Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 No.2 November 2005 93 EXAMINING THE X-FILES: AN INTEGRATIVE CONFLICT MODEL ADAPTATION FOR CONTEMPORARY PARANORMAL THOUGHT

Stan H. Hodges, Oklahoma State University, and Jason S. Uisperger, Arkansas Tech University

ABSTRACT

This is a study of perceptions of the television program the X-Files. Using a review of literary sources, descriptive statistics. and qualitative comments from on-line communities. it focuses on what makes the show popular and what people see as deeper meanings behind episodes. With the X-Files as a backdrop, it also applies an adaptation of the inlegralive conflict model to examine the increased presence of paranor­ mal thought currcnlly shaping public consciousness and influencing contested cultural ideologies. It builds on previous research using the integrative conflict model and studies of the X-Files as a cultural phenomenon. In a recent Rolling Stone article on pork­ work (1958) notes increased discourse on barrel politics and homeland security, the au­ the reality of UFOs and extraterrestrial be­ thors discuss government funding as "stuff ings and represents a political, social, philo­ right out of the X-Files" (Klinenberg & Frank sophical, and religious conflict of unprec­ 2005). The quote indicates the embedded edented proportions splitting the conscious­ nature of the X-Files in our cultural conscious­ ness of our age. It implies that an emerging ness. The article does not give background cultural divide started in the 1950s involving information on the show. The quote only ex­ scientific validity and the paranormal. Specif­ ists as a cognitive reference point for the ically, the idea exists that Western culture is reader. The article assumes we all know what currently experiencing a struggle between the X-Files concerned. It is probably on tar­ scientific logic and paranormal thought with get. The X-Fiies, a show following the work Jung's work being an early acknowledgment of government agents investigating conspira­ of the trend. Shklovskii and Sagan's research cies and the paranormal, still appears on (1966) extends Jung's work showing the be­ television. The X-Files, which premiered on lief of UFO myths represent a compromise the Fox network in 1993, was cancelled in between the need to believe in a traditional 2002. The show remains in syndication on God and contemporary pressures to accept cable networks such as WGN, TNT, and the declarations of science. Recent works apply Sci-Fi Channel (Randles 2000; Wikipedia these ideas to the X-Files. From a biochemi­ 2006). Some attribute the success of the X­ cal perspective, Simon (1999) analyzes the Files to its two stars ~ David Duchovny and scientific validity of X-File concepts. Goode Gillian Anderson. Duchovny plays Agent Fox (2000,2002) examines the allure of the show Mulder. He is on a quest to unearth govern­ at the crossroads of paranormal belief, con­ ment conspiracies covering up paranormal spiratorial thinking, and the public's struggle events and extraterrestrial life. Anderson against the ruling elite. Peterson (2002) re­ plays agent Dana Scully. With a background views the show in terms of religious connota­ in physics and medicine, she pulls her ex­ tions. Carter (2003) examines the influence planations of the unknown from the realms of episodes on the mood and feeling of view­ of science and rationality. While the show is ers. not a documentary, its producers indicate Though previous work focuses on impor­ they based episodes on true-life accounts. tant issues, it leaves us with several ques­ Skeptics believe episodes are too fantastical tions. Years after television executives pulled for most people to interpret as fact. Nonethe­ the X-Files from primetime, what do people less, the show continues to have millions of think leads to the initial and continued suc­ viewers interested in paranormal phenom­ cess of fhe show? Moreover, does the X-Files ena (Kurland 1999; Randles 2000; Goode extend beyond mere entertainment? Do 2002; Wikipedia 2006). people perceive a deeper meaning fo it? In relation to the cultural impact of paran· Does the show, along with the ideological ormal thought, various researchers have ex­ conflict between the lead characters, repre­ amined the impact of supernatural ideolo­ sent a wider cultural struggle between reli­ gies, popular culture, and the media. Jung's gious and scientific belief discussed by pre- 94 Volume 33 No.2 November 2005 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

Figure 1: The Integrative Conflict Model

STRUCTURAL FOUNDATIONS Structural Factors Cultural Factors ~Heterogeneity: race, ethnic, religious -Scientific Logic -Inequality: economic and political -Religious Beliefs -Economics: fiscal issues -Language -Music and Art -Technology

PERCEPTION AND DEMANDS FOR INFORMATION Perceptions of the Paranormal Legitimation Deficits Prolonged Media Coverage Public Demands

TRIGGERING EVENTS Sensationalized Events Reform Groups Media Trends Media Entrepreneurs Specialized Community Groups Political Activity

COMPETING CULTURAL IDEOLOGY Note: Figure adapted from McGarrel1 and Castellano (1991). vious researchers? If so, has it acted as a ways. High levels of heterogeneity, inequal­ base of knowledge in a wider paradigm shift ity, and declining economic conditions influ­ leading to the increased acceptance of cul­ ence social conflict. The most powerfUl ac­ tural ideologies contesting traditional scien­ tors determine the dominant ideology. In rela­ tific logic? Using an integrative conflict theory, tion to cultural factors, conceptual assump­ this work examines these issues. tions influence perceptions of social phe­ nomena. This concerns trends in scientific THE INTEGRATIVE CONFLICT MODEL eVOlution, religious beliefs, language, mu­ Multiple factors form fhe integrative con­ sic, art, and technological advances. In this flict model. Originally formed to explain the study, all of these things shape values of a sociological tormation of law, it is modified culture. They also help to promote percep­ slightly in this research to apply to cultural tions of the paranormal. If the values indi­ ideologies. Figure 1 indicates that the model cate that a certain behavior is unexplainable, operates on three basic levels. They include the public will demand information from structural foundations, perception and pub­ those in power. This is especially true if they lic demands for information, and triggering believe knowledge is being restricted. If val­ events. To generate social change, it is not ues indicate issues surrounding the activity necessary that the levels occur in a sequen­ are explainable, people will tolerate the be­ tial order, just that all are present (McGarrell havior and official positions held by society's & Castellano 1991). elite (tor adaptations of this perspective see Structural foundations include structural Scheingold 1984; McGarrel1 & Castellano and cultural factors. Structural factors have 1991; Ulsperger 2003). an effect on cultural ideologies in numerous In terms of perceptions of the paranor- Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 95 mal, media exposure of a paranormal event De Poel-Knollnerus & Knottnerus 1994). In (Le. UFO sighting, alien contact, conspiracy) the first, the author develops a scope of liter­ creates an elevated sense of public aware­ ary sources. We examined sources by vari­ ness. This leads to public outcries for infor­ ous authors from 1900 to the present. This mation from those in power, which creates a included 25 works dealing with paranormal dilemma. If a dominant cultural ideology, ideologies and cultural perception. We con­ such as scientific reason, explains a phe­ sidered hundreds of sources, but the ones nomenon and few contradictory frames ex­ selected dealt most adequateiy with the topic ist, the demand for information will be mini­ af hand. Several of the 25 sources selected mal. If a contradictory trame is salient, the for in-depth analysis specifically concerned demand for information will be greater, and it the X-Files. The documents included scien­ is more likely that the validity of those in power tific studies, autobiographies, biographies, will be open to question. magazine articles, newspaper accounts, in­ Triggering events produce an intense de­ terviews, and books focusing on religion. mand for information and lead to the gaining The second stage of a literary ethnography popularity of an alternative ideology. Trigger­ involves the reading and interpretation of lit­ ing events, which can occur simultaneously, erature selected. We read our selected lit­ include information dissemination by spe­ erature and gained a beller understanding cialized community groups, the actions of of paranormal media presentations on cul­ media entrepreneurs, the general influence tural ideology. This helped us to gain an of media trends, and political activity. They awareness of subtle nuances, repeated in­ also involve sensationalized media events. formal phrases, and technical jargon in this Whereas media exposure sets the stage for tield of study. action, triggering events set the rise of a com­ The third step of a literary ethnography peting ideology into motion (for related ad­ involves the identification of textual themes. aptations see Galliher & Cross 1983; Cross In this work, these themes included issues 1991; McGarrell & Castellano 1991; Ulsperg­ on a wide range of topics. They dealt with er 2003). epistemology creation, worldviews, publish­ Analysts have neglected to focus on any ing, media perspectives, culture, religion, and concept similar to the integrative conflict science. The fourth stage concerns the clas­ model to examine the increasing influence sification of thematic elements. We catego­ of paranormal thought. As indicated in this rized and labeled specific patterns emerg­ research, this model provides an under­ ing from the textual themes. These con­ standing of how media presentations of the cerned general references to the supernatu­ paranormal, such as the X-Files, are part of ral (including ghosts and psychics), the ex­ a larger scheme shaping public conscious­ traterrestrial, conspiracy theories, sexual ness and influencing the development of themes, entertainment, science, religion, and contested cultural ideologies. art (Van De Poel-Knollnerus & Knollnerus 1994). METHODOLOGY The fifth step involves applying an ana­ This research uses a combination of a lytic construct. To increase the validity to the literary ethnography, a survey, and a qualita­ categorization developed in the previous tive analysis of comments from on-line sci­ stage, it is necessary to introduce and apply ence fiction communities. The literary ethno­ a previously developed theoretical model. graphy provided us with a base understand­ We chose integrative conflict theory to en­ ing of paranormal thought and its depiction hance our analysis. The last stage of a liter­ in the media. It also put the X-Files into his­ ary ethnography deals with contextuai confir­ torical context with the existing conflict be­ mation. We went back and read all of the tween scientific and supernatural ideologies. literature with our classifications and inte­ The survey allowed us to develop an idea of grative conflict theory in mind. This helped the public's perceptions of the X-Files. The us to decide If the documents correctly re­ qualitative analysis of comments from on­ lated to the final coding scheme. The reread­ line science fiction communities gave us the ing confirmed the categories and constructs opportunify to obtain thick descriptions per­ accurately represented the major themes taining to themes coded from the survey data. identified. By each author rereading selec­ A literary ethnography has six steps (Van tions from the documents, we established a 96 Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

Table 1: References to the Popularity of the X~Files Issue Number Percentage Supernatural Elements 85 40.0 Extraterrestrial Topics 46 22.0 Conspiracy Theories 42 20.0 Sexual Icons 21 9.0 Entertainment Value 8 4.0 Scientific Substance 6 3.5 Religious Themes 2 1.0 Music / Art 1 0.5 Totals 211 100.0 Note: Numbers based on rounding methods. level of intercoder reliability (Van De Poel­ contlict analysis of the increasing influence Knottnerus & Knottnerus 1994). of paranormal thought. A literary ethnography can be a stand­ alone methodology. However, in this research Survey Results it was only an initial phase used to enhance In terms of the question, "What do you our understanding of the topic and aide in think of when you hear the word X-Files?" our analysis of our research questions. Its responses dealt with viewing and show fa­ main purpose was to provide us with a frame· miliarity. Of the 146 respondents, all were work to apply to our survey and qualitative familiar with the show. All mentioned the as analysis. We administered the survey to 146 the main thought initially coming to them college students from universities in Okla~ when hearing the word "X-Files." However, homa and Arkansas. Respondent ages pro­ not all had viewed it. The results indicate 109 vided us with data trom younger students respondents (75%) view the show while only just entering college to non-traditional stu­ 37 respondents (25%) rarely or never watch dents in their forties. There was an evenly the X-Files. Those who rarely watch indicated split gender division. The interview tool in­ that they knew about the show through con­ volved three basic open-ended questions: versation with tamily or friends. This indicates 1) What do you think ot when you hear the the possibility that avid watchers discussed word X-Files? 2) Why do you feel the X-Files the show with others knowing nothing about is so popular? 3) Do you think there is an the series. Respondents who never or rarely expression of deeper meaning in episodes watch noted they had read about or heard that goes beyond entertainment? about the show on television. Following data collection, we coded com­ In relation to the question, "Why do you ments and applied them to our previously feel the X-Files is so popular?" we received devised categories. We finally turned to indi­ a variety of responses. As Table 1 indicates, viduals in sci-fi chat rooms to gain in-depth we coded the responses according to the perspective from individuals dedicated to categories formulated in the literary ethnog­ shows such as the X-Files. We interacted raphy. The data contain 211 coded re­ with 16 individuals. They provided us with sponses. This number is larger than 146, thick descriptions on the meaning of X-Files. the number of respondents. The reason is They also gave us insight into where the X­ due to the open-ended nature of the ques­ Files fits in the wider cultural landscape. tion. Sometimes a respondent would put an extensive answer containing more than one FINDINGS theme. In these instances, we would split a This section reviews our findings. First, it comment and separately place each part in discusses general descriptive statistics from the appropriate category. In other words, one the survey. The focus concerns perceived response might contain a variety of refer­ reasons tor the popularity of the X-Files. Sec­ ences, or reasons, for the popularity ot the ond, it analyzes qualitative comments from show. the on-line community members. They con­ References to the show's general super­ cern the deeper meanings portrayed by the natural elements (including ghosts and psy­ X-Files. Finally, emphasizing the X-Files, it chic experiences) appeared the most - 85 synthesizes our data into a brief integrated times (40%). The second highest category Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 97 concerned the show's focus on extraterres­ spiracies covering up paranormal events trial topics. References to this category ap­ and extraterrestrial life, is delegated an of­ peared 46 times (22%). The show's orienta­ fice in the basement. Some believe this tion toward government conspiracy appeared marginalization to be the show's symbolic as the third most prevalent reason for popu­ representation of the government's stance larity. This category generated 42 references on the relevance of the paranormal. (20%). Phrases such as "new myths" and In terms of the focus on human reiation­ "new realities" presented themselves in this ships, chat room members took the sexual category. The fourth category, sexual icons, icon theme previously discussed to a greater produced 21 responses (9%). Here respond­ distance. They find episodes less about sex­ ents frequently indicated the sexual attrac­ ual tension between characters and more tiveness of the show's lead characters. about bonds of trust. One respondent noted, Phrases such as "Scully is hot," " Mulder is a when thinking of the deeper meanings be­ real ladies man," and "Mulder is a hunk" ap­ hind the X-Files: peared. Female responses implied the sex­ ual tension and possible spark of love be­ I think of friendship, dedication, self-denial, tween Agents Mulder and Scully drew them mysteries, and horror. (It became popUlar) into certain episodes. because it was intelligently written, scary As Table 1 shows, the remaining catego­ and interesting. It required more than pas­ ries, entertainment value, scientific sub­ sive watching. We had to think too. Not only stance, religious themes, and music/art, did it show horrible things and the worst each generated under 5 percent of the total side of people, it also showed beautiful sample. Given the literature previously dis­ things about people (It showed) what a true cussed, this finding is quite surprising. It con­ friend is - what loyalty is. tradicted our belief going into the research that the public (in this case, college students) Again, the respondent goes beyond the would blatantly depict the show as a sym­ aesthetics of main characters, which the sur­ bolic conflict between the realities of science vey of college students emphasized. Rich and the supernatural. social bonds between the main characters was key for the respondent because, as On-line Qualitative Comments noted, active watching and thinking about the Mining for thick descriptions on the deeper show was a requirement. This is not sur­ meaning of the X-Files, we turned to on-line prising because most people in an on-line communities more attuned to the show. sci-fi community dedicate themselves to find­ Members provided us with in-depth re­ ing deeper meanings to shows like the X­ sponses on themes emphasized in the pre­ Files. However, we would expect them to fo­ vious research stage. The comments focus cus on paranormal themes of the supernatu­ on areas dealing with feelings of distrust, ral. They did not. In contrast, this theme of human relationships, character credibility, emotional connection repeated itself. As an­ and the underlying simplicity of story lines. other respondent noted: Issues of trust discussed revolve around conspiracies. Respondents indicated the When I hear the term X-files I think provoca­ viewers of the X-Files predominately do not tively intriguing, undeniable intellectuality, trust "scientific" experts. Moreover, the gov­ and passion. I think the relationship that Mul­ ernment is not honest with its assessments der and SCUlly have with one another is of paranormal issues. Comments imply that something that is indescribable with simple the show provides them with what they con­ terms. There was so much depth between sider a more honest and realistic way of deal­ the characters built into their affiliation with ing with supernatural phenomena as the one another and the bond was indeed un­ media pushes them to the forefront. This lack breakable. The loyalty amongst the two is of trust goes both ways. Respondents indi­ somewhat of a rarity that we don't normally cated that the scientific community and the associate ourselves with, but we all long to government fail to acknowledge any validity see. Not only was the characters' camara­ in the paranormal community. Interestingly, derie incredible, but also the story lines were this plays out on the show. Mulder, the FBI astounding as well. agent on a quest to unearth government con- 98 Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

Figure 2: Applying the Integrative Conflict Model to Popularity of Paranormal Thought

STRUCTURAL FOUNDATIONS

Conflict between Science and Paranormal Logic

Characteristics Associated with Postmodernism

Alignment with Legitimate Religious Ideologies

PERCEPTION AND DEMANDS FOR INFORMATION

Public Demands lor Government Explanations

Lack of Belief in Government Explanations

Prolonged Media Coverage of Supernatural Phenomena

TRIGGERING EVENTS

Sensationalized Paranormal Events

Initial Media Trends on the Paranormal

Entertainment Profiteers Pushing Paranormal Commodities

Community Group Acceptance and Agenda Setting

INCREASED ACCEPTANCE OF PARANORMAL IDEOLOGIES

Along with an emphasis on the human and make them want to know more ... (How­ relationship factor, this respondent notes the ever) I think the theories and philosophies wondrous story lines of the show. Others that were presented on the X-files were so made note of this, and in tact questioned the absurd. that no one would believe such credibility of the story lines. As Goode (2002) things. notes, the shows may be a bit too fantastical. Surprisingly, some sci-ti chat room respond­ The respondent did go on to state that the ents agree. Acknowledging the power of story lead actors, with a high level of credibility, did lines while being a critic of their extreme po­ a convincing job of making the viewer per­ sitions, one indicated: ceive the episodes as reality. The respond­ ent later noted: People were so enthralled in the story be­ cause the topics that they brought up were Mulder made it seem so plausible (and also controversial and almost horrifying. Those considering his theories were the ones that two factors are very intimidating to people usually seemed to end up being fact) and Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 99

Scully's scientific theories actually were the tific logic and paranormal thought. The X­ ones that rationalized the situation that ev­ Files represents this struggle. With its pro­ erything fit into a perfect puzzle. I believe longed media coverage of the supernatural, that was amazing to the audience. It sure the show is also part of a wider scheme in­ was for me. creasing support of perceptions related to paranormal belief. In a similar vain, another respondent The integrated conflict model provides us stated, "the series portrayed themes in a way with a better understanding of this process. which they could be seen as true." These This work uses the core components of the sorts of comments suggest that the people theory in modified form. This includes struc­ that watch and are loyal to the X-Files per­ tural foundations, perception and demands ceived a "possible reality" behind the epi­ for information, and triggering events that sodes. This is consistent with the perspec­ lead to ideological shifts. To generate social tive of other research indicating X-Files sto­ change, it is not necessary that the levels ries are presented and perceived as the truth occur in a sequential order, just that all are (Kurland 1999). However, the degree to which present. Figure 2 outlines our modified ver­ dedicated sci-fi viewers and the public feel sion of the theory (see for elaboration McGar­ that the X-Files is truly an ontological possi­ rell & Castellano 1991). bility is beyond the scope of this research. Regardless, our data leads us to believe that Structural Foundations for many the X-Files compares to other para­ In terms of structural foundations, it is im­ normal parables existing throughout culture portant to discuss Western culture's recent - similar to the historical belief in stories of alteration. Scholars argue that the quality of fairies, vampires, or goblins. it changed considerably over the last few de­ The belief in the show's supernatural sto­ cades. In this new phase, what some dis­ ries and characters are interpreted at what­ cuss as postmodernism, cultural products ever perspective the individual desires. More­ such as art, movies, and architecture follow over, though many may feel the possibility of a different path than those of the modern era. an X-File story line being true, the dominant These emerged in the 1960s, around the scientific cultural ideology may keep them same time that Jung (1958) proposed the from admitting it. One cognitive frame that divide between scientific logic and paranor­ typically correlates with paranormal plot lines mal thought. The heart of the change in­ fhroughout history that respondents did not volves irrationality, multiple realities, a blurred deny is the simplistic portrayal of good ver­ line between what is real and what is simu­ sus evil. One respondent indicated, lated, the consumerism of image, and the rejection of authority all brought on by the Everyone had a role in the battles against rapid rise of technological innovation. Some good and evil, and sometimes those lines argue this line of thought is a fad. Whether it weren't black and white but you could tell is or not, there is little argument that shows who wanted to be good and who wanted like the X-Files occur in the setting of a soci­ to be evil. ety with these "postmodern" characteristics (Baudrillard 1973, 1983; Jameson 1984; Kell­ Many others provided similar comments. ner 1989). Consider comments by respond­ Their comments impiy that the good versus ents indicating that the X-Files is somewhere evil themes provide deeper meanings that between what is real and what is fiction. Think make unbelievable plots familiar. They par­ of previously discussed quotes indicating the allel a line of thought represented in religious show euphorically pulls viewers into stories. ideology that what is fair and just is always Consider the salience of themes in the sur­ competing with what is wrong and immoral, vey and on-line chat analysis acknowledg­ all with an undertone involving the unexplain­ ing or agreeing with government conspiracy able. theories and the questioning of the domi­ nant scientific logic. An Integrative Conflict Model Adaptation of With art being a part of a wider postmodern Paranormal Ideologies shift, it is not surprising artistic characteris­ As previously discussed, Western culture tics of the show's episodes reflect postmod­ is experiencing a struggle between scien- ern characteristics, but also influence con- 100 Volume 33 NO.2 November 2005 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology temporary art. Literature points out the a demand for justice, sympathy for marginal show's use of light and shadow, dreams, people in society, and a will to believe de­ hallucinations, meditation, and narratives spite feelings of doubt. He goes so far as to trigger associations that stir the human state these are the same themes constantly imagination. They discredit past views of re­ appearing in the National Catholic Review. ality and promote new ways of viewing the He also implies agent Mulder exhibits priest­ world. It is reported that some artistic view­ like qualities such as a willingness to listen ers, consequently, alter their creative direc­ to neglected voices, compassion, loyalty to tion (Carter 2003). friends, and determination to find the truth. Aside trom art, another cultural founda­ Wiison (2002), of Christianity Today, finds two tion that relates to the X-Files and its promo­ constants in the series. One, in relation to tion of the paranormal concerns religious the findings in our survey and on-line analy­ belief. It appears an increase in the accep· sis, involves the relationship of Mulder and tance ot paranormal thought is the result of a Scully. The other involves the way episodes frame alignment with religious ideologies. wrestle with faith and skepticism and ques­ Literature implies that religious thought is tion secular rationalism. Jensen (2003), ot another aspect of socially constructed para­ the Anglican Media, sees the show playing normal thought (Berger 1967). However, re­ to basic human fears under a veil of para­ ligion maintains a high degree of credibiiity noia. The fears he identifies include loneli­ in the Western world, especially Judeo-Chris­ ness, a sense of confusion, claustrophobia, tian beliefs. Hence, the alignment of religious lack of conclusion, and death. Similar to re­ belief and paranormal thought is a logical sponses from on-line community members occurrence. In fact, recent research indicates noting the good versus evil themes in the people in careers related to the paranormal show, he points out conquering evil is an intentionally link their occupations to reli­ ongoing task with the X-Files. He believes gious beliefs to enhance their credibility the Bible offers similar themes, but without (Hodges & Ulsperger 2005). Ironically, reli­ the paranoia. gious topics presented on television enflame So in relation to structural foundations in­ some social groups, but networks are sue· creasing the validity of paranormal thought, cessfully producing shows related to the a conflict between science and supernatural paranormal with little anger resulting (Miles belief has been occurring for decades. A 1997). Aware of this and emphasizing the show like the X-Files reflects this conflict and show's connection to religious, faith based cultural trends related to postmodernism. ideologies, the executive producer of the X­ This makes the show a facilitator in the pro­ Files notes: motion of paranormal thought, with the best example being its alignment with religious To me, the idea of faith is really the back­ ideologies to enhance its credibility. bone of the entire series-faith in your own beliefs, ideas about truth, and so it has re­ Perception and Demands for Information ligious overtones always. It is a more sensi­ In terms ot perception and demands for tive area on television because you run the intormation, it is relevant to note that trends risk of pissing certain people off, but I think of government skepticism emerged in the we handled it in such a way as to make it 1960s alongside the emergence ot in­ about miracle belief, or lack of belief - and creased paranormal thought. Against the we set it against the paranormal. (This) is backdrop ot conflict between science and why Mulder can believe in things that go paranormal thought, people started demand­ bump in the night, and when Scully believes ing answers for the failures of the govern­ in a miracle, he shuts her down. (Lowery ment and their lack of adequate disclosure 1996138-139) of information. Lyndon Johnson's war on poverty quickly became a failure by what was Interestingly, several denominations have supposed to be a rational, scientitically made remarks about the X-Files series based program. Vietnam became a lost through their respective newsletters and cause promoted by government hawks into magazines. Allen (1997) states in the Na­ the 1970s. Even into the 1990s, the Reagan tional Catholic Review that the series reso­ administration failed to implement effective nates with their readers because it involves policies to deal with issues such as drug Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 No.2 November 2005 101 use. Some even started to argue the govern­ but are not limited to, Whitley Strieber's per­ ment has a conspiracy to intentionally allow ceived alien abduction and the Bud Hopkins illegal drugs into the country for economic UFO sighting. advantage and social control (Ritzer 1996; Strieber says extraterrestrial beings ab­ Fenster 2001; Bracken 2002). Perhaps the ducted him in upstate New York in the winter most popular conspiracy associated with the of 1985. He details the event in his book government directly relating to the paranor­ Communion (1987). Its popularity with the mal involves Area 51, the facility in Nevada public led to three subsequent books and a rumored to be involved in extraterrestrial con­ feature film based on his experience. Con­ tact and also discussed in numerous X-Files sidered an icon in the alien research com­ episodes (Picard 1999; Books 2005). Based munity, Bud Hopkins was involved in a UFO on our literary ethnography, it seems now, sighting in 1964. He also published a book more than ever, a large quantity of published on his experiences called Missing Time books, magazine articles, television shows, (1981). Pushed by the publics demand for and feature films dedicafe their content to more information on his past, he engaged in conspiracies and the paranormal. As we subsequent research on extraterrestrial life have indicated with the X-Files, this increased and human contact. He continues to dis­ media exposure of supernatural phenom­ seminate information through publications ena is influencing the way people think about and lectures. Information detailing his expe­ the paranormal. Even if it is not changing riences appears in publications such as their view on the validity of paranormal Time, The Washington Post, The New York thought, it is exposing them to alternative T;mes, and People. Along with appearances ways of thinking and increasing the popular­ on National Public Radio, he has been a ity of ideologies competing with rational, sci­ guest on television shows such as Oprah entific thought. This corresponds with com­ Winfrey, Good Morning America, 48 Hours, ments previously discussed by on-line sci-fi and Unsolved Mysteries (Intruders 2005). The community members. publicity resulting from the stories of these Therefore, media coverage of a conspiracy men, and similar situations with others in­ or paranormal event creates an elevated volved with the paranormal, laid the founda­ sense of public awareness. With the seg­ tion for supernatural books, television mini­ ments of the public being skeptical of the series, documentaries, and shows like the governments official position on many other X-Files. Analysts believe shows based in the issues, the public cries out tor information supernatural, like the X-Files, streamlined a from those in power. When people do not get variety of paranormal stories, and pushed it, a shift toward competing ideologies slowly forward lines of thought associated with the starts alongside of elevated media coverage unknown in recent decades. The argument including fictional shows and non-fiction is that the X-Files: news reports. With skeptics questioning sci­ entific reason and past actions ot the govern~ ... turned into a global phenomena that feeds ment based on rational logic, the increased off of and in turn enthuses the UFO (and acceptance of competing, paranormal ide­ paranormal) community. UFOlogy's myths ologies emerges giving them greater valid­ and trends are skillfully incorporated, from ity. Area 51 to abductions, and the governmen­ tal conspiracy oozes out of every episode. Triggering Events Of course what the series has done is tran­ With triggering events, it is important to scend fiction and become accepted almost discuss sensationalized paranormal events, as fact by many viewers ... The excesses resulting publicity, advances in technology created by the "X-files" has waned some­ leading to specialized community groups, in­ what created by the ballyhoo in 1997 around creased access to information, and actions the 50th anniversary of the birth of the mod­ of media entrepreneurs. In terms of sensa­ ern UFO mystery. But this is no bad thing as tionalized paranormal events, Randles the people with unrealistic expectation are (2000) argues that specific circumstances fading from the scene and the hard core of involving individuals and supernatural phe­ longstanding researchers still remain. The nomena activated the increasing belief in growth of the Internet has triggered a fan­ paranormal thought. Situations cited inclUde, tastic arena for instant debate and analysis 102 Volume 33 No.2 November 2005 Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology

of evidence. UFOs remain the second most her predictions for 2005 and found her to popular subject to be discussed on there, have a 25-30 percent accuracy rate. The prob­ with thousands of sites. (Randles 2000 393~ lem was thaf he gave the same topics she 395) predicted for to a fourth grade class. They had a 50 percent accuracy rate. Van Praagh As indicated by this comment, an impor­ stepped in and defended her stating "How tant component also triggering the rise of can we apply three-dimensional laws to in­ paranormal thought in recent years involves formation that's a fourth or fifth dimension?" technology. Outlets like the Internet allow Regardless of who was right and who was people ostracized for beliefs in paranormal wrong, the show crystallized the positions of phenomena to come together - much iike competing paranormal and scientific ideolo­ the sci-fj communities studied in this re­ gies while including religious perspectives. search. This allows tor a mobilization of be­ interestingly, few callers telephoned into the lievers dedicated to pushing a paranormal show supporting the scientific paradigm (see agenda (Intuition Network 2000; Hodges & King 2005). Ulsperger 2005). It is also relevant to note Using an adaptation of McGarrell and that with the increase in the acceptance of Castellano's (1991) integrative conflict paranormal ideologies, entrepreneurs have theory, it becomes apparent that a larger cul­ invested and profited. Commercialism re­ tural shift is leading to an increased accep­ sulting from interest in paranormal trigger­ tance of paranormal ideologies. The back­ ing events, media coverage, and thought in­ drop of structural foundations relating to the creased considerably over the past few conflict between science and paranormal years. Some critics even argue that some logic, characteristics associated with post­ individuals claiming to have paranormal ex­ modernism, and an alignment with legitimate perience do so with only profit motives in mind religious ideologies created a climate for fhis (Randles 2000; Evans, Forsyth, & Forman occurrence. It helped to facilitate demands 2003; Hodges & Ulsperger 2005). This is a for official knOWledge from a government neglected area in this field and warrants fur­ making mistakes based on rational, scien­ ther exploration (for more see Camp 1997). tific logic. It helped to generate prolonged media coverage of the paranormal and the CONCLUSION crafting of competing perceptions of reality. In December of 2005, CNN's Larry King With the stage set, triggering events such as Live aired a primetime episode entitled"Are individual experiences, media trends, the Psychics for Real?" Guests on the paranor­ coming together of communities in cyber­ mal side included clairvoyant James Van space, and profit motives pushed the accep­ Praagh, self-proclaimed psychic Sylvia tance of paranormal ideologies to a new level. Browne, and spiritual intuitive Char Margolis. Playing a part in all of this is the X-Fiies. Many Showing some media bias on the issue, only people are familiar with the show. Moreover, one member of the skeptical, scientific com­ casual viewers of the X-Files acknowledge munity appeared - Dr. Brian Farha. Farha its important themes on supernatural ele­ teaches a course at Oklahoma City Univer­ ments, extraterrestrial beings, and con­ sity called "Science and Pseudo-science," spiracy theories. This implies the show is a The religious representative was co~author success in exposing and normalizing the of the book The Psychic and the Rabbi (2001) public to paranormal themes. Interestingly, - Dr. Shmuley Boteach. When first speaking, on-line sci-fi fans indicate trust and the impor­ Boteach stated, tance of social bonds represented fhrough the show's lead actors gave them a connec­ I have yet to find a single psychic medium tion with the characters and increased their who can offer any information of any pub­ perception of legitimacy of the show's top­ lic utility or real personal usefulness. For ics. example, where's Osama bin Laden? As this research implies, there is little doubt that a show like the X-Files is playing a Acknowledging the link between the paran­ part in the increased acceptance of paranor­ ormal and religion, Van Praagh responded, mal ideoiogies. Whether these ideologies "Hasn't God told you yet?" At a later point, will replace the scientific paradigm remains Farha attacked Browne, noting that he tracked to be seen. One thing we do know, is that if Free Inquiry In Creative Sociology Volume 33 No.2 November 2005 103

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