Where East Meets West: Pontocaspia, the Historical Dimension of the Evolution of a Unique Biodiversity

Southern Scientific Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Arid Zones SSC RAS The Faculty of Geography of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University Biodiversity Center “Naturalis” (The Netherlands) EU Horizon 2020-ITN “PRIDE” (Drivers of Pontocaspian Biodiversity Rise and Demise)

WHERE EAST MEETS WEST: PONTOCASPIA, THE HISTORICAL DIMENSION OF THE EVOLUTION OF A UNIQUE BIODIVERSITY

GUIDEBOOK OF EXCURSIONS

Russia, Rostov-on-Don, Kagal’nik, Astrakhan’ August 21 – September 02, 2017

Rostov-on-Don 2017 (2017) Where East meets West: Pontocaspia, the historical dimension of the evolution of a unique biodiversity. Guidebook of excursions of the International Youth School-Conference (Russia, Rostov-on-Don, Kagal’nik, Astrakhan’, August 21 – September 02, 2017). Rostov-on-Don: SSC RAS Publishers. 78 p. (In English).

Compilers:

Dr. T.A. Yanina (part 2, 3) Dr. О.К. Borisova (part 1) Dr. Т.D. Morozova (part 2, 3) Dr. F.P. Wesselingh (part 1, 2, 3) Dr. A.S. Tesakov (part 1, 2) Dr. V.V. Titov (part 1, 2) Dr. V.S. Baigusheva (part 1) Dr. S.N. Timireva (part 1) Dr. A.N. Simakova (part 1) Dr. V.V. Semyenov (part 1) Dr. E.A. Konstantinov (part 1) Dr. P.D. Frolov (part 1, 2) Dr. M.Yu. Lychagin (part 3) Yu.М. Kononov (part 1)

© Southern Scientific Centre RAS (2017) © Institute of Arid Zones SSC RAS (2017) Южный научный центр РАН Институт аридных зон ЮНЦ РАН Географический факультет Московского государственного университета им. М.В. Ломоносова Центр биоразнообразия Naturalis (Нидерланды) Программа Европейской комиссии Horizon 2020-ITN “PRIDE” (Факторы увеличения и снижения биоразнообразия Понто-Каспия)

ТАМ, ГДЕ ВОСТОК ВСТРЕЧАЕТСЯ С ЗАПАДОМ: ПОНТО-КАСПИЙ, ИСТОРИЧЕСКИЙ АСПЕКТ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ УНИКАЛЬНОГО БИОРАЗНООБРАЗИЯ

ПУТЕВОДИТЕЛЬ ЭКСКУРСИЙ

Ростов-на-Дону, Кагальник, Астрахань, Россия 21 августа – 2 сентября 2017 г.

Ростов-на-Дону 2017 Там, где Восток встречается с Западом: Понто-Каспий, исторический аспект эволюции уникального биоразнообразия. Путеводитель экскурсий Международной молодежной школы- конференции (Ростов-на-Дону, Кагальник, Астрахань, Россия, 21 августа – 2 сентября 2017 г.). Ростов н/Д: Изд-во ЮНЦ РАН, 2017. 78 с.

Составители:

д.г.н., проф. Т.А. Янина (часть 2, 3) д.г.н. О.К. Борисова (часть 1) д.г.н. Т.Д. Морозова (часть 1) д.н. Ф.П. Весселинг (часть 1, 2, 3) к.г.-м.н. А.С. Тесаков (часть 1, 2) к.б.н. В.В. Титов (часть 1, 2) к.г.-м.н. В.С. Байгушева (часть 1) к.г.н. С.Н. Тимирева (часть 1) к.г.-м.н. А.Н. Симакова (часть 1) к.г.-м.н. В.В. Семенов (часть 1) к.г.н. Е.А. Константинов (часть 1) к.г.-м.н. П.Д. Фролов (часть 1, 2) к.г.н. М.Ю. Лычагин (часть 3) Ю.М. Кононов (часть 1) PART 1 The Sea of Azov region PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE ROSTOV REGION

The Rostov region is located in the south of European Russia, at the southern margin of the East Euro- pean or Russian Platform. The characteristic steppe landscapes of lowlands in the south are combined with the Kalach and Donets-Don uplands in the north. They represent elevated plateau-like plains, gently lowering to the south, towards the low left bank areas of Don River. Interfluves have absolute elevations from 120–160 to 200–220 m. River valleys are at elevations of 30–50 m. Watershed areas elevate above the local base level up to 190 m. The most uplifted part of the area is the Donets Range. It is formed by naturally exposed Carboniferous coal-bearing terrigenous rocks. The relief of this area shows multiple parallel ridges towering up to 30–40 m over the surrounding plains. This is a characteristic terrain with watershed slopes strongly dissected by river valleys and gullies. Typical for the local relief are numerous 20–30 m high cone-shaped spoil heaps of coalm- ines of the Donets Coal Basin (Donbas). The Azovian plain gently slopes from the Donets range to the southern Don River valley and the Taganrog Gulf. The plain has absolute elevations from 140–160 m in the north to 107–109 m in the south. Southeast of the Rostov Region the Ergeni upland is located. It is a flat interfluve between valleys of Don and Manych Rivers. The southern part of Ergeni area is elevated up to 220 m a.s.l. In the west and north, absolute elevations decrease to 100–120 m, and in river valleys, to 10–20 m a.s.l. Lowlands include the extensive Azovian-Kuban’ plain and smaller lowlands in the lower and middle course of Don River, and the Manych lowland. The drainage network of the Rostov Region is associated with the Sea of Azov basin. The system includes the lower course of the main Don River, its larger tributaries, Donets (right bank) and Manych (left bank) rivers, and numerous smaller rivers (Mius, Kagal’nik, Mokryi Elanchik, and others). In the region, Don River has a drainage area of 86 000 km2. Its width averages 400 m in the lower course. The lower Don has a nearly latitudinal direction flowing from the east to west towards the Azov Sea. The Don River represents a busy commercial navigation channel with the depths from 4–6 to 10 m. Due to an insignificant general slope, the water speed ranges from 0.1–0.4 m/s in winter and summer low level periods, and up to 1.5–2.0 m/s in high water period. In the last century the Don River has been dammed by the large Tsymla and Konstantinovsk hydro- egineering complexes. The giant Tsymla reservoir (1952–1955) has an area of 2700 square km. The average annual discharge of Don below the Tsymla Dam is 874 m3/s. The average annual drainage in the basin is 1.8 l/s per km2. Typically, the river freezes from early December onwards. The main right bank tributaries of Don are Severskyi Donets, Tuzlov, and Chir. From the left bank inflow Sal and Zapadnyi Manych with second order tributaries Srednyi Egorlyk and Bolshoi Egorlyk. Rivers of the southern and southwestern part of the region (Kagal’nik, Eya, and others) drain the Azovian-Kuban’ lowland running directly to the Sea of Azov. These are the typical steppe rivers with a variable water levels and they may even run dry during summer months. In the west, the Mius River runs into the Taganrog Gulf of the Sea of Azov. The river forms the large Mius Estuary. The Mius has a 60–100 m wide channel located in a 4 km wide valley, and a slow water current of 0.1 m/s. The Rostov Region has a temperate continental climate. It is in influenced by the Aralian-Caspian arid province. Especially strongly continental is the climate of the eastern areas, Ergeni Upland and in the Zapad- nyi Manych River valley. These areas show rapid fluctuations of daily and seasonal temperatures, low annual precipitation (320–350 mm), high evaporation, and relatively low air humidity. Climatic conditions in the north- and southwest are quite different. The Don-Donets upland and the Azo- vian-Kuban’ lowland have markedly higher annual precipitation (400–520 mm) and higher relative humidity. The Rostov Region has a variety of natural areas including open steppe, dispersed stands of trees and shrubs, the floodplain of the Don River, and the coastal zone. These habitats sustain more than hundred ver- tebrate species. 6 PART 1

The region mostly belongs to the steppe zone, with the extreme southeast showing a transition from steppes to semideserts. Forest and bush cover 5.6% of the region, but the bulk of the area is occupied by farmland, mainly on highly fertile chernozems. The largest towns of the region are Rostov-on-Don (1,050,000), Taganrog (260 000), Shakhty (245 000), No- vocherkassk (176 000) and Azov (83 000). Main industry activities include mechanical engineering, chemical industry, coal mining, and agriculture (cereals). In the east of the region, the Rostov nuclear power plant is located. Rostov is a major transportation hub in European Russia. It is situated on the high right bank of the Don River, near its mouth. The city is a port of the Volga-Don river-sea commercial route. The major north-south national railroad and Moscow-Baku Highway pass through Rostov. Rostov is informally called “the Gate of the Caucasus”.

GEOLOGY PART 1

The geological basement of the region comprises the subsided parts of the Precambrian Ukrainian shield and Voronezh massif of the East European craton in which the Late Paleozoic Dnieper-Donets depression developed. It has a Paleozoic-Cenozoic cover represented by marginal facies of marine basins. The regional geological section includes crystalline rocks of the Precambrian, sedimentary-metamorphic Paleozoic deposits (Late Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian), sedimentary formations of Mesozoic (Triassic to Creta- ceous) and Cenozoic (Paleogene and Neogene), and Quaternary continental and marine deposits. The region includes three main tectonic zones: 1. The southern slope of the Voronezh Massif. 2. The Donets Foldbelt (Donets Depression). 3. The Rostov Dome (eastern subsided margin of the Ukrainian Shield). The Rostov region is known for deposits of anthracite coals, natural gas, flux limestones, sand, refractory clays, and various construction materials. The area is rich in ground and mineral water [Geology of the USSR, 1970]. The southwestern part of the Rostov Region includes the lower Don Valley and coastal area of the Tagan- rog Gulf of the Sea of Azov (Plate 1). Tectonically, this territory represents the submerged Azovian-Rostov segment of the eastern extension of the Ukrainian Shield, the so-called Rostov Dome of the platform cover. In this area, the crystalline basement occurs at depths of only 400–500 m. The sedimentary cover is formed by Cretaceous to Quaternary deposits. It is bordered in the south by the Azovian-Kuban’ depression. All geological outcrops we will visit during excursions are situated along the coastline of the Taganrog Gulf. In this area, the Pliocene-Pleistocene strata overlie Middle-Upper Miocene marine deposits of eastern Paratethys (Sarmatian, Maeotian, Pontian). According to the geological structure and genetic properties, the Upper Pliocene and Quaternary deposits are subdivided into four units. The Upper Pliocene and Lower Pleistocene Pontocaspian lacustrine sediments (Kujalnikian and Apsheronian) occupy the southern part of studied territory in the Eisk Peninsula area where highest subsidence occurred during the Quaternary. These deposits are only known from boreholes at depths of few hundred meters [Popov, 1948; Rodzyanko, 1967]. The northern and southern coasts of the Taganrog Gulf have a different structure (Plate 2). The distinctions are determined by the regional tectonic architecture. The sourthern zone is located in the transition to the Azo- vian-Kuban’ Depression and has therefore a longer history of subsidence and hence deposition. The northern zone has comparatively more influence of regional uplift episodes. Outcrops at the southern coast contain Lower Pleistocene to Holocene deposits, whereas at the northern coast the Quaternary sequence is underlain by exposed Upper Miocene shallow marine limestones to fluviatile deposits of the paleo-Don fluvial system of lowest Pleistocene (equivalent of Gelasian). Only the upper part of the Lower Pleistocene lagoon deposits crop out along the cliff between the Port-Katon and Kagal’nik settlements. The lower Middle Pleistocene fluvial-deltaic series outcrops are found between Chumbur-Kosa and Kagal’nik. The upper Middle Pleistocene and Upper Pleistocene loess-palaeosol series is developed as a regionally continuous cover that interfingers with the subaqueous formations. The recent (Holocene) alluvial-deltaic sediments of the Don River are exposed between Kagal’nik settlement and the city of Rostov-on-Don (Fig. 1). 7 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 1.1. Geological profile along the southeastern shoreline of the Taganrog Gulf and the mouth of the Don River [after Tesakov et al., 2007]. (1) recent soil; (2) paleosol; (3) loess; (4) loam; (5) clay; (6) sand; (7) gravel; (8) limestone; (9) mammal fauna; (10) mollusc fauna. Sections: PDL: Podlyudki, PKT: Port-Katon, MRT: Margaritovo, SMB: Semibalki, KGN: Kagal’nik, LVN: Liventsovka. Paleosols: Br: Bryansk, Mz: Mezin

Three main terrace levels have been identified in the coastal area [Lebedeva, 1972; Velichko et al., 1973; Velichko, 1975]. The highest, the Khaprovian terrace of 40–45 m a.s.l. containsUpper Pliocene to earliest Pleistocene sediments. It is developed on the right bank of the palaeo-Don River Valley. In the terminology of Velichko [1975], it corresponds to the Melekino level which consists of lagoonal-marine sediments at the base of sections exposed along the northern coast of the Azov Sea. Another terrace is arbitrary established at a height of 30 m. It is composed of upper Lower Pleistocene lagoon deposits. This Margaritovo terrace occurs along the southeastern coastal area of the Taganrog Gulf and corresponds to the Nagaisk level of the northern coast of the Azov Sea. The next, topographically lower level is associated withMiddle Pleistocene fluviodelta- ic or lagoon sediments and is termed the Platovo or Semibalki terrace. The height of the latter is not more than 20–25 m a.s.l. The summary of the local stratigraphy and mammalian fauna is shown in Fig. 3 [after Tesakov et al., 2007]. The oldest Quaternary deposits of the region are represented by extensive fluvial deposits mapped as the Khapry Formation (Fig. 3). The Khapry Formation is found in outcrops along the northern coast of the Ta- ganrog Gulf and the right bank of the lower Don River. The deposits consist of light-colored quartz sands with clayey and gravelly interbeds. They rest on eroded Upper Miocene Maeotian and Pontian limestones and are overlain by variegated and characteristically red-coloured ‘Scythian clays’, which are palaeomagnetically referred to the upper Matuyama and early Bruhnes Chron. In all the sections studied, the deposits of the Khapry Formation have a reversed polarity. In the parastratoptype, the now abandoned Liventsovka sandpit in the western suburbs of Rostov-on-Don, these deposits yielded a rich fauna of large and small mammals. Several exposures of the Khapry Formation occur in the cliffs of the northern coast of the Azov Sea. Mam- malian faunas suggest polycyclic formation of the Khapry deposits from the late Late Pliocene (equivalent of Piacenzian) to earliest Pleistocene (Gelasian). Extensive sand pits on the western outskirts of Rostov- on-Don (Figs. 1, 2) have provided excellent exposures of the fluvial Khapry deposits since mid 20th century. Large mammals from these exposures have been studied by Gromov [1948], Bajgusheva [1971], Sotnikova et al. [2002], and others. The latest revision of the mammalian megafauna has been published by Titov [2008; Tab. 2]. The small mammals from this sequence were studied by Schevtschenko [1965], Agadjanian [1976], and Alexandrova [1976]. Important small mammal collections have been also obtained by A. Krukover (in the 1980s), and recently by Titov and Tesakov. Tesakov [2004] revised the small mammals from the section. The Khaprovian mammalian fauna, correlated to Middle-Late Villafranchian and Late Villanyian, includes Archidiskodon meridionalis gromovi, Equus livenzovensis, Paracamelus alutensis, Mimomys reidi, Mimomys pliocaenicus, Borsodia spp., Clethrionomys kretzoii, etc. The late Early Pleistocene (equivalents to ‘Calabrian’) deposits are naturally exposed at the coastal cliff base in several sites along the southern coast of the Taganrog Gulf. These sediments represent lagoonal and fluvial deposits (bluish clays and variegated sands). Further information is given under the field excursion 8 PART 1 section to Semibalki below. The mammalian fauna of Early Pleistocene deposits is referred to the Tamanian faunal complex (Early Biharian). It includes Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis, Allophaiomys pliocaenicus, Lagurodon arankae, Mimomys savini and other forms. Two diachronous faunas are recognized based on small mammals. The older association with co-occurring Allophaiomys, Lagurodon arankae, and Mimomys savini is known from Port-Katon [Markova, 1990], Semibalki [Rekovets, 1994], and Martgaritovo 1 [Tesakov et al., 2007]. At Margaritovo, this faunal level has been shown to occur at the base of the normal paleomagnetiс episode interpreted as Jaramillo [Tesakov et al., 2005]. The slightly younger association Margaritovo 2 includes Microtus (Stenocranius) hintoni, Mimomys savini, and Prolagurus pannonicus transylvanicus. PART 1

Figure 1.2. Correlation of the Upper Pliocene-Quaternary sections in the northeast of the Azov Sea area [after Tesakov et al., 2007]. (1) modern soil; (2) fossil soil; (3) loess; (4) traces of palaeosol processes; (5) illuvial (soil) carbonate horizon; (6) carbonate concretions; (7) gypsum; (8) crotovinas (mammal burrows); (9) clay; (10) loam; (11) sand; (12) gravel; (13) limestone; (14) traces of cryogenesis; (15) large mammal remains; (16) small mammal remains; (17) molluscs; (18–20) palaeomagnetic polarity: (18) normal, (19) reversed, (20) anomalous; B: Brunhes Chron, J: Jaramillo Subchron

The Middle Pleistocene deposits crop out at cliff sections along the northern (Platovo) and southern (Kagal’nik, Semibalki, Port-Katon) coasts of the Taganrog Gulf. These are predominantly sandy and gravelly fluvial deposits of the paleo-Don River rich in shellsof fresh-and brackish-water molluscs. The mammalian fauna is referred to the Tiraspol faunal complex (Late Biharian) and dated to early Middle Pleistocene. It includes Mammuthus trogontherii, Microtus (Stenocranius) gregaloides, Microtus arvalidens, Mimomys savini, Lagurus transiens, etc. Subaerial deposits of Middle Pleistocene age form the lower beds of loess-paleosol sequence [Velichko et al., 2009]. The section ofBeglitsa (see the excursion details below) yielded a late Middle Pleistocene fauna with Arvicola chosaricus, Microtus gr. arvalis, Lagurus lagurus, Mammuthus cf. chosaricus, Megaloceros sp., etc. 9 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

TheUpper Pleistocene deposits are represented in the coastal sections of the Taganrog Gulf by upper beds of the loess-paleosol formation. In several sites near the settlement of Semibalki the Upper Pleistocene is represented by the Mesin pedocomplex [Velichko et al., 2009]. The same pedocomplex correlated to the Eemian interglacial of Late Pleistocene is well represented in the Beglitsa section.

Figure 1.3. Summary section of the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits in the northeast Azov Sea area [modified after Tesakov et al., 2007]. (1) modern soil; (2) palaeosol; (3) loess; (4) loam reworked by palaeosol processes; (5) Middle Pleistocene lagoonal deposits (loam and clay); (6) Middle Pleistocene alluvial and deltaic deposits (sands with clay interlayers); (7) Lower Pleistocene lagoon deposits (clays); (8) Upper Pliocene alluvial deposits (sands); (9) Upper Miocene limestone; (10) mammal fauna; (11) molluscan fauna

10 PART 1

THE SEA OF AZOV

The Sea of Azov is a semi-enclosed sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Black Sea and the Medi- terranean. To the south it is linked by the narrow (about 4 km wide) Strait of Kerch to the Black Sea, and it is sometimes regarded as a northern extension of the Black Sea. The sea is bounded in the north by Ukraine, in the east by Russia, and in the west by the Crimean Peninsula. More than 20 large and intermediate large rivers drain into the Azov Sea; the Don and Kuban are the largest. The Sea of Azov is extremely shallow, with the depths varying between 0.9 and 14 m; the average depth is 7.4 m. It has a so-called “estuarine” character with a constant outflow of water from the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea. The sea bottom is relatively flat with the depth gradually increasing from the coast to the centre (Fig. 1.4). The sea floor relief contains a system of ridges stretching along eastern (Zhelezinskaya bank) and western (Morskaya and Arabatskaya banks) shores. The submarine ridges are elevated to 3–5 m water depth above PART 1 the surrounding sea floor that lies at 8–9 m depth. The surface salinity of the Azov Sea before the creation of dam system in the lower course of the Don River, varied from 1‰ in the mouth of Don up to 10.5‰ in the central part of the sea and 11.5‰ near the Kerch Strait. After the creation of the giant Tsimlyansk reservoir, salinities increased. By 1977, the average maximum salinity of the sea increased to 13.8‰, and in the Taganrog Bay, to 11.2‰. By 2000, the salinities stabilized at the level of 11‰. The mean seasonal variations in salinity values rarely reach 1–2‰. The Taganrog Bay hosts an important salinity gradient from almost freshwater at the Don delta to 11‰ in the outer bay. The temperature regime of the Azov Sea is characterized by a considerable seasonal variability typical of shallow water bodies. The annual amplitude of water temperature ranges from 27.5 to 28.5°С. Average water temperatures are 0–1°C in winter (2–3°C in the Kerch Strait) and 24–25°C in summer, with a maximum of about 28°C on the open sea and above 30°C near the shores. During the summer, the sea surface is usually slightly warmer than the air. Because of the shallow character of the sea, the temperature usually lowers by only about 1°C with depth, but in cold winters, the difference can reach 5–7°C. During winter months, partial or complete freezing of the sea is possible. As a rule, ice formation is typical for January and only in the northern part. The shallowness and low salinity of the sea make it vulnerable to freezing during the winter. Vast ice bands ranging from 7 km in the north to 1.5 km in the south can occur temporarily at any time from late De- cember to mid-March. Several ships were trapped in ice in 2012 when the sea completely froze. Ice thickness can reach 30–40 cm in most parts of the Azov Sea and 60–80 cm in the Taganrog Bay. The ice is often unstable and piles up to the height of several metres. Before the introduction of icebreakers, navigation was halted in the winter. During frequent storms waves can reach 1.2 metres height in the Taganrog Bay, 2–4 metres near the southern shores, and 1 metre in the Kerch Strait. In the open sea, their height is usually 1–2 metres, sometimes up to 3 metres. Winds also induce frequent seiches – standing waves with an amplitude of 20–50 cm and lasting from minutes to hours. The wind regime drives water currents in the Azov Sea. The prevailing current is a counterclockwise swirl due to the westerly and south-westerly winds. Their speed is typically less than 10 cm/s, but can reach 60–70 cm/s for 15–20 m/s winds. In the bays, the flow is largely controlled by the inflow of the rivers and is directed away from the shore. In the Kerch Strait, the flow is normally towards the Black Sea due to the predominance of northern winds and the water inflow from the rivers; its average speed is 10–20 cm/s, reaching 30–40 cm in the narrowest parts. Onset are variable but can peak at 5.5 metres. In antiquity, the Sea was usually known as the Maeotian Swamp, named after the marshlands on the northeast side. It remains unclear whether these swamplands were named after the nearby tribe of Maeotians or if that name was applied broadly to various peoples who happened to live beside the swamps. Other names included Lake Maeotis or Maeotius; the Maeotium or Maeotic Sea; the Cimmerian or Scythican Swamps, and the Cimmerian or Bosporic Sea. The Maeotians themselves were said by Pliny to call the sea Temarenda or Temerinda, meaning “Mother of Waters”. The sea is strongly affected by the inflow of numerous rivers that bring sediment (sand, silt, and shells) that are important in shaping the numerous bays, limans, and narrow spits. Because of these deposits, the sea bottom is relatively smooth and flat with the depth gradually increasing toward the middle. Also, due to the river 11 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST inflow, water in the sea has low salinity and a high amount of biomass (such as green algae) that affects the water colour. Abundant plankton results in unusually high fish productivity. The sea shores and spits are low; they are rich in vegetation and bird colonies.

Figure 1.4. Bathymetric map of the Azov Sea (compiled by G.G. Matishov, 2006)

In the Azov Sea, a number of estuaries and bays are distinguished. The largest of these is Taganrog Bay. More than 20 large and medium rivers flow into the sea. The largest of them are the Don and the Kuban. Other larger rivers include Mius, Kagal’nik, Eya, and others. These rivers, and especially the Don and Kuban, ensure that the waters of the sea have comparatively low salinity and are almost fresh in places, and bring in huge volumes of silt and sand. Accumulation of sand and shells results in a smooth and low coastline, as well as in numerous spits and sandbanks. In a typical year the Azov Sea has the following inflow and outflow of water (averaged over the period from 1923 to 1985): river inflow 38.6 km3, precipitation 15.5 km3, evaporation 34.6 km3, inflow from the Black Sea 36–38 km3, outflow 53–55 km3. Thus, about 17 km3 of fresh water is flowing from the Azov Sea into the Black Sea. The depth of Azov Sea is decreasing, mostly due to the river-introduced sediments. Whereas the past hydrological expeditions recorded depths of up to 16 metres, more recent ones could not find places deeper than 13.5–14 metres. This might explain the variation in the maximum depths among different literature sources. The water level fluctuates by some 20 cm over the year due to the snow melts in spring. Vertical mixing of oxygenated surface waters and anoxic bottom waters in the Azov Sea is incomplete. The anoxic bottom waters form a 0.5–4 m thick layer. The occurrence of the anoxic layer is attributed to seasonal eutrophication events associated with increased sedimentary input from the Don and Kuban Rivers. This sedimentary input stimulates biotic activity in the surface layers, in which organisms photosynthesize under aerobic conditions. Once the organisms expire, the dead organic matter sinks to the bottom of the sea where bacteria and microorganisms, using all available oxygen, consume the organic matter, leading to anoxic conditions. Studies have shown that in the Sea of Azov, the exact vertical structure is dependent on wind strength and sea surface temperature, but typically a ‘stagnation zone’ lies between the oxic and anoxic layers. 12 PART 1

Taganrog Bay

Taganrog Bay is the largest bay of the Sea of Azov and prime Pontocaspian habitat. It is located in the north-eastern part of the Sea and is bounded by the Belosaraysk and Dolgaya spits. The Don flows into it from the north-east. The bay can be considered as the flooded estuary of the Don River. South-east of the bay is Yeysk Liman. It lies entirely on the continent, entering the Taganrog Bay through the Yeysk and Glafirovsk Spits, and is the mouth of the Yeya River. In the Taganrog Bay, the depths increase from the mouth of the Don (2–3 m) towards the open part of the sea, reaching 8–9 m at the boundary of the Gulf and the Sea. The bay serves as a natural boundary between the Kuban coast line in Russia and the northern Azov litto- ral region in Ukraine and Russia. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the international boundary here has not been established. Major ports are Taganrog, Mariupol (Ukraine), and Yeysk. Rostov-on-Don is a few miles up the Don River. At its northeast end of the bay is the mouth of the Don River. The Taganrog Bay is about 140 km (87 mi) long and 31 km (19 mi) wide at its mouth. The median depth is about 5 metres (16 ft). It may freeze some PART 1 winters from December to March. Several other rivers, such as the Kalmius, the Mius, the Kagal’nik, flow into the bay. The flow of water into the Taganrog Bay is the main driver for current development in the Sea of Azov. The Taganrog Bay contains a major transition zone with freshwaters in the bay head region and salinities up to 11‰ at the western part.

Flora and fauna

Historically, the sea has had rich marine life, both in species richness, with over 80 fish and 300 invertebrate species identified, and in abundance. Consequently, fishing has long been a major activity in the area. The annual catch of recent years was 300,000 tonnes, about half of which are valuable species (sturgeon, pike- perch, bream, sea-roach, etc.). This was partly due to extremely high biological productivity of the sea, which was stimulated by the strong supply of nutrients from numerous rivers feeding the sea, low salinity, ample heating due to shallow settings and a long season for vegetation to grow. However, diversity and numbers have strongly decreased by artificial reduction of river flow by the construction of dams, over-fishing and several other reasons including increased pollution. Fish harvesting is rapidly decreasing and many fisheries have turned non-profitable. Estuaries and spits of the sea are rich in birds, mostly waterfowl, such as wild geese, ducks and seagulls. Colonies of cormorants and pelicans are common. Also frequently observed are swans, herons, sandpipers and many birds of prey. Mammals include foxes, wild cats, hares, hedgehogs, weasels, martens and wild boar. Muskrats were introduced to the area in the early 20th century and are hunted for their fur.

Plankton and benthos

Because of the shallowness, high productivity and low salinities, aquatic life in the Sea of Azov is more characteristic of a lagoon. Patterns of plankton occurrence and composition vary very little between the main water body and the coastal regions of the Azov Sea. Despite its shallowness, the water has low transparency, so bottom vegetation is poorly developed and most algae are of planktonic type. The sea is characterized by high concentrations of organic matter and long blooming periods. Another specific feature of the sea is the variable salinity – low in the large bays and higher in the open sea, especially near the Kerch Strait. Therefore, plankton species are distributed inhomogeneously in the Sea of Azov. Although many additional species are brought in from the saltier Black Sea, most of them cannot adjust to the variable salinity of the Sea of Azov, except for the euryhaline species. About 600 species of planktonic algae are known in the Sea of Azov. The number of species is dominated by diatoms and green algae; blue-green algae and pyrophites are significant, and Euglena and yellow-green algae form only 5% of the species. Green algae are mostly responsible for the colour of the sea in the satellite images (see photos above). Regarding zooplankton, the fresh waters of the Tanganrog Bay are inhabited by cladocera, copepod and ro- tifers, such as Brachionus plicatilis, Keratella curdata and Asplanchna. The western, more saline part of the sea 13 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST hosts three forms of Acartia clausi, as well as Centropages ponticus, meroplankton and larvae of gastropoda, bivalvia and polychaete. Benthos species reside mostly at the sea bottom and include worms, crustaceans, bottom protists, coelen- terate and mollusks. Mollusks account for 60–98% of the invertebrate biomass at the Sea of Azov bottom.

Mollusk fauna

The extant mollusk fauna of the Sea of Azov includes 96 species, including 70 gastropod and 26 bivalve species [Anistratenko et al., 2011]. The fauna is dominated by 15–18 species. The benthic fauna is characte rized by Cerastoderma glaucum, Abra segmentum, Bittium reticulatum, Rissoa spp., Ecrobia maritima and a few other forms. In zoogeographical terms, the mollusks of the Azov Sea are considered as Mediterranean invad- ers. Currently mollusks of the Azov Sea belong to two main faunistic assemblages: Mediterranean and Pon- to-Caspian. All representatives of the Mediterranean assemblage (78 species) are not endemic to this area. In addition, they are require relatively high salinities of 5–18‰. The Ponto-Caspian complex includes 18 species, and species are adapted to waters with salinities not exceeding 5–7‰. There are 24 mollusk species in the Taganrog Gulf, including 18 gastropods and 6 bivalves. Among them, six species are of Mediterranean origin, and 18 originated in the Ponto-Caspian, of which two species (Theo- doxus subthermalis and Caspia logvinenkoi) are endemic to the Taganrog province, and 8 species are common with the Caspian Sea. The most abundant species in the northern part of Taganrog Bay is Hypanis (Mono- dacna) colorata.

Fish fauna

There are 183 fish species from 112 genera and 55 families in the Sea of Azov region. Among them, there are 50 rare and 19 endangered species, and the sturgeon Acipenser nudiventris is probably extinct in the region. The fauna of the freshwater Taganrog Bay is much poorer – it consists of 55 species from 36 genera and 16 families; among them, three species are rare and 6 are endangered.

Migrating and invading species

Some fish species, such as anchovy, garfish, Black Sea whiting and pickerel, visit the Sea of Azov from the Black Sea for spawning. This was especially frequent in 1975–77 when the salinity of the southern Sea of Azov was unusually high, and additional species were seen such as bluefish, turbot, chuco, spur- dog, Black Sea salmon, mackerel and even corkwing wrasse, rock hopper, bullhead and eelpout. Unlike the Black Sea plankton which does not adapt well to the low salinity of the Sea of Azov and concentrates near the Kerch Strait, fishes and invertebrates of the Black Sea adjust well. They are often stronger than the native species, are used to the relatively low temperatures of the Black Sea and survive winter in the Sea of Azov well. Balanus improvises is the first benthos species which spread from the Black Sea in the early 20th century and settled in the Sea of Azov. Its current density is 7 kg/m2. From 1956, Rapana venosa is observed in the Sea of Azov, but it could not adjust to low salinity and therefore is limited to the neighborhood of the Kerch Strait. Several Sea of Azov mollusks, such as shipworm (Teredo navalis), soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Anadara inaequivalvis, originate from the Black Sea (where several have been immigrant species themselves). Another example of invading species is the Dutch crab Rhithropanopeus harrisii, which is observed both in saline and freshwater parts. Formerly three types of dolphins, short-beaked common dolphin, common bottlenose dolphin and harbour porpoise, regularly visited the Sea of Azov from the Black Sea although the common dolphin usually avoided the basin and Kerch Strait due to low salinity. One type of harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena re- licta, used to live in the Sea of Azov and was therefore called “Azov dolphin” in Russia. Nowadays, dolphins are rarely observed in the Sea of Azov. This is attributed to shallowing of the sea, increasing navigation activities, pollution, and reduction in the fish population. 14 PART 1

Traditional activity in the sea is fishing. The Sea of Azov used to be the most productive fishing area in the Soviet Union: typical annual fish catches of 300 000 tonnes converted to 80 kg per hectare of surface. The corresponding numbers are 2 kg in the Black Sea and 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb) in the Mediterranean Sea. The catch has decreased in the 21st century, with more emphasis now on fish farming, especially of sturgeon.

Flora

The shores of the Sea of Azov contain numerous estuaries and marshes and are dominated by reeds, sedges, Typha and Sparganium. Typical submerged plants are Charales, pond weed, hornworts and water lilies. Also common is lotus, which was brought to the area from Africa. The flora is diverse; for example, the Belosaraysk and Berdyansk spits alone contain more than 200 plant species each. Some spits are declared national nature reserves, such as Beglitsk, Belosaraysk, Krivaya and Berdyansk Spits. PART 1

15 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

REFERENCE INFORMATION

Azov town

Azov (the former names Azak (XIII–XIV centuries), Tana (XV–XVI centuries)) is a town in the Rostov region, the administrative center of the Azov district, with its history dating back to 1067. Population is 81 862 people (2016). The area of the city is 66.2 km². The old part of the city preserves fortifications of the Azov fortress of the XVIII century: ramparts, moat, Alekseevskiye Gates. Azov is one of the historical towns with protected cultural layers. Azov is located on the banks of the Don and its tributary, the Azovka River, 15 km upstream from Taganrog Gulf of the Azov Sea. For endless time the city had an important strategic position, which had a great influence on its history. The city is the oldest in the Rostov region, its history began more than two thousand years ago, with first settlements of the Scythians. The chronicles also records people inhabiting the territory of the city as Cimmerians, Scythians, Sauromats and Meots. In the Scythian time in the Northern Priazovye, many settlements developed, which later played an important role in the development and establishment of the region: the Taganrog settlement, the Elizavetovka fortified settlement, the large Greek colony, the Bosporan colony Tanais (city), and several others. In 1559, Azov was besieged by Dmitry Vishnevetsky. In 1637 Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks captured Azov and could held it till 1642 (the so-called “Azov seating”). Cossacks took part in the Azov campaigns of 1695–1696, resulting in establishing Russian sovereignty over Azov. During the Prut campaign of 1711, the Russian army was defeated. The resulting Prut peace treaty urged Russia to returned Azov to the Ottoman Empire. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1735–1739, the fortress was captured in 1736 by the troops of General Lassi. According to the Belgrade peace treaty of 1739, the fortress was returned to the Ottoman Empire, but under the terms of the treaty with Russia all fortifications were dismantled. In March 1769, after the new Rus- sian-Turkish war, the city was again occupied by the soldiers of the Vologda regiment and the Don Cossacks. Since that time the town has been part of Russia. In 1775 Azov became the administrative centre of the newly established Azov province. In 1782, after the transfer ofthe provincial administration in Ekaterinoslav, Azov regained the status of fortress. On March 31 of 1810, Azov became a town of the Rostov County of Ekaterino- slav province, and in 1888 it was included into the Don Cossack Region.

Azov Мuseum-Reserve

Azov Historical, Archaeological and Paleontological Museum-Reserve is situated in the former City Coun- cil, built in 1892. The museum complex includes the “Gunpowder Cellar”, the earth walls of the Azov fortress of XVIII century, the memorial museum of the polar explorer R.L. Samoylovicha, and an exhibition hall. The first exposition of the Azov Museum was opened on May 17, 1917 due to the activities of the Azov Society “People’s Enlightenment”. The first museum was ruined during the Civil War (1917–1922). The Muse- um was re-created in 1937, but during the Nazi occupation of Azov it was destroyed again and all collections were lost. For the third time the museum was opened in May 1960. Since that time the staff of the Museum have been conducting systematic archaeological excavations, studying the historical and cultural heritage of the region. The Azov Museum-Reserve is one of the largest museums in the south of Russia. Over 78 thousand square meters of area, more than 350 thousand exhibits. Museum exhibitions are devoted to paleontology, archeology, history, nature, art, and human history connected with the town. The Azov Museum-Reserve has an extensive paleontological collection. It includes famous exhibits of the complete skeleton of 6 million year old deinothere Deinotherium proavum, two skeletons of Mammuthus trogontherii with the age of 700–600 ka, giant Caucasian rhinocerous Elasmotherium caucasicum (1.2–1.4 million years). The exposition also includes fossils remains of beaverTrogontherium , Gromov’s elephant, antelope Gazellospira, the Liventsovka stenonid horse and the Azov giraffe. All these fossils were unearthed in the Don region. There is also an exhibition dedicated to the modern nature of the Sea of Azov area. 16 PART 1 PART 1

Figure 1.5. The building of Azov Museum-Reserve

The Azov Museum-Reserve is famous in Russia and abroad as a center for archaeological research. A huge archaeological collection represents the culture of numerous peoples inhabiting the Don region at different times. In the exhibition space “peacefully coexist” Greek amphorae and Scythian boilers, Sarmatian armors and Normanian bracelets, uniforms of Khazar warriors, and stone sculptures of the Polovtsian steppe tribes. The pride of the museum collection is the exposition “Treasures of the nomads of Eurasia”. It presents more than 20,000 rare exhibits from the III millennium BC to the 14th century AD. Of particular interest are golden and silver jewelry of the past: exquisite Scythian decorations of the “animal style”, weapons, golden plates, bowls decorated with ritual warriors. The world-class values have the finds from the famous Sarma- tian treasure, dating at the 1st century AD. These include unmatched luxury products of Greek and Oriental craftsmen: a ceremonial sword with a sheath, decorated with figures of eagles and camels, and unique details of horse harness.

Figure 1.6. Fragments of paleontological exposition of Azov Museum-Reserve 17 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Coastal scientific expeditionary base “Kagal’nik”

The base of the Southern Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences is located in the village of Kagal’nik in the Azov District. The Kagal’nik basehosts an academic museum of the Cossacks, ethnography and culture of the Azov Sea region and the vicinity of Kagal’nik settlement since the end of the XVIII century. A set of classical and modern equipment allows for a wide range of hydrobiological, hydrological and hydrochemical studies. The hydrometeorological station located here continuously monitors the atmospheric parameters and the waters in a near-by channel of the Don delta (Fig. 1.7). Thanks to its excellent location, the unique nature and its equipment, the scientific station “Kagal’nik” at- tracts specialists from different regions of Russia and foreign countries. The station is equipped with modern office instruments, library, working classrooms and laboratories, and a mini-hotel for staff. In winter, up to 20 people can work on the base at the same time, up to 50 specialists and students in the summer. Since 2002, the “Kagal’nik” station is the base for students of a number of Russian universities: Moscow State University (MSU), St. Petersburg State University (St. Petersburg), SFU (Rostov-on-Don), MGPU (Murmansk), ASTU (Astrakhan), KubSU (Krasnodar), SKFU (Stavropol), KalmSU (Elista), and others. Over the past five years, the Southern Scientific Centre of RAS has been successfully developing innovative technologies for rearing and reproduction of valuable fish species of the Azov and Caspian basins in order to preserve them in natural conditions, as well as to obtain high-quality commercial products. To solve rearing and reproduction problems, a unique experimental aquarium complex with an area of more than 300 m2 was created at the Kagal’nik station. New intensive technologies using modular systems and multi-level complexes allow to significantly increase the productivity of “sturgeon farms”. In the vicinity of the station oceanological, geographic, geological, ichthyological, ornithological, entomo- logical, botanical, paleontological, archaeological and ethnographic studies are regularly conducted.

Figure 1.7. Scientific expeditionary base “Kagal’nik”

18 PART 1

Southern Scientific Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences

SSC RAS brings together researchers from the different cities of the Southern Federal District for the joint solution of fundamental tasks that have priority for the international community and the development of the Russian state – its defense, political stability and socio-economic progress. In collaboration with other academic centers operating in the South of Russia, SSC RAS plays an important role in the coordination of research activities. The Southern Federal District (SFD) is one of the most difficult and most problematic- re gions of the country, where it is necessary to predict the developments in various spheres of life considering all the complexities involved. The most acute problems here today are the problems of economic development, employment, migration and ethnic relations. SFD is the key in the current geo-political relations of Russia with the East and West. SSC RAS was created in December 2002 in Rostov-on-Don. SSC RAS quickly found its own specific features and dynamics of its strategic development, which is especially important in the complex structural transformation of Russian Academy of Sciences. SSC RAS is a system of scientific institutions, integrated multi-divisional branches and specialized laboratories located in 14 cities in the Southern Federal PART 1 District – from Taganrog to Astrakhan and Volgograd to Grozny. This system brings together over 500 researchers, among whom more than 90 are doctors and 200 PhDs of sciences. The chairman and founder of SCC RAS is academician Gennadiy Matishov. Basic research areas are led by Academicians and Correspond- ing Members of RAS. All activities of the SSC RAS are held in full accordance with the Development Program of SSC RAS (RAS Act No. 248 08.11.2005). In 2008, the Institute for Social and Economic Research and Humanities and the Institute of Arid Zones were established. SSC RAS fully developed the mechanism of interaction with the leading universities in the Southern Federal District, and also established integration ties with the academic centers of RAS in SFD. The restoration of networking with the National Academies of Sciences of Armenia and Ukraine is in progress. Also, some effort is given to the development of logistics of SSC RAS. All the major decisions made by the Bureau of SSC RAS are taken with the alignment of the apparatus of the Plenipotentiary Representative of President of the Russian Federation in Southern Federal District and the heads of territorial entities of SFD. SSC RAS is focusing its activities on key scientific issues to ensure national security, improve the economic, social and environmental conditions in the region. The priority here is given to the integration of the scientific divisions created by Bureau into the scientific research activities of RAS by participating in the Programs by Bureau and Branches of the RAS. SSC RAS developed close ties to Rostov, Kuban, Stavropol, Volgograd State Universities and the technical colleges in Taganrog, Astrakhan, Rostov-on-Don, Volgograd, Stavropol and Novocherkassk (Fig. 1.8). Based on those relationships the laboratories, the departments and the Judiciaries are created and scientific confer- ences and seminars are held. Also created are the conditions for the formation of scientific and educational centers.

Figure 1.8. The building of Southern Scientific Centre RAS in Rostov-on-Don

19 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

FIELDTRIPS FIELDTRIP 1.1

THE DON DELTA

The Don Delta is located at the mouth of the Don River, within the Rostov region of the Russian Feder- ation. The area of the delta is about 538 sq. km. The Don delta is located on the northeastern side of the Ta- ganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov. The delta apex is located downstream the city of Rostov-on-Don at the village of Nizhne-Gnilovskaya. From there, a right distributary channel called Mjortvyj (Dead) Donets branches off. Further downstream the Don branches out into several distributaries: the Big Kalancha, the Old Don, the Big Kuterma, the Perevoloka, the Wet Kalancha and a multitude of branches, streams and canals, including man- made irrigation canals and shipping lanes such as the Azov Trunk Canal. The present-day delta of the Don is a flat alluvial plain with several lakes, that often serve as spawning grounds, meadows, and vast seasonally submerged areas covered by reed, cattail, and chacon. The main vegetation type in the delta consists of meadows but along waterways riparian vegetation is dominant. Delta watercourses have riverine shafts. Between outlets, numerous islands, levees and bars were formed on the sea side of the delta. Shallow interdistributary bays (kuty) with a depth of about 0.5 m are found between the spits and islands (Babinsky, Zelenkov, etc.). The length of the sea front of the delta is 32 km. The Don Delta has a fairly rich flora and fauna. The river Don (a mixed rain-snow meltwater river draining the Russian plain) feeds the delta. The catchment area of the Don River is 422,000 sq. km. Annually about 20 km³ of fresh water flows from the Don catchment into Taganrog Bay. After the development of Tsimlyansk reservoir in 1951, annual discharge dropped. In the past c 4500 years, the Don River deposited c 4.7 million tons of river sediment per year – silt, clay, sand, resulting in a strong prgradation of the delta with an average speed of about 8 m per year. At the same time, the rate of extension of some horns/capes reached 10–75 meters per year. After the creation of the Tsimly- ansk reservoir, delta progradation rates significantly decreased. At present time the processes of accumulation and erosion at the sea edge of the delta have stabilized. However, suspended and bed load keep clogging up the main navigable canal. In the 1950s, the rate of sedimentation in some areas exceeded 1 m per year. In 1928, a new river-sea shipping channel was dug, passing along the Old Don and the Peschanaya channel. Before, the shipping route passed through Bolshaya Kalancha and Perevoloka. In order to maintain shipping activities, permanent dredging operations are carried out in the delta channels.

Figure 1.9. The map of the Don Delta 20 PART 1

FIELDTRIP 1.2

BEGLITSA SECTION

The Beglitsa section is located in 20 km W of Taganrog. The coastal cliff exposes up to 15 m thick sequence of lagoonal clays and silts overlain by thin loess-paleosol deposits that include the Mezin paleosol complex (Eemian) and the Bryansk paleosol. The section is known by the discovery of a Mousterian core 1 m above the Mezin (Eemian/Mikulino) soil complex, and the presence of bone remains of Mammuthus below this complex [Ivanova and Praslov, 1963; Lebedeva, 1972]. The modified profile published by Lebedeva is shown in the Fig. 1.10. PART 1

Figure 1.10. Geological profile near Beglitsa village [modified after Lebedeva, 1972]. Captions: (1) lagoonal clays of the Beglitsa terrace; (2) sands of incised valleys; (3) lagoonal clays of incised valley of the Eemian age; (4) lagoonal-gully silts; (5–7) loess-like loams; (8) modern lagoonal deposits; (9) large mammals; (10) small mammals, A-D: faunal levels (see the table); (11) molluscs; (12) Mousterian core; (13) carbonate concretions; (14) paleosols

Recently, the characteristic late Middle Pleistocene fauna of small mammals has been discovered in 1.5 m below the Mezin soil complex. The fauna includesSpermophilus aff. pygmaeus, Spalax sp., Lagurus lagurus, Eolagurus cf. luteus, Arvicola chosaricus, Microtus arvalis, Microtus gregalis, Microtus oeconomus [Tesakov et al., 2005]. The water vole has typical, almost undifferentiated enamel (SDQ: 97–98). The evolutionary level of Arvicola and the faunal composition supports the late Middle Pleistocene age of the fauna [Tesakov et al., 2007]. The fauna is referred to the regional zone MQR2. The same deposits yielded mollusc assemblage including Monodacna sp., Unionidae gen., Dreissena polymorpha, Bithynia leachi, Valvata pulchella, V. piscinalis, V. naticina, Micromelania sp., Anisus strauchianus, and Vallonia pulchella. This is mostly fresh-water assemblage with some indicators of brackish-water conditions. 21 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Beglitsa-4.03, (47˚07’36’’ N 38˚31’02’’ E), field description of A. Dodonov Bed Lithology depth, m 1 Humic horizon of modern chernozem soil 0.0–0.4 2 Brownish-dark grey illuvial bed of modern soil, well developed structure 0.4–1.1 3 Carbonate bed of the modern soil, light brownish, carbonatized, clotted structure 1.1–1.5 4 Loess light brownish 1.5–2.0 5 Bryansk paleosol. Loess-like loams light-brown, weak clotted structure 2.0–3.2 6 Loess light brownish 3.2–4.5 7 Loess grey to light brownish 4.5–5.0 8 Loess, weakly humic, carbonate pseudomycelium 5.0–5.5 Mezin pedocomplex brownish paleosol. Loams grey-brown, clotted structure with 9 desiccation veins and occasional hypsum crystals 5.5–6.2 Mezin pedocomplex chernozem-like paleosol. Loams dark grey, strongly humic, 10 clotted structure, carbonate pseudomycelium 6.2–6.8 11 Loams brownish-grey carbonatized. Illuvial horizon of the Mezin paleosol 6.8–7.1 12 Loess-like loams grey-brown 7.1–9.0 13 Loams greenish-dark grey with lime concretions 9.0–9.7

The palynology of the upper part of the subaerial sequence in the Beglitsa section was studied by Simak- ova [2008] in two adjacent sections, Beglitsa-4.03 and Beglitsa-2.05, which are 700 m apart. The location of the studied sections is shown in Fig. 7.

Beglitsa-2.05, (47˚07’48’’ N 38˚30’29’’ E), field description of A. Dodonov Bed Lithology depth, m 1 Modern chernozem soil 0.0–1.0 2 Loams loess-like, grey-light brown, fine porosity 1.0–2.6 3 Bryansk paleosol. Loess-like loams light-brown, weak clotted structure 2.6–3.8 4 Silt loess-like, grayish-light brownish, homogenous, fine porosity 3.8–6.2 Mezin pedocomplex brownish paleosol. Loams brownish to dark grey, weakly car- 6.2–6.9 5 bonatized, dessication veins Mezin pedocomplex chernozem-like paleosol. Loams dark grey, strongly humic, 6.9–7.65 6 clotted, carbonate pseudomycelium and desiccation veins 7 Loams grayish to light brownish, carbonatized, lime concretions 7.65–8.4 8 Loams loess-like, grayish to light brownish 8.4–9.85

Altogether 19 samples have been studied from Beglitsa-4.03 and 15 samples from Beglitsa-2.05 (Fig. 1.11). The most complete pollen data characterize the Beglitsa-4.03 section in its upper part (beds 1–5, depth range 0–3.5 m), and for the chernozem-like horizon of the Mezin pedocomplex (bed 10, depth 6.0–6.4 m). Loess- like loams underlying the Bryansk paleosol and the Mezin pedocomplex (beds 6–8 and 11–13) were found to be less informative, with only sporadic pollen grains of Pinus, Betula, Asteracea, and Brassicaceae identified. Six pollen zones (I-VI) were defined. Palynological characteristics of the Brynask and Mezin interval were amplified by the data from the section Beglitsa-2.03 (correspondingly, bed 3 and beds 5–6).

Pollen assemblages (upsection): Assemblage I (bed 11, depth 7.1–6.8 m) characterizes the illuvial horizon of the Mezin paleosol. Dominant role has pollen of Pinus and Asteracea. Sporadic occurrence of Betula, Cichoriaceae, Artemisia, Brassicaceae. Reconstructed vegetation: herbage steppe in combination with small patches of pine forests and gully thickets. Assemblage II (bed 10, 6.8–6.2 m; bed 6 of Beglitsa-2.05) comes from the chernozem-like paleosol of the Mezin complex. It is dominated by pollen of herbs (up to 80%), including Asteraceae, Chichoriaceae, Che- nopodiaceae, Polygonaceae, and Leguminoseae. The arboreal group is represented by pines. Maximum diversity (though sporadic occurrences) of broadleaved elements Carpinus, Ulmus, Fraxinus, Quercus, and Corylus, Tilia is associated with the lower part of this bed. Wide-spread herbage and meadow vegetation combined with a limited presence of conifer-broadleaved forests and birch-alder gully thickets. 22 PART 1 PART 1

Figure 1.11. Pollen diagrams of Beglitsa section

Assemblage III (bed 9, 6.2–5.5 m; bed 5 of Beglitsa-2.05) characterizes the brownish paleosol of the Me- zin pedocomplex. The spectra are distinct in sharp reduction in pollen of broad-leaved forms and sporadic occurrence of Picea pollen. Also appears Pinus sect. Haploxylon. The spectra of this interval indicate colder climatic conditions compared to the preceding period. Forest-steppe landscapes combining meadow steppes with limited areas of conifer and small-leaved forests. Assemblage IV (bed 5, 3.2–2.0; bed 3 of Beglitsa-2.05). The spectra of the Bryansk paleosol are dominated by pollen of herbs (up to 60%). Most important shares have pollen of Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Polyg- onaceae, Plumbaguinaeae, and Pinus and Betula among trees. Also present are Picea, Pinus subgen. Hap- loxylon, Alnus, and Salix. Sporadic pollen grains indicate presence of Tilia, Carpinus, Corylus, Quercus, and Elaeagnus. The palynological data indicate widespread erbage-Chenopodiaceah steppes in combination with islands of forest vegetation (pine-spruce forests with insignificant role of broad-leaved forms and shrubs of birch, alder, asp, and willow) under conditions of cool and arid continental climate. Assemblage V (beds 3–4, 2.0–1.1 m) characterizes the loess-like bed covering the Bryansk paleosol. The spectra show a drastic decrease in pollen of trees (20%). The arboreal forms are represented by pine, birch, and willow. Pollen of Asteraceae and Chenopodiaceae dominate in the spectra. Meadow-steppe and steppe phytocoenoses can be reconstructed for this interval. Assemblage VI (bed 1–2, 1.1–0 m) of the modern chernozem-like soil. The spectra show sporadic pollen of pine, birch, alder, and willow. The dominant role have pollen of Chenopodiaceae, Asteraceae, Polygonace- ae, and Poaceae. The spectra indicate wide distribution of herbage-Chenopodiacea steppe vegetation during the formation of this soil. 23 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Faunal data (A. Tesakov, V. Titov, V. Bajgusheva, P. Frolov; Fig. 14, Plate 4)

Litho-genetic Member levels Mammalian fauna Molluscan fauna Beglitsa A Lagoonal greyish- Mammuthus cf. chosaricus Dreissena polymorpha, 1 blue clays and silts Megaloceros sp., Viviparus sp. Lagurus lagurus Beglitsa B Monodacna sp., Unionidae gen., Dreissena polymorpha, Bithynia Spermophilus aff. pygmaeus, Spalax sp., leachi, Valvata pulchella, Valvata 2 Loams and silts Lagurus lagurus, Eolagurus cf. luteus, piscinalis, Valvata naticina, Mi- Arvicola chosaricus, Microtus arvalis, cromelania sp., Anisus strauchia- Microtus gregalis, Microtus oeconomus nus, and Vallonia pulchella. Beglitsa C 3 Mezin Spermophilus sp., – pedocomplex Ellobius sp. Beglitsa D 4 Loess-like loams Lagurus lagurus – 5 Bryansk paleosol – – 6 Loess-like loams – – 7 Modern soil – –

Archaeological evidence

In 1962, the Mousterian core was unearthed by Ivanova and Vasiliev (Geological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences) from approximately 1 m above the Mezin (Eemian/Mikulino) pedocomplex [Ivanova and Praslov, 1963; Praslov, 1968; Lebedeva, 1972]. The core occurred in loess-like loam, at the level corresponding to the boundary between beds 6 and 7 of the Beglitsa 4.03 section (Fig. 1.12). In addition, N. Praslov [1968] described several Mousterian artifacts from Beglitsa found on the beach. According to Praslov [1968], the in situ core is made of transparent Creataceous chert. In industrial features this core is similar to the Le- vallois type, turtle-back cores. Due to geological position, this find can be dated in the range of ca. 90–25 ka, between the Mikulino/Eemian interglacial and Bryansk/Denekamp interstadial.

Figure 1.12. Mousterian core from Beglitsa (after Praslov, 1968) 24 PART 1

FIELDTRIP 1.3

SEMIBALKI SECTION

Semibalki is a large settlement of the Rostov Region on the southern coast of the Sea of Azov. The coastal cliffs near Semibalki provide excellent natural exposures of the Quaternary deposits, which have been and still are under active study by various research teams [Popov, 1948; Shchevtchenko, 1965; Lebedeva, 1972; Rekovets, 1994; Velichko et al., 2006, 2009; Tesakov et al., 2007, and many others]. Natalia Lebedeva [1972, Fig. 1.13] following the terrace philosophy of that time defined two diachronous terraces, the Semibalki V terrace with the Tiraspol (Cromerian) mammalian fauna in the base, and the older Margaritovo VI terrace with Tamanian (Galerian) mammals in the base. These formations can be seen near Semibalki settlement. PART 1

Figure 1.13. Geological profile near Semibalki village [modified after Lebedeva, 1972]

The geological record of multiple Semibalki sections can be divided into three main parts. A lower, lagoonal-fluviatile unit of late Early Pleistocene is exposedat the very base of the cliff 2 km SW of the settlement. This outcrop is only accessible during exceptional low water levels associated with specific wind conditions. Quartz sands, gravels, and compact bluish-gray clays yielded rich material of fresh-water molluscs, large, and small mammals [Popov, 1948; Rekovets, 1994, Bajgusheva et al., 2001; Tesakov et al., 2007]. The mollusc association includes characteristic thick-walled unionids “Unio kunugurensis” and Viviparus aethiops (Popov, 1948), as well as Dreissena polymorpha, Unio chosaricus, Viviparus turritus, Lithoglyphus cf. piramidatus, Fagotia sp. (determination of P. Frolov). Large mammals include Pachycrocuta brevirostris, Homotherium latidens, Archidiskodon meridionalis tamanensis, Elasmotherium sp., Equus aff. major, Cervalces cf. latifrons, Eucladoceros orientalis pliotarandoides, Pontoceros cf. am- biguus, Bison cf. tamanensis [Bajgusheva, 2000; Sotnikova, Titov, 2009]. Insecti- vore and rodent associations include Sorex sp., Desmana nogaica, Marmota sp., Spermophilus nogaici, Trogontherium cuvieri, Allactaga sp., Lagurodon arankae, Clethrionomys cf. hintonianus, Prolagurus pannonicus transylvanicus, Eolagurus argyropuloi argyropuloi, Mimomys pusillus, Mimomys savini, Allophaiomys pliocaenicus, Microtus (Stenocranius) hintoni (modified after Rekovets, 1994, and Te- Figure 1.14. Lower m1-m2 sakov et al., 2007). This locality is known in the literature asSemibalki-1. This is of Eolagurus praeluteus the type locality of Eolagurus praeluteus (Schevtschenko, 1965) (Fig. 1.14), later Shchevtchenko, 1965, type synonymised to E. argyropuloi. specimen from Semibalki 25 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

The middle unit occupies the lower and middle part of the Semibalki coastal sections and is represented by a sequence of light, medium-grained to coarse cross-bedded sands with abundant shells of fresh-water mollusks. These deposits were referred to the base of the Semibalki terrace of Lebedeva. The representative section of these deposits is situated at the southwestern margin of the Semibalki settlement. According to Popov [1948, 1983], the mollusk assemblage includes Unio ex gr. batavus, Unio aff. emigrans, Viviparus tiraspolitanus, and other fresh-water mollusks. Popov [1983] also reported brackish-water bivalve Monodacna caspia in this fauna. Fresh-water mollusks of this association also include Dreissena polymorpha, Sphaerium rivicola, Pisidium amnicum, Lithoglyphus naticoides, etc. (determinations of A. Tchepalyga in [Lebedeva, 1972]), and Viviparus vivparus, V. diluvianus, Bithynia tentaculata, Parafossarulus sp., Valvata piscinalis, Valvata naticina, Planorbis planorbis, Anisus spirorbis, Gyraulus albus, Gyraulus acronius, Fagotia sp., Micromelania sp., Lithoglyphus piramidatus, etc. (determinations of P. Frolov). Remarkable is the presence of black silicified shell fragments of Carboniferous spiriferid brachiopods. This is a clear indication that the source area for the alluvial sediments was situated close to the Donets Range in the north. The small mammal association [Rekovets, 1994; Tesa- kov et al., 2007] includes Spalax sp., Microtus (Stenocranius) gregaloides, Microtus nivaloides, Mimomys savini, Lagurus transiens, Eolagurus argyropuloi, etc. This site is called Semibalki-2. The representative section near the Glubokaya gully 2 km W from the settlement was described upsection by Lebedeva [1972], Fig. 1.13.

Bed Lithology and fauna Thickness, m Cross-bedded coarse sands and gravels brownish with abundant shells of fresh-water mol- 1 luscs (Viviparus, Unio) and bones of small mammals (Lagurus transiens, Microtus gregaloi- 2.0–2.5 des, etc.). Mammalian site Semibalki-2 Sands fine- and medium grained, silty, greenish-greyish, horisontally bedded with interlay- 3.0–4.0 2 ers of greenish-greyish silts. Horizontal members show cross-bedding. 3 Silts of tabacco-grey colour 1.5–1.5 4 Paleosol represented by dark grey clay 1.0 Paleosol represented by reddish and olive-brown clay with well developed illuvial horizon 5 marked by carbonate concretions 1.0 Paleosol represented by compact, chokolat-brown loam with well developed illuvial bed at 6 the base 1.5 7 Loam dark brownish grading into light brownish at the bed’s top 2.0 Paleosol represented by brown loam with well-developed carbonate concretions of illuvial 0.5 8 horizon. 9 Loam brownish, porous 1.0 10 Paleosol represented by dark brownish loam. Illuvial horizon at the base. 1.0 11 Loam greyish-brownish, porous 2.0 12 Modern soil 0.7

According to recent observations, gravels and sands of Bed 1 overly with erosional boundary bluish silts and clays of lagoonal origin, the member characterized by mammals of the Tamanian faunal complex in some 0.5 km to the west (Semibalki-1 mammalian site). The upper unit is the loess-paleosol sequence that caps the sections exposed in coastal cliffs near Semibalki. The first detailed study of paleosols in this area was published by Lebedeva [1972]. In recent decades, this part of the section has been closely studied by Prof. A. Velichko and his team [Velichko et al., 2006a, b; 2009; Fig. 1.15]. Important data on subaerial and lagoonal deposits of Semibalki sections were provided by Tesak- ov et al. [2007] and by Simakova [2008]. The most important composite loess-paleosol section is situated in the center of the settlement. It is referred to as Semibalki I (N 47°00’59,8” E 39°02’38”). According to Velichko et al. [2006a, 2009] this section has the following structure (downsection): The upper part of the section was studied palynologically [Velichko et al., 2006a] (Fig 1.16). The results permit only tentative conclusions on the quantitative relationship among the principal constituents of the spectra. Pollen assemblages determined in unit 4 and the uppermost part of unit 5 (Valdai loess) are dominated by non- arboreal constituents (NAP). Typically for steppe assemblages, they abound in Chenopodiaceae, Grami neae, and Artemisia, including Artemisia s.gen. Seriphidium. Cichoriaceae pollen constitutes a noticeable portion of the assemblages. These typical inhabitants of disturbed grounds grew presumably on the coastal scarp and 26 PART 1 could occur on the adjacent flat surface with scarce vegetation. In the lower part of unit 5, there is a noticeable rise (up to 40%) in AP abundance, mostly Pinus sylvestris, with individual grains of Picea and Betula. The proportion of Cichoriaceae and Artemisia is high. It is not inconceivable that some open forest communities did exist in the region at that time, giving a forest-steppe appearance to the environment. This could be related to the Mid-Valdai mega-interstadial (MIS 3). However, the data at hand do not permit a definite conclusion on this point. Pinus pollen can be easily transported by wind for tens of kilometres, and no plants that could be confidently attributed to a forest floristic complex has been found among the NAP. The problem requires future investigations. The upper part of the Mezin palaeosol complex (unit 6) yielded pollen assemblages not unlike those of unit 4, except for a somewhat higher content of Chenopodiaceae. The assemblage is definitely representative of a steppe environment.

Structure of loess-paleosol sequience in the section Semibalki-I PART 1

Thickness, Bed Paleosol and loess horizons, faunal remains Depth, m m Modern Soil. Lagurus sp., Valvata sp. A humic horizon of the modern Holocene chernozem soil: Sandy loam; 0YR 3/1 1 (dark grey); granular structure; gradational lower contact 0.80 0.80 Transitional A/B horizon: Loam-to-sandy loam; 10YR 5/2 (pale yellow-grey); pris- 1.50 0.70 2 matic to fine blocky structure; gradational lower contact BCa horizon: Loam to sandy loam; 10YR 4/3 (yellowish-brown); porous; prismatic 3 structure; carbonate accumulations; indistinct lower contact 2.00 0.5 BC horizon, pedogenically modified loess: Sandy loam; 10YR 6/4 (pale yellow, with brownish hue); prismatic to medium angular blocky structure; almost com- 4 pletely devoid of carbonates; krotovinas 8–15 cm in diameter; gradational lower 2.65 0.65 contact BC horizon, pedogenically modified loess: Sandy loam; 10YR 6/4 (pale yellow, with brownish hue); prismatic to medium angular blocky structure; almost com- 5 pletely devoid of carbonates; krotovinas 8–15 cm in diameter; gradational lower 4.90 2.25 contact Mezin Palaeosol complex (PC 1) (Mz), attributed to Mikulino/Eemain interglacial. Spermophilus sp., Lagurus lagurus, Lacertidae gen. Upper humified horizon; Krutitsa interstadial phase of the Mezin soil complex: Loam; 10 YR 5/4 (brown, with weak grey hue); well-developed fine columnar 5.37 0.47 6 prismatic structure; compact, firm, and cohesive; isolated fine carbonate crystals (2–3 mm) in pores Lower humic horizon; Salyn phase of the Mezin soil complex, corresponding to the Mikulino Interglacial: Loam; 10 YR 4/4 (grey-brown); well-developed fine columnar prismatic structure; compact, firm, and cohesive; upper part abounds 6.00 0.63 7 in fine-grained (powdery) carbonates concentrated in macropores (root channels) 2–4 mm in diameter; decreasing carbonate concentrations below 0.30 m thickness; gradational lower contact AB horizon: Loam; 10 YR 4/4 (grey-brown); medium prismatic structure; isolated 8 powdery carbonate crystals; krotovinas of burrowing animals (3–5 cm diameter); 6.45 0.45 distinct lower contact BCa horizon: Loam; 10 YR 4/3 (grayish-brown, with a weak yellowish hue; prismatic structure; abundant carbonate weakly lithified nodules and concentra- 9 tions (‘‘byeloglazka’’), 0.5–0.8 cm diameter; krotovinas infilled with material from 7.22 0.77 the overlying soil horizon (unit 8) to 5 cm diameter; distinct lower contact, but without evidence of erosion Kamenka Palaeosol complex (PC 2) (Km) Am horizon: Loam; 10 YR 4/3 (grayish-brown); fine prismatic structure; carbonate present only as vertical inclusions arranged as veinlets 4–8mm wide, along fossil 10 plant roots; krotovinas to 12–15cm2, filled with material from layer 8; numerous 8.06 0.84 vertical veins penetrate to the lower portion of the layer 10 and below; distinct lower contact

27 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Bm horizon: Loam; 10 YR 3/3 (dark brown); granular structure; compact and firm; scattered carbonate concentrations (‘‘byeloglazka’’) due to carbonate migration from 11 the overlying layer; fine vertical veins extending from units 9 and 10; distinct lower 8.56 0.50 contact BCa horizon: Loam; 10 YR 4/4 (brown); weak prismatic to granular structure; compact; abundant carbonate inclusions (‘‘byeloglazka’’ type) in upper 0.50 m, but 12 reduced in lower 0.25 m; krotovinas 5–7 cm in diameter; vertical veinlets 2–4 cm 9.38 0.82 wide filled with material from the overlying horizons, forming the continuation of structures extending downwards from unit 9; gradational lower contact Lower B horizon: Clayey loam to clay; 10 YR 5/5 (light brown), grading down- 13 wards to 10 YR 4/4 (brown); granular-to-weak fine blocky; compact; manganese 9.85 0.47 oxide staining on block surfaces; distinct lower contact Inzhavino Palaeosol complex (PC 3) (In), attributed to the Likhvin Interglacial, split by vertical fractures into columns A horizon: Sandy loam, humic; 10 YR 4/4 (brown); strong medium to coarse 14 blocky structure; fissures 4–5 cm wide separating blocks are infilled with material 10.35 0.50 from unit 13; manganese oxide staining on block surfaces; gradational lower contact AB horizon: Loam, humic; 10YR 3/3 (dark greybrown); fine blocky structure; compact; split by vertical fractures into columns, increasing in width from 10–15 cm in the upper part of the layer to 30–40 cm towards its base. The width of inter-block infilled fractures varies from 3–5 to 8–12 cm, and they are filled with grey-yellowish 11.10 0.75 15 loam, resembling that of the overlying layer; coloring due to humus darkens downwards. Krotovinas 5–8 and 5–10 cm2 in dimensions filled with mixed material (from blocks and fissures) occur within the lower 0.3 m of the layer; gradational lower contact AB horizon: Loam to clayey loam, humic; 10 YR 3/3 (dark grey-brown); fine blocky to granular structure; distinct iron oxide films on ped facets; individual col- 16 umns (between vertical fissures) widen to 60–65 cm; fissures are reduced in width 11.40 0.35 to 5–7 cm; gradational lower contact B horizon: Loam to sandy loam; 10 YR 4/4 to 10 YR 3/4 (brown to brownish grey); granular-to-weak fine blocky structure; fine silty carbonates in pores; isolated kro- 17 tovinas (5–10 cm dimensions) filled with material from humus horizon; numerous 11.85 0.30 thin (5–10 mm) subvertical veinlets penetrate into unit 17 from the overlying layer; distinct lower contact Vorona Palaeosol complex (PC 4) (Vr), attributed to the Muchkap Interglacial Spermophilus sp, Lagurus ex gr. transiens-lagurus, Eolagurus sp., Microtus cf. arvalidens, Anura, Chondrula tridens A horizon: Sandy loam; 7.5 YR 5/8 (red-brown); weak fine blocky to granular structure; friable, non-cohesive; fine porosity; carbonate inclusions (‘‘byeloglazka’’); 18 krotovinas (5–10 cm) filled with humus material from the above-lying soil; trace 12.73 0.88 structures of small burrowing animals (10–15 mm) filled with dark-grey organic matter; gradational contact AB horizon: Loam; 7.5 YR 4/3 (reddish brown); weak fine blocky to granular structure; friable, non-cohesive; fine porosity; rare carbonate inclusions (‘‘byeloglazka”); 19 scattered krotovinas (5 cm) filled with materials presumably from the overlying 13.20 0.47 layer; gradational lower contact BCa horizon: Sandy loam-to-loam; 5YR 4/6 (light yellow-brown); very weak fine blocky to granular structure; friable, non-cohesive; rich in fine carbonates; some 20 ‘‘byeloglazka’’ inclusions; carbonate content decreases with depth; gradational lower 13.85 0.65 contact BC horizon: Sandy loam; 7.5 YR 5/4 (grayish-yellow); very weak fine blocky to granular structure; friable, non-cohesive; carbonate ‘‘byeloglazka’’ inclusions; small manganese oxide crystals; krotovinas with 5–15 cm dimensions. In the lower part 21 (within 25 cm above base) the layer becomes gradually lighter, with isolated lenses 14.90 1.05 of light grey fine sand. The increase in sand content is noticeable from the cumula- tive thickness of 14–14.5m, indicating that the soil developed on the underlying lagoonal sediments; gradational lower contact Tiraspolian (Cromerian) sand. Fine sand: 10 YR 7/3 (light grey with a slight greenish hue); horizontally stratified, with fine cross-lamination within horizontal 15.15 0.25 22 beds; subvertical root channels penetrate from the overlying unit; krotovinas with 5–15 cm dimensions

28 PART 1 PART 1

Figure 1.15. Lithological, chemical, magnetic susceptibility, and oxygen-isotope data on subaerial sequence in Semibalki-I section. Designations: (1) loess; (2) humus horizon (A) of variable coloration degree; (2a) strong, (2b) less strong; (3) transitional (A/B); (4) horizon B, containing: (4a) carbonates, (4b) burrows; (5) lagoonal-marine sands. Soil horizons: Hol, Holocene. Paleosol complexes: Mz, Mezin; Km, Kamenka; In, Inzhava; Vr, Vorona. ICC, isotope composition of carbon; IC, isotope composition [Velichko et al., 2006b]

Figure 1.16. Pollen diagram of upper part of the section Semibalki I 29 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Pollen spectra recovered from the lower humic horizon of PC 1 (Salyn, unit 7) are distinguished by considerably higher percentages of AP (up to 65%), with dominance of Pinus and Betula and small pro- portions of Ulmus and Acer. In the NAP group, Artemisia and Gramineae prevail, while Cichoriaceae presence is considerably reduced. The pollen assemblages are indicative of forest-steppe communities over the region at that time, and the presence of themophilic tree species (Ulmus, Acer) suggests interglacial environments. Pollen assemblages of unit 8 are noticeably different from those of the overlying unit. The proportion of NAP rises to 93%. The assemblages are dominated by Artemisia, with Gramineae, Chenopodiaceae, Aste- raceae, and Cichoriaceae present in small amounts. The vegetation was similar to the modern southern steppe.

30 PART 1

ZELENYI (KAGAL’NIK)

Kagal’nik is a river and homonymous settlement to the west from Azov town. The Kagal’nik River is flowing into the Sea of Azov. Elevated hills near the river’s mouth are formed by ancient fluviatile sand of paleo- Don. These deposits are actively dug for construction purposes in a series of small and medium-size sandpits. The Kagal’nik section (47°10’50”N, 39°12’10”E) was studied in the sandpit 5 km to the WSW of the town of Azov [Tesakov et al., 2007; Plate 2]. The sandpit exposes the Semibalki terrace deposits of the left bank of the Don Valley to the northeast from the mouth of the Kagal’nik river. The locality is famous for the finds of two skeletons of the throgontherine elephant, Mammuthus trogontherii in 1964 and 1998 [Bajgusheva, Timonina, 2001]; the latest excavation campaign was carried out during the summer of 1999. Both skeletons are on display in the Azov Museum-reserve. Recently the incomplete skull of young individual of M. trogon-

therii was found here (collection SSC RAS). PART 1

Bed Lithology Thickness, m Sands, light grey horizontally bedded with interbeds of dark grey silty clays. The lower part 1 of the bed contains lenses of clayey sand with freshwater mollusc shells and bones of small 2 mammals Alternation of light grey, fine-grained, cross- and horizontally bedded sands and brown grey 3.5–3.7 2 clays. Clay interlayers contain mollusc shells Sands light grey, fine-grained, fine layeredwith thin interbeds of grey clays. The middle 3 part of the bed is cryoturbated: an ice wedge pseudomorph penetrates the sand down to 2.5 the depth of 0.6 m 4 Loamy sand light brown indistinctly bedded 0.7–0.8 Loams dark brown with sparse green reddish gleyed spots, carbonate concretions (+2 cm) 5 and sparse shells of freshwater molluscs. The bed contained the skeleton of Mammuthus 0.5–0.8 trogontherii 6 Loams, dark brown, layered, contain fine carbonate concretions (diameter 2 cm) 0.5 Loam, dark brown with carbonate concretions and fine iron and manganese grains (diam- 7 eter 2–3 cm); 2–3 Higher parts of the section are not exposed.

The elephant remains were confined to the loamy layer in the upper part of the section. The sandy deposits at the base of the section (bed 1) have yielded a characteristic association of small mammals. The mammalian fauna is almost identical to that known from the Tiraspolian strata at Semibalki: Microtus nivaloides, primitive Lagurus transiens and Microtus (Stenocranius) ex. gr. hintoni-gregaloides. Only the lower (essentially clayey) layers in the Kagal’nik section, beds 1 and 2, could be measured palaeomagnetically and showed normal polarity. Of particular importance are the cryogenic structures seen in the clayey sands (bed 3) of the upper deltaic sequence at Kagal’nik. These structures are a good example of early periglacial processes in the Azov Sea region during the Middle Pleistocene. The association of the molluscs in bed 1 [Tchepalyga, pers. comm.] has a rheophilous appearance and contains shells of the extinct gastropod Viviparus tiraspolitanus (Pavlow) that was originally described from the so-called ‘Tiraspol Gravel’ fluvial deposits. These deposits forming the Kolkotov Terrace near the city of Tiraspol in Moldova, are the stratotype of the Tiraspolian mammal complex. The molluscan assemblages from beds 2 and 5 are of limnophilous and stagnophilous character and indicate a deltaic-lagoonal environment. Currently the old sandpits are closed. An actively used sandpit Zelenyi (New Kagal’nik) is selected for the field excursion. The quarry exposes about 15–20 m of the light quarts sands with abundant shells ofVivipa - rus, Dreissena and other fresh-water mollusks. These deposits form a base of the so-called Semibalki terrace [Lebedeva, 1972]. The mammalian fauna from the site includes Microtus (Stenocranius) gregaloides, Microtus nivaloides, and Eolagurus argyropuloi (Fig. 1.17). This is the typical assemblageof the Tiraspolian faunal complex known in many early Middle Pleistocene sites in the area.

31 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 1.17. Localities of Tiraspolian faunal complex – Kagal’nik and Zelenyi (New Kagal’nik). (1) the excavations of Mammuthus trogontherii by researches of Azov museum-reserve in 1998; (2) lower jaw Mam- muthus trogontherii (1998 excavations’ year); (3) the skeleton of Mammuthus trogontherii of 1964 excavations’ year in the exposition of Azov museum-reserve; (4–5) cross-sections of Zelenyi sand pit; (6) Arvicolids from the New Kagal’nik (Zelenyi) locality. (1) Lagurus transiens, m1, fragment; (2) Eolagurus argyropuloi, m1; (3) Microtus nivaloides, m1 32 PART 2 THE Manych depression WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

PHYSICO-GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Manych depression is located in the southeastern part of the Russian Plain between the Caspian and Azov seas and the highlands of the northern Cis-Caucasus Region and Ergeni (Fig. 2.1). The Manych valley runs from NW to SE for more than 400 km, grading to the west into the Don River valley. The valley is located in the broader Manych Depression. The latter is divided by the Stavropol-Ergeny tectonic axis, the fragments of which are the Zunda-Tolginsky and Salsk uplands. The width of the ancient Manych valley reaches maximally 20 km. Its slopes are asymmetrical with steep northern slopes and more gentle southern slopes. The floor of the modern Manych valley is uneven. Elevated ridges near Lake Manych-Gudilo in the central Manych region are terrace remains. In general this area is a low hilly plain.

Figure 2.1. Manych Depression

Climate in the Lake Manych-Gudilo area is arid, transitional from the steppe to desert type. It is characterized by a cold winter with low snow cover and hot, dry summers. The mean temperature in January is -5.5ºС with minima as low as -35°C. The mean temperature in July is +24ºС with maxima up to +45ºС. Annual precipitation is 300–400 mm. Low precipitation, high summer temperatures and prolonged dry winds drive very strong evaporation. The winds are mostly eastern, southeast and less often western. The valley of the western Manych is located in the subzone of the Festuca-Stipa steppes. Two dominant types of zonal vegetation are distinguished here: 1) moderately dry steppe, Festuca-Stipa with Stipa-dominated grass and xerophilic desert-steppe herbs; 2) dry steppe, of the Festuca-Stipa type with desert-steppe motley grass and semi-shrubs. These plant communities are developed on chestnut and dark chestnut soils. The common type of soil complexes are solonetzes (= sodium-rich aridisols and mollisols). They occur in narrow bands or circular spots within minor depressions. Significant areas are occupied by alkaline lands around salt lakes (Leb- yazhye, Lopukovatoy, Gruzskoe, Krugloe, etc.). The natural tree-shrub vegetation is represented only by rare tamarisk bushes along the gullies and shores of lakes. Ground waters are mostly strongly mineralized. Weakly mineralized waters are rarely occurring in the uppermost levels. Ground waters are confined to two main horizons: sands of the Pliocene Ergeny Formation and the Middle Miocene Yashkulskaya For- mation. The described area is poorly drained. The hydrographic network is represented by the Manych River, the Bolshaya Kuberle River and smaller steppe gullies. The Manych River is dammed at several places and lakes have developed, among them the Lake Manych-Gudilo complex. The latter is strongly mineralized 34 PART 2 with its salinity exceeding the salinity of the World Ocean. This is quite natural, given the small depths of the lake, and a strong influence of increased evaporation in summer and autumn. Terrace surfaces in the Manych area host highly mineralized lakes of variable size and shape. Large lakes, usually dry in the summer, are Georgian, Lopukovat and Lebyazhye (Fig. 2.2). Most steppe gullies in the area are dry, with an insignificant water run-off only during periods of snowmelt and heavy seasonal rains. The depth of groundwater in the Sal-Manych watershed ranges from 30 m on the plateau to 8 m along the lower slopes. The outflow is quite satisfactory, which is explained by sufficiently large surface slopes. Water supply for region’s inhabitants comes from artesian and generic wells, as well as artificial lake basins. The water in the artesian wells is slightly mineralized. PART 2

Figure 2.2. Map of the location of the places of visit on the northern shore of Lake Manych-Gudilo

The western Manych River is a left-bank tributary of the Don River and belongs to the Azov Basin. The eastern Manych River is located in the Caspian Basin. Currently, the Manych valley is occupied by a series of artificial water reservoirs that have been erected since the first half of the 20th century. The central watershed is located between the Cossack village Proletarskaya and the settlement Priyutnoe. This system of large lakes is called the Manych-Gudilo lake (Fig. 2.3).

Lake Manych-Gudilo

Lake Manych-Gudilo is the largest lake in the Manych system. It is located at the boundary of the Ros- tov Region, the Republic of Kalmykia, and the Stavropol Territory. Depending on the water availability over the seasons, the lake greatly changes its depth and length. In rare, humid years, the lake can reach 160 km length. In arid years, large parts of the lake floor are laid bare and bottom sediments are prone to wind erosion. Salt accumulations form at exposed lake floor areas. After construction of the dam at Karasnyi Manych village depths in Gudilo Lake reached to 4.5 m, and 2–3.5 m in the gullies. Near the dam in the western part of the reservoir depths were only about 1 m. Salt content increases from the west to east. The current salinity of the Lake Manych-Gudilo varies from nearly fresh almost to 22–26 g per liter.

Lake shores are mostly low but also cliff sections occur. The coastal outlines are uneven and change their shape quite quickly due to seasonal wind-driven algae deposits (at the end of summer they can form shallows up to a dozen meters wide), landslides and fluctuations in the water level. Small islands in the lake have a current and storm-driven origin. 35 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 2.3. Manych-Gudilo lake

Lake Gruzskoye

Lake Gruzskoye is one of the small salt lakes typical for the northern shore of Lake Manych-Gudilo. It is fed by the snow-melt and rainwater. In addition, the lake gets water from an artificial well. Lake area and depth periodically changes depending on the balance of inflow and evaporation. With the onset of summer, the lake dries up and its bottom is covered with a layer of salt a few millimeters thick. Salinity can exceed 150‰. The reservoir then becomes devoid of water and lacks coastal vegetation. The only known representative of zooplankton is the crustacean Artemia salina. The salt and bottom mud are used for medical purposes.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY

The geographical position of the Manych has attracted attention of researchers for long time. The first record of the Manych is given in the “Book of Large Map” compiled in 1627 which already stated that the Manych River is the outflow of the Khvalynian Sea. Later the area was investigated during academic expeditions of the outstanding researchers P. Pallas [1788] and K. Baer [1856]. Pallas showed that the Manych consists of a western and an eastern branch. Baer investigated the Manych valley in order to find the possible connection between the Azov and Caspian seas and made landform descriptions of the Manych lowland. The first geological investigations of the Manych were carried out by Danilevsky [1869]. In the 20th century this research was continued by Bogachev, Lisitsyn, Pravoslavlev, Golitsin, and later by Brod, Maslyaev, Rodzyanko and others. Active hydrotechnical constructing in the Manych region during the mid-20th century were accompanied by hydrogeological investigations including drilling. Diverse data on the Quaternary deposits and evolution of the Manych Depression were published by Fedorov, Kvasov, Koptelova, Badyukova, Chepalyga, Svitoch, Yanina and others. The main contribution to 36 PART 2 the knowledge of Manych history was made by G.I. Goretsky and G.I. Popov. Popov [1983] gave a detailed stratigraphy of the deposits, containing abundant paleogeographical information on the ancient Manych Strait. Landforms of the lowland were described by Nikolaev, Brylev, Safronov and others. Systematic complex ecosystem investigations of aquatic and terrestrial objects of the Manych started with the organization of the Southern Scientific Centre of RAS. These studies are carried out on the base of the State Rostov Natural Reserve [Manych-Chograi … 2005; Ekosistemnyi … 2005 and other publications]. Researchers defined a series of marine sediments interbedded with lake and alluvial sediments, capped along the sides of the valley by subaerial formations (Fig. 2.4). The oldest marine deposits contain an early Middle Pleistocene Bakunian fauna with Didacna rudis, D. catillus, D. monodacnoides, D. aff.lindleyi , D. lindleyi derupta, D. rudis euxinica, rarely D. eulachia and D. carditoides. These deposits are locally preserved in depressions at depths from -10 to -50 m asl. The compositionof fossil mollusks corresponds to the Baku fauna of the Caspian basin. G.I. Popov [1983] noted the presence of Didacna pseudocrassa in the Upper Baku deposits of the Eastern Manych. This species is common in the Chaudian sediments of the Black Sea region. PART 2

Figure 2.4. Schematic geological profile of the valley of the western Manych through lake Manych-Gudilo and Gruzskoye lake [Popov, 1983]

The Baku sediments are overlain with erosional nonconformity by a formation including specie of Old Euxinian (Black Sea Basin) and Early Khazar (Caspian Basin) faunas (Fig. 2.5). Caspian species include Di- dacna nalivkini, D. subartemiana, D. subpyramidata, D. delenda emendata, D. pallasi and D. subcrassa. Black Sea basin species include Didacna pontocaspia (especially numerous in the sediments of the Western Manych), Monodacna and Dreissena species, all quite abundant. The deposits form the third terrace above the floodplain of the Don and the Western Manych and a substantial (tens of meters thick) sand-clay unit at the base of the Manych strait infill. The Manych succession has two intervals with broadly similar faunas. The lower member contains shells of Didacna delenda emendata, D. pontocaspia, D. paleotrigonoides, D. catillus devexa, D. monodacnoides, D. pallasi, D. subpyramidata, Monodacna subcolorata, M. caspia, M. edentula, Hypanis plicatus, Dreissena rostriformis, Dr. caspia, Dr. polymorpha, Viviparus diluvianus, V. duboisianus, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Corbicula fluminalis, Unio sp. The upper member yields shells ofDidacna pontocaspia, D. pallasi, D. subpyramidata, Monodacna subcolorata, M. caspia, Adacna sp., Dreissena rostriformis, Dr. polymorpha, Vi- viparus duboisianus, Fagotia sp., Lithoglyphus naticoides, and Unio sp. Overlying this Late Middle Pleistocene interval are deposits with Karangat and Late Khazar (Hyrcanian) faunas. Karangatian deposits are found all the way from the Don delta area in the west to the watershed of the East and West Manych in the east. These are sandy-clayey formations up to 15 m thick that are found in the axial zone of the ancient Manych strait and contain truly marine communities with Cerastoderma glaucum, Paphia senescens, Ostrea edulis, Loripes lacteus, Bittium reticulatum and Chlamys glabra. The Karangatian interval corresponds to MIS5 highstands, most likely MIS5e. To the east the Karangatian deposits interfinger with, and partially underlay Hyrcanian units of the Caspian Basin showing the partially synchronous nature of 37 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST the Caspian-Black Sea units. Hyrcanian deposits include Didacna subcatillus, D. cristata, D. delenda, D. parallella, D. praetrigonoides, Dreissena polymorpha, Viviparus duboisianus, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Cerastoderma glaucum, Ecrobia sp., Monodacna caspia, and Dreissena polymorpha (Fig. 2.6). Sections of some drilled wells contain sediments with mixed Karangat-Hyrcanian mollusk faunas (Fig. 2.7).

Figure 2.5. Reconstruction of the Manych strait between Chaudian and Bakinian basins in early Middle Pleistocene [Palaeogeographic atlas … 1991]

Figure 2.6. Hyrcanian fauna Figure 2.7. Karangatian and Hyrcanian fauna

38 PART 2

The Karangat-Khazar deposits are overlain by lacustrine clays of the Burtas or Gudilo Formation. Its lower part contains mollusks characteristic of fresh, running water, such as Dreissena polymorpha, Valvata piscinalis, Viviparus duboisianus, Lithoglyphus sp., and capped by a facies with Planorbis planorbis, Anisus spirorbis and Galba palustris. At the top of the lake unit loams with thin interlayers of sand and clay occur, with shells of Planorbis and numerous freshwater ostracods. At the very top the bedding disappears and the deposits acquire a loess-paleosol subaerial character. Late Pleistocene Khvalynian deposits are cut into Burtassian (Gudilo) deposits. They are rarely exposed in natural outcrops. The construction of a series of water reservoirs in the Manych depression inundated all previously known sections with malacofauna.

Khvalynian deposits crop out in the erosional cliff of the Chograi reservoir near Zunda-Tolga (Fig. 2.8). This section yielded shells ofDidacna protracta, D. ebersini, Monodacna caspia, Adacna laeviuscula, Hypanis plicatus, and Dreissena polymorpha. A 14C date of 12740 ±50 years (GrA-33717), calibrated to 14030–14670 yrs, was obtained using the shell of D. ebersini at the University of Groningen (The Netherlands). Shells of the same species studied in the Laboratory of Geochronology of St. Petersburg University by H.A. Arslanov yielded 14C date of 11420 ± 220 years (LU-5726), calibrated to 13320 ± 220 years. Shells of D. protracta provided a date of 10670 ± 140 years (LU-5725), calibrated to 12570 ± 170 years. PART 2

Figure 2.8. Zunda-Tolga section

Figure 2.9. Leviy Island section 39 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Another section of the Khvalynian is exposed at the left bank of the Lake Manych-Gudilo (Fig. 2.9, 2.10, 2.11). The fauna is dominated byDidacna protracta, in association of Didacna ebersini, D. subcatillus, Mono- dacna caspia, Hypanis plicatus, Adacna laeviuscula, Dreissena rostriformis distincta, and Dr. polymorpha. Shells of D. protracta yielded the 14C date of 10930 ± 370 years (LU-5769), calibrated to 12750 ± 460 years.

Figure 2.10. Shore of Manych-Gudilo Lake with Khvalynian deposits

The Khvalynian fauna of Manych is thus represented byDidacna protracta, D. ebersini, rare D. subcatillus, numerous Monodacna caspia, Hypanis plicatus, Dreissena rostriformis distincta, Dr. polymorpha. At the same time, D. protracta does not occur in the sediments of the western Manych, with only rare shells Didacna ebersini occurring in assemblages there (Fig. 2.10) showing a major biogeographical transition from Caspian faunas in the east to Black Sea Basin faunas in the west. In the eastern part of the valley, the Lower Khvalynian sediments form two terraces with elevations of 42– 45 and 22–25 m, corresponding to the levels of the Caspian Sea. They are traced up to the lake Manych-Gudilo, where they occur in rare isolated outcrops.

Figure 2.11. Khvalynian malacofauna

The Khvalynian complex can be divided into two stratigraphic subcomplexes. The older Abeskunian (according to Goretsky) assemblage is common in sediments overlying the Burtassian (Gudilov) strata. It includes rare small shells of Didacna ebersini and numerous brackish-water species. This assemblage characterizes the sedimentation at early phase of the Early Khvalynian transgression into the Manych valley. The younger assemblage occurs in sandy-loamy sediments between ridges forming the 20–25 m terrace. It includes Di- dacna ebersini, D. protracta, and numerous Adacna, Hypanis, and Dreissena. Didacna species are widespread and abundant in Quaternary deposits of the Manych depression. They occur in all strata except those of Holocene. Didacna forms a very diverse group represented by 47 species and subspecies have been identified by different researchers (Table 2.1). Among them, 70% of species are of Caspian origin. 40 PART 2

Table 2.1 Distribution of Didacna (sub-) species in Pleistocene deposits of Manych Deposits Species b hz1 deu hz1 deu kg hc hv1 D. pseudocrassa D. tamanica D. pontocaspia D. pontocaspia tanaitica D. parvula D. catillus catillus D. catillus devexa D. catillus volgensis D. rudis rudis D. rudis euxinica D. carditoides D. eulachia D. aff. lindleyi D. lindleyi derupta D. monodacnoides

D. symmetrica PART 2 D. adacnoides curta D. aff. kovalevskii D. subpyramidata D. pallasi D. paleotrigonoides D. praetrigon. obunca D. schuraosenica D. nalivkini D. delenda emendata D. zhukovi D. subcatillus D. subcat. elongatoplana D. cf. umbonata D. lissitzyni D. subcrassa D. cristata D. hyrcana D. parallella D. ebersini D. cf. praetrigonoides D. protracta

Fauna eu-hz1 b kg hz2 gk hv1 Assemblage eu-hz1 eu-hz1

– species of Black Sea origin; – of Caspian origin

Rostov Nature Reserve is a Russian ‘zapovednik’ (strict nature reserve) that protects a variety of sensi- tive southern European steppe wetlands, the largest herd of wild horses in Europe (the Don Mustangs), and also wetland habitat for birds. The protected areas are divided into five sections that cover the waters of Lake Manych-Gudilo, islands in that lake, surrounding steppe and shore lands. The reserve is situated in the Or- lovsky District, of Rostov Region, about 100 km northeast of Rostov-on-Don city. It is part of a Ramsar Wet- land site of international importance. 41 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

The Rostov Nature Reserve is located in the south of the East European plain, in the Manych River valley. The dominant geological feature of the reserve is Lake Manych-Gudilo, a saltwater reservoir which is surrounded be dry steppe and semi-desert landscape. The lake is long and narrow, occupying a portion of the Manych trough between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea; this long depression is the remains of what was once a sea connection between the Black and Caspian Seas. The immediate area of the reserve is a terrain of fescue-feather grass steppe. In this area there are widespread wheatgrasses and patches of bluegrass. The areas with more saline soils support large and complex communities of halophytes (salt-tolerate plants). The Tsagaan-Haq tract in particular features extensive salt marshes. The reserve is known as a central protected zone of the largest herd of wild horses in Europe. Birds are the most numerous animals by species in the reserve. Residents include the bustard, little tern, pygmy cormo- rant, pink and dalmatian pelican, spoonbill, black-headed gull, owl, and flamingos. The reserve has recorded more than 200 bird species, of which about 120 nest in the area, and 63 species have been observed here during their migrations.

Figure 2.12. The view at the scientific expeditionary base of SSC RAS “Manych” at Manych village

42 PART 3 Lower Volga region WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

REFERENCE INFORMATION

Volga-Akhtuba floodplain

The third part of the Conference and Field Trip will be held in the Northern Caspian area (Fig. 3.1) in the Astrakhan region. The Astrakhan region extends along both sides of the Volga-Akhtuba (or lower Volga) floodplain for 400 km. It is bordered on the east by azakhstan,K to the north and northwest by the Volgograd region, in the west by the Republic of Kalmykia, and on the south by the Caspian Sea. Thanks to its unique geographical location, the Astrakhan region is a land of considerable natural contrasts. Within the wide Volga-Akhtuba floodplain, which crosses a desert-steppe plain from northwest to southeast, desert landscapes alternate with meadows, riparian forests, and dense reed-beds. The Volga Delta is the largest river delta in Europe. It includes 500 channels, ducts, and small waterways, creating an abundance of rivers, lakes, islands and islets, winding water channels and bays, sand dunes, and the peculiar ridges known as Baer’s Knolls, forming a diverse natural landscape. In the area the largest fields of lotus blossoms in the world occur, some of which can cover up to 7 × 10 km. The climate is temperate, sharply continental, with large annual and seasonal daily ranges in air temperature, overall low precipitation and high evaporation rates. Mostly winds are easterly, southeasterly, and northeasterly, and summers often experience droughts. Annual rainfall is 234 mm. Based on the amount of precipitation, Astrakhan is the driest city in Europe.

Astrakhan’ city

The city of Astrakhan (Fig. 3.1) is the oldest economic and cultural center of the Lower Volga and the Caspian Lowland. Its foundation (Hagi-Tarkhan) goes back to the second half of the XIII century. Astra- khan is among 115 cities of Russia recognized as historically significant. It is located on 11 islands, and the city area stretches along the Volga for more than 45 km. Relief is flat, with separate, small hillocks that erect 5–15 m above the surrounding plains. Height of the city’s central part is 23 m bsl (below oceanic sea level). The area of the city is 208.7 km2. Its population is about 531 000 people. The city is multicultural and inhabited by representatives of more than 100 nationalities and 14 religious denominations. Astrakhan is a port city, and its energy complex and shipbuilding activities take leading places in the city economy. Furthermore fish processing and agricultural industry are developed, too. The central part of Astrakhan is the historical core of the city; it is located on an island bordered by the Vol- ga, Kutum, Tsaryova, and Kazachiy. The Astrakhan Kremlin (1580–1620) is located on the highest hill, down on the left bank of the Volga reaching almost to the waterfront with white stone walls, 4 defensive and 3 gate towers (Fig. 3.2). In 1558, in the lower reaches of the Volga, on a high hill surrounded by swamps and marshes, a military engineer, I.G. Vyrodkov, erected the first wooden fortress walls surrounding an elevated backfilled terrain, and towers. The configuration of the Astrakhan Kremlin was dictated by the terrain – in terms of shape, it became a right triangle, elongated in the southwest direction. A wooden castle was rebuilt in stone during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible and Boris Godunov in 1582–1589. Very strong Tatar bricks were used during the construction, which were brought from the ruins of the Golden Horde cities in the region. The Stone Kremlin was built according to the Moscow Kremlin style. The Astrakhan Kremlin was distinguished by having the most modern defensive system for its time: the walls, in addition to the traditional lower cannon battery, were supplemented with an additional line of middleweight bout, previously not used in the architecture of the Russian feudal society. The loopholes of the middle and lower bout are staggered, which significantly increased the density of fire focused in front of the walls. The towers of the Kremlin were divided into several tiers, which are connected by stairs, arranged within the thickness of the walls and adapted for perimeter defense. The thickness of the tower walls reaches 3–3.5 m. 44 PART 3

In total, according to the plan, the Astrakhan Kremlin had eight towers, of which so far three remained open for passage and four were closed (Figs. 3.3–3.5). The Astrakhan Kremlin was one of the first stone fortifications and among the most powerful fortifications of the Moscow State. PART 3

Figure 3.1. Northern Caspian area and Astrakhan city

45 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

For centuries, the Astrakhan Kremlin was an impregnable stronghold in the southeastern border area of the state. The Kremlin is connected with a series of historical events: the Crimean-Turkish campaigns in the Lower Volga in the XVI century, the “Smoot” in Russia and the peasant uprising led by Stepan Razin in the XVII century, the transformation of Peter’s time and the strel’tsy uprising of 1705–1706, the Persian campaign of Peter the Great, the formation of the Caspian flotilla in the XVIII century, the strengthening of the country’s borders, and the conquest of the Caucasus and Central Asia. Figure 3.2. Astrakhan Kremlin In Astrakhan, one can see a lot of well-preserved historical and architectural monuments (Figs. 3.6–3.8). All the monuments are available for viewing by participants at the conference during their stay in the city of Astrakhan.

Astrakhan’ Regional Natural History Museum

Figures 3.3–3.5. The towers of the Kremlin Interesting object for conferees is the Regional Natural History Museum (Fig. 3.9). The museum was founded in 1897 as the Astrakhan Petrovsky museum. In 1911, its exhibits were installed in a new building of “Urban Institutions”, where they are at the present time. Academic exhibitions of the Museum include the Department of History, Department of Nature and others. Participants at the conference can visit the halls entitled “Geographical Position of the Astrakhan Region”, “The Na- ture of the Volga Delta” (Fig. 3.10), representing the modern geography of the area, as well as the hall called “Living Past of the Earth”, which presents Lower Volga fauna of the middle-late Pleistocene (Fig. 3.11). The collection contains bones of mammoths, bison, woolly rhinoceroses, giant deer, and a large and important paleontological collection of the teeth of ancient animals.

46 PART 3

The museum also has an exhibition on the “Gold of Nomads” (Figs 3.12, 3.13). It displays unique archaeological items found in the Astrakhan region. Of particular interest are the golden decorations of the famous leader of the Sarmatian burial in the village of Kosika, Yenotayevsk District.

Figure 3.6. Cathedral of the Saint Prince Vladimir Figure 3.7. White Mosque PART 3

Figure 3.8. Church of St. Ioann Zlatoust Figure 3.9. Regional Natural History Museum

Figure 3.10. “The Nature of the Volga Delta” hall Figure 3.11. “Living Past of the Earth” hall

47 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figures 3.12, 3.13. “Gold of Nomads” hall

Participants will be housed in the “Azimut” hotel (Fig. 3.14). Situated on the banks of the Volga River, Azi- mut Hotel offers rooms with satellite TV and free WiFi. Some of the rooms have views of the Volga River and the Astrakhan Kremlin. The historic centre of Astrakhan is only a 5-minute walk away.

Figure 3.14. “Azimut” hotel in Astrakhan

48 PART 3

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

The geological structure of the Lower Volga region is characterized by different “provinces” in the underlying basement (Fig. 3.15). The North Caspian overlays the SE margin of the Russian Platform; its main structural element is the Caspian depression with its characteristic salt tectonics. Within the area tectonic heights exists in the subsurface: the Karpinski ridge and Prikumskiy uplift, the latter being separated from the former by the Manych flexure. The ridges and flexure form together the frame of the Russian Hercynian platform. Pre-Paleozoic bedrock depressions, divided into blocks of different height, are composed of Archean-Prote- rozoic metamorphic rocks and are covered by platform deposits. Its main structural elements are salt domes formed by the plastic redistribution of huge masses of the Kungurian (Permian) salt formation with maximum thickness up to 4 km. PART 3

Figure 3.15. Tectonic map of the Caspian Sea (International Tectonic Map of the Caspian Sea and its Surroundings, 2002). 1. East European Platform; Scythian-Turan plate; 2. Baikal foldbelt/basement; 3. Hercynian basement; 4. Early Kimmerian basement; 5. Alpine foldbelt of the Greater Caucasus; 6. Alpine foldbelt of the Lesser Caucasus; 7. Alpine advance, periclinal and intermountain flexure; 8. Areas of oceanic crust; 9. Tectonic faults

The large aggregation of underground salt as observed in the Lower Volga region, forms elongated salt ridges or giant arrays – Enotaevsky, Soleno-Zaymischensky, and others. The salt diapirs reach 6–8 km height in the subsurface. In several places in the North Caspian plane they have punctured the surface (Inder, Elton), and in these domes the Kungurian salt formation is exposed. The modern valley of the Lower Volga is located over and bounded by ancient tectonic structures. The Kamyshin – Volgograd segment is located along the Volga-Ergeni fault that coincides with the position of the Volgograd flexure and the large Volgograd fault. The Volga-Akhtuba valley (the Lower Volga valley -be tween Volgograd and Astrakhan) lies within two major depressions: the Arzinskiy-Cherniy Yar and the Low- er-Volga depression. The course of the valley corresponds to deep faults that have been active even in the Hol- ocene. The structure of the valley is complicated by salt-dome structures, causing local deviations from its generally south-south east direction and changes the geometry of the Volga riverbed [Lower Volga ... 2002]. 49 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

The upper part of the sedimentary cover of the Lower Volga region is composed of diverse Quaternary sediments with varied thicknesses of up to 100 m. Among them, Pleistocene units are identified (Fig. 3.16) with a predominance of “marine” (Caspian lake) formations – sediments of the Bakunian, Early and Late Khazarian, Early and Late Khvalynian, and New Caspian transgressions. A significant part of the section consists of various alluvial, lacustrine, and lagoon deposits.

International stratigraphic Russian strati- Regional Lower Volga area scale scale graphic scale

Horizon Subhorizon Sections Link Series Series System Subseries Subseries

Pre-Caspian Lowland New Caspian (lower -19 to -20 m)

Holocene Holocene Holocene Mangyshlakian

Khvalynian Upper Khvalynian Enotaevka Kopanovka Lower Khvalynian Tsagan-Aman Atelian Suite Nizhnee Zaimische- Cherniy Yar

Upper Upper Late Khazarian Girkanian? Seroglazovka, horizon Lenino

Upper Khazarian Cherniy Yar- Chernoyarian Nizhnee Zaimische Suite Upper Lower Khazarian Middle Seroglazovka Quaternary Lower Kopanovka Singilian Pleistocene Pleistocene

Neopleistocene Suite

Middle Middle Raigorod, Nizhnee Zaimische Urundzhikian horizon

Gorkiy Erik Upper Bakunian (Baskunchak) Bakunian Lower Lower Cherniy Yar – Lower Bakunian Nizhnee Zaimische

Figure 3.16. Regional Stratigraphic scale of the Lower Volga region

50 PART 3

Table 3.1

Distribution of shells of the genus Didacna Eichwald. in the marine Neopleistocene and Holocene deposits in the Lower Volga area. B = Bakunian, Hz = Khazarian, Hv = Kvalynian, nk = New Caspian

Age hz1 hv Group b hz2 nk Didacna 1 hz1 hz12 hz13 hv1 hv2 D. trigonoides Δ D. praetrigonoides Δ D. parallella О D. parallella borealis О Δ D. protracta О D. protracta media О D. ebersini Δ D. delenda D. zhukovi Δ ☐ D. surachanica ☐ О D. surachanica fedorovi ☐ О D. nalivkini ☐ D. ovatocrassa ☐ D. subcrassa ☐ D. pontocaspia ☐ D. pontocaspia tanaitica ☐

D. subpyramidata Δ PART 3 D. paleotrigonoides Δ D. delenda emendata Δ D. pallasi Δ D. subcatillus О D. sсhuraosenica ☐ D. cristata Δ D. trigonoides chazarica Δ D. catillus parvuloides О D. lindleyi ☐ D. umbonata ☐ Δ D. catillus volgensis О D. parvula ☐ crassa ☐ crassa-trigonoides ☐ Δ

Didacna trigonoides Δ trigonoides-catillus Δ О catillus О

Groups of Groups of catillus-crassa О ☐

prevailing Δ trigonoides group numerous ☐ crassa group rare О catillus group single

51 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 3.17. Characteristic species of the genus Didacna Eichwald of the Lower Volga area Neopleistocene 1 – Didacna nalivkini, 2 – D. surachanica, 3 – D. paleotrigonoides, 4 – D. subpyramidata, 5 – D. parallella, 6 – D. protracta, 7 – D. catillus volgensis, 8 – D. crassa, 9 – D. praetrigonoides, 10 – D. catillus parvuloides, 11 – D. catillus grimmi, 12 – D. pallasi, 13 – D. parvula, 14 – D. subcrassa, 15 – D. trigonoides khazarica, 16 – D. shuraosenica, 17 – D. umbonata, 18 – D. ovatocrassa, 19 – D. ebersini, 20 – D. parallella, 21 – D. subcatillus, 22 – D. trigonoides

52 PART 3

Continental sediments are locally represented by diluvial and aeolian deposits. The location of the region within a zone of permanent migration of the land-sea border and presence of the Volga river mouth resulted in a very complex depositional history as shown by the wide variety of deposits: alluvial-marine (deltaic), lake- sea (lacustrine and lagoonal), lake-alluvial, consisting of various facies deposited in a variety of stratigraphic and lateral positions. Bakunian sediments in the Lower Volga region are represented by muddy silts and clays of dark and bluish-green color, described by complexes of catilloid mollusks Didacna catillus volgensis and Didacna catillus grimmi (Tab. 3.1, Fig. 3.17). Borehole data reveal within the Lower Volga region two large subsurface units of alluvial sand and gravel (Venedian and Krivichian), marking the ancient valley of the Volga. These are separated by Singilian lacustrine sediments. The Krivichskiy alluvial formation is covered by sediments of the Early Khazarian transgression, surfacing in several sections along the lower Volga River (e.g. Tchernyi Yar). The Ear- ly Khazaran interval is rich in fossils and characterized by complexes of Didacna (Didacna paleotrigonoides, D. subpyramidata, D. nalivkini, and others), foraminifera, and ostracods. In the valley of the Volga, in the area from Raygoroda to Nikolsky, polyfacial alluvial formations of the Cher- noyarian suite are widespread. They are composed mostly of non-equigranular riverbed sands, with diagonal and cross-bedding. The unit contains abundant bone remains of large and small mammals of the Khazarian faunal complex accumulated in the channel of a major river during the late Middle Pleistocene at levels close to current low water, or slightly higher. Upper Khazarian fossiliferous lake deposits are well developed in sections near the villages of Seroglazovka, Lenino, and Vladimirovka and are characterized faunistically by Didacna surahanica. The overlying Atelian Suite sediments are mostly represented by continental, including subaerial, formations – sandy-loam, less often sands and loess-like deposits, with traces of buried automorphic and hydromorphic soils, and characteristic structures pointing to cryoturbation. Within this unit lenses of lacustrine sediments enclosing shells of terrestrial and freshwater mollusks occur. The most widely developed deposits in the Lower Volga derive from the Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea; they cover most of the surface of the Caspian depression. They are divided into Lower and Upper Khvalynian units and characterized by complexes of mollusks. The two units are separated by the hiatus PART 3 that was formed during the Enotaevian regression. The lithofacies composition of the Lower Khvalynian deposits is characterized by dominant shallow sandy sediments and so-called “chocolate” clays, related mostly to depressed relief of more ancient age. These sediments include shells of various Didacna (Didacna ebersini, D. protracta, D. parallella). Upper Khvalynian marine sediments, unlike the Lower Khvalynian, are of more sandy and shallow genesis and characterized by a complex of Didacna praetrigonoides – D. protracta. The youngest marine sediments – deposits of the Holocene New Caspian or Novocaspian transgression – are distributed in the south of the Lower Volga region. They penetrate deep into the inter-ridge depressions of Khvalynian plains and are characterized by abundant Cerastoderma glaucum and Didacna trigonoides, with a considerable admixture of brackish cardiid and freshwater species. Holocene alluvial deposits are silty-sandy sediments of the lowest terrace and floodplain of the Volga. With respect to the representativeness of its Quaternary sections, completeness, occurrence, accessibility, and saturation with paleontological material, the valley of the Lower Volga is a unique area that has no an- alogues in the Caspian region. The sections of the Lover Volga have been studied by many researchers [Pra- voslavlev, 1908, 1932, 1939; Zhukov, 1936; 1945; Gromov, 1935; Grichuk, 1954; Fedorov, 1957, 1978; Vasiliev, 1961; Moskvitin, 1962; Goretskiy, 1966; Shkatova, 1975; Popov, 1983; Sedaikin, 1988; Rychagov, 1997; Svitoch, Yanina, 1997, 2001, 2007; and others]. The main sections reveal Pleistocene deposits of complex structure, which is typical for a large river valley that was periodically flooded with sea waters. Stratigraphic reference points among them are deposits containing Caspian malacofauna of the genus Didacna Eichwald. The conference participants will visit sections at Selitrennoe and Seroglazovka, located within the Astra- khan region and two points with Late Khvalynian and New Caspian deposits.

53 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

Two major types of terrain are observed in the Lower Volga region: those of marine origin and those of a fluvial origin. The marine type is represented by the Early and Late Khvalynian and Novocaspian terraces and plains, and the terrains are the relief of the Volga-Akhtuba valley and the modern delta. The Early Khvalynian marine sedimentary plain (Figs 3.18–3.21) is composed of loam and clay sediments that extends to the north of the Lower Volga region and is characterized by relative flat terrain with numerous saucer-shaped depressions. An important element of the Early Khvalynian plain topography is a system of narrow shallow ravines and ancient river deltas, tied to the Late Khvalynian sea coastlines. Located to the south, the Late Khvalynian marine plain (Figs 3.22–3.23) has a very different terrain morphology. Here, a region with elongated hills (clusters of so-called Baer’s Knolls, see below) and vast arrays of fixed aeolian sands and dune fields separated by rounded depressions occurs. The New Caspian plain further to the south is represented by completely flat sand and silt terraces, with some of the Baer’s Knolls surviving from erosion.

Figures 3.18–3.21. Lower Khvalynian plain

The Baer’s Knolls are elongated, generally latitudinally-oriented, elevated hills, first described by academician Karl Baer during his trip to the Caspian Sea region in 1853–1856. In essence, these are not knolls but ridges of different lengths. The bulk of the knolls are confined to the territory of the Late Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea, and typically reach up to 25 m above the current Caspian Sea level. The knolls are nowhere found above the maximal coastline of the Late Khvalynian transgression. Baer wrote: “kind of a whole country is like it was plowed with giant plow, or as if someone stroked furrows with his huge fingers on a still soft surface, without a straightedge, not strictly adhering to the same direction” [1856: 198]. One of the largest clusters of Baer’s Knolls is located on the Lower Volga River on both sides of the valley below Vetlyanka, in the Delta, and in its western and eastern periphery (Figs 3.25–3.27). 54 PART 3

Figures 3.22–3.23. Upper Khvalynian plain, Baer’s Knolls PART 3

Figure 3.24. Baer’s Knolls in the Volga Delta area Figures 3.25–3.27. Baer’s Knolls

The origin of Baer’s Knolls is strongly debated. There are several hypotheses ranging from marine, erosional, eolian, polygenetic, exotic derived [Field Trip … 2015]. The marine hypothesis explains the formation of hillocks and sediments in the form of knolls as occurring in shallow coastal and marine environments. Pallas [1788] considered the dry hills to represent rough subaquous landforms from the bottom of the Caspian Sea. Baer [1856] characterized them as accumulative forms, created by catastrophic dumping of Caspian waters through the Manych strait. The hypothesis of Baer’s Knolls formation from coastal wave processes in the Late Khvalynian sea using sand-clay material brought by the Volga was proposed by Nikolaev [1955]. Ideas about formation of the knolls through an intergrading generation of stock and surge flows at the bottom of the Caspian Sea, forming a system of elongated ridges oriented along the contemporary coastline, were suggested by Krasnozhon et al. [1979], Sladkopevtsev [1965], and Zhindarev et al. [2001]. Leonov et al. [1995] suggested that the knolls are fragments of remains of a former Upper Khvalynian silt cover destroyed by gravitational processes (as a result of plastic flow of the underlying 55 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST clay). The possibility that the Baer’s Knolls formed on the bottom of the reservoir flow of Caspian waters and their draining to the Manych was suggested by E.N. Badyukova [1999, 2005]. A.A. Svitoch and T.S. Klyuvit- kina [2006] explain the formation of Baer’s Knolls as features of the hydrological regime of the Caspian basin at its northern shore. The erosion hypothesis attributes the formation of the Baer’s Knolls to an aquatic environment in the delta areas of the Paleo-Volga [Mushketov, 1895; Golynets, 1932; Zhukov, 1945; Doskach, 1949; Sedaykin, 1977; and others]. Basically, river channel erosion activity is suggested as the main process resulting in the formation of the modern topography. The eolian hypothesis is the most popular one in the literature [Fedorovich, 1941; Baturin, 1951; Schantzer, 1951; Volkov, 1960; and others]. The barkhans-eolian hypothesis [Aristarkhova, 1980] explains the process as being under the influence of winds perpendicular to the axis of the mounds; the sand-ridge assumption [Be- levich, 1979] links their formation with longitudinal winds; or to their resultant [Leontiev and Foteeva, 1965]. The polygenetic hypothesis [Menabde, 1989; etc.] describes Baer’s Knolls formation as a result of several factors (erosion and aeolian, aeolian and marine, and others.). The exotic hypothesis explains the creation of the knolls as a result of tectonic effects [Pravoslavlev, 1929] or ice movement [Golynets, 1932]. The morphology of the Volga-Akhtuba valley (Figs 3.28–3.29) is characterized by a complex system of alternating arms that caused the formation of different age levels of the floodplain. Their origin is associated with the repeated occurrence of lagoon and river regime in a long Astrakhan-Volgograd bay Caspian Sea. The modern Volga delta – a large (area of about 21 000 sq. km) is a complex natural system (Figs 3.30–3.32). The place where Buzan channel is separated from the main Volga flow is considered to be the beginning of the delta. The structure of the delta is described in several publications [Belevich, 1963, Lower Volga, 2002 and others].

Figures 3.28, 3.29. Volga-Akhtuba valley

The upper zone is a transition between the Akhtuba floodplain and delta. It is characterized by an abundance of oxbows and a small number of channels, islands with an average height above low water level of about 3–4 m. The width of the zone is 40–50 km. The middle zone is characterized by lots of ilmens (small lakes) and many watercourses with complicated branching. Estuary type ilmens are located in the depressions between the Baer’s Knolls in the eastern and western parts of the delta with depths not exceeding 1–2 m. The Kultuch- nye ilmens, with a maximum depth of 1 m, were formed of small bays (Kultuks) at the sea edge of the delta. Their sizes vary from a few hectares to several square kilometers. The height of the islands here vary from 1.5 to 3 m. The width of the zone is 30–50 km. The lower zone is characterized by a more intensive branching of the channels, the presence of kultuk ilmens, and a very small number of Baer’s Knolls. Heights of the islands vary from a few tens of centimeters to 2 meters. The width of the zone is 6–20 km. The transition zone between the surface and underwater delta is also a kultuk area. This zone starts below the mouth of the delta channels. The greatest volume of sediments is deposited here, forming new islands and future ilmens. Water areas are larger than the area of the islands. 56 PART 3

Figure 3.30. Volga Delta zones.Surface part: 1 – top, 2 – middle, 3 – lower, 4 – kultuk zone of a transitional strip; underwater part: 5 – island zone, 6 – prodelta, 7 – zone of marine approach to prodelta, 8, 9 – the western and east zones of Baer’s Knolls [Belevich, 1963]

The underwater part of the delta is divided into an island zone of the prodelta and the prodelta itself. Delta islands are usually composed of marine deposits, while the kultuk area is dominated by islands formed with alluvial deposits. The lower limit of the island zone is located along the southern ends of the marine islands. The width of the zone is 20–40 km. The delta area itself is 20–45 km wide between the island zone and the two-meter isobath, dominated at depths of less than 1 m by a very small number of islands and many underwater spits. Beyond the 2-meter isobaths, a shallow sea area begins, called the “sea area access” to the delta. PART 3

Figures 3.31, 3.32. Volga Delta

57 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

FIELDTRIPS

Field trips (Fig. 3.33) are intended to introduce participants to the reference sections of the Caspian Pleis- tocene that reflect its geological history, with the possibility of discussion and selection of samples for various types of analysis.

Figure 3.33. Field Trips

58 PART 3

FIELDTRIP 3.1 THE VOLGA DELTA

August 29, Field trip for all participants. August 30–31, Field work for biology group

The Volga Delta is the largest river delta in Europe. Begins in a place of separation from the bed of the Volga sleeves Buzan (46 km North of Astrakhan) and includes 500 sleeves, ducts, and small rivers. They form a system of smaller watercourses (with a width of 30–40 m and a water flow rate of less than 50 m3/s). The number of streams increases in a direction from the upper to the lower part of the Delta.

Aquatic Systems of the Deltaic Watercourses The watercourses of the Volga delta can be divided sizewise into large courses (channels) and smaller streams with weak flows, i.e. eriks. They can be also separated by hydrodynamic conditions into running, semirunning, and stagnant watercourses. Arms and channels have active hydrodynamic regimes, little aquatic vegetation, and a relatively high rate of flow during the flood periods (0.5–0.9 m/s) [Mikhailov, 1998]. The bottom sediments are mostly oxidized or transitioning to gleic with sandy or silty composition. In summer, small and slow running eriks (the flow velocity is 0–0.75 m/s) are overgrown by aquatic plants Phragmites( australis, Trapa natans, Nelumbo nucifera, etc.), providing large amounts of organic matter to the gleic clayey sediments. Annually, the upper deltaic plain receives about 245 km3 of water and about 7400 tons of suspended matter unevenly distributed by season [Mikhailov, 1998]. The maximal volume of water discharge (about 100 km3) and the input of suspended matter (about 4300 tons) happen in the flood period [Polonsky and Alekseevskyi, 1998]. The content of suspended matter decreases sharply with the decrease in discharge due to the weakening of the carrying capacity of the flow. The annual average turbidity in the upper deltaic plain is about 30 mg/L; in the low-water period, it does not exceed 20 mg/L, increasing to 60 mg/L in the flood period. For the major Volga branches with high volumes of discharge and flow velocity [Bakhtemir, Buzan, etc.], the content of suspended matter decreases continuously from May to September. The high water period (May-June) is PART 3 associated with about half of the annual sediment transport. For the smaller streams, the important factor in the seasonal distribution of suspended matter is the activity of aquatic organisms and the degree of overgrowth of thewatercourses. Therefore, the maximal content of suspended matter is observed in July, when a significant part of it consists of organic substances. The chemical composition of water in all deltaic branches is hydrocarbonate calcium. The total dissolved salt content is about 250 mg/L. In spring, it increases up to 300 mg/L due to flooding and erosion of the deltaic soils rich in carbonates. The maximal average temperature of surface waters (278°C) is observed in July and August. In spring and fall, the water warms to 20 to 228°C. The relative content of oxygen in the water of active channels is usually close to equilibrium; in dying eriks, where abundant aquatic vegetation prevents mixing of the water column, the oxygen content decreases, falling to zero in the bottom layer. The alkaline-acidic conditions of the deltaic aquatic systems, in general, vary insignificantly. The average pH values are 8.2 to 8.4 and 7.4 to 7.8 for the water and the sediments, respectively. The higher pH values are observed in July during the period of maximal temperatures and biological activity. The Eh also depends on the season. The highest Eh (150 mV) is observed during the flood period (May), when the hydrodynamic -ac tivity of the watercourses increases. Summer decrease of water discharge and increase of biogenic activity provide for the lower values of water Eh (about 100 mV). In autumn, the Eh rises again to 140 mV. The Eh values in bottom sediments are negative. No clear seasonal variability in Eh was observed for the bottom sediments; changes in Eh depend upon the local environments of the aquatic systems, e.g., hydrodynamic conditions, depth of the water bodies, and abundance of aquatic vegetation [Lychagin et al., 2015].

Aquatic Systems of the Kultuk Zone The upper deltaic plain makes a gradual transition to the shallow nearshore mouth area, where freshwater inlets (kultuks) are formed along the seashore between numerous islands and bars. They are combined with the underwater alluvial cones of large and small streams whose amount reaches 900 [Mikhailov, 1998]. This is 59 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST the youngest and most dynamic area of the Volga delta. The low hydrodynamic activity of water bodies here, as well as the overgrown aquatic vegetation forming dense thickets underwater and on the surface and acting as a biofilter, determines the accumulation of alluvial and marine sediments and the formation of the modern topography of the mouth area. The kultuks have a large area, shallow depth and a high biomass of aquatic vegetation. The bottom sediments are mainly fine-grained sands with a different amount of silt and clay particles. Redistribution of the chemical elements in the water-bottom systemdepends on wind activity and water mixing. Even at low winds, disturbance can easily roil sediments, saturating the water with suspended matter composed largely of organic compounds from decomposing plant residues.

Aquatic Systems of the Shallow Nearshore Zone The main features of the nearshore zone are its large area and its extreme shallowness [Mikhailov, 1998]. The flat terrain is complicated by numerous shallows and islands, combined with natural and artificial channels. The vast areas of open water are interspersed with thickets of aquatic vegetation. The sea has no effect on the chemical composition of the water, but wind-wave activity affects the bottom sediments. In the open part of the seashore, fine-grained sands are mainly formed; they are replaced by silts and clays in the areas of weakened wave activity. Higher aquatic vegetation takes up to 70% of the shallow nearshore zone, representing a biogeochemical barrier for the deposition of substances [Lisitsyn, 1994; Lychagina, Kasimov, and Lychagin, 1998]. Under the lotus fields, finegrained bottom sediments with well-pronounced organogenic and gleic horizons are formed; they have many similarities with the hydromorphic soils of terrestrial landscapes. Thus, the migration of chemical elements in the Volga delta is characterized by a high spatial and temporal variability due to the influence of changes both in the hydrodynamic conditions and volume of water and sediments entering the apex of the delta and in the local conditions of aquatic landscapes [Lychagin et al., 2015].

The Geochemical History of the Delta Data on the history of the accumulation of elements in substrates are of a great importance to the environmental characterization of the territory. Such studies are essential to the evaluation and forecast of the geochemical conditions of the territories and help to identify sources of pollutants [O’Reilly Wiese et al., 1997; Ruiz-Ferna´ndez et al., 2009]. A number of Russian-Dutch projects in 1993–94 assessed the magnitude and variability of the accumulation of pollutants in the sediments of the Volga delta in the past decades, considering the peaks of activity of 137Cs and 134Cs in the vertical profile of the sediments [Winkels et al., 1998]. The minimal HM concentrations in the sediments of the Volga delta correspond to the early 1940s. In the more recent sediments, the HM content increases somewhat. Then, in the 1960s, after construction of the reservoirs of the Volga-Kama Cascade, the HM content is noticeably reduced. Consequently, the low HM concentrations in the sediments of the Volga delta are related both to the overall low geochemical background concentrations in the delta and to the regulation of the river flow. Comparison of age-dated geochemical parameters of the Volga delta with two other large rivers of Europe (Rhine and Danube) showed that the bottom sediments of the Rhine were the most polluted. Despite a sharp decrease in the HM content in the sediments beginning in the 1960s, when in several countries of the Rhine basin, legislative measures to enhance its environmental conditions were adopted, there remain the highest levels of HMs, As, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and other pollutants. The Danube delta has elevated levels of HMs and As; however, they are substantially lower compared with those of the Rhine delta. The con- tamination of the Volga delta with HMs is low in general; the HM levels in the bottom sediments are largely consistent with the background levels [Lychagin et al., 2015].

The Geochemical Barrier Zones of the Volga Mouth Area To understand the transformation of the flowof elements, the variability of HM accumulation in various aquatic landscapes, and the spatial localization of the geochemical barrier zones, the HM levels in the aquatic landscape components were compared with the general RBLs. The RBLs were assumed to be equal to the average HM content in the aquatic landscape components. They were estimated considering the seasonal variability (mainly, the phases of hydrological regime) of the HM levels, which substantially increases the representativeness of the results. 60 PART 3

The large arms and channels represent the transit venues in respect to water and sediment discharge and, therefore, to the HM transport. The elemental content in water is of average values, while it is low in the suspended matter and the bottom sediments. The geochemical barriers in the bottom sediments are only slightly contrasting and are located at sediment traps: crawls, island tailings, etc. [Lychagin and Kasimov, 2002]. The slow-running eriks have the average content, for the delta, of the elements in water. The higher values are noted for the biophyl elements (Mn and Zn), which indicates the significant role of the biogeochemical processes in the formation of these aquatic systems. This statement is supported by the prevailing accumulation of metals in suspended, but not in dissolved, forms. Along with transport, there is a local accumulation of HMs in the bottom sediments, confined mainly to the confluence of the eriks with the channels, where the hydrodynamic and biogeochemical barriers are formed. The stream mouths at the deltaic sea edge form the first contrasting geochemical barrier zone in the flow path of the elements of the delta. Due to the combined effect of the hydrodynamic, sorption, oxygen, and biogeochemical barriers, the deposition of suspended matter that carries HMs takes place there. The HMs coprecipitate with the Fe and Mn hydroxides. They also accumulate in the tissues of macrophytes that form dense thickets there, acting as biofilters. As a result, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Co accumulate in the bottom sediments of the mouths of the watercourses. The maximal HM concentrations in some samples exceed the RBLs by three and more times. The average concentrations of dissolved and suspended forms of HMs in water in the mouths of the watercourses are close to the RBLs. The finest fractions of suspended matter migrate via delta to the kultuks and the nearshore zone. Suspended matter of the kultuks is significantly enriched in Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd compared with in the RBLs. The accumulation of HMs in the bottom sediments of these water bodies is relatively weak because of their light granulometric composition. In the nearshore area, the migration of chemical elements is associated primarily with precipitation of suspended particles, whose intensity varies substantially depending upon changes in the water flow velocity, abundance and species composition of aquatic vegetation, character of wind-wave disturbance of the bottom sediments, redistribution of suspended and dissolved forms of elements, etc. The bulk of the fine-grained suspended matter delivered by the watercourses is brought to the shallow nearshore zone. It results in the higher content of HMs in suspended matter in the coastal area compared with the other areas of the Volga delta. PART 3 The elements could be placed in the following order based on the coefficients of accumulation relative to the RBLs: Cr20-Zn5.5-Ni, Cu4-Co, Cd, Mn, and Pb 3.5. About half of the suspended pollutants coming with the Volga runoff accumulate within the shallow nearshore zone [Afanasyev, Kiryanov, and Matveichuk, 1998]. At the same time, the average content of HMs in the bottom sediments differs insignificantly from the RBLs. This is due to the large area of the nearshore mouth area and varying granulometric composition of the bottom sediments. The accumulation of suspended matter enriched in HMs is confined to the zones of abrupt decrease in water flow velocity, sediment traps that are usually located at the northern edge of the islands, and thickets of lotus and other macrophytes. Under these conditions, clayey sediments are formed; the HM content may be several times over the RBLs. A particularly contrasting accumulation of HMs is observed in the river-sea mixing zone characterized by a combination of detritus formation and sulfidogenesis processes [Lychagin et al., 2015]. Deltaic water bodies of different size and configuration (Fig. 3.34), with diverse hydrological and hydrochemical regimes, various bottom sediments are inhabited by different mollusks (Fig. 3.35). Predeltaic part of the Volga is characterized by sandy grounds, relatively deep environments, current activity. The psammophilic biocoenosis inhabit it, among mollusks – rare Dreissena. Active branches, pits (“yamas”), reaches are characterized by silty sandy grounds with pelo-reophilic biocoenoses of Sphaerium, Viviparus, Dreissena, Unio. Former branches, bays, inlets, pounds with stagnant environment and muddy grounds are inhabited by pelophilic biocoenoses with Sphaerium, Viviparus, Anodonta, Unio. Grounds covered with macrophytes are occupied by phytophilic biocoenoses. Shallow-water swamps and bogs are characterized by mixed pelophilic-phytophilic molluscan assemblages. Long and narrow ilmens between Baer knolls with muddy lifeless grounds are occupied by single Unio, Anodonta. Rushy shore fronts are inhabited by abundant terrestrial forms – Planorbis, Physa. Dreissena polymorpha, Anodonta complanata, Sphaerium corneum, Pisidium, Viviparus viviparus, Valvata piscinalis are on muddy grounds of bigger ilmenis; rare small Unio pictorum are on sandy grounds. In shallow-water rushy ilmenis with mud and plant remnants, mollusks 61 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Planorbis and Lymnea occur only in nearshore rushy areas. Poloi zone with plants hosts nearshore assemblage with Lymnea and Planorbis. Lower part of the delta branches with silty sandy grounds covered with macrophytes is habited by freshwater mollusks: Dreisena polymorpha, Dr. bugensis, Theodoxus, Viviparus, Hydrobia, Valvata, Lithoglyphus; rare Caspian euryhaline species: Monodacna edentula, Adacna laeviuscula, Hypanis plicatus. All Caspian species inhabiting the Volga delta are strongly euryhaline (tolerate salinities between 0.3–12‰) and oxiphilic; they prefer silty sandy grounds and weak currents. Monodacna colorata migrated to the Volga delta from Volga reservoirs, where it had been previously acclimatised. Kultuks with sandy silty grounds are characterized by fresh-water mollusks Unio pictorum, Anodonta complanata, Viviparus viviparus, Valvata piscinalis, Sphaerium corneum, Pisidium, Dreissena polymorpha and euryhaline Caspian mollusks Monodacna edentula, Adacna laeviuscula. Fresh-water prodeltaic area is habited by fresh-water species Unio pictorum, Anodonta complanata, Viviparus viviparus, Valvata piscinalis, Sphaerium corneum, Pisidium, Dreissena polymorpha and euryhaline Caspian mollusks. Slightly brackish-water zone with silty sandy sediments is characterized by abundant Dreis- sena polymorpha, far less abundant Monodacna edentula, Adacna laeviuscula. Sandy ground with detritus is characterized by the same molluskan composition but lower abundance. M. edentula and Ad. laeviuscula predominate on the brackish-water zone. The Volga Delta is an incredibly picturesque region: here you can see the meadows and desert landscapes, woods and reeds, lotus fields (Fig. 3.36). Varied and fauna of the Delta – flamingos, the white cranes, white and Dalmatian pelicans, cormorants, pheasants, mute Swan (just over 280 bird species), Caspian seals, boar, antelope, saigaks. Countless insects, their lives 1250 species: dragonflies, crickets, caddis flies, cicadas, beetles (predaceous diving beetles, water scavenger beetles, leaf beetles, weevils, ground beetles); rich fauna of spiders. The waters of the Delta are home to over 70 species of fish, including the famous red fish – Russian sturgeon, starlet, stellate sturgeon and beluga. Unique flora and fauna of the Delta are protected by the state. In 1919, in the Delta area was formed the As- trakhan nature reserve put forward by Russia for inclusion in the World Heritage list. In 1975, the reserve was classified as wetlands of international importance (Ramsar Convention – Volga Delta). In 1984, the reserve was included into the international network of biosphere reserves. Valley of lotuses – one of the most beautiful natural attractions of the Volga Delta (Figs 3.37–3.39). Many people, especially from the East, confer the lotus sacred properties because of its beauty and healing power. The fragrance of the lotus flower has healing properties, relieving stress and depression, and charging with vigor. In the Volga Delta for lotuses are optimal natural conditions, they often grow in height more than two meters. Blooming lotus flowers from late July until early September, individual flowers persist until the end of September. In addition to lotus are and other unique species of plants – the caltrop (Trapa natans – water chestnut) (Figs 3.40, 3.41), water lilies (Fig. 3.42).

Figure 3.34. Variety of deltaic water bodies 62 PART 3 PART 3

Figure 3.35. Mollusks of the Volga delta. 1–4 – Lymnea stagnalis, 5–7 – Planorbis planorbis, 9–11 – Viviparus viviparus, 12, 13 – Valvata piscinalis, 14, 19 – Bithynia tentaculata, 15–17 – Anisus vortex, 20, 22 – Galba palustris, 18, 21 – Bithynia leachi, 23, 24 – Physa fontinalis, 25–29 – Radix auricularia, 30–31 – Bithynia, 32 – Lithoglyphus naticoides, 33–34 – Anculus fluviatilis, 35, 36, 38 – Dreissena polymorpha, 37, 39 – Dr. bugensis, 40, 45, 47 – Sphaerium corneum, 41 – Unio+Dreissena, 42, 43 – Sphaerium rivicola, 44, 50 – Sphaerium solidum, 46, 48, 49 – Pisidium 51–53 – Anodonta, 54–57 – Unio, 58–60 – Monodacna edentula, 61 – Dreissena polymorpha, 62 – Dreissena bugensis, 63–64 – Hydrobia ventrosa, 65 – Theodoxus pallasi, 66 – Adacna laeviuscula, 67 – Adacna vitrea, 68 – Turricaspia (Pyrgula), 69 – Hypanis plicatus 63 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 3.36. Volga Delta

Figures 3.37–3.39. Lotus field in the Volga Delta

Figures 3.40, 3.41. Chilim; Figure 3.42. Water lily

64 PART 3

FIELDTRIP 3.2 SELITRENNOYE SECTION

August 30, Field work for geology group. September 1, Field trip for all participants

The Selitrennoe geological section is located on the left bank of the Akhtuba river, 130 km from Astrakhan in the Khar- abalinskiy region. The outcrop (Fig. 3.43) reveals Upper Khvalynian tight sands and sandy loams with a total thickness of about 1 m (layer 1) overlying Lower Khvalynian chocolate clays (layer 2) and sands with clay interlayers (layer 3) containing numerous shells of Didacna protracta protracta, D. zhukovi, D. ebersini, and Dreissena rostriformis distincta. Below them are revealed a major formation (layers 4–6) of thick marine (layer 6), Figure 3.43. The view of Selitrennoe section desalinate sea (layer 5) and lacustrine sediments (layer 4). The marine sediments are represented by two layers: 6a – coquina in sand filling with numerous shells of mollusks Didacna paleotrigonoides, D. subpyramidata, D. cristata, D. pontocaspia tanait- PART 3 ica, D. catillus parvuloides, D. ovatocrassa, and D. shuraosenica; and 6b – well-sorted sand, fine-grained, horizontally layered with thin layers of clay, with numerous Di- dacna shells in the overlying bed. The thickness of layer 6 is 2.0–2.5 m with a gradual transition. Layer 5 is formed of transitional type deposits (sea to freshwater) revealing a horizontal alternation of clay, sand, and silt strata with occasional shells of Monodacna caspia, Didacna cristata, D. ex gr. trigonoides, Dreissena polymorpha, Dr. rostriformis distincta; its depth is 1 m, and the upper boundary is gradual. Above it lie interbeddings of chocolate-like clays (Fig. 3.44) with siltstones and powdery sand, horizontally bedded, lenticular and undulating, sometimes with deep streaks of one layer to another; the overlying bed sediments are irregular, with traces of erosion. G.I. Popov [1983] described the Un- der-Khvalynian strata (Khazarian) as Hirсanian. Figure 3.44. Selitrennoe section 65 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

Figure 3.45. Selitrennoe. Baer Knol Figure 3.46. Selitrennoe. Steppe

Selitrennoye fortified settlement

The unique archaeological complex called the “Selitrennoye fortified settlement” is situated near geological section Selitrennoe. Selitrennoye means ‘saltpeter’ in Russian, and in the XIII to XIV centuries, the city of Saray (Saray al-Makhrusa, Saray-Baty), the capital of the Golden Horde and the largest state of medieval times, was located here. Founded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, the town covered almost 10 km, and its population according to different estimates was not less than 70 thousand people; it was one of the biggest towns of Eurasia at the time. The Selitrennoye fortified settlement is identified with the remains of this town (Figs 3.47–3.48).

Figures 3.47–3.48. Selitrennoe ancient settlement

Scientific investigation of the site began in the XVIII century. Its pioneer was scientist and statesman V.N. Tatischev. He described the settlement, marked its expansion to the steppe borders, its rampart and ditch, and its ceramic aqueduct; he collected coins, majolica tiles and mosaics, glasses, etc. Later, the settlement was investigated at different levels of detail by I.P. Falk, P.S. Pallas, I. Pototskiy, M.S. Rybushkin, G.G. and N.G. Chernetsov, N.P. Zagoskin, K.N. Malinovskiy, A.A Spitsyn, A. Voskresenskiy, and others. During all the years of investigation, more than 30,000 sq. m. of the town’s territory has been explored. Potteries and glass-making workshops were studied, traces of workshops for bone and semiprecious stone processing were discovered. Aristocratic farmsteads, complexes of public buildings on the square, a large mosque, and a public bath were excavated. Moreover, tens of houses belonging to townspeople were also investigated. In the course of the excavations of the Selitrennoye settlement, huge amounts of ceramic vessels decorated with a shiny polish and thin ornamentation were discovered; birds and animals, stars and rosettes, flowers and inscriptions were used to decorate this pottery. Such vessels were used not only by the rich but also by common citizens, and it testifies to the generally high level of material culture of this Golden Horde town (Figs 3.49–3.51). 66 PART 3

Figures 3.49–3.51. Selitrennoe ancient settlement. Material of excavation

Cultural layer of Selitrennoye settlement is uneven and differs between 0.5–1.5–2 m at different plots of the town. Because of the absence of sufficient quantity of the building stone in Volga-Akhtubinsk mouth, practically all constructions of the town were made of burnt bricks or adobe bricks. It allowed new groups of population to take them to pieces and reconstruct buildings of their predecessors again when the internal or external situation changes. Construction of Russian Astrakhan took place in the middle of XVI century has brought the first wave of the destruction of the town. Different constructions were dismantled, and the bricks were transported by barges and rafts down by the river. Bricks procurement on the Saray ruins was profitable for the local population up to the XIX century. Construction of saltpeter factories and a fortress at the beginning of XVIII century also did not contribute to the cultural layer preservation. Unfortunately, ruins of this previously majestic town were totally destroyed by the beginning of the XX century, and now we can see only steppe areas, covered with ceramic sherds, slip-glazed tiles, and plinthite remains. The dynamics of cultural layer thickness in different areas of the settlement can be traced in the riverside cliffs, and brickwork of the Golden Horde house foundations can also be seen.

Saray-Batu. Motion-picture set PART 3

In 2011, several kilometers up Akhtuba flow the khan capital motion-picture set was arranged for the production of the movie “Horde” by Andrey Proshkin. Now it is open for tourists (Figs 3.52, 3.53) and will be visited by participants of the conference in the course of the field trip.

Figures 3.52, 3.53. City Saray-Batu film scenery to the movie “Horde”

67 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

FIELDTRIP 3.3 SEROGLAZKA SECTION

August 31, Field work for geology group. September 1, Field trip for all participants

The outcrop of Seroglazka (Figs 3.55) is located on the right bank of the Volga River directly above the village of Seroglazka. Here, the strata of marine sediments can be traced for two kilometers, characterized by a variety of mollusk shells.

Figures 3.55. Seroglazka cross section

Section structure (from top to down) (Fig. 3.56): 1. The sand is yellow-gray, fine-grained, with ahickness t of 0.5–7 m. The lower boundary is sharp due to erosion. Deposits are of eolian origin, comprising partially denuded low eolian landforms. In the western part of the outcrop, one can note four cultural layers, remains of charcoal, and broken pottery. Radiocarbon dating on the charcoal yielded an age of the first hundred years. 2. The sand is compacted, brown and yellow-brown, with thin banded laminations, diagonal, horizontal, and oblique layering, and in the roof a poorly developed humus horizon. The thickness is up to 5 m. In the most complete parts of the profile, two packets separated by traces of weathering are highlighted in the layer: the top is a lighter, yellow-brown, and the bottom is browner. Shells of Khvalynian mollusks Didacna praetrigonoides, Dreissena rostriformis distincta, and a single Sphaerium were collected. The lower boundary is abrupt, in places with deep frost cracks intersecting the underlying layer. 3. Sandy loam, brownish gray; in the lower part, interlayers of brown, in the roof, traces of soil formation with occasional detritus of shells, up to 1.5 m thick. 4. This layer has a complex structure. It is especially pronounced in the eastern part of the outcrop, where it consists of several depositional facies (Fig. 3.57). At the base (member a), the sand is gray, fine-grained, well sorted, with minor cross-bedding and numerous shells of mollusks Didacna surachanica, D. nalivkini, and rarer D. schuraosenica, D. pallasi, Dreissena caspia, Dr. rostriformis, Micromelania, with traces of erosion in the underlying deposits. Above, there are greenish-gray, non-stratified, weakly ferruginous sands (member b), covered by a bundle (member c) of sandy loam with dark-gray silt affected by hydromorphic processes of soil formation. Along the strike in this layer appear large brown clay layers separated by gray sands (member d). Members a – b form buried residual sediments, covered by gray diagonally layered sands, with numerous shells of mollusks Didacna trigonoides chazarica, Monodacna caspia, Dreissena polymorpha, and rarer Didacna surachanica, D. nalivkini, D. subcrassa, D. pallasi, Dreissena caspia, Dr. polymorpha, Hypanis plicatus, Micromelania caspia, Corbicula fluminalis, Sphaerium sp., single Didacna schuraosenica, D. zhukovi, Unio sp., Theodoxus pallasi. Above, they are gradually replaced by gray-yellow sand, thin horizontally layered. In the sediments are embed- ded lenses of light brown and dirty yellow sand (member g) with interlayers of sandy loam, a large diagonal and a lenticular lamination, and basal layers of clay pellets and carbonate nodules with a mass of shells of freshwater and brackish water mollusks Unio sp., Corbicula fluminalis, Sphaerium sp., Dreissena polymorpha, Dr. čelekenica, Micromelania caspia, Didacna pallasi, D. ex gr. trigonoides, and rare Didacna surachanica, D. schuraosenica. 68 PART 3

The total thickness of the layer reaches 8 m. According to the structure, the accumulation of sediments occurred in three stages, each separated by erosional inci- sions. The first stage is the formation of buried residual sediments: first, marine (member a), then the lake-estuary (member b) and lacustrine-wetland (member c). The second phase was observed after the erosional cut in the accumulation of coastal, deltaic, and shallow-marine sediments (members d and e) and, finally, the third – after repeated incision-filling of erosion cuts by alluvial and deltaic formations (member f). 5. Horizontal alternation of clay and brown and brown-gray loam with sand and gray, fine-grained, well-sorted silt. The stratifi- cation in the upper layer is deformed into folds. The upper boundary layer is abrupt, with signs of deep erosion; the base of the bed is lithologically clear, without a visible break in sedimentation. In the sediments, there are many shells of mollusks Didacna schuraosenica, D. cf. cristata, Dreissena rostriformis, rarer Didacna catillus volgensis, D. subcrassa, D. cf. pon- PART 3 tocaspia, D. ex gr. trigonoides, D. pallasi, Monodacna caspia, Hypanis plicatus. In the bottom of the layer, Didacna schuraosenica is dominant, and above, along with them, numerous Didacna cf. cristata, Dreissena rostriformis are present. 6. Yellow and light-gray sand, fine-grained, thin and horizontally layered, with in- Figure 3.56. Section Seroglazka terbeds of silty brown-gray sand, in places cemented by carbonates in platy sandstone, with interbeds and lenses of shells. In the upper part of the layer are found Didacna paleotrigonoides, D. schuraosenica (dominant), numerous D. catillus volgensis, D. subcrassa, D. cf. cristata, Monodacna caspia, Hypanis plicatus, Micromelania caspia, Dreissena rostriformis, quite often Didacna ovatocrassa, relatively rare D. pallasi, D. ex gr. trigonoides, D. nalivkini, Dreissena polymorpha, Theodoxus pallasi. In the middle of the bed, numerous Didacna catillus volgensis, less numerous Didacna pa- Figure 3.57. Fragment of the Seroglazka section leotrigonoides, D. subcatillus, Dreissena 69 WHERE EAST MEETS WEST

rostriformis, single Didacna subpyramidata, D. subcrassa, D. zhukovi, Monodacna caspia were observed. The lower boundary is lithologically abrupt, deformed, with streaks of sand in the bottom layer and a thickness of 3–4 m. 7. Dense brown and dark brown silt, sometimes silty sand, with shells of large Unionidae and Viviparus sp., Sphaerium sp., Micromelania caspia, Dreissena polymorpha, Dr. caspia, D. cf. pontocaspia. Thickness is about 1 m. Malacofauna of layers 6–4 are of Khazarian age, its differential distribution allows us to dis- tinguish Early Khazarian (members 5–6) and Late Khazarian fauna (member 4). Early Khazarian marine sediments have a binary structure reflecting the phasing of the development of the transgression. Sedi- ments from marine to deltaic origin are typical for the Late Khazarian. The siltstone of layer 7 along with the shells of freshwater mollusks includes Caspian Dreissena and gastropods. Apparently, this represents highly distilled lake or estuary (Early Khazarian?) sediments.

70 project no. 16–17-10170. Investigations of Azov Sea Region were inthe North-Eastern supported Foundation, by Science the Russian ofject the Russian “Complex Geographical Society Expedition of of the Deltas Rivers of of the South Russia”. Researches of deltas and the ancient of inthe areas modern the Volga River are executed within the pro- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 71

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Don: Southern Scientific Centre RAS. Pp. 108–133. (in Field Trip “From the Caspian to Mediterranean: Environ- Russian). mental Change and Human Response during the Quater- nary” (2013–2017). 22–30 September 2015. Astrakhan, Velichko A.A., Kononov M.Y, Morozova T.D., Nechaev Russia. Moscow: MSU. 44 p. V.P., Novenko E.Yu., Panin P.G., Ryskov Ya.G., Semenov V.V., Timireva S.N., and Titov V.V. 2006b. Cyclicity and Yanina T.A., 2012. Neopleistocene of the Caspian Sea: trend of landscape and climatic changes in Pleistocene Biostratigraphy, Paleogeography, Correlation. Moscow: based on the study of subaerial series of eastern Azov re- MSU. 264 p. (in Russian). gion. In: Late Cenozoic history of northern part of the arid zone. Rostov-on-Don: Southern Scientific Centre. Pp. 37– Yanko V.V., 1989. Chetvertichniye foraminiferi Pon- 41. (in Russian). to-Kaspiya [Quaternary foraminifera of the Ponto-Caspi- an region]. Thesis of the hDP diss. Odessa. 48 p. (in Rus- Velichko A.A., Morozova T.D., Pevzner M.A., 1973. sian). The structure and the age of loess and fossil soils horizons at main terrace levels of Northern Sea of Azov Region. Zhindarev L.A., Nikiforov L.G., Richagov G.I., 2001. In: Pleomagnetic analysis during the Quaternary depos- Morfolitodinamika beregovoy zoni priustyevih oblastey its and vulcanites’ investigation. Moscow: Nauka, 1973. I problema proishozhdeniya berovskih bugrov [Estuarine Pp. 48–70. (in Russian). coastal areas’ morphological and lithological dynamics and the problem of the Baer’s Knolls origin]. In: Vestnik Yanina T., Svitoch A., Pigarev E., Vasiliev D., Kurbanov Moskovskogo Unviersiteta. Ser. 5. Geography (1). Pp. 44– R. Field Trip Guide IGCP 610 Third Plenary Meeting and 52. (in Russian). REFERENCES CONTENTS

PART I. The Sea of Azov region...... 5 Physiography of the Rostov region ...... 6 Geology ...... 7 The Sea of Azov...... 11 Taganrog Bay...... 13 Flora and fauna ...... 13 Plankton and benthos...... 13 Mollusk fauna ...... 14 Fish fauna...... 14 Migrating and invading species ...... 14 Flora ...... 15 Reference information ...... 16 Azov town ...... 16 Azov Museum-Reserve ...... 16 Coastal scientific expeditionary base “Kagal’nik”...... 18 Southern Scientific Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences ...... 19 Fieldtrips...... 20 Fieldtrip 1.1. The Don Delta ...... 20 Fieldtrip 1.2. Beglitsa section...... 21 Fieldtrip 1.3. Semibalki, Zelenyi (Kagal’nik)...... 25

PART II. The Manych depression ...... 33 Physico-geographical characteristics ...... 34 Lake Manych-Gudilo ...... 35 Lake Gruzskoye...... 36 Geological history...... 36

PART III. Lower Volga region ...... 43 Reference information ...... 44 Volga-Akhtuba floodplain ...... 44 Astrakhan’ city...... 44 Astrakhan’ Regional Natural History Museum...... 46 Geological Structure...... 49 Geomorphological structure...... 54 Fieldtrips...... 58 Fieldtrip 3.1. The Volga Delta ...... 59 Fieldtrip 3.2. Selitrennoye section...... 65 Selitrennoye fortified settlement...... 66 Saray-Batu city ...... 67 Fieldtrip 3.3. Seroglazka section ...... 68

Acknowledgments ...... 71

References...... 72

76 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

ЧАСТЬ I. Приазовский район ...... 5 Физическая география Ростовской области ...... 6 Геология...... 7 Азовское море ...... 11 Таганрогский залив ...... 13 Флора и фауна ...... 13 Планктон и бентос ...... 13 Фауна моллюсков ...... 14 Фауна рыб...... 14 Виды-мигранты и виды-вселенцы ...... 14 Флора...... 15 Справочная информация...... 16 Азов ...... 16 Азовский музей-заповедник ...... 16 Береговая научно-экспедиционная база «Кагальник» ...... 18 Южный научный центр РАН...... 19 Полевые экскурсии...... 20 Полевая экскурсия 1.1. Дельта Дона ...... 20 Полевая экскурсия 1.2. Разрез Беглица...... 21 Полевая экскурсия 1.3. Разрез Семибалки, Зелёный (Кагальник)...... 25

ЧАСТЬ II. Манычская впадина ...... 33 Физико-географическая характеристика ...... 34 Озеро Маныч-Гудило...... 35 Озеро Грузское...... 36 Геологическая история ...... 36

ЧАСТЬ III. Нижнее Поволжье...... 43 Справочная информация...... 44 Волго-Ахтубинская пойма ...... 44 Астрахань ...... 44 Астраханский историко-архитектурный музей-заповедник ...... 46 Геологическое строение...... 49 Геоморфологическая структура ...... 54 Полевые экскурсии...... 58 Полевая экскурсия 3.1. Дельта Волги...... 59 Полевая экскурсия 3.2. Разрез Селитренное ...... 65 Селитренное укрепленное поселение ...... 66 Сарай-Бату ...... 67 Полевая экскурсия 3.3. Разрез Сероглазовка...... 68

Благодарности...... 71

Список использованных источников ...... 72

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