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Title and the internet: a social ecological analysis.

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Journal Cyberpsychology & behavior : the impact of the Internet, multimedia and virtual reality on behavior and society, 6(1)

ISSN 1094-9313

Authors Montero, Maria Stokols, Daniel

Publication Date 2003-02-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAVIOR Volume 6, Number 1, 2003 © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

Psychology and the Internet: ASocial Ecological Analysis

MARIAMONTERO, Ph.D., 1 and DANIELSTOKOLS, Ph.D. 2

ABSTRACT

This paper proposes a research strategy based on a social ecological analysis of the Internet and its psychological impact as an option to generate original research to answer the follow- ing question: What is the psycho-environmental meaning of the Internet? This paper has two objectives: first, to analyze Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) linked to the use of the Internet from a social ecological approach, and second, to propose some relationships among variables from a social ecological perspective, which can help to clarify the variability and magnitude of the psychosocial effect associated with the Internet. This article is divided into three sections. The first briefly describes the origins and development of the Internet. It identifies some technological features and specifies some of the cutting-edge breakthroughs that have facilitated its expansion. The second section proposes a conceptual scheme from the

social ecological perspective, which analyzes the subject–environmental binomial associated with the Internet. It identifies the basic assumption, the conceptual richness, and possibili- ties for research on the Internet, using a social ecological approach. Finally, the last section describes the scope and limitations of this perspective, and discusses its heuristic utility for the development and consolidation of a new area in psychological research: “digital psychol- ogy or cyber psychology.”

ROMTHEMYTHICAL Tower of Babel to the MOO) have facilitated the appearance of new Fmore recent digital transmission develop- ways of accessing information and of interper- ments, the human being has demonstrated a sonal communication. Therefore, together basic need for communication and informa- with the potential repercussions associated tion. In the 1960s, Marshall McLuhan 85 said with the Internet’s development, there is a “information is power.” McLuhan’s vision was new conceptualization of the world and the a premonition of the impact that access to digi- use of power. tal information would have. Dissemination of The impact of the Internet on human func- the Internet, defined as “a large network of tioning has been documented by different dis- computers, a vast collection of information, ciplines, such as sociology, 24,71,133 politics,28,50,110 and a global community of people,”58 and economics,31 engineering, 63 and most recently, its components (www, e-mail, asynchronous psychology. 6,17,21 In this regard, some of the discussion forum, newsgroups, synchronous variables that have been documented include chats, multiuser dungeons-MUD, Media- visual , 46,92 interpersonal communi-

1School of Psychology, National University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico. 2School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California.

59 60 MONTERO AND STOKOLS cation,25,84,86,103 learning,16,33,77 sexual behav- tion. From this perspective, the Internet makes ior,26,27,108 and, particularly , clinical effects in it possible to actualize the “Collective Uncon- terms of possible addiction. 39,88,99,136 scious,” and the “self-organizing” of individual Similarly, the different levels of psychologi- intelligence. 38 This implies a co-evolution of cal analysis that have been documented are technology and human consciousness. 37 intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transper- In spite of the proliferation of information sonal.37 On the intrapersonal level, there are about the Internet, there is a paucity of scientific psychodynamic postulates, 41,68 that analyze evidence analyzing the components, manifes- the level of disinhibition that the Internet pro- tations, and consequences for psychological motes, and the alterations that occur in the functioning with the cybernetic environment therapeutic process while substituting face-to- represented by the Internet. Little 75 gave the face sessions with written language. 56 In fact, it name “ environmental experience” to emo- is assumed that “the self in cyberspace is frag- tional experience linked to a particular place mented and multiple.”101 and identified three basic dimensions in the On the interpersonal level, the implications environment: as a source of stimulation, infor- of the Internet for human functioning are vast, mation, and action scenario. It is, however , varied, and sometimes controversial. As an ex- still necessary to answer the following ques- ample, a study by Kraut et al. 72 showed that tions: What is the optimum level of stimu- the use of the Internet in an adolescent and lation in the Internet for the user to have sample was associated with a decrease in efficient, direct access to particular sites with family communication with a reduction in the minimum cost interms of tension? How can size of the social network, and also, with an in- the information to be found on the Internet be crease in the frequency of depression and lone- organized so that it is visible and has an im- liness. The Internet has also been used, pact on the different audiences that access however, for the development [(http://www. the network? Which behavioral patterns are thefutureofbusiness.com/login.cfm) on April linked to the use of the Internet with respect to 3, 2000] and expansion of business [(http:/ / age, sex, schooling, and culture? In short, what www.alphacomnetworkmarketing.com/) on is the psycho-environmental meaning of the April 3, 2000] for health promotion [(http:// Internet? This paper therefore proposes a re- www.monash.edu.au/health/) on April 3, search strategy based on a social ecological 2002], for political propaganda and criticism analysis of the Internet and its psychological [(http://www.stile.lut.ac.uk/~gyobs/GLOBA impact. L/t0000006.html; http:/ /www.pscw.uva.nl/ This paper has two objectives: first, to ana- sociosite/TOPICS/Activism.html) on April 6, lyze Computer Mediated Communication 2001], for the development of new educational (CMC) linked to the use of the Internet from a technologies [(http://www.du.org/; http:/ / social ecological perspective, 15,18,23,119 and sec- www.tapr.org/~ird/Wadbrook/ telementor- ond, to propose some relationships among ing/WebQuest.htm) on March 2, 2002], and variables from a social ecological perspective, for scientific dissemination and production which can help clarify the variability and mag- of knowledge [(http://scv.bu.edu/; http:/ / nitude of the psychosocial effect associated www.unesco.org/; http:/ /ajanta.sci.ccny. cuny . with the Internet. edu/~jupiter/pub/com/index.html) on March This article is divided into three sections. 16, 2002] among other applications. The first briefly describes the origins and de- From the transpersonal focus, defined as “ex- velopment of the Internet. It identifies some of periences in which the sense of identity or self its technological features and specifies some extends beyond the individual to encompass cutting-edge breakthroughs that have facili- wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche, and tated its expansion. The second section pro- cosmos”,128 it is argued that the Internet permits poses a conceptual scheme from the social the development of consciousness. 100 This type ecological perspective, which analyzes the of development is a nonverbal and nonlineal subject–environment binomial associated with process, which integrates cognition with emo- the Internet. It identifies the basic assumption, ASOCIAL ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 61 the conceptual richness, and possibilities for 1. The Internet topology is of an “open ar- research on the Internet, using a social ecologi- chitecture” type. This facilitates access to cal approach. Finally, the last section describes the web for all computers . Connection the scope and limitations of this perspective, takes place through specific interfaces and discusses its heuristic utility for the devel- that are determined according to the opment and consolidation of a new area in users’ requirement s. psychological research: “digital psychology or 2. Communication media. The Internet is cyber psychology.”123 based on binary language for storage and transmission. T ransfers are made through small information blocks, called packages. AHISTORICALCAPSULE: ORIGIN AND Since these packages are small, transmis- DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET sion is quick and allows all computers in- side the web to have the same hierarchical In 1965, Thomas M. Roberts used a low- status. speed dial-speed telephone line to wire a TX-2 3. Access to band-width as a transmission computer in Boston, on the East coast of the service. This service is offered by the big United States, with a Q-32 computer in Los communication companies, such as Amer- Angeles, on the West coast. It was the first ica On Line (AOL), MCI, UUnet, AT&T, and Wide Area Network (WAN). 70 Four years later, AGIS, and Internet Service Providers (ISPs) the Advanced Research Program Agency depend on such companies. (ARPA) promoted the first network installa- 4. Management. The first coordinator of Inter- tion code, called ARP ANET, between Massa- net activities was created at the end of the chusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 1970s by the International Corporation University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Board (ICB), and the Internet Configuration and the British National Physical Laboratory Control Board (ICCB), in conjunction with

(NPL). During the first 2 years, more than 20 the European Internet Research Group. As universities and government research centers a consequence of the rapid growth of the were connected to the web. The growth of Internet, different organizations have ap- ARPANET during the 1970’s was slow , how- peared such as the Internet Society (IS), cre- ever, even though there was a considerable ex- ated in 1992 by nongovernmental scientists pansion in the use of personal computers and educational professionals. Internet En- (PCs). gineering Task Force (IETF) was estab- In 1989, ARPANET became the Internet, and lished in 1986, with the purpose of defining was conceived as a decentralized web of com- new engineering protocols to facilitate the puters, in which all nodes have the same hier- development and application of the Inter- archy within the web. In 1990, the first web net in different fields of human activities. browser software for a Next computer was re- The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the leased. Three years later , in 1993, the Univer- supervisor of the Internet Society which sity of Illinois released the Mosaic Web browser proposes the technical aspects and the stan- for the PC, Mackintosh, and X-Windows. 58 In dards with which the Internet must comply. less than one decade, the number of host com- puters with Internet connections grew from a Even though the above classification is use- little more than 1,000 in 1984, to more than one ful for understanding the technological aspect million. It is currently estimated that there are of the Internet, it differs from a social ecologi- 62 million Internet users in the U.S. alone, and cal analysis in three basic respects: (1) Consid- it is calculated that by 2003, this number will eration of the human being as recipient and increase to 85 million. 127 transmitter of CMC; (2) the human–machine From a technological conception, 70 the Inter- interaction, which occurs within a specific so- net can be found to contain four central as- ciocultural context; and (3) the examination of pects: (1) topology, (2) communication media, the psychosocial processes implicated in CMC, (3) access to band-width, and (4) management. specifically linked to diffusion of the Internet. 62 MONTERO AND STOKOLS

An analysis of the human–environment in- nized components of a system”15 as could be teraction with respect to the Internet encour- the case of the Internet. ages basic neurophysiological research, as well According to Stokols, 119 five essential postu- as the study of the psychosocial and economic lates characterize the social ecological approach. consequences of Internet usage. For example, because cyberspace alters the temporal, spatial, Multiple dimensional analysis of and sensory components of human interaction, people–environment relation it is necessary to document the extent to which the direction and magnitude of such alterations One of the key concepts associated with the can affect the neurophysiological and psy- Internet from the social ecological approach is chosocial functioning of the human being. In space, or environment. From the environment constructing spatial meaning, the physical, so- conceptualized as “vital space,”74 to the cyber- cial, and cultural characteristics associated space notion, 123 the environment concept has with the Internet favor the recreation of mean- been a heuristic construct. An analysi s of ings and the types of interaction between the people–environment transactions allows us to human being and the cybernetic environment. understand some of their instrumental or sym- Since “the environment is emotional ter- bolic meanings. 120 For example, conceived as a ritory,”54 it is pertinent to ask how the charac- tool, the environment can promote productiv- teristics of the Internet, conceived of as a ity in work setting, 124,125 and learning or social- cybernetic environment, promote, maintain or ization in school environments, 42,49,52 It also can make difficult the manifestation of specific increase stress from crowding as a result of per- behavioral patterns, such as behaviors of ex- ceiving social, and/ or physical information ploration, tolerance to frustration, creativity, overloading, together with a loss of personal perception, information decoding and storage, control over the situation. 14,105 The environment decision making, attribution and reconstruc- can promote the experience of physical or social 5 tion of meaning of environment. isolations, contributing in an indirect way to Issues such as technological or economic loneliness. 34,57 In contrast, however, the envi- analyses related to the Internet are not given ronment can also be considered as a human systematic coverage in the ensuing discussion, development setting, 20 with emotional, 64 affec- because they are not part of the psychological tive,60,61 and symbolic 83 components. framework and can be found in other special- ized sources. 1,22,32,80 The core issue in this work The dynamic interaction between the context is a social ecological analysis of the interaction and the subject’s characteristics between the human being and the physical, psychological, and social environment associ- In this instance, mention should be made of ated with the Internet. the perceptual particularities of virtual reality, such as the Internet and some of its variations like video games. 109 According to Suler, 123 vir- SOCIALECOLOGICALSCHEME tual reality (VR) has two facets of analysis. On OF THE INTERNET the one hand, there is a sensory–motor reac- tion associated with direct, physical stimula- Social Ecology was conceptualized by Ali- tion of the senses. In Suler’s words, “VR is an han4 as a way to transcend the biotic concep- attempt to exactly recreate the world as we tion of human organization and develop a consciously experience it with our eyes, ears, more comprehensive view. This approach as- skin, body.” There is also, however, a facet of sumes a biological as well as a cultural interac- pure imagination which creates new, fantastic tion and places emphasis “ on man in a total environments. In such an environment, people social system ... Its interest, moreover, lies not experience a type of “reality”, which has no only in man’s relationship to his fellow man, direct association with the physical world. but also in the relationship among the orga- Specifically, it is in this aspect of the Internet— ASOCIAL ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 63 where the imaginary appears real and reality cal encounters with virtual settings. 43,117 Now seems fantastic—that the study of the interre- we can raise some research questions: What ef- lationship between human beings and the en- fects will the transitions taking place within vironment offers a potential contribution. the Internet’s different modalities have on a subject’s psychological adaptability? Does the same emotional and cognitive adaptation The system’s conceptualization from which a occur whether a subject surfs the web, inter- binomial human–environmental relationship acts in a chat-room, or establishes an interper- is analyzed sonal communication via e-mail? From a systemic analysis, we can identify The exosystem refers to the dynamic interre- functions of mutual interdependence between lationships established between formal (e.g., different levels of sociophysical interaction. A health systems, government agencies, trans- clear example of a systemic notion is Bronfen- port systems) and informal (e.g., school, home, brenner´s18 theory of development. He identi- social groups) systems. These systems have fies four levels of environmental interaction as apotential effect on the physical functioning settings for the individual’s development: and psychosocial adaptation of the subjects. micro, meso, exo, and macro systems. The mi- The “digital divide” [(www .pbs.org/digital) on crosystem is the reciprocal relationship be- April 3, 2002] represents an example of how the tween subject and environment. At this level, exosystem’s characteristics facilitate or impede the use of the Internet accomplishes the recip- the social diffusion and cognitive appropria- rocal feature because it is based on interactiv- tion of the new technologies. Clearly, subjects ity between user and computer. Furthermore, residing in rural areas within developing coun- at this level, it is necessary to take into account tries or low-income communities in the U.S. that interaction occurs in a particular socio- have fewer opportunities to access the Internet, physical setting (e.g., house, office, school). compared with high-income citizens living in

According to this perspective, it must be con- developed countries. This situation is not re- sidered as a system composed of many inter- lated to the cognitive capacities of particular active subsystems. In this way , an e-mail individuals. Indeed, the social impact of this interaction established between two persons “digital divide” can have repercussions on an within synchronous or asynchronous time and individual level by reducing the opportunities space could have a potential impact on the in- of information for poor people, thereby repro- teraction these subjects establish with their ducing vicious circles of continuous poverty. family subsystem, within real time and space. Finally, the macrosystem considers the ideo- Bronfenbrenner states, 18 “such larger systems logical, cultural, and subcultural profile that must be analyzed in terms of all possible sub- influences the subject’s psychosocial develop- systems (i.e., dyads, triads, etc.) and the poten- ment. It is interesting to note that in 1997, tial second and higher order effects associated among the 15 countries with the highest Inter- with them.” net usage, Brazil only had 0.86% of the users of Within the mesosystem, a mutual relation- the Internet, whereas the United States had ship between settings is essential. The poten- 54.70%.58 None the countries of the Middle tial interdependencies that occur between East, Africa, India, nor the majority of the diverse settings now make analyses possible Latin American countries show a significant using CMC. For example, changes in the prop- percentage of Internet usage. This profile is ev- erties of systems associated with ecological idence of the underlying economic inequalities transitions within real and synchronic settings associated with the “digital divide” . In this have been proven in psychological develop- regard, we must ask whether the associated ment studies. 2,3,116 In contrast, distance learn- pathologies of Internet usage—such as cyber- ing initiatives demonstrate that, through the addiction and cybersex— are products of Internet, students can acquire knowledge, in- electronic access, or merely symptoms of in- teract in social terms, and can substitute physi- dustrialized societies. 64 MONTERO AND STOKOLS

Interdependency between subjects and their receptor reactions to a different visual–space sociophysical milieu organization. For example, it was shown 93,102 that significant eye movements depend on a The fit or congruence between the subjects’ rough, brief mental representation, which la- characteristics and the features of their context bels potentially important points in visual is crucial for their optimal functioning. For ex- space. Moreover , these eye movements have ample, the use of the Internet by people who an actualization mechanism that compensates are either introverted or shy will be a medium changes occurring in the environment, and that masks their social inabilities. 136 In con- those caused by the subject’s own movement. trast, the use of the Internet by people who Consequently, it is important to document prefer to socialize face-to-face may represent how the sharpness and memory of sights that an opportunity for them to increase their social are seen are associated with efficient discrimi- network.113 With both introverts and extro- nation of information via the Internet. 35,59 verts, the consequences are similar; that is, an On the other hand, psychology would ex- increase in their social network. The underly- plain the cognitive processes arising from In- ing psychological processes between these ternet usage 81 such as attention, memory, and groups are different, however. In the case of in- learning, in combination with more complex troverts, the Internet is used as a medium to processes, like emotional reactions. 67,90,97,104 compensate their lack of social contact; extro- Inaddition , the particularities of the social verts, on the other hand, use the Internet as a construction and reconstruc tion of inter- way to optimize 11 their social characteristics. personal131 and social67,107 interaction, which In spite of this, not every introvert uses the In- occur in the different settings of the Internet, ternet frequently, and not every extrovert represent fertile ground for different psycho- avoids the Internet. For this reason, the context logical research areas, including different so- features in terms of availability, access, and 66 cial disciplines, such as economics, sociology, frequency of use are relevant. It would be in- 65 and anthropology. teresting to conduct studies where the covaria- It is clear that the Internet not only repre- tion between personality features and the sents a setting for technological innovation, user’s Internet preferences could be clarified. but it also provides a space for social transfor- mation and self-awareness. Figure 1 shows a scheme that describes some properties of the The adoption of an interdisciplinary focus Internet from a social ecological conceptual- It is necessary to take a multidisciplinary ap- ization. The type of environment, which can be proach that allows the identification of signifi- physical or digital, is combined with the two cant and relevant dimensions oriented to the categories or components of intellectual func- optimization of the Internet. Optimization tioning postulated by Baltes, Staudinger & here is understood as a “ cyclical process Linderberger 11: mechanical and pragmatic whereby individuals not only adapt to the ex- cognition. According to these authors, “ the isting situation, but also opt to maintain or mechanics of cognition are constructed as an modify their milieu in accord with specified expression of the neurophysiological architec- goals.”122 Among the relevant dimensions re- ture of the mind. In contrast, the pragmatics of lated to the Internet, we can identify the fol- cognition are associated with acquired bodies lowing: complex interactions (intrapersonal, of knowledge available from and mediated interpersonal, and transpersonal), multiplicity through culture.”11 This combination of two of physical and virtual environments, tempo- environmental dimensions and two types of ral scope (synchronic vs. asynchronic), social cognition gives rise to different interaction components (idiosyncratic vs. cross-cultural) processes. and variations of the settings (www, chats, The utility of the social ecological approach e-mail, video games). depends on the degree to which it allows the In this way, the contribution of neurophysi- convergence of different theories with the pur- ology is essential to detect the quality of neural pose of generating an integrated explanation ASOCIAL ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 65

settings that can lead to stress by stimulation overload, but the digital setting can also acti- vate sensory receptors and produce “informa- tional overload.” Indeed, the identification of the crowding threshold via the Internet and the coping mechanisms, which the subject uses to reduce, control, or suppress the stimu- lation level, are research issues from the social ecological perspective. On the other hand, Kevin Lynch’s 79 contribu- FIG. 1. Generative scheme of social ecological research on the Internet. tion, regarding the meaning of environmental structural characteristics (paths, nodes, land- marks, routes) as a way for both and of a phenomenon from the micro to the macro children44 to organize and recognize their sur- level. Although this article emphasizes the roundings, is a useful way to examine the cognitive aspect of the man–environment in- structural characteristics of the Internet and the teraction, it is important to remember that the “affordance”36 level associated with its varia- social ecological approach considers different tions. In other words, and according to Heft levels of analysis that fluctuate from the micro and Wohlwill, 47 if the structural properties of level (e.g., human information processing the environment give it a specific quality and mechanisms in the family context) to the macro affordance level, then the functional meaning level (transactions between groups and the of the environment must also be available to social context that have some impact on social the subject who perceives it. Therefore, the development or on health policies aimed at structural and functional properties of the In- communities or different populations). ternet have an unknown affordance level. In

In relation to the Internet analysis, concepts this regard, work developed in MIT opens up like contextual variables, 121 multidimensional- possibilities to identify new , original interac- ity and multidirectionality , 8,9 system equilib- tions between the subject and physical, virtual, rium,62 amplification and deviation 82 permit and holographic environments. 78 the charting of differing trajectories of interac- In terms of the mechanical process associated tion between the subject and his/ her socio- with the digital environment at an individual physical environment. Such interactions occur level, visual– motor and visual– memory abili- at an atomic or individual level (e.g., interac- ties can be studied through the practice and de- tion between subject and computer through velopment of video games. In this regard, it video games, or surfing the web), as well as, at hasbeen reported that some video games im- a molecular or social level, in dyads or in prove perceptual motor skills and cognitive groups (e.g., e-mail, chats, list discussions). functioning in both children and the noninsti- The speed at which information processing tutionalized elderly . 30 In this way , Silvern 112 is performed, the information storage capacity, suggested that arcade video games may pro- the short-term transformation, and also, the vide children with an interesting mix of what ability to automatically inhibit or intentionally Piaget96 termed “practice games,” “symbolic suppress the processing of goal-irrelevant in- games,” and “ games with rules.” Such games formation are some of the characteristics of the can improve the hand and eye coordination of mechanics of cognition, 11 and they are continu- children, facilitate social interaction, and de- ally active when the subject interacts with the velop skills including pattern and rule genera- Internet. In the World Wide Web, for example, tion, hypothesis testing, and generalization. the amount and type of information is so di- At a social level, both the mechanical and verse and complex that the assumptions of the pragmatic processes linked to the Internet behavior-setting theory 12,135 are useful to pre- have repercussions at an economic level, in dict the stress level that such settings produce. community and organization development, Within this context, it is not only the physical and in drawing up health and social develop- 66 MONTERO AND STOKOLS ment policies. For example, according to Econ- SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS omist,32 “the biggest economic impact of the Internet is likely to come from business-to- Even though the social ecological approach business (B2B) e-commerce. Gartner Group offers a constructive option for the generation forecasts that global B2B turnover could reach of research on Internet usage and develop- US$4 trillion in America in 2003, compared ment, it also presents some theoretical and with less than US$400 billion in online sales methodological limitations in its implementa- to consumers.” The appearance of virtual tion. In theoretical terms, the appearance and communities creates communication bridges social application of the Internet is too recent that reduce physical distances and foster the to have developed a research tradition that establishment of social and even affective supports a theoretical construction. 115 In this bonds. Wellman and Gulia 133 argue that “these way, it is important to promote systematic, computer-supported social networks (CSSNs) crucial research 98 to permit the identification come in a variety of types such as electronic and evaluation of moderator–mediator vari- mail (e-mail), bulletin board systems (BBSs), ables13 between the subject and his/her inter- Multi-User dungeons (MUDs), newsgroups, action with the Internet. and Internet relay chat (IRC). All CSSNs pro- In methodological terms, the qualitative vide companionship, social support, informa- techniques employed 29,73 serve to identify tion, and a sense of belonging.” CMC’s phenomenological particularities, tak- In relation to the pragmatics of cognition, ing into account criteria of reliability and va- verbal knowledge and numerical ability are lidity.69 It is also necessary to systematically processes that are acquired through socializa- promote the generation of structural modeling tion and life experience. Within this context, and its empirical tests 89 in order to identify la- the social ecological approach allows the study tent variables 51 and to describe specific rela- of diverse settings where socialization and life tionships between psychosocial factors 126 experience occur. In this regard, it has been re- associated with the use of the Internet. In addi- ported134 that the transmission of experience tion, the psychometric aspects of question- through which numerical and linguistic naires applied via the Internet have particular knowledge are acquired changes from culture relevance. Even though there are studies to culture (e.g., educational systems). Some ex- showing the Internet as a medium that can be periences are universal (e.g., personalized used to collect empirical data, 48,55,114,118,132 it is learning); whereas others are idiosyncratic, important to document the construct validity 91 based on the subject’s characteristics (e.g., per- underlying each questionnaire, and to treat sonality traits). data interpretation with care in order to avoid In parallel, the pragmatic knowledge associ- inappropriate generalizations. ated with the digital environment is linked to The scope of the study of the Internet from a emotional aspects such as the affective states, 72 social ecological approach is associated with emotional reactions, 7,40 and interpersonal rela- individual, interpersonal, and sociocultural tionships84 that occur and that can be estab- levels. In individual terms, the scope of the In- lished through the Internet’s variations. ternet implies a conscious expansion of the In addition, the digital environment facili- human being as a cognitive entity. 37 The easy, tates an immersion experience, understood as rapid access to information, and the possibility an “ experience of being surrounded by the to recreate, manipulate, and/ or alter existing computer-synthesized environment”. 76 In this information allow the human being to use a way, the environment moves beyond a three- kind of power whose future consequences are dimensional context. It can be recreated in a unknown. virtual way or it can be transformed in a digi- The interpersonal scope of the Internet is tal manner to produce an experience of immer- linked to a reconceptualization of personal, sit- sion, whose characteristics and consequences uational, and social factors that promote a ten- are unknown. dency towards attachment. 87,106 Aprofile must ASOCIAL ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 67 therefore be drawn up and an analysis made of as suicide and depression— among Internet the social impact of the use of the Internet, in- users? How do the Internet users in indus- cluding, for example, the manifestation of trialized countries optimize informational re- bonds of attachment, 45,129,130 therapeutic adher- sources and adapt cognitively in comparison ence,111 and the establishment of e-business with those residing in the developing world? (http://www-3.ibm.com/e-business) from the perspective of the characteristics of CMC. The digital era, and specifically the develop- CONCLUSIONS ment of the Internet, is redefining human iden- tity, therefore, the sociocultural impact of the The social ecological approach represents Internet will depend on the specific context aconstructive approach 94,95 for generating re- considered. For example, according to a report search on the interaction between human published in the New Y ork Times (November behavior and Internet usage. 119a The five theo- 11, 1999), the number of the Internet users in retical assumptions that distinguish this the U.S. is projected to reach 177 million by the approach are: (1) multidimensional conceptu- end of 2003. Globally, the number of Internet alization of the phenomena; (2) emphasis on users will reach 502 million the same year , the dynamic interaction between subject and compared to 142 million in 1998. This implies context; (3) an accent on the interdependency that the Internet’s realm is growing 48% per of the subject and his/her milieu; (4) adoption year on average. The Internet’s social penetra- of the systems theory; (5) an interdisciplinary tion is evident: whereas developed countries orientation. The levels of analysis from a social have a higher level of access to the Internet, ecological approach vary from the micro- developing countries have a rate of connection environment (e.g., the nuclear family system) of less than 1%. 58 This information reveals one to the macro-environment associated with of the Internet’s social paradoxes. On the one cultural particularities. 19 Its unit of analysis hand, the Internet offers extensive communi- considers atomic components—such as neuro- cation opportunities throughout the world; on physiological functions or discrete pieces of the other, it ratifies and worsens economic and behavior—and also molecular units where be- technological inequalities between countries havioral profiles are considered to be complex, and cultures. In this sense, it is not only impor- multidimensional processes, 122 such as wis- tant to make the Internet “affordable” in cog- dom,10 or attachment. 3 Finally, the social ecolog- nitive terms, 36 but it must also be available in ical analysis of the Internet is related to a time social and economic terms. continuum which fluctuates from synchronic to Some of the questions that will need future asynchronic 53 within a physical or digital envi- clarification in order to contribute to the opti- ronment-interactive mode. The magnitude and mal and constructive uses of the Internet are: direction of the Internet’s impact on the physi- What kind of visual–motor and perceptual fac- cal, psychological, and social functioning of the tors lead to the immersion of a subject in the human being is a challenge to scientific research WWW? What motivates a subject to spend that will be clarified in the near future with in- countless hours “surfing” the web? Are the terdisciplinary collaboration. mental maps generated by direct experience within the physical environment the same as those generated by virtual reality? How does a ACKNOWLEDGMENTS subject optimize the information accessed through the web? What perceptual (i.e., size, This work was supported by the General Of- form, texture, color) and cognitive (i.e., design, fice for Academic Personnel Matters, autono- complexity, content) characteristics facilitate mous University of Mexico (UNAM), through the subject’s preference for a specific variation a postdoctoral fellowship granted to Dr. Mon- of the Internet? What is the frequency and tero, and by the Department of Urban and Re- magnitude of dysfunctional behaviors— such gional Planning, School of Social Ecology , at 68 MONTERO AND STOKOLS the University of California, Irvine. The au- 16.Bitter , J.A. (2000). Learner online interaction. Journal thors thank Dr . Julia Gelfand, UC Irvine of Rehabilitation Administration 24:37–45. Library, for her assistance in compiling spe- 17.Brenner , V. (1997). Psychology of computer use: XLVII. 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