year LL.B. course, which consists of a 40-week industrial work placement.[43] Staffordshire University also offer a two-year full-time LL.B. course.[44]

A unique degree of LL.B.(Hons) Sharia and Law has been introduced by the International Islamic University, Islamabad. The distinctive feature of this course is the comparative study of both Islamic law and Common law. Similar programme can be found in Malaysia as offered by International Islamic University Malaysia[45] and Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia[46]

United States

The United States no longer offers the LL.B., though some universities have introduced Bachelor of Science degrees in legal studies featuring curricula that include courses in constitutional law, tort law, and criminal law. The Master of Science of Laws (MSL) is also offered in some universities accredited by the American Bar Association. While the LL.B. was conferred until 1971 at Yale University, since that time, all universities in the United States have awarded the professional doctorate J.D.,[47][48] which then became the generally standardized degree in most states for the necessary bar exam prior to practice of law.[49] Many law schools converted their basic law degree programmes from LL.B. to J.D. in the 1960s, and permitted prior LL.B. graduates to retroactively receive the new doctorate degrees by returning their LL.B. in exchange for a J.D. degree.[50][51] Yale graduates who received LL.B. degrees prior to 1971 were similarly permitted to change their degree to a J.D., though many did not take the option, choosing to retain their LL.B. degrees.[48]

Before the program was phased out, notable recipients of the LL.B. include former U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, current U.S. Supreme Court Justices Anthony Kennedy, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and Stephen Breyer, former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, American judge and jurist Richard Allen Posner, as well as the first female commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission, Frieda B. Hennock.

Eligibility of foreign graduates in the U.S. For the most part, foreign law graduates seeking admission to the bar in the United States will find their LL.B. law degree does not of itself fulfill the core admission requirements of most states, thereby not allowing them to take the bar exam. The major exception to this is New York, where those foreign graduates who have fulfilled the educational requirements to practice law in another common law country through study at an approved educational institution, similar in both duration and content to the equivalent teaching at an approved U.S. law school, are permitted to sit for the bar exam.[52] Additionally, both New York and Massachusetts permit Canadian LL.B. holders to take the bar exam.[53] The requirements of each of the states vary, and in some states sufficient years of practice in one's home country may allow for those otherwise excluded to sit for the bar exam. Interested applicants should check the requirements of each state bar association carefully as requirements vary markedly.

Most states require completion of a law degree from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association. As a result, American law schools typically offer one-year LL.M. programmes for foreign attorneys; many such law schools may have no other LL.M. programmes. Classes included in these "American Law", "Comparative Law" inter alia LL.M. programmes are selected to introduce foreign attorneys to American-style common law practice, such as first-year J.D. courses on civil procedure, Constitutional law, criminal law, legal research and analysis, and jurisprudence.

Situation within the European Union

European Union law permits European Union citizens with LL.B. degrees from one EU Member State, e.g., Ireland, France, Germany or the UK, who practise law and who are qualified lawyers in one of these countries for three or more years, to practise also in every other member state. The actual procedure to receive the respective national licence is regulated by the member state and therefore differs from country to country, and temporary restrictions may in certain cases exist, but every EU member has to apply the relevant EU Directives to its own national law.

As a consequence of the Bologna Process, recently many universities of applied sciences and few traditional universities in Germany have introduced LL.B. programmes, replacing the Diplom-Wirtschaftsjurist degree. The LL.B. is a three- or four-year full-time study law degree. As opposed to courses of study leading to theState Examination - the masters-level professional law degree in Germany - most LL.B. degree programmes concentrate on private law and can feature a component of education in business administration. Graduates of LL.B. courses can continue LL.M. studies, and in some cases sit for the first State Examination after one or more years of additional law studies in order to qualify for practicing law in Germany.

In Malta, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree, offered by the University of Malta, is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions.

In Denmark, universities now offer three-year LL.B. programmes, although this is not sufficient to practice law. Students wishing to practice law should continue with a Masters in Law programme, leading to the cand.jur degree. Alternatively, students may choose to use the LL.B. as a basis for other courses within the social sciences or humanities.

Alternative degree route in the UK

There are also conversion courses available for non-law graduates, available as an alternative to the full-length LL.B. degree course. One such example of a conversion course in England and Wales is the GDL (Graduate Diploma in Law), which takes one year to complete.

In the UK, as well as in other Common Law jurisdictions, the main approach to this, is the Graduate Entry (undergraduate) LL.B. degree, where graduates from another discipline can complete the LL.B. as a second degree, although this may occasionally require taking qualifying law courses within the first degree to meet professional requirements in full. Therefore, it is not entirely correct to regard it as an 'accelerated' degree.

This 'double degree' system was, at one time, an alternative route to the former B.L. degree (now obsolete) but students were required to have independent means to complete the second degree. The current Scots LL.B. degree, a direct-entry undergraduate degree, meets all professional requirements when coupled with the Diploma in Legal Practice. The Diploma was introduced circa 1980; prior to this, all professional exams were taken within the degree itself (or as part of an earlier non-law degree), limiting the scope for academic study. Therefore, the pursuit of the double degree nowadays, for school-leavers at least, is mainly to indicate that one can be adept at two disciplines. Unlike Joint Honours, a second degree is undertaken separately, within the prescribed timeframe. The first non-law degree will almost invariably be an arts degree although science or other degrees are not unknown. Rarely, the double degree principle is found in reverse; just as an arts or science degree can provide exemption from the full academic (not professional) requirements of a subsequent law degree, similarly a law degree can provide exemption from the full academic requirements of a subsequent arts or science degree. In this case, it is more likely that the second degree will be taken as a self-funding mature student, possibly on a part-time basis.

See also

Admission to the bar Admission to the bar in the United States Autonomous Law Schools in India Call to the bar Doctor of Juridical Science Doctor of law Juris Doctor Legal education List of law schools Master of Laws

References

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