The Edinburgh Geologist

Magazine of the Edinburgh Geological Society Issue No 63 Spring 2018 The Edinburgh Geologist Issue 63 Spring 2018

Cover Illustration An ultramafic pyroxenite from the Ballantrae Complex, SW Scotland, a relic of oceanic mantle seen here in thin section with crossed polarisers; the field of view measures about 2 mm by 3 mm. For more on the plate tectonic setting of the Ballantrae Complex see the article by Doug Fettes on page 14. BGS images are reproduced by permission of the British Geological Survey ©NERC. Published February 2018 by The Edinburgh Geological Society (Charity registered in Scotland number SC008011) www.edinburghgeolsoc.org

Editors Phil Stone Bob McIntosh [email protected] [email protected] British Geological Survey The Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP ISSN 0265-7244

The Edinburgh Geological Society was founded in 1834 with the twin aims of stimulating public interest in geology and advancing geological knowledge. We organise a programme of lectures and excursions and also publish leaflets and excursion guides. For more information about the Society and membership, please visit www.edinburghgeolsoc.org. editorial

Ice, plates and tombstones

An editorial ramble by Phil Stone

Those of you who have been paying To quote: “In December 1967, Dan attention to Scottish Journal of McKenzie and Bob Parker published a Geology will know that I have been paper in Nature — ‘The North Pacific: taking an interest in the activities of an example of tectonics on a sphere’. the 1902–1904 Scottish National This paper, building on work by many Antarctic Expedition. You might also other scientists in preceding years, remember that the last issue of The was arguably the crucial final step Edinburgh Geologist anticipated some in establishing the paradigm of plate celebration of ‘fifty years of plate tectonics, providing a unifying context tectonics’, following the Geological for Earth science.” So, there you have it, Society of London’s selection of last although I confess I’ve always hated the autumn to celebrate that anniversary. use of ‘paradigm’! So, when Ian Dalziel offered an article for EG that contrived to combine both It wasn’t long before the new ideas of those themes, how could I resist? were being applied to Scottish Ian’s account kicks off this issue of geology, and I’m pleased to see that EG. It might contain bad news for the a couple of John Dewey’s seminal Scottish expedition’s geographical papers are given prominence by Doug legacy, but it ably demonstrates the Fettes in our second article, which way in which plate tectonics has continues the plate tectonics theme. liberated the geological imagination Doug takes on the unenviable task and encouraged contemplation of of reviewing the impact of the new tectonic linkages — backed-up by paradigm (ouch!) on the perceived extraordinary technical advances — that relationships developed between the would undoubtedly have bemused our geological terranes of Scotland during predecessors. the Grampian Orogeny. And if you thought that Scottish geology was all The selection of the anniversary year done and dusted post-plate tectonics, might seem a bit arbitrary given the way read on; the Highland Border that the plate tectonics debate played- Complex seems particularly reluctant out in the late 1960s, but a rationale to give up its secrets. On the other was provided in Geoscientist, 27/11. hand, it was an appreciation of long-

1 editorial established geological features that hard to keep Hutton out of the pages made the application of plate tectonic of EG, although it’s his great friend, models possible in the first place. the chemist Joseph Black — or at least Whilst celebrating a 50th anniversary, Black’s tombstone in Greyfriars — that let’s not forget all that went before and features in Nina Morgan’s article, made the whole thing work. Here’s our third, wherein we discover why to basic data and the unsung pioneers Archibald Geikie spent so much who collected it all over the World. time hanging around in graveyards. Picking-up on that thread of ideas, Then what of those ‘bemused Andrew McMillan then chides predecessors’? What would the those responsible for the neglect of likes of James Hutton have made Hutton’s grave, close to Black’s in the of it all? These days, in the cosmic ‘Covenanters’ Prison’. microwave background we see a vestige of a big-bang-beginning, whilst Two book reviews complete this issue the prospect of an end for planet of EG. No ‘creative writing’ is on offer Earth, eventually, is well established. this time, but all would-be authors out But given the propensity of Hutton there should bear in mind the closing and his Enlightenment colleagues to date for this year’s ‘Hugh Miller ’follow the evidence’, I like to think writing competion’:15 April 2018. that they would have been right up Alternatively, if you are fired-up by the there, at the forefront of the new ill-named paradigm’s 50th anniversary, developments. Either way, it’s certainly you might consider having a go at the

James Hutton (left) and Joseph Black — ‘Philosophers’ by John Kay (1787). Reproduced by permission of Sheila Szatkowski from her book Enlightenment Edinburgh — a guide (Berlinn, 2017).

2 editorial

Geological Society of London’s ‘Plate Gatliff who has taken over the Society Tectonic Stories’ competition: see reins from Stuart Monro. Bob has a www.geolsoc.org.uk/tectonicstories, background in marine and petroleum closing date is 30 April 2018. And geology and geophysics with the something short and original for a British Geological Survey, but so far as future issue of EG might also be a I know has not established a media good idea. empire.

Thinking of Hugh Miller, a fine statue of him, about two-thirds life-size, stands in the sculpture balcony, high above the Grand Gallery in the National Museum of Scotland. He stands gazing at a freshly-split specimen of the armoured Devonian placoderm fish Pterichthyodes milleri, held in his left hand with the counterpart lying at his feet; his right hand grips a small geological hammer. So far, so good, but go around the back and, sad to say, the hammer has no handle. There’s just an empty socket where one was once attached. Now, no field geologist, even when shrunk and set in stone, should be deprived of a functioning hammer, so I appeal to the museum management to put things to rights. A nice piece of hickory would not look amiss. Incidentally, a little further along the balcony is a bust of Charles Maclaren (1782–1866), a past-president of the Edinburgh Geological Society but perhaps better known as one of the The statue of Hugh Miller by Amelia founders of The Scotsman newspaper. Paton Hill (c.1860s) in the National Museum of Scotland’s sculpture Finally, from a past-president to our collection. It stands about 1.15 m new president, and welcome to Bob tall.

3 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

Did the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition discover a fragment of North America?

By Ian Dalziel

On the 2nd of November 1902 the continent on the eastern side of members of the Scottish National the Weddell Sea and make the first Antarctic Expedition set sail from sighting of land there. the Firth of Clyde on board their Steam Yacht Scotia bound, according The Scottish National Antarctic to Expedition Leader Dr W S Expedition conducted the bathymetric Bruce, for: “one of the least known studies that linked the southernmost parts of the South Polar Regions” Andes to the Antarctic Peninsula …“While ‘Science’ was the talisman through the arcuate Scotia Ridge of the Expedition, ‘Scotland’ was enclosing the Scotia Sea (Bruce 1905; emblazoned on its flag” (Bruce 1906, Fig. 2). Its members also undertook p. vii–viii; Fig.1). Almost due south, extensive geological and glaciological but over 14 000 km distant, Scotia was work on the South Orkney Islands to reach the edge of the Antarctic and the Falkland Islands as well as

Fig. 1 SY Scotia and expedition members, March 1904 while the vessel was beset in heavy pack ice at the most southerly point reached (74°1’S, 22°0’W). Glasgow Digital Library based at the University of Strathclyde.

4 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

Fig. 2 “Bathymetric Survey of the South Atlantic Ocean and Weddell Sea” (Bruce, 1905), with place names superimposed by the author.

marine biological studies (see Stone Sea, however, it faced a challenge 2017, and references therein). This unknown to Scots bound only contribution is concerned with for England — ice. At 72 degrees the identification and potential 18 minutes South, 17 degrees 59 significance of the ice-covered land minutes West “we were brought up that the Expedition discovered at the short”, wrote Pirie. They had reached southeastern corner of the Weddell what is now known as the Riiser- Sea. What exactly did they find? Larsen Ice Shelf (Fig. 3), “a lofty ice- barrier similar to that discovered by After completing their early Ross on the other side of the Pole: oceanographic work and a detailed it stretched in a north-easterly and geological survey of Laurie Island south-westerly direction” (Pirie 1906, in the South Orkney Islands, Scotia p. 234–235). According to Pirie, headed into the Weddell Sea. Bruce believed that the coast line Expedition geologist and surgeon of Antarctica must run more or less Dr J H Harvey Pirie wrote: “We continuously from there to Enderby were once again southward bound Land (50–60 degrees East longitude) – following the traditional policy of to account for the ice limits reached the inhabitants of Scotland….” (Pirie by Cook, Bellingshausen and others 1906, p. 231). As the expedition in their earlier explorations. We now turned south into the Weddell know this to be correct.

5 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

Fig. 3 Eastern margin of the Weddell Sea showing Scotia’s farthest south position in relation to Lyddan Island and the East Antarctic mainland. (Google Earth Pro). Tectonic boundaries and provinces mentioned in the text are shown in red.

A few days later, Scotia was able to penguins in the area and hence of follow the shelf edge, ’the Barrier’, the likelihood of beaches and cliffs about 150 miles south-west where suitable for nesting in the proximity, the “Inland Ice … seemed to rise noting that Anglo-Scottish explorer up very gradually in undulating James Weddell had observed similar slopes ...in one place there appeared bird populations in 1823 near his to be the outline of distant hills.” then record ‘southing’ of 74°15´in No ‘naked rock’ was visible, but a the sea now bearing his name (Fig. 3). sounding of only 159 fathoms, 2.5 miles from the barrier, convinced They named their discovery ‘Coats’ the party that: “we were really off Land’, now simply Coats Land, a new Antarctic land” (Fig. 3). Most in honour of their chief financial critically the nature of ice-rafted supporters, Mr James Coats Jr and boulders dredged in the vicinity Major Andrew Coats of the Paisley seemed convincing evidence that sewing cotton manufacturing family any ice-covered land nearby was of ‘J and P Coats’. They left it for future ‘continental character’. The dredge explorers to determine whether hauls included ‘granites, schist, they had discovered a large island, gneiss, quartzite, sandstone, slate or part of the Antarctic mainland, and limestone’ (see discussion in and regarded the latter as more Stone 2017). The party was also likely. However, plotting Scotia’s impressed by the numerous birds and southernmost position of 74° 01´

6 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

S, 22°00´W on a modern satellite describes his night watches as ‘dreich map (Fig. 3) indicates that the land and eerie’, an ambience perfectly they saw was snow covered Lyddan captured by expedition artist William Island, later named for topographic A Cuthbertson in his painting of engineer W R Lyddan of the United the Coats Land margin from the States Geological Survey who plotted vessel (Fig. 4). For several days the it from the air in 1967 (United States expedition had to contemplate and Board of Geographic Names 1995). plan for the unwelcome possibility The closest part of the East Antarctic that the vessel might be trapped for mainland is over 140 km to the east the winter at its farthest south point, across the island and the intervening but at last the ice parted enough ice shelf. for Scotia to free herself, and she headed north for Gough Island, and The weather took a turn for the eventually Cape Town, en route home worse with a north-east blizzard to the Clyde. pressing pack ice against, and indeed beneath Scotia‘s hull. Pirie It was German explorer Wilhelm Filchner who was to discover the only ‘naked rock’ in the region. This was in 1912 at his farthest south of ~77°55´S, 34°30´W at modern- day Vahsel Bay (see below) during the Second Deutsche Südpolar- Expedition aboard Deutschland (Filchner 1922; Fig. 3). Filchner named this most southerly land area along the eastern margin of the Weddell Sea the Prinz Regent Luitpold Land. Today the name Coats Land is generally applied to the land region extending from 20° to 36°W (United States Board of Geographic Names 1995), its southern coastal Fig. 4 Portion of painting of the area being known as the Luitpold Coats Land margin of the Weddell Coast with the Caird Coast to the Sea by expedition artist William A north (Fig.3). The latter was named Cuthbertson. (National Museums by Ernest Shackleton, after one of his Scotland). sponsors, Dundee jute manufacturer

7 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

Sir James Caird, during his 1914- 1915 voyage into the Weddell Sea prior to Endurance becoming beset and subsequently sunk by heavy pack ice. The exposed rock along the Luitpold Coast consists of three groups of small nunataks distributed near and around Vahsel Bay (Fig. 5), named for Deutschland’s captain who died during the expedition. Moltke and Bertrab nunataks were named Fig. 6 The author orientating by Filchner after Prussian officials, cores for palaeomagnetic study at the third group was left unnamed Littlewood Nunataks. Note very until it was visited by a United States gentle tilt of lava (~11°).

helicopter-supported expedition in the late 1950’s when it was named Littlewood Nunataks after a United States oceanographer. The three Bertrab Nunataks, four Littlewood Nunataks (Fig. 6) and two Moltke Nunataks, were referred to as the ‘BLM’ by Kleinschmidt and Boger (2009), who note that modern usage incorporates them into Coats Land despite some historical ambiguity. The Bertrab Nunataks form the foundation of the active Argentinian base ‘Belgrano II’.

The Bertrab and Littlewood nunataks comprise fractured and gently tilted, but otherwise undeformed and Fig. 5 Image of Vahsel Bay, unmetamorphosed, silicic igneous Prinzregent-Luitpold Land (Coats rocks; granophyre (Bertrab) and Land) showing location of nunataks. rhyolite (Littlewood; Fig. 6). Their (Google Earth Pro). chemistry indicates a likely ‘post-

8 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america? collisional’ or ‘within-plate’ origin Ocean basin at ca. 750 Ma led to (Kleinschmidt 2002; Kleinschmidt & the amalgamation of the cratons of Boger 2009).The Moltke Nunataks, East and West Gondwanaland at only accessible beneath an ice fall the end of the Precambrian along at considerable risk, are described a Pan-African suture or sutures by Raina et al. (1995) as ‘low-grade extending down the eastern side metamorphic limestone’ and ‘lithic of Africa to the Transantarctic arkose’. Aerial observations reveal margin of East Antarctica (see for open to tight folding and cleavage example Goodge et al. 2017; Jacobs and suggest low grade metamorphism et al. 2008). If Gondwanaland (Kleinschmidt & Boger 2009). Given was attached to Laurentia at the physiography of the Vahsel Bay the time of its amalgamation in area and the absence of deformation the latest Precambrian, another of the rocks forming the Littlewood supercontinental configuration and Bertrab nunataks, it seems likely that the low-grade metamorphic rocks exposed at the Moltke Nunataks form the basement to the silicic volcanic rocks. The latter have yielded U-Pb zircon ages of 1113+18/-4 Ma for rocks at Bertrab Nunataks and 1112±4 Ma for samples from Littlewood Nunataks, while a U-Pb titanite age of 1106 ±3 Ma was obtained from a rock at Bertrab (Gose et al. 1997).

In the past twenty-five years, many papers have been published on pre- Pangaea palaeogeography and the possible configuration of the Rodinia supercontinent that is widely believed Fig. 7 Ages of Coats Land rocks to have amalgamated with the global- and minerals with respect to those scale ca. 1.0 Ga Grenvillian orogeny. of Laurentian mid-continent rift Although the proportion of Earth’s (Keweenawan) and African Kalahari continental crust involved is not (Umkondo) large igneous provinces. clear, Rodinia would have existed (Vertical lines are error bars). until the opening of the Pacific Modified from Hanson et al. (2004).

9 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america? may have briefly existed prior to elsewhere along the present southern the separation of Laurentia. This margin of Laurentian craton both configuration has been referred to the east in Texas and to the west to as Pannotia, the ‘all southern’ in Arizona are correlated with the supercontinent (Powell et al. 1995; Castner Marble and interpreted Dalziel 1997, 2013). Gose et al. to have been deposited in a rift (1997) and Loewy et al. (2011) have system formed ca. 1.4 Ga (Marsaglia demonstrated that the silicic volcanic 2002). Thus, while no dates are rocks exposed in the Littlewood and yet available for the limestones of Bertrab nunataks are not only the Coats Land, their field relationship same age, 1112–1106 Ma, as the to the silicic volcanic rocks seems older part of the Keweenawan large directly comparable to that of igneous province along the mid- the southwestern United States continent rift system of Laurentia Mesoproterozoic limestones and the (Fig. 7) but also have the same Pb magmatic rocks of the Keweenawan isotope composition. Moreover, the province. lead isotope composition of the Coats Land rocks differs markedly from A high quality, well dated that of the only other large igneous palaeomagnetic pole for the Coats province of ca. 1.1 Ga, the Umkondo Land rocks (Gose et al. 1997) permits province of southern Africa. their having been close to the present day southern Laurentia (New Mexico The limestone exposed in the Moltke and trans-Pecos Texas) at 1.1 Ga Nunataks is interpreted as having (Loewy et al. 2011). The exposed been deposited ‘in a shallow-water Coats Land rocks are part of an environment, probably in the low isolated geophysically defined crustal energy area of the shallow shelf seas’ block separated from the Archaean- (Raina et al. 1995). In the Franklin Palaeoproterozoic Grunehogna Mountains of west Texas, the Castner block of Dronning Maud Land, East Marble dated at ca. 1260 Ma Antarctica, part of the Archaean underlies the ca. 1.1 Ga volcanics core of the Kalahari craton of Africa associated with the mid-continent rift before Mesozoic opening of the system and is cut by the associated southwest Indian Ocean, by the ca. Red Bluff Granite Suite (Pittenger et 1.0 Ga ‘Grenvillian’ Maud orogen al. 1994). The marble is interpreted (Fig. 3). Thus, a former extension as having been deposited ‘during of present-day southern Laurentia a transgressive event on a low- (west Texas and New Mexico) energy carbonate ramp’. Limestones seems to have been sutured to the

10 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america?

of Figure 8 can be envisaged with the Grenvillian orogen of Laurentia continuing into the Maud orogen of Antarctica (Loewy et al. 2011; Dalziel 2014).

In conclusion, leaving aside the possibility that the Scottish expedition sighted Lyddan Island rather than the mainland of the East Antarctic craton, it is nonetheless possible that they did in fact discover land comprising a continuation of the type ~1.0 Fig. 8 Reconstruction for the early Ga Grenvillian orogen of present Cambrian by the author (Dalziel, day eastern North America. It is the 2014). Blue crescent schematically rocks cropping out to the southwest represents the seaway I suggest to at Vahsel Bay discovered by have opened at that time between Deutschland’s party led by Wilhelm the already open palaeo-Pacific Filchner that hold the main clues to and opening Iapetus ocean basins, a possible Laurentian connection. perhaps leading to the global The undeformed Mesoproterozoic Cambrian marine transgression. volcanic rocks there are part of the Gray overlay represents Laurentian Coats Land, or BLM, crustal block that Grenville and Antarctic Maud may have been a fragment of the pre- ~1.0 Ga orogens. Red colour Grenvillian Laurentian cratonic core. shows positive gravity signature of Laurentian mid-continent rift system This hypothesis obviously requires and 1.1 Ga Keweenawan large further study. Nonetheless the igneous province; the red star shows Scots’ discovery of a continental the position of the associated Red land mass on the eastern side of Bluff Granite Suite in the Franklin the Weddell Sea has proved to be Mountains of western Texas. Laura of considerable palaeogeographic Martin of the Jackson School of significance, conceivably with a Geosciences designed the illustration. bearing on Earth history at a critical time for the development of life on the planet. The Cambrian ‘explosion’ Kalahari craton of Africa ca. 1.0 Ga of metazoan life is closely linked to a and a reconstruction such as that marine transgression. This may have

11 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america? been driven by the opening of an The new illustrations were prepared oceanic gateway between Laurentia by Jeffrey Horowitz. and Gondwanaland that isolated the olenellid trilobite fauna of Laurentia References from the redichliids of Gondwanaland Bruce, W S. 1905. Bathymetric Survey of the (Dalziel 2014). Regardless of the South Atlantic Ocean and Weddell Sea. validity of that additional hypothesis, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 21, 402– 412 +2 maps. it would indeed be fitting if a scientific party from Scotland, itself a tiny Bruce, W S. 1906. Preparatory Note. In: Brown, R N R, Mossman, R C & Pirie, J fragment of North America until H H. The Voyage of the ‘Scotia’: Being the separation a mere 55 million years ago Record of a Voyage of Exploration in Antarctic (Fig. 8), discovered a far southern land Seas. William Blackwood and Sons, that was a much earlier offspring of Edinburgh and London, 527pp. the same parent continent. Dalziel, I W D. 1997. Neo-Proterozoic- Paleozoic geography, and gectonics: Review, hypothesis, environmental Acknowledgements speculation. Geological Society of America My work in the Antarctic over nearly Bulletin, 108, 16–42. five decades has been entirely Dalziel, I W D. 2013. Antarctica and supported by the United States supercontinental evolution: clues and Antarctic Program of the National puzzles. Earth and Environmental Science Science Foundation, but my lifelong Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, interest in palaeogeography was 104, 1–14. inspired by reading Arthur Holmes’ Dalziel, I W D. 2014. Cambrian classic book ‘Principles of Physical transgression and radiation linked to an Iapetus-Pacific connection? Geology, 42, Geology’ as an undergraduate in 979–982. The University of Edinburgh and Filchner, W. 1922. Zum sechsten Erdteil. by evening discussions following Die zweite deutsche Südpolar-Expedition, his retirement. My friend and Ullstein, Berlin, I-XIX, 410pp. former colleague Robert H Dott Goodge, J W, Fanning, C M, Fisher, C Jr, Emeritus Professor at The M & Vervoort, J D. 2017. Proterozoic University of Wisconsin, Madison, crustal evolution of central East Antarctica: was instrumental in my becoming Age and isotopic evidence from glacial involved in Antarctic geology, and I igneous clasts, and links with Australia and Laurentia, Precambrian Research, 299, dedicate this short contribution to 151–176. him. His ancestors were Scots. Gose, W A, Dalziel, I W D, Helper, M A, Hutson, F & Connelly, J. 1997. This contribution benefited greatly Paleomagnetic results and U-Pb isotopic from Phil Stone’s editorial advice. ages from Coats Land, Antarctica: A

12 did the scottish national antarctic expedition discover a fragment of north america? test of the SWEAT hypothesis, Journal of Society of Economic Paleontologists and Geophysical Research,102, 7887–7902. Mineralogists Book 93, 165–186. Hanson, R E & 12 others. 2004. Coeval Pirie, J H H. 1906. Second Cruise in the large-scale magmatism in the Kalahari and Weddell Sea. In: The Voyage of the ‘Scotia’: Laurentian cratons during Rodinia assembly. Being the Record of a Voyage of Exploration Science, 304, 1126–1129. in Antarctic Seas, Brown, R N R, Mossman, R C & Pirie, J H H. William Blackwood and Jacobs, J, Bingen, B, Thomas, R J, Bauer, Sons, Edinburgh and London, 231–255. W, Wingate, M & Feitio, P. 2008. Early Palaeozoic orogenic collapse and Pittenger, M A, Marsaglia, K M & Bickford, voluminous late-tectonic magmatism in M E. 1994. Depositional history of the Dronning Maud Land and Mozambique. middle Proterozoic Castner Marble and Insights into the partially delaminated root of basal Mundy Breccia, Franklin Mountains, the East African-Antarctic orogen? In: Satish- West Texas. Journal of Sedimentary Research, Kumar, M, et al. (eds), Geodynamic evolution 64, 282–297. of East Antarctica: A Key to the East-West Powell, C McA, Dalziel, I W D., Li, Z X, Gondwana Connection. Geological Society, & McElhinny, M W. 1995. Did Pannotia, London, Special Publications, 308, 69–90. the latest Neoproterozoic southern Kleinschmidt, G. 2002. Geology of supercontinent, really exist? EOS, the nunataks of Prinzregent-Luitpold Transactions, American Geophysical Union Land (Coats Land, Antarctica) and 1995 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, CA, 76 (No. their geotectonic importance. Courier 46), 577. Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 237,1–14. Raina, V K, Divakaro Rao, V, Mukerji, S, Kleinschmidt, G & Boger, S D. 2009. The Gill, A S & Dotiwala, F. 1995. Geology Bertrab, Littlewood and Moltke Nunataks of the nunataks — Littlewood, Bertrab, of PrinzRegent-Luitpold Land (Coats and Moltke in Weddell Sea area, West Land): Enigma of East Antarctic geology. Antarctica. In: Scientific Report of Indian Polarforschung. Bremerhaven, Alfred Expedition to Weddell Sea. New Delhi, Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Department of Ocean Development, Research & German Society of Polar Technical Publication, 7, 25–54. Research, 78 (3), 95–104. Stone, P. 2017. The geological work of the Loewy, S, Dalziel, I W D, Pisarevsky, S, Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, Connelly, J N, Tait, J, Hanson, R E & Bullen, 1902 – 04, Scottish Journal of Geology, 53, D S. 2011. Coats Land crustal block, East 71–87. Antarctica: A tectonic tracer for Laurentia? United States Board of Geographic Names. Geology, 39, 859–862. 1995. Geographic Names of the Antarctic, Marsaglia, K M. 2002, The Second Edition, Alberts, F G. (ed.), National Mesoproterozoic section in the Franklin Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia. Mountains: Correlation and regional tectonic implications for a southern Ian Dalziel Arizona-west Texas extensional corridor (SAWTEC). In: Corsetti, F A. (ed.) Institute for Geophysics, Proterozoic-Cambrian of the Great Jackson School of Geosciences, Basin and Beyond. Pacific Section The University of Texas at Austin

13 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny

Plate Tectonics and the Grampian Orogeny

By Doug Fettes

Last year the geological world marked The Caledonides refers to the the 50th anniversary of the general orogenic zone generated between acceptance of a viable mechanism the Cambrian and Devonian periods for plate tectonics. Since that point at the junction of the Laurentian, plate tectonic models have become Baltic and Avalonian continental increasingly sophisticated and plates following the opening and fundamental to our understanding of closure of the Iapetus Ocean. global-scale geological mechanisms. The term Grampian Orogeny (or In parallel with these advances Event) refers to the tectonic cycle our understanding of the detailed in Scotland and Ireland during the sedimentological, structural and Ordovician (Chew & Strachan 2014, chronological history of the various Tanner 2014). component parts of the British and Irish Caledonides has grown Early models dramatically. It is fascinating One of the first orogenic models was therefore to consider how these proposed by Dewey (1969, 1971). It major developments have not argued that as Avalonia and Laurentia only allowed us to stitch together closed on each other, consuming the various regions of the ‘British the Iapetus Ocean, oceanic crust Caledonides’ but have allowed was subducted northward below the credible correlations throughout the Midland Valley block producing a Caledonides chain from Scandinavia volcanic arc. Some of the oceanic crust to the Appalachians. Although escaped subduction and was instead these broad correlations are now obducted onto the Midland Valley largely accepted the models for block to form elements of the Ballantrae the development of the Scottish Complex. To the south, subduction of Caledonides have become ever more Iapetus oceanic crust below the margin sophisticated and although a broad of Avalonia produced the Borrowdale consensus now exists, there are still volcanic assemblage in the English Lake areas of uncertainty. District. These early models regarded the Highlands and Midland Valley For the purposes of this short article as an integrated block and assumed the following definitions are used. orthogonal movements. Phillips et al.

14 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny

(1976) then produced a more extensive become successively younger to model that linked developments across the south. This phenomenon they the British Isles from the Ordovician explained in terms of an accretionary to the Devonian and emphasised the prism. That is, a thrust complex role of oblique collisions in generating formed above a subduction zone sinistral strike faults. that developed as slices of oceanic sediment (which younged upwards) Subsequently, McKerrow et al. were sequentially sheared off, thrust (1977, inter alia) produced a model under earlier slices, and rotated to explain the Southern Uplands towards the vertical (see also, Chew ‘enigma’, namely the series of steeply & Strachan, fig. 15). inclined fault-bounded tracts, that comprise the area and individually During the following decades, young to the north, but which although the broad elements of these

Figure 1 A series of cartoons illustrating the possible development of the Grampian Orogeny (not to scale) based on Strachan (2000), Stone (2014), Chew & Strachan (2014) and Tanner (2014). HBD, Highland Border Downbend, HBF Highland Boundary Fault, IA, Islay Anticline, LAS, Loch Awe Syncline, TN Tay Nappe.

15 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny early models remained, increasingly and southwest to the Buchan-style more sophisticated variations were zone (low pressure and relatively high proposed. These developments were temperature metamorphism) in the driven by a vast amount of new northeast. Also, the relatively high heat geochronological, sedimentological flow in Buchan is associated with the and structural data as well as intrusion of significant gabbroic and comparisons with analogues in Ireland granitic suites. and North America. It is beyond the scope of this short article to The Highland Border Complex consider all of this work, but we can The Highland Border Complex (HBC) is jump to our present understanding. exposed as a series of outcrops along the However, before describing the Highland Boundary Fault. It comprises current interpretation (illustrated by a variety of metasediments (arenites, the series of sketches in Fig. 1) it is siltstones, limestones) and ophiolitic worth considering three areas that are lenses (metamorphosed oceanic crust), critical to the tectonic models, namely, all now steeply inclined in the Highland the major structures of the Grampian Boundary Downbend (Fig.1d). The Highlands, the Highland Border status of the complex has been the Complex and the Ballantrae Complex. subject of considerable research and debate. Central to this debate was The structure of the Grampian the relative age of the metasediments Highlands to the Dalradian succession and its As shown in Fig 1c, the present N-S structural sequence. There have been structural profile of the area (that is proposals (e.g. Bluck 2010) that the between the Great Glen and Highland metasediments postdate, and have a Border faults) is a fan shaped series distinctive history from, the Dalradian of major nappes. The Tay Nappe and succession. However, there is strong associated folds face south whereas evidence that the metasediments are in the Islay Anticline and associated folds structural continuity with the Dalradian face north, the zone of divergence and, in the absence of confirmed forming the Loch Awe Syncline. palaeontological evidence to the The nose of the Tay Nappe is bent contrary, there is probably a consensus down and overturned along the that the metasediments constitute Highland Border. Another significant the highest unit of the Dalradian feature is the along-strike change in succession (designated the Trossachs metamorphic character, from the Group by Tanner & Sutherland 2007) Barrovian-style zone (intermediate and as such share the same structural pressure metamorphism) in the centre history. The ophiolitic rocks are believed

16 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny to have been obducted on to the day Scotland lay at the margin of metasediments, possibly producing Laurentia and as the area (probably thermal effects (Henderson & Robertson, composed of Moine and Lewisian 1982, Tanner & Sutherland 2007) rocks) was stretched it developed as a series of fault-controlled rifts (Fig. 1a). The Ballantrae Complex The sedimentary infilling of these rifts The Ballantrae Complex lies on formed the Dalradian succession. the Ayrshire coast south of Girvan. Variations in the rate of subsidence It is bounded to the south by the are reflected in the sedimentary facies Southern Upland Fault. The complex with possible major rifting near the consists of a wide variety of ophiolitic centre of the basin allowing eruption rock types but also includes basalts of the Tayvallich and related lavas. derived from oceanic arcs and It is important to emphasise that the within-plate volcanic centres as continental split would not have been well as gabbro and granitic units. a clean break but was most probably At the simplest level the complex marked by a ragged edge with small is presumed to be composed of microcontinental masses breaking free. a sequence of rocks derived from a range of oceanic settings and One such block now forms the obducted onto or compressed basement of the present Midland against the Midland Valley block in Valley. As this block drifted off, an the mid-Ordovician as the Iapetus oceanic basin opened between it Ocean closed (Fig. 1c). Stone (2014) and the main Laurentian edge (Fig suggested that the complex now 1a). This situation persisted until the occupies a fault zone on the north early Ordovician when the relative side of the Southern Upland Fault movements of the continents had and that some of the rock units have changed and Avalonia moved been brought together within the towards Laurentia, effectively fault zone through both substantial consuming the Iapetus Ocean. As vertical and horizontal movements a result, the Midland Valley block reversed direction effectively closing The plate tectonic model the Highland Border basin (Fig The Caledonides were initiated as the 1b). Oceanic sediments and crust supercontinent of Rodinia broke up were obducted onto the top of the in the Neoproterozoic and specifically Laurentian continent, compressing the when the continents of Laurentia, Dalradian sequence and initiating the Baltica and Amazonia drifted apart development of the nappe structures. creating the Iapetus Ocean. Present- At this stage it is possible there was

17 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny also subduction of oceanic crust of deformation in Buchan and it southwards below the Midland Valley is possible the variations relate block (Tanner 2014) leading to the to a degree of oblique collision development of a volcanic arc there or subduction (Fettes 2013). To (Fig. 1b). South from the Midland the south, the final closure of the Valley intra-ocean subduction led Highland Border basin resulted in a to the development of a series of collision between the Midland Valley volcanic arcs (see Stone 2014, fig 3) block and Laurentia (Fig. 1d). This which ultimately provided constituents deformed the nose of the Tay nappe of the Ballantrae Complex. downwards to produce the Highland Border Downbend (HBD) and brought Subsequently at about 460 Ma, the youngest Dalradian down to form there was a probable double the HBC (Tanner 2014). subduction flip as northwards subduction developed below both Meanwhile at about 430 Ma the Laurentia and the Midland Valley Baltica continental plate had closed block (Fig. 1c). It was this northward on Laurentia (Chew & Strachan, subduction and compression of 2014, fig. 1) resulting in the Scandian the Dalradian sequence which led deformation in northern and to the development of the major western Scotland which included the nappe complex, with underthrusting obduction of the Shetland ophiolite. effectively causing the Tay Nappe The marked absence of Scandian to overturn and flatten towards the effects in the Grampian Highlands south. At the same time, the pressure led Dewey et al. (2015) to propose a of the northwards underthrusting displacement of 500 km on the Great pushed the more northerly nappes Glen Fault, effectively distancing the upwards and outwards to form the areas of Scandian influence from the present fanned profile (Fig. 1c, Tanner Grampian region 2014, figs 18,19). However, when considering the Dewey et al. (2015) and Tanner events and processes outlined above, (2014) suggested that a spreading it is important to remember that centre in the Highland Border basin ocean closure and plate collision was subducted below the Buchan were not simple affairs. On a regional region effectively providing a heat scale, the Laurentian margin would source for the distinctive features of have been ragged and convergence that region. However, this explanation of the microplates, volcanic arcs, does not explain the lower degrees etc would have been complex and

18 plate tectonics and the grampian orogeny locally oblique. In this scenario it is to Mid-Devonian evolution of Scotland: a easy to conceive of major strike faults review and unresolved issues. Scottish Journal in association with the Highland of Geology, 51, 5–30. Border and Ballantrae complexes, Fettes, D J. 2013. Dalradian structure and metamorphism. The Edinburgh Geologist, 53, as well as the development of major 10–15 sinistral faults in the Highlands. Henderson, W G & Robertson A H F. 1982 The Highland Border rocks and their relation Further, it has not been possible in this to marginal basin development in the Scottish short article to discuss properly the Caledonides. Journal of the Geological immense amount of work and data Society, London, 139, 433–450. that underpins the models described McKerrow, W S, Leggett, J K & Eales, M H. 1977. Imbricate thrust model of the Southern above, nor is it possible to discuss all Uplands of Scotland. Nature, 267, 237–238. the alternative proposals. However, Phillips, W E A, Stillman, C J & Murphy, T. the models cited are hopefully close to 1976. A Caledonian plate tectonic model. a consensus. Hopefully also they give Journal of the Geological Society, London. an indication of the huge steps which 132, 579–609. have been taken in understanding Stone, P. 2014. A review of geological origins the plate tectonic evolution of the and relationships in the Ballantrae Complex, S W Scotland. Scottish Journal of Geology, 50, Grampian Orogeny as we reflect on 1–26. the 50th anniversary. Strachan R A. 2000. The Grampian Orogeny: Mid-Ordovician arc-continent collision References along the Laurentian margin of Iapetus. In: Bluck, B J. 2010. The Highland Boundary Woodcock, N H & Strachan, R A. (eds), Fault and the Highland Border Complex. Geological History of Great Britain and Ireland. Scottish Journal of Geology. 46, 113–124. Blackwell Science Ltd., 88–148. Chew, D M & Strachan, R A. 2014. The Tanner, P W G. 2014. A kinematic model Laurentian Caledonides of Scotland and for the Grampian Orogeny, Scotland. In: Ireland. In: Corfu, F. et al. (eds), New Corfu, F. et al. (eds), New perspectives on perspectives on the Caledonides of Scandinavia the Caledonides of Scandinavia and Related and Related Areas. Geological Society, London, Areas. Geological Society, London, Special Special Publications, 390, 45–91. Publications, 390, 467–511 Dewey, J F. 1969. Evolution of the Tanner, P W G & Sutherland, S., 2007. The Appalachian/Caledonian Orogen. Nature, Highland Border Complex, Scotland: a 222, 124–129. paradox resolved. Journal of the Geological Dewey, J F. 1971. A model for the lower Society, London, 164, 111–116. Palaeozoic evolution of the southeast margin of the early Caledonides of Scotland and Ireland. Scottish Journal of Geology, 7, 219– Doug Fettes, 240. British Geological Survey Dewey, J F, Dalziel, I W D, Reavy, R & The Lyell Centre, Strachan, R A. 2015. The Neoproterozoic Edinburgh EH14 4AP

19 cemetery science: archibald geikie’s scientific sideline

Cemetery Science: Archibald Geikie’s scientific sideline

By Nina Morgan

Archibald Geikie [1835–1924] cut Geikie also had many other strings to his geological teeth with studies in his bow. He was a gifted writer and Edinburgh and the Hebrides, and published a number of textbooks. But in the 1860s worked with Roderick to the public at large he was perhaps Murchison [1792–1871] to untangle best known for his readable and the complex geology of the Northwest popular books about geology. A review Highlands. Geikie led the Geological of the second edition of his Scenery Survey in Scotland from 1867 to of Scotland, which appeared in The 1882, and although the Murchison- Spectator magazine in 1888, praised Geikie interpretation was debunked his writing skills above his scientific in the 1880s, he moved to London talent: in 1882 as the Survey’s overall Director-General, a post he held until “Dr Geikie is perhaps the most his retirement in 1901. In 1913, he agreeable writer on geology now left moved to Haslemere, Surrey where he to us. When his Scenery of Scotland served as Chairman of the Haslemere originally appeared, in 1865, it had a Educational Museum from 1914 until distinct success, less perhaps in virtue his death in 1924. of the scientific theory it expressed and exemplified, than of its picturesque descriptions, in which the ring of the geologist’s hammer had the accent of poetry, somewhat perhaps as the drone of the bagpipe is positively musical when heard a sufficient number of miles off.”

But along with the landscape in Scenery of Scotland Geikie also described a simple methodology for monitoring and studying weathering in building stones. In Chapter 2 he noted:

Sir Archibald Geikie, 1835–1924. “Nowhere can the nature of BGS image P255071. weathering be more conveniently and

20 cemetery science: archibald geikie’s scientific sideline instructively studied than upon ancient the 1870s by the German geologist masonry, and notably among the and professor of mineralogy at the gravestones of a churchyard. Originally University of Erlangen, Germany, as they left the hands of the mason, the Friedrich Pfaff, and designed to stones of a wall or slabs and pillars of precisely measure the effects of a monument were smoothly dressed, weathering on a range of rock types. or even polished. We can, therefore, Geikie first published the results of compare their present with their his gravestone studies in 1880 in original condition, and mark the nature a communication entitled Rock- and amount of the disintegration they weathering, as illustrated in Edinburgh have suffered. Moreover, when the churchyards (Proceedings of the Royal dates of their erection are preserved, Society of Edinburgh, 10, 518–532 we obtain from them a measure of the and Plate XVI). He also summarised rate of waste.” his gravestone work in his more popular publications. For example, It was a simple idea, but a very in his popular book Geological powerful one — and it fit in very well Sketches at Home and Abroad (1892), with his professional field work. As he Geikie devoted a whole chapter to a recalled in his autobiography, A Long description of his gravestone work. Life’s Work: His observations on weathering in “In the course of my journeys all gravestones soon led him to conclude over Scotland there was always an that acid rain — essentially carbonic interest in examining the tombstones acid (H2CO3) formed when carbon in graveyards, first for the light which dioxide (CO2) emitted from the they so often thrown upon the families burning of coal was dissolved in rain that have lived for generations in a water — was a major culprit. The district... and next for the valuable and effects, he noted, were especially unexpected information which they obvious on marble, a stone often frequently afford as to the manner chosen for high status graves. As an and rate of decay which various kinds illustration, he cites the degradation of of stone, employed for monumental the gravestone in Greyfriars churchyard purposes, suffer from the disintegration in Edinburgh honouring the chemist effects of the atmosphere.” Joseph Black, who died in 1799.

Geikie’s geological fascination with “This sumptuous tombstone,” Geikie graveyards was inspired after reading noted in A Long Life’s Work (1924), about experiments conducted in “consisted of a solid framework of

21 cemetery science: archibald geikie’s scientific sideline

No doubt those well-meaning, but perhaps chemically illiterate, friends imagined the marble would last a lot longer than it did. When Geikie visited Black’s grave in 1879, less than 80 years after it had been erected, he noted that the inscription on the marble was becoming illegible, and worse:

“...The slab, still firmly held in place by the metal fastenings all round its margin, had bulged out considerably in the centre, forming a large blister-like expansion, which had been rent by numerous cracks.”

By 1894 the marble had crumbled so badly that the Town Council of Edinburgh was forced to replace it with a slab of what Geikie described as a “far more durable sandstone on which the original epitaph had been carefully copied.” A page from Geikie’s field notebook with his observations about Joseph But perhaps because his observations Black’s grave (Courtesy of Haslemere of badly weathered sandstone Educational Museum). gravestones demonstrated that many types of sandstone were also very vulnerable to the effects of hard siliceous sandstone into which weathering, Geikie decided to risk a large upright slab of white marble using granite — then a relatively novel had been firmly fastened, recording material for tombstones — for his own in Latin, with pious reverence, the family’s gravestones. This in spite of genius and achievements of the his observation in his 1880 paper discoverer of Carbonic Acid, and that ‘granite has been employed for Latent Heat, and adding that his too short a time as a monumental friends wished to mark his resting stone in our cemeteries to afford place by the marble while it should any ready means of measuring even last.” approximately its rate of weathering’.

22 cemetery science: archibald geikie’s scientific sideline

be a potassium-rich variety, and may have come from the granite quarry at Peterhead in Aberdeenshire.

Measurements of the effects of weathering in gravestones continues to play an important role in studies of rock weathering and stone conservation. The results of these studies are now being applied by conservation organisations including Historic Scotland.

Thanks to modern methods of transport, a wide range of stone types is readily available for a wide range Joseph Black’s tombstone as of uses, including in cemeteries. As it appears today in Greyfriars a result, gravestones — which could cemetery. be considered as easily accessible giant hand specimens — are also now playing an important role in the The gravestone commemorating his teaching of geology and in science wife, Alice Gabrielle Pignatel, (died outreach aimed at the general public. 1916) and his son, Roderick Geikie Given Geikie’s great interest in science (died 1910), which is located in communication and talent for popular Brookwood Cemetery in Surrey is writing about geology, surely he would made of smoothed but unpolished be pleased with this outcome. granite, possibly from Scotland. The inscription in white lettering, is still Nina Morgan is a geologist and clearly visible more than 100 years science writer based near Oxford later. Although it is not known whether and co-author, with Philip Powell, of he chose the stone for it himself, The Geology of Oxford Gravestones Geikie’s own gravestone in the Derby (copies available from www. Road Cemetery in Haslemere, is also gravestonegeology.uk). The pair often made of granite with a smooth, but lead gravestone geology walks based unpolished surface. The slightly pink on the book, and so far have opened or orange tinge to the stone suggests the eyes of more than 300 people to that the feldspar in this granite may the wonders of gravestone geology.

23 the state of hutton’s memorial in greyfriars kirkyard

The state of Hutton’s memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard

By Andrew McMillan

Nina Morgan relates Archibald Geikie’s commemorating Hutton as the discussion of the fate of the original Founder of Modern Geology. marble tombstone commemorating James Hutton’s great friend Joseph Recently, I accompanied Beverly Black (1728–1799). This stood almost Bergman and Christine Thompson on opposite the Balfour lair, Hutton’s own a visit to examine the physical state of final resting place, in the Covenanters’ the memorial to James Hutton. Our Prison, Greyfriars Kirkyard. Hutton attention had been drawn by one of died in his house at St John’s Hill on the Kirkyard guides to the fact that his 26th March 1797. At the approach memorial was in a poor state. of the 150th anniversary of his death in 1947, his grave was unmarked At the time of our visit, the lead although recent research by Beverly lettering on the panel was discoloured Bergman has established that a (probably owing to the development record of monumental inscriptions at of lead carbonate) although the letters Greyfriars published in 1867 (Brown, themselves were intact and in good J. The Epitaphs and Monumental condition. The panel displayed a small Inscriptions in Greyfriars Churchyard, amount of algal growth. In contrast Edinburgh. Edinburgh 1867) contains the adjacent sandstone memorial to details of an earlier memorial to him. the Balfour family, related to James A committee established by the Royal Hutton through his mother, Sarah, Society of Edinburgh in conjunction is in a parlous state. The left-hand with the Royal Physical Society, the sandstone tablet has come loose from Edinburgh Geological Society, the the wall and probably presents a safety Geological Society of Glasgow and hazard to anyone going up to Hutton’s H.M. Geological Survey (Scotland) memorial. The carved stonework established a fund to organise an above it is extremely loose. The centre appropriate commemoration of the sandstone tablet shows signs of water sesquicentenary of Hutton’s death. penetration and efflorescence. There As part of these events, the then Lord is a spout which projects through the Provost, Sir John Falconer, unveiled wall immediately above the Balfour a small polished grey granite panel monument, which is undoubtedly

24 the state of hutton’s memorial in greyfriars kirkyard leading to water running down the attempts to compete with nature.” monument in wet weather. It comes In that respect, and further to Nina through the wall from the vicinity of Morgan’s article, it is worth recalling the old TA Drill Hall. There is extensive Geikie’s eloquent comment in the vegetation around the lair, including 3rd (and best) edition of his volume Buddleia which is forcing the stones of The Scenery of Scotland (1901): “As the walls apart. I examined the marble of [Black’s] tomb and its Latin inscription that Attempts are currently being made to records the genius of the discoverer of discover who would be responsible carbonic acid, I could not but reflect for carrying out remedial work on the on the curious irony of Nature, that memorial stones and re-positioning has furnished in the corrosion of this the water spout to take drainage monument her own testimony to the water away from the lair. As always, truth of his discovery.” At least the maintenance of monuments and replacement sandstone tomb (1894) for buildings is crucial. But as the dear late Joseph Black, although needing some Norman Butcher was once heard to attention, is in reasonable condition. comment on a geological excursion about some crumbling building: ‘…… Andrew McMillan another example of Man’s puny [email protected]

The Balfour Lair in the ‘Covenant- ers’ Prison’, Greyfriars Kirkyard. Hutton’s memorial plaque is set on the wall to the left.

25 book reviews

Book reviews

Volcanoes of Europe (2nd edition) The first edition, by Scarth and Tanguy by Dougal Jerram, Alwyn Scarth in 2001, has been expanded, revised and Jean-Claude Tanguy. Dunedin and updated by Dougal Jerram to Academic Press, Edinburgh. 2017. incorporate modern research and 278 pp. Hardback, Price £60, ISBN the latest eruptions, with many new 978-1-78046-054-3. Paperback, Price colour illustrations throughout. The £29.99, ISBN 978-1-78046-042-0. target readership is student, amateur and professional Earth scientists and I think it fulfils that admirably. The descriptions concentrate upon physical volcanology and environmental aspects in the context of the history of civilization and man’s interaction with and recording of eruptions. Technical jargon is kept to a minimum and, although the products of each eruption are described comprehensively in modern petrographical terms, complex petrological discussions are This highly attractive, superbly illustrated avoided. The result is a very clear, book provides a comprehensive review enjoyable text that is a joy to read. of ‘European’ volcanoes that have been active in the past 10 000 years. The introductory chapter has sections It includes all active and dormant on rock types, magma generation, volcanoes and some that can probably types of volcano, types of eruption, be regarded as extinct. ‘Europe’ is large igneous provinces, plumbing meant in a political rather than a systems and the overall tectonic setting geographical sense and hence includes of the ‘European’ volcanoes. The oceanic islands of the North Atlantic and explanations and discussion in the the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Tectonically, text are very clear and generally hit most occurrences do lie on the Eurasian the right level, though I feel that the Plate, though the Canary Islands are section on rock nomenclature could on the African Plate and half of Iceland have done with a little expansion. and the two most westerly Azores are Some accompanying figures (figs. on the North American Plate. 1.3A and the melting diagrams in

26 book reviews

1.4), adapted from other sources, lack Although, appropriately, there are no explanation and hence confuse rather references in the text, there is a very than enhance. But overall the chapter comprehensive Bibliography. There is does set the scene very effectively and also a Glossary, which is generally very whets the appetite for what is to come good, especially on volcanological and that can only be described as terminology, but which could maybe exemplary. have utilised more-systematic petrographical definitions of rock The main chapters work systematically names, which tend to rely more upon through Italy (Etna and Stromboli are geochemistry. There is a ‘Vocabulary’ almost continuously active), Greece of non-English volcanological terms (last onshore eruption 1950), Spain (i.e. used in the text and, in a most-useful Canary Islands, last onshore eruption reference facility, a chronological list 1971), Portugal (i.e. Azores, last of ‘Eruptions in Europe in historical onshore eruption 1958), Iceland (last times’. eruption 2015), France (Massif Central, last eruption 7600 years ago) and The overall design and layout is Germany (Eifel, last eruption 10 000 excellent, with text, illustrations and years ago, fumeroles continuing). By boxes all tightly integrated. Editing and virtue of Jan Mayen Island (last eruption production errors are few, my only 1985) and Loki’s Castle, a recently serious gripe being the small size of the discovered submarine vent field, both maps of Etna and the Chaine des Puys, in Norwegian waters on the North which are almost unreadable. Such Atlantic Ridge, Norway also qualifies attractive and important documents for inclusion. Offshore eruptions are well merit larger reproduction. also described, with latest examples in the Straits of Sicily (2000), the southern Ironically, I received the invitation to Aegean Sea (1650), The Canary Islands review this book whilst on a Geologists’ (2012), the Azores (1999) and the Association tour of Italian volcanoes, Vestmann Islands (1963). but I did not see it until after I had returned home. It summarises and An attractive and highly effective illustrates beautifully all that we saw feature is the use of boxes with on that trip but how I wish that I had background colour to highlight details had it earlier and I know that this is a of notable historical eruptions and, volume that I will dip into again and in a novel digression, interviews with again. present-day volcanologists, the latter under the heading ‘Meet the Scientist’. David Stephenson

27 book reviews

Excursion Guide to the related to the glacial history of northern Geomorphology of the Howgill Fells England. by Adrian Harvey. Dunedin Academic Press, Edinburgh. 2017. Paperback, The book is divided into two parts; 118pp. Price £14.99. ISBN 978-1- the three chapters of the first part give 78046-070-3 a general overview of background geology and geomorphology and attempt to place the Howgill Fells into a regional context. These should be important chapters, as the present landscape can only be interpreted by understanding the nature of the underlying bedrock and response to changing external climate forcing mechanisms at a number of temporal scales. As such, present upland British landscapes usually show clear evidence of the operation of glacial events. In contrast, the Howgills owe their distinctive topography to minimal glacial activity This recently published book forms and show a notable non-glacial the latest in an irregular series of field topography which may reflect location guides to classical areas of European under a passive ice divide and the geology and geomorphology. In operation of cold climate periglacial northern England, the location of the processes during deglaciation. To Howgill Fells has led to this area being this geomorphic evidence must be overlooked, squeezed as it is between added the overall understanding of the more popular Lake District and former environmental conditions the Yorkshire Dales. This neglect of from palaeoclimatic proxy records. the Howgill Fells is unfortunate as As the author readily admits (p. 112) the landscape is distinctly different long timescale research is not his from these two other areas. Whilst main interest and these chapters the Howgill Fells are related to the (1&2) are somewhat general and Lake District with respect to bedrock poorly structured in comparison geology, they show a much gentler to the detailed informative topography which reflects a different background chapter on present day geomorphological evolution that is geomorphology (3).

28 book reviews

With this final chapter of Part 1, the to examine specific geomorphic guide changes level dramatically situations — in each of these valleys reflecting the high quality the main landforms and sediment geomorphic research that has been sections are described in exceptional undertaken by the author over a long detail allowing appreciation of the career. This provides an excellent landscapes. Here, the text is enhanced review of the main topic — the by high quality images and superb nature of slope-channel coupling maps illustrating the geomorphic to understanding the present changes that have occurred over the geomorphic system operating within monitoring period. The final chapter the Howgill Fells. The chapter clearly (8) is brief but provides an interesting explains Late Holocene landscape reflection on a long research career in dynamics, demonstrating the this area, directing questions to topics importance of specific rainfall events about the Howgill Fells with respect to to trigger high magnitude geomorphic other British uplands and showing that landscape change, particularly over much work still needs to be done on the last forty years. this topic.

The second part of the excursion Overall this excursion guide deals with guide begins with an overall chapter the important but specific geomorphic (4) that takes the reader on a circular aspects of gully development and reconnaissance road trip to a number channel response to specific externally of viewpoints that show off the triggered meteorological events. This Howgills landscape to good effect. is done to a high research standard Sensible instructions about fieldwork which is only spoilt by a poor synthesis in this remote area of few roads are of published background palaeo- provided with caution being stressed environment research on northern regarding high river flows. The next England. That aside, if you want to three chapters (3–7) get you out understand the Howgills landscape, of the car and on with your boots this is an excellent guide to help your and take you to different parts of appreciation. the Howgills and up a number of the deeply incised stream valleys Wishart Mitchell

Both books reviewed above are published by Dunedin Academic Press, and we have another of their recent books still available for review: Coal Mining in the East Neuk of Fife by John McManus. Any volunteers?

29 This issue: No. 63, Spring 2018

1 Editorial ramble Ice, plates and tombstones

4 Did the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition discover a fragment of North America? By Ian Dalziel

14 Plate Tectonics and the Grampian Orogeny By Doug Fettes

20 Cemetery Science: Archibald Geikie’s scientific sideline By Nina Morgan

24 The state of Hutton’s memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard By Andrew McMillan

26 Book reviews Volcanoes of Europe (2nd edition) Excursion Guide to the Geomorphology of the Howgill Fells

All previous issues are available online at www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/publications.

Cert no. SGS-COC-003231 ISSN 0265-7244