TRANS · núm. 18 · 2014 DOSSIER · 49-66 The article investigates the mechanisms of self-censorship at work in translations of children’s literature in a Socialist state: the Socialist Republic of Slovenia that used to be a constituent part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The survey of the historical period shows that the Communist-led regime in the first decade after the Second World War systematically focussed on ideological (re)education of children, in particular it attempted to eradicate the influence of Christian religion. This ideological struggle is often clearly visible in retranslations of children’s literature that were created in this period. In this article the translational expression of the Socialist ideological imperative is then analysed by comparing two Slovene translations of the work for juvenile audience Rolf in the Woods by the founder of the Boy Scouts of America, Ernest Thompson Seton: the first translation was created before WWII, the second soon after it. key words: self-censorship in children’s literature in Socialist states, Scouts, E. T. Seton, Marxist ideology
Rolf in Slovene Woods. The Classic Work of the Scout and Woodcraft Movements in a Pre-Socialist and Socialist Translation Rolf en los bosques eslovenos. La obra clásica del escultismo y del movimiento Woodcraft en las traducciones pre-socialista y socialista El artículo analiza los mecanismos de autocensura en las traducciones de obras literarias infantiles en un estado socialista: la República Socialista de Eslovenia que otrora fue parte constitutiva de la República Socialista Federativa de Yugoslavia. El estudio del periodo histórico muestra que en la primera década después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial el régimen comu- nista se centraba sistemáticamente en la (re)educación de los niños, sobre todo con la intención de erradicar la influencia de la religión cristiana. Esta lucha ideológica se deja ver a menudo en las nuevas traducciones de las obras literarias infantiles realizadas en aquella época. A continuación este artículo analiza la expresión traslaticia del imperativo ideológico socialista comparando dos traducciones eslovenas de la obra destinada al público Nike K. Pokorn juvenil Rolf in the Woods (Rolf en los bosques) de Ernest Thompson Seton, fundador de los Boy Scouts de Estados Unidos. University of Ljubljana palabras clave: autocensura en la literatura infantil en los países socialistas, scouts, E. T. Seton, ideología marxista NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
Introduction influence of patrons, the Yugoslav Socialist The article is going to focus on the expres- Scout Association, were taken into account 50 sion of Communist ideology in translations of in sections 7 and 8. In the final section, the children’s literature by comparing two Slovene causes for the fact that the book has not been translations of the work for juvenile audience retranslated again in the post-Socialist period Rolf in the Woods by the founder of the Boy are suggested. Scouts of America, Ernest Thompson Seton. The article will thus attempt to provide a First of all, it is going to be argued here that partial insight into the functioning of the trans- the Socialist retranslation of this work for chil- latorial field in the Socialist Federal Republic of dren reflects very clearly the dominant ideo- Yugoslavia (SFRY). SFRY was formed in 1945 and logical position of the target society, secondly, consisted of six republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bos- that in the Socialist Yugoslavia the ideological nia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro and pressure was mainly directed against the pres- Macedonia). The country officially recognised ence and influence of Christian religion, and multilingualism, so that Slovene in Slovenia finally, that translational shifts were the result and Macedonian in Macedonia were given the of self-censorship of the Socialist translator. status of official languages, in addition to Serbo- In order to explain the ideological shifts in Croat which was official in all other republics. translation, some insight into the historical The Second World War in this region was won situation and the state publishing policy will be by the Communist-led Partisans; consequently, provided. The article is therefore divided into the post-war Yugoslavia became a Socialist state 9 sections. In section one the historical back- with political and economic power firmly in the ground is given and the ideological focus of the hands of Tito’s Communist Party. In the first period is defined. Through reference to archival years after the war, i.e. from 1945 to 1948, Yugo- and historical material, section two provides slav Communists closely modelled their manner insight into how the Communist Party exer- of political control on that of the Soviet Union. cised its ideological intervention. In the next After 1948, when Yugoslav leader Tito quarrelled section a brief biography of the author of the with Stalin, the state control of cultural life analysed work, Ernest Thomson Seton, is pro- weakened slightly and became less visible, but vided, which is followed by the presentation of still remained very effective. However, one thing the analysed work, Rolf in the Woods, in section that the Yugoslav and Soviet Communists had four. Then a differential analysis of the source in common did stand the test of time: even after text and the two Slovene translations are made the political break with the USSR, the Yugoslav in sections five and six. Since it is argued here Communist Party retained the Soviet attitude that the creation and the form of a translation towards religion. This particular ideological is influenced by various and multiple factors issue and the Communist attempt to eradicate (see also Pym, 1998: 144) and that there is no religious sentiment, in particular among the reason why one of those factors should a priori young Yugoslav citizens, is clearly visible in (re) be given a dominant or prevalent role (Brown- translations of children’s literature. In order to lie, 2003: 112), not only texts and historical and explain the translational shifts in this period, archival investigation, but also biographical however, a reference to historical events and research of the Socialist translator and the documentation is essential. ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION
Attitude towards Religion by (Marx 1843). For Yugoslav Communists, fol- Yugoslav Communists lowing Marx, religion is something which does Yugoslav Communists and their branches in all not belong to the essence of man: on the con- 51 republics followed the Soviet denunciation of trary, it is a phenomenon that characterised a religion as «prejudice and superstition» and the specific historical period in man’s development, Christian church as the «ideological weapon of but which does not constitute man’s real nature. imperialism» (cf. XXI. Congress of the Com- Therefore, any progress in human culture and munist Party of Soviet Union; for more on civilization required the repudiation of idealism persecution of religion in the USSR, see Boeckh and religion (cf. 1969 (AS 1589/62, a.u. 193-194)). 2006). The archives of the Communist Party And finally, the negative attitude towards of Slovenia reveal that in the 1960s seminars the Roman Catholic Church in Slovenia and with the title «Socialist forces, religion and in other Yugoslav republics was also historical. the Church in the Socialist Republic of Slo- During the Second World War some promi- venia» were organised in various towns across nent members of the Catholic Church support- Slovenia, in which religion was defined as an ed the occupying forces, in particular in their aberration that lingers in «specific historical fight against the partisan forces, and openly conditions of the material and spiritual back- worked against the Communists. After the war, wardness of the people» (16 October 1967 (AS1 some of the clergy (in particular in Croatia) 1589, a.u. 215)). kept close contact with émigré political groups But it was not only a matter of following the and various terrorist groups that were sent to Soviet model, the negative attitude of Yugoslav Yugoslavia (Gabrič, 2005: 854). Despite these Communists towards any kind of religious sen- sporadic counter-revolutionary activities, after timent was also philosophical and ideological in the war the new Yugoslav and Slovene govern- its origin, and it had its historical reasons. Ideo- ments allowed the functioning of the Roman logically, the Yugoslav Communist rejection of Catholic Church, other Christian denomina- religion found its inspiration in Karl Marx’s tions, and Islam, also because during the war introduction to A Contribution to the Critique the partisan forces were supported by various of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843), where Christian parties and Muslims in Bosnia. In Marx defines religion as a social phenomenon addition, a large proportion of the population that stems from and renews itself through the remained devoted to the Church: for example, individual’s alienation, which is in turn created in 1953 83% of the Slovene population declared by the contradictory world in which that indi- themselves to be Catholic. Despite this nominal vidual functions. According to Marx, «religion openness of the Socialist state to freedom of is only the illusory Sun which revolves around conscience, the activities of the Church were man as long as he does not revolve around closely monitored and the Church was treated himself,» «the opium of the people», «the self- with suspicion (Gabrič, 2005: 852). consciousness of a person who has not found The general population was not aware of the himself yet or who has lost himself again» intensity of the ideological struggle, since there was a considerable discrepancy between what 1 The references to archival records are explained in was said officially and what went on behind the the bibliography section. scenes (Gabrič, 2005: 853, Griesser, Pečar 2005). NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
In the late 1960s the attitude towards the Church functioned behind the scenes: officially it did changed and the former hostility towards the not exist, but everyone was aware of the fact 52 Roman Catholic Church abated: in 1970 diplo- that without agitprop approval a work could not matic relations between the Vatican and Yugo- be published (Gabrič, 2005: 903). slavia were restored (Režek, 2005: 1052). This When in 1952 the Yugoslav Communist is also reflected in the work of different party Party changed its name to the League of committees: while the emphasis on the fight Communists, agitprop and its sub-committees against religion was very present in the 1950s were abolished, and ideological control was and 1960s, the 1970s still saw some seminars transferred to the newly established Socialist within the Central Committee of the League Alliance of the Working People (SAWP), which of Communists of Slovenia on the topic of the from 1954 onwards established various com- church and religion (AS 169, a.u. 402; AS 173, a.u. mittees that monitored publishing activity. The 407; AS 367, a.u. 2542-2546), but the former athe- control, however, was not exercised through ist fervour abated. The archival material reveals any kind of officially established censorship that in the early 1980s the Communists called for body: the ideological pressure was maintained greater tolerance for religious sentiment (e.g. AS through the management structure of the 1589, a.u. 697), and in 1986 the Slovene Catholic publishing houses. After 1955, each publishing archbishop was given the opportunity to appear house in Slovenia was obliged to have a pub- on public television for the first time since the lishing council whose members were selected by war (Gabrič, 2005: 1165; for more details on the the SAWP print committee (Gabrič, 1995: 72-73), historical background see Pokorn, 2012). and the decisive positions in these councils were given to trustworthy party members. The main The mechanisms of ideological intervention goal of publishing councils was to approve the In the early post-war years party members yearly publishing programme – in that way the were installed in every important position in appropriateness of the selection of publications society (Drnovšek, 2000: 9). The highest gov- was monitored (cf. Žnideršič, 1995: 129; Gabrič, erning body in each republic was the Central 1995: 23). The editors, working at the state Committee of the Communist Party, which publishing houses, were aware of the ruling had various departments, among them the ideological position and selected the translators department for agitation and propaganda (agit- for their publications accordingly. The selected prop), which also covered publishing activity translators responded to the expectations and and education (ibid.: 11). All pre-war publish- created their translations in line with the tenets ing houses were closed down in 1945 and their of the ruling ideology – consequently, no censo- assets nationalised, and the new publishing rial office was needed. The Socialist Yugoslavia houses came under the direct control of the thus did not have a censor’s office at the state Communist party.2 The agitprop department level such as the one Gaby Thomson-Wohlge- muth (2009) describes in East Germany, since 2 There was only one exception: the oldest Slovene the Communist party found another (and less publishing house, Mohorjeva družba (est. 1851) remained visible) way to control everything that was pub- under the strong influence of the Catholic Church and as such was the only publisher that managed to some extent lished in this period. to avoid the ideological control of the Communist Party. ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION
Focus on children materialistic indoctrination was the strongest This system allowed ideological control to be on education and on publishing activity. Thus, exercised subtly through the mechanism of on one hand, nothing was printed that was not 53 self-censorship, and consequently the reading in line with the new ruling ideology: one of the public in Yugoslavia largely ignored the fact items in the action plan of the meeting of the that translated works were adapted, in par- Politburo of the CC CPS on 20 December 1951, ticular because literature for the adult public for example, states: «They [publishing houses] was not ideologically changed. This difference have to be given a general manager that shall in approaches is most clearly visible if we look not let anything into print without our knowl- at those works that were originally written for edge.» On the other hand, the translations and adults, but were then often adapted for chil- re-translations of the works for children were dren. For example, all Yugoslav translations of textually changed in order to support the rul- Robinson Crusoe for children were more or less ing ideological position. radical adaptations, and the majority of them This practice of ideological manipulation of took as their original Kornei Chukovsky’s Rus- translations, which was never openly adopted sian adaptation (e.g. Defoe, 1946, 1965), which (at least there is no evidence of it in the existing seemed to be ideologically closest to the Yugo- archival material) was, paradoxically, officially slav Socialist ruling class. On the other hand, abandoned in 1983 when the committee of the the translations of Robinson Crusoe for an adult Presidency of the Central Committee of the readership (e.g. the Slovene translation from Communist Party of Slovenia for information 1975 (Defoe, 1975) or the Serbian translation and propaganda declared that the ongoing from 1962 (Defoe, 1962)) used the original text practice of eliminating religious elements in by Daniel Defoe and did not change the trans- literature was «morally and legally unaccepta- lation ideologically (cf. Pokorn, 2012). ble and pernicious, because it undermines the This ideological focus on children’s litera- integrity of the artistic work and of copyright. ture was, as archival material shows, in line with Translations have to be authentic and profes- the policy of the Communist Party. As early as sionally well-done or in accordance with the in November 1950 the minutes of the meeting norms of translatorial activity in all fields, i.e. in of the Politburo of the Central Committee of translations for TV, in film and television subti- the Communist Party of Slovenia note that: tling, in books or any other printed matter» (AS «Religion is the main question for the Asso- 1589, a.u. 697). ciation of Slovene Youth, we won’t succeed Let us look now at the translation shifts that much with the older generation, except within reflect the Communist worldview in the Social- the Party.» (Drnovšek, 2000: 235). The Party ist retranslation of one of the classic works seemed to think that ideological reformation of the Scout movement: Rolf in the Woods by of the older generation is a lost battle, but Ernest Thomas Seton. they were convinced, on the other hand, that the youth could still be oriented in the ideo- Ernest Thompson Seton logically right direction. In order to achieve this goal, the ideological pressure from the Ernest Thompson Seton (1860-1946) was Communist Party in the form of dialectical- born as Ernest Thompson in South Shields NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
in England, and later added the name Seton, Woodcraft League of America). The organisa- which he claimed reflected his descent from tion was first developed in 1902 for boys, but 54 the Scottish Lord Seton. When he was only later allowed girls to join as well. Finding the 6 years old, his family immigrated to Canada ideas of the Woodcraft movement very similar where Seton received his early education. He to those of scouting, in 1910 Seton decided to graduated at the Ontario College of Art. In join Lord Baden-Powell and Daniel Beard in 1888, after spending a year at the Royal Acad- establishing the Boy Scouts of America. For five emy in London on a scholarship, he returned years he held the post of Chief Scout in Amer- to Canada and joined his brother on a home- ica (the same position held by Baden-Powell stead in Manitoba where he made a close in England) and enjoyed immense popularity. study of animal behaviour. During this time However, Seton became increasingly dissatis- he supported himself as an illustrator, creating fied with the administration of the Associa- pictures of animals. He continued to pursue tion, which he accused of militarism, while the his career in art by studying painting in Paris administration accused Seton of pacifism. for several years, where his work gained some Finally, in 1915, the Association expelled Seton recognition. However, he decided to leave Paris on the pretext that he was not an American and return to Canada in 1892 when one of his citizen. Seton then continued to work with his paintings «Triumph of the Wolves», depicting a Woodcraft Indians, but remained bitter about pack of wolves devouring a man, was received this episode until his death (Redekop, 1983, by a public outcry. For the rest of his life he 1997). mainly lived in New Mexico in the United States and in 1931 he became an American citi- rolf in the woods zen (Read, 1962). Although he worked as an illustrator all his Rolf in the Woods is a historical novel for the life, it was his animal stories that ensured his young and one of the 13 books written by artistic fame. His career as a writer started as Seton that were dedicated to the Woodcraft early as in 1898 when he published his first col- movement. The novel, which first appeared in lection of animal stories Wild Animals I Have 1911, depicts the adventures of an adolescent Known (1898). The book was an immediate orphan boy, Rolf Kittering, who is abused by success and it was followed by 20 similar col- his drunkard uncle in a New England village lections from 1898 to 1930, often including the and therefore seeks refuge in the woods, where previously published stories. He also wrote a he is taken care of by Quonab, «the profoundly novel and a drama, but he is best known for the religious, highly moral, and friendly Indian» creation of a distinctive literary genre: the real- (Read, 1962: 53). Quonab teaches Rolf how istic animal story, in which strong influences of to survive in the wilderness and introduces the Romantic notions of the noble savage and him to the virtues of simple religious faith. of the glorification of nature can be found (cf. Rolf thus learns how to camp, canoe, hunt, lay Redecop, 1983, 1997). traps – in general, he learns the Indian way Seton was also deeply involved in the devel- of life. Despite his admiration for life in the opment of a youth organization called the wilderness, Rolf maintains contacts with the «Woodcraft Indians» (later renamed as the white settlers. For example, he regularly visits ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION a Dutch family farmstead, where he helps with Although he learned German and French at the farm work and also falls in love with the school, and then added English, Spanish and farmer’s daughter Annette. Since the story is Italian to his repertoire, he translated mainly 55 set in the time of the border war of 1812-1814, from English and German – also because he the last chapters of the novel are dedicated to spent some time in London. His friends, who Rolf and Quonab acting as scout and guide for were also convinced he knew some Arabic American forces along the Canadian border, and Chinese, praised his general knowledge and being rewarded for their services with a and had a very high opinion of him (Bartol, medal. The novel concludes with a description 1959: 1033). With the approach of the Second of Rolf ’s prosperity as a local farmer, owner of World War, Donat became increasingly men- the local store and mill, married to Annette, tally unstable to the extent that, at the begin- politically active in the councils of the state, ning of the conflicts on Slovene territory, he and an account of Quonab’s solitary death on was confined to mental asylum and was never the rock singing praises to Wahkonda, the fully released until his death (Bartol, 1959, cf. Great Spirit. Stanonik and Brenk 2008). A comparison of the first Slovene translation The First Slovene Translation of Rolf in the Woods with the original reveals that from 1938 although the translator did follow the original work closely in the majority of cases, he still Seton’s Rolf in the Woods was first translated left out a considerable part of the text. In total, into Slovene in 1938. The book was published Donat omitted 22 chapters, most of which can by the publishing house Založba Sled, the be divided into two groups: official publishing house of the Yugoslav Woodcraft League. The translation had two • the majority of the chapters dedicated to prefaces: the first one is written by Dr. Vilko Rolf ’s scouting for the Americans in the Marin, a senior member of the Yugoslav border war of 1812-1814 (15 chapters are con- Woodcraft League. Dr. Marin rejoices at the densed into one chapter), fact that the Slovene readership will finally be • some chapters describing how Rolf taught able to read «one of the most beautiful classics the governor’s son, Van Cortlandt, how to of world juvenile fiction» written by the «spir- hunt, and how the governor’s son in return itual leader» of the Woodcraft movement. The taught Rolf Greek history, contemporary second introduction is not signed: It provides a politics and good manners. short biography of E. T. Seton and praises him as an «apostle of nature» (N.N. 1938: 8). Most The omissions of the chapters focussing on probably this second introduction was written historical events seem to be the result of the by the translator of the pre-war version, Peter fact that the intended Slovene audience, i.e. the Donat (1910-1959). Peter Donat was a pseudo- members of the local Woodcraft League, were nym of Miran Deržaj, a relatively well-known not familiar with these events and were also author from the interwar period who wrote unlikely to be interested in them. The translator novels, essays and short critical works, but and the editors seemed to have thought that who also devoted a lot of energy to translating. these chapters were not vital for the develop- NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
ment of the Slovene Woodcraft movement. We Otherwise, the translation closely follows the can also assume that the chapters describing the original with one further exception: in the Slo- 56 importance of learning and some basic social vene version no varieties of the target language manners were omitted because the audience, are used, the translation is written throughout in again, did not need that kind of encouragement. standard Slovene. In the original work Quonab Donat’s translation also leaves out a chapter speaks, in Seton’s terms, «Indian English», the that could not be classified into the two cat- Dutch settlers speak Dutch English, and other egories above – Chapter 7, «Rolf Works Out people Rolf meets on various occasions speak with Many Results», where we learn how the colloquial English (for example, Hoag and Si rock where Quonab used to live acquired its Sylvanne) – in the translation, however, these name «Bible Rock». In this chapter we learn sociolects are reduced to the standard version that Rolf tried to pay Quonab for his hospital- of Slovene. ity by working occasionally on a farm in the nearby little town of Myanos, where the local The Second Slovene Translation population becomes aware of the fact that Rolf from 1958 lives with a Native American. The narrator in a humorous way describes how Ketchura The post-war translation of Rolf in the Woods Peck, a local spinster, becomes outraged «that a was created in 1958, 20 years after the first Christian boy should be brought up by a godless translation, and was published by Mladinska pagan» and decides «to carry the Bible into the knjiga, the main publishing house for children heathen’s stronghold». She soon gets lost in the and young people in the Republic of Slovenia. woods and arrives at the rock above Quonab’s This translation was then twice reprinted in camp. She looks down in horror to see that Rolf 1964 and 1973. The translation from 1958 and its and Quonab are roasting something before the reprint in 1964 have the same afterword that is fire. Believing she saw a tiny hand with five not signed, but which was identified to have fingers on the stick (in fact Rolf and Quonab been written by Avgust Petrišič (1901-1980) were roasting a raccoon), she decides to flee, (Hönn, 1975: 652, Stanonik and Brenk, 2008: but leaves the Bible behind on the rock. In 833): his interpretation of the book emphasizes the evening when Quonab climbs the rock to the oppression of the Native Americans by the pray, he finds the Bible, but because Rolf and white settlers, and the superiority of the Native Quonab think that the book was the property Americans compared to the «civilised» white of someone who meant to return for it, they left people (Petrišič, 1958: 214). Petrišič argues that it untouched – and the rock is thereafter named Quonab, not Rolf, is the real hero of the work: Bible Rock. he is not only described as a member of an It might be assumed that the decision not oppressed nation, but also as the victim of capi- to include this ironical description of an over- talist oppression in the form of various white zealous spinster on a missionary quest seemed traders who exploit him and his work. The con- to have been the result of the translator and cluding prayer uttered by the dying Quonab the editor deciding that this chapter offers too is interpreted as the expression of his ardent strong a criticism of religious fervour for the wish that a great warrior will come and free his intended readership at the time of publication. oppressed nation (Petrišič, 1958: 218). It is not ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION surprising, then, that the post-war translation seems to be deliberately different from the first fails to make use of sociolect for the language translation. Although the above-mentioned of Quonab, who in this version, like in the first omissions appear to follow closely the pattern 57 translation, also speaks a grammatically correct, introduced by the first pre-war translator, the standard variant of Slovene. most substantial omissions in the post-war The translator of the post-war Socialist translation, however, are different and could be translation was Rudolf Kresal (1905-1975), who classified into three groups: before the war worked as a journalist and pub- lished some short stories in literary reviews. 1. Additional omissions of references to the In 1945 he became the editor of the Official border war (omission of 17 200 words) Gazette in Belgrade (Republic of Serbia), then 2. Omissions of the romantic liaison of Rolf worked as a journalist for the main newspapers with Annette (omission of 8 500 words) in Ljubljana (Republic of Slovenia), and from All the chapters describing Rolf ’s encoun- 1949 onwards he became a free-lance writer and ter with the Dutch family and his friend- translator (Stanonik and Brenk, 2008). Today, ship with their daughter Annette are left he is mainly remembered as the translator of out. Since the first reprint of the post-war Andersen’s fairy tales into Slovene. translation from 1964 makes it clear in the His Slovene version of Seton’s work is even blurb that the book is primarily intended for more abridged than the pre-war one. Almost the members of the Association of Scouts, half the text is omitted: out of the approxi- it might be assumed that the translator mately 104 000 words of the original more therefore focussed on the woodcraft skills than 43 000 are removed. A large part of the and deliberately omitted the historical parts omissions in Kresal’s version are the same as and the parts that added a romantic tone to the ones detected in the pre-war version by the text. Peter Donat: 3. Omissions of the religious references (omis- sion of 4 300 words) • the chapters dedicated to Rolf ’s scouting for a) Omissions of the majority of the the Americans in the border war of 1812-1814, chapters describing the religious practice • the chapters where the governor’s son, Van of Quonab. In particular, all references to Cortlandt, teaches Rolf about Greek history, Quonab’s prayer that are too similar to contemporary politics and good manners, Christian worship are omitted. For example, • Chapter 7 «Rolf Works Out with Many the following passage from Chapter 15 is Results», describing the missionary activity deleted from the 1958 translation: of Ketchura Peck. But there was one thing more for Quonab; he went up alone to the rock. Rolf knew what he Despite this similarity, Kresal’s translation went for, and judged it best not to follow. is undoubtedly a new one and not a modified The Indian lighted his pipe, blew the four older one (see Koskinen and Paloposki, 2010): smokes to the four winds, beginning with the it is characterised by the quite obvious aim west, then he sat in silence for a time. Pres- «to make an appreciable difference» (Venuti, ently the prayer for good hunting came from 2004: 29), since the choice of words and syntax the rock: NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
his Bible, and now he somewhat realized the «Father lead us! feelings of St. Paul on that historic day when his Father, help us! life-long dream came true, when first he neared Father, guide us to the good hunting.» 58 the Eternal City – when at last he glimpsed the Since Quonab is presented as the noblest of towers of imperial, splendid Rome. The long- human beings, a heroic member of an oppressed strung docks were massed and webbed with nation, descriptions of his religious practice that ship rigging; the water was livened with boats could resemble witchcraft were also left out, and canoes; the wooden warehouses back of such as the following passage from Chapter 33: the docks were overtopped by wooden houses in tiers, until high above them all the Capitol «He is an evil Manito», and he looked toward itself was the fitting climax. (emphasis added) the dead buck; «we must not eat him. (…) Sometimes whole chapters are omitted. For Quonab took the fateful horn that Rolf had example, all references to the fact that Rolf was chopped off, and hung it on a sapling with religious were left out of the text, such as the a piece of tobacco and a red yam streamer to following passage from Chapter 43 «Sunday in appease the evil spirit that surely was near. There it hung for years after, until the sapling the Woods»: grew to a tree that swallowed the horn, all but Rolf still kept to the tradition of Sunday, the tip, which rotted away. (…) Not that day, and Quonab had in a manner accepted it. It not the next, but on the first day of calm, red, was a curious fact that the red man had far sunset sky, went Quonab to his hill of wor- more toleration for the white man’s religious ship; and when the little fire that he lit sent ideas than the white man had for the red’s. up its thread of smoke, like a plumb-line from Quonab’s songs to the sun and the spirit, or the red cloud over him, he burnt a pinch of his burning of a tobacco pinch, or an animal’s tobacco, and, with face and arms upraised in whiskers were to Rolf but harmless nonsense. the red light, he sang a new song: Had he given them other names, calling them «The evil one set a trap for my son, hymns and incense, he would have been much But the Manito saved him; nearer respecting them. He had forgotten his In the form of a Skookum he saved him.» mother’s teaching: «If any man do anything sincerely, believing that thereby he is wor- b) All other references to the Christian shipping God, he is worshipping God.» He religion were deleted, where possible. The disliked seeing Quonab use an axe or a gun omissions of religious elements are consis- on Sunday, and the Indian, realizing that such tent: sometimes only some parts of the chap- action made «evil medicine» for Rolf, practi- ter were omitted, as in the case of Chapter cally abstained. But Rolf had not yet learned 54 «Albany» where the part in italics was not to respect the red yarns the Indian hung from translated: a deer’s skull, though he did come to under- stand that he must let them alone or produce Albany, the first chartered city of the United bad feeling in camp. States; Albany, the capital of all the Empire Sunday had become a day of rest and Quo- State; Albany, the thriving metropolis with nab made it also a day of song and remem- nearly six thousand living human souls; brance. Albany with its State House, beautiful and dignified, looking down the mighty Hudson Similarly, all comparisons between Quonab’s highway that led to the open sea. Rolf knew religious fervour and that of Rolf were deleted. ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION
For example, in Chapter 6, the description of the societal change. Although his pre-war orig- Rolf ’s failing devotion compared to the stead- inal prose writings reveal numerous positive fast worship of his Indian mentor is left out: references to Christian religion (for example, 59 the motto of the main character in his short «Where are you going, Quonab?» he asked one morning, as he saw the Indian rise at story Andrew’s Confession is: «I want God» dawn and go forth with his song drum, after (Kresal, 1933: 236) or in his short story Capital warming it at the fire. He pointed up to the Sin the narrator compares the work of an artist rock, and for the first time Rolf heard the to God’s work (Kresal, 1931: 796)), after the war chant for the sunrise. Later he heard the Indi- his work manifests a clear rejection of religious an’s song for «Good Hunting», and another worldview. This changed and explicitly negative for «When His Heart Was Bad». They were attitude towards Christian religion can be seen prayers of praise, all addressed to the Great from his introduction to his translations of Spirit, or the Great Father, and it gave Rolf an Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tales, where he entirely new idea of the red man, and a star- uses a completely new discourse, very much in tling light on himself. Here was the Indian, line with the ruling ideology: whom no one considered anything but a hopeless pagan, praying to God for guidance Of course, as a child of his age, he [i.e. Hans at each step in life, while he himself, supposed Christian Andersen] paid his debt to his own to be a Christian, had not prayed regularly for time, to false romanticism; he succumbed months — was in danger of forgetting how. from time to time to religious mysticism and Yet there was one religious observance that made concessions to it; however, it is interest- Rolf never forgot — that was to keep the ing that his work is weakest in those points, Sabbath, and on that day each week he did forced, «not reserved in the use of resources, occasionally say a little prayer his mother had not healthy and without natural freshness» taught him. He avoided being seen at such as he himself admitted, which is why he then times and did not speak of kindred doings. focussed on nature as the purest source. His Whereas Quonab neither hid nor adver- sharp, penetrating spirit, always just to every- tised his religious practices, and it was only one, did not ignore the milieu from which he after many Sundays had gone that Quonab came and developed. His works reveal that he remarked: saw and deeply felt the backwardness of his «Does your God come only one day of the people, their misery, the growing reactionary week? Does He sneak in after dark? Why is character of his own age: of different aris- He ashamed that you only whisper to Him? tocrats, of the new bourgeois capitalists, of Mine is here all the time. I can always reach bishops and saints, whom he attacks in The Him with my song; all days are my Sunday.» Galoshes of Fortune – a fairy tale that shows his progressive mind. How marvellously he The Habitus of the Post-War dismisses the Inquisition bishop in The Wild Translator Swans: this story, which manifests horrible superstition, serves him as a backdrop against which he pertinently reveals wickedness and Some of the changes and omissions in Kresal’s injustice. (Kresal, 1950: 22)3 translation could be explained by looking at the translator’s habitus. Kresal’s translation strategy 3 All translations from Slovene into English are by and his attitude towards Christianity reflected the author of the article. NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
Kresal’s translation of Rolf in the Woods was including: «Be reverent. Worship the Great created in 1958, i.e. eight years after he wrote Spirit, and respect all worship of Him by oth- 60 the introduction quoted above, and it is safe to ers, for none have all the truth and all who rev- assume that his attitude towards religion had erently worship have claims on our respect.» not changed. (Seton, 1906) Another possible explanation of why these A similar emphasis on the spiritual can be changes were made can be found if we look found in the three main principles on which the more closely at the patrons (as understood by international Scout Movement is based, i.e. on Lefevere, 1992) and the intended readership of the Duty to God (adherence to spiritual princi- the post-war translation. ples, loyalty to the religion that expresses them and acceptance of the duties resulting there- Yugoslav Scouts from), Duty to others (loyalty to one’s country, On the back flap of the 1964 edition of Rolf participation in the development of society) and of the Woods, the editors of this reprint clearly Duty to self (responsibility for the development state that the book is primarily intended for the of oneself). The World Organization of the members of the Association of Slovene Scouts: Scout Movement demands from all members of the Scout Movement «to adhere to a Scout A book that surely every boy and girl scout who loves nature, woodcraft, hunting, deer Promise and Law reflecting, in language appro- and other animals, camp fires and listening to priate to the culture and civilization of each merry and sad adventures would like to have. National Scout Organization and approved by the World Organization, the principles of And indeed, this seems to be in line with Duty to God, Duty to others and Duty to self, the original intentions of the author, who and inspired by the Promise and Law originally also wrote the book for the members of his conceived by the Founder of the Scout Move- Woodcraft League and the Scout Movement. ment in the following terms: However, there was one important distinction between the international Scout movement The Scout Promise and the Yugoslav Socialist Scout movement On my honour I promise that I will do my – and it touched upon the very fundamental best — To do my duty to God and the King (or to ideas of the movement itself: the Woodcraft God and my Country); League and the Scout Movement originally To help other people at all times; placed much emphasis on the spiritual devel- To obey the Scout Law» (World Organiza- opment of their members. For example, Seton tion of the Scout Movement official website) in his The Birch Bark Roll of the Woodcraft League of America (1906), where he describes The translations we have analysed reflect the the origin and the idea of the movement of changing political profile of the Scout associa- Woodcraft Indians, emphasizes that the asso- tions in Slovenia: when the first Scouts in Slo- ciation promotes «development along the four venia appeared in 1922, and the first Woodcraft ways: the Body Way, the Mind Way, the Spirit Indians in 1925, they had no problems adhering Way and the Service Way». Following these to the main ideas of the movement, until in goals, Seton also defines 12 Woodcraft laws, 1941 the German occupying forces prohibited ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION
Woodcraft and Scout associations and their c) to strengthen the bond of comradeship activities (Grašič and Matjašič, 1990). However, among its members and the sense for the when ten years later, in 1951, the new Associa- collective life, to strengthen the unity of 61 tion of Slovene Scouts was established (Zveza the young, and the brotherhood and unity tabornikov Slovenije), this new organization of all the peoples of the Federal People’s had to be in line with the ruling ideology. Republic of Yugoslavia, The post-war Association of Slovene Scouts d) to develop positive traits of character, such was far from being politically neutral; while the as: resourcefulness, self-discipline, self- association had no problems in adhering to two initiative, hard-work, persistence, mod- of the basic principles (Duty to others and Duty esty, truthfulness, sobriety, courage etc. to self ), it could not accept Duty to God. Con- e) to develop among its members Socialist sequently the Socialist Scouts’ promise differed humanism, cheerfulness and joy of living, considerably from the original Scout promise f ) to develop among its members a love of and ran as follows: nature and a scientific understanding of natural laws, On my honour I promise that g) to develop among its members the spirit I will safeguard the brotherhood and unity of proletarian internationalism, of our peoples, h) to develop among its members an interest The liberty of my Socialist country the in and love for the benefits of culture and Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia and technical development, a sense for social the other benefits of the people’s revolution, That I will always fight for the construc- activity and active participation in society. tion of socialism and for everything that is (Ali poznaš, 1960: 20-21; emphasis added) progressive, noble and fair and that I will live and work according to the scouting laws.4 (Ali Particularly interesting is the 6th goal, where poznaš 1960) it is insisted, in line with Marxist criticism of religion, that scientific understanding of natural The transparent political and ideological laws should be emphasized. Also the laws of the position of the association was also visible in its organisation were explicitly based on dialectical 8 main goals and aims: materialistic principles: for example, out of 12 laws, law 6 stipulated: «The scout fights against a) to educate its membership into good, use- all conceptualisations that are against science» ful and progressive members of society on (Ali poznaš, 1960: 24). the basis of the principles of the people’s Indeed, the Association of Slovene Scouts revolution and of the construction of a was a kind of Marxist Sunday School, which is Socialist society, also reflected in the fact that works dedicated b) to educate its members into dedicated to the ideological education of Scouts were in builders of socialism and active defenders line with the Communist worldview and ideo- of their homeland, logical position. For example: Tone Simončič, in his Ideopolitical Work in the Association of 4 This and all subsequent translations into English Scouts, emphasizes the importance of linking are by the author of the article, unless otherwise stated. the work of the Association of Slovene Scouts NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
with the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, prior censorship which shifts the ideological and proposes different ways of how to do this pressure to the inner life of the individual who 62 (Simončič, 1970: 29-35). consequently internalizes the censorship and conforms to ideological dictates (cf. Gambier, Conclusions 2002, Wolf, 2002). The comparison of the pre-war translation It has recently been confirmed through exten- from 1938 with the original text shows that sive research in the archives of the Communist the translator, Peter Donat, changed the text, Party and additional historical documents that mainly through omission. The first transla- there was no officially regulated censorship at tion was financed by the newly established work in the Socialist Yugoslavia (Pokorn, 2012). Slovene Woodcraft League, which in Slovenia Similarly, there is no historical evidence to sug- was mainly in the hands of one political party: gest that there was a censorship office in the the republic’s National Socialists, a social- pre-war period that would monitor children’s democratic party that had in its programme translation. The lack of documentation and the also the peaceful unification of all Slovenes into fact that all agents involved in the production one state (Dolenc, 1990: 139). Although at first of the pre-war translation are no longer avail- the Woodcraft Movement had much in com- able for interviews do not allow us to support mon with the already existing Scout Movement, or dismiss the possibility of editorial interven- after 1929 they dissociated: the Scout movement tion in the case of the pre-war translation. became increasingly militaristic and under the With the post-war translation, however, the direct influence of Belgrade which favoured situation is different. The post-war translation Yugoslav unification, while the Slovene Wood- was published by Mladinska knjiga, the major craft League insisted on pacifism and was more Slovene publishing house for juvenile fiction. focussed on the national Slovene component. At the time of the publication, the editor in For both movements, however, religious faith charge of the section for children’s literature was one of the basic tenants of their associations. and juvenile fiction was Kristina Brenk (1911- The Woodcraft League also believed that Native 2009), who held the office from 1948 to 1973. In Americans led an ideal life that should have been an interview I made with her on 8 November taken as an example by westerners. This belief is 2006 Kristina Brenk, at that time aged 98, reflected in the first Slovene translation of Rolf in confirmed that there was no censor employed the Woods where Quonab, Rolf ’s Indian mentor, at the publishing house and that there was no speaks in a dignified, standard language and is censor’s office at the state level either. When thus not portrayed as being in any way inferior to asked directly whether she checked the transla- the white settlers. The wish to please the intend- tions she commissioned, she replied that she ed readership is also visible in the strategy used had selected her translators carefully and that by the translator: the most substantial omission she had trusted them completely to have done is thus the one referring to the historical events their work well. Therefore, it can be assumed that were of no interest to the members of the that the Socialist translator of Ernest Thomp- Slovene Woodcraft League. The only ideological son Seton’s Rolf in the Woods was subject to omission is the omission of the entire chapter 7, self-censorship, i.e. to a form of preventive or where the ironical description of a failed mis- ROLF IN SLOVENE WOODS. THE CLASSIC WORK TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014 OF THE SCOUT AND WOODCRAFT MOVEMENTS IN A PRE-SOCIALIST AND SOCIALIST TRANSLATION sionary quest by an overzealous spinster seems to tor Rudolf Kresal omitted religious elements have been too harsh a criticism of religious fer- because he believed, as he has written in his vour for the intended readership. The decision to post-war works, that the Christian religion was 63 omit this chapter, taken by the translator or the a «horrible superstition» (Kresal, 1950: 22). It editor, does not reflect the criticism of religious can be therefore assumed that he believed in sentiment as such, but on the contrary, it censors and actively supported Communist ideological the criticism of religious fervor and avoids ridi- revisionism, internalised the censorship and the culing religious zeal. typical behaviour of translators of that time, and The post-war Socialist translation from 1958 consequently conformed to ideological dictates was a new translation, and not merely a modi- of the Socialist society without regarding these fied version of the old translation. The question dispositions as limitations. On the other hand, why a new translation of this work (together Rudolf Kresal also responded to the expecta- with retranslations of Grimm’s and Andersen’s tions of the patrons of these new translations, fairy tales, and other children’s best-sellers like where the patronage in this case was mainly Heidi, Bambi and Karl May’s adventure stories) exerted by the newly established Association of was created in the time of severe shortages of Slovene Scouts. His translation was thus «car- paper and printing ink (see e.g. the 1952 report ried out in service of power» (Lefevere, 1992: vii), of the Print Committee at SAWPS, AS 531, a.u. and was in line with the new ruling ideology: all 139) can only be answered by the fact that the references to the fact that Rolf had a religious pre-war translation was considered disturbing education or that he practised Christianity were for the new ruling ideology. consequently deleted from the text. The comparison of the two translations The study of translations, peritexts (cf. reveals that the post-war translation repeated Genette, 1997), biographies of translators and the omissions that we have detected in the pre- historical documents therefore show that war version, in addition to that also omitted the both Slovene translators of Rolf in the Wood romantic plot involving Rolf and Annette (most were influenced by different agents that all probably because matchmaking was not a part of constructed the translatorial field of children’s the goals of the new Socialist Scout movement), literature in Slovenia in a particular historical and last but not least, systematically purged the period. While the pre-war translator responded text of any religious presence. Undoubtedly, the to the expectations of the pre-war Slovene Socialist translator attempted to remodel the Woodcraft League, the Socialist translator text so that it would, according to him, respond accommodated to the new patron: the Associa- better to the demands of the new readership. tion of Slovene Scouts with whom he shared The shifts the translator made, however, do not ideological convictions. And since Rolf in the only reveal his understanding of the expecta- Wood is a work intended for a juvenile audience, tions of the readers, but also reflect his changed i.e. the work whose role was, in the eyes of the horizon of understanding and the changed society of the period, primarily to encour- social and political environment in which the age the development of children into «model translation was published. Thus, on one hand, citizens», such radical ideological interventions the post-war omissions can be explained by the and textual manipulation were regarded as habitus of the translator. The Socialist transla- acceptable. NIKE K. POKORN TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 18, 2014
A Postscript Gabrič, Aleš (2005). «Rimskokatoliška cerkev in nova And finally, The Slovene Scout Association oblast.» In Fišer, Jasna (ed.), Slovenska novejša zgodovina: Od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do 64 became a member of the World Organisation mednarodnega priznanja Republike Slovenije, 1848- of the Scout Movement in 1994. In order to be 1992. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, pp. 852-854. accepted by the movement, the Slovene Scouts Režek, Mateja (2005). «Ureditev odnosov z RKC.» changed their statute and the promise that In Fišer, Jasna (ed.), Slovenska novejša zgodovina: nowadays runs as follows: Od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do mednarodnega priznanja Republike Slovenije, 1848-1992. Ljublja- The Scout Promise na: Mladinska knjiga, pp. 1049-1052. On my honour I promise that I will Seton, Ernest Thompson (1911) (2008). Rolf Be loyal to my homeland, in the Woods,
by: Kornej Čukovskij, transl. by: Vinko Gaberski, Lefevere, André (1992). Translation, Rewriting and Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. the Manipulation of Literary Fame, London/New Defoe, Daniel (1962) (1963). Robinson Kruso, transl. York: Routledge. by: Vladeta Popović, collection Knjiga za svakoga, Marx, Karl (1843). «Introduction to A Contribution to the 65 Beograd: Branko Đonović. Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Karl Marx Defoe, Daniel (1965) (1969, 1971, 1972, 1975, 1977, 1978, in Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, February, 1844». 1982, 1988, 1995). Robinson Crusoe, adapted by:
Thomson-Wohlgemuth, Gaby (2009). Translation a) the name of institution: Archives of the under state control: books for young people in the Republic of Slovenia (AS) German Democratic Republic. London, New York: b) the serial number of the fund or the collection 66 Routledge. (AS 537) Venuti, Lawrence (2004). «Retranslations: The Crea- c) the document reference, i.e. number of the tion of Value.» Bucknell Review 47/1, pp. 25−38, archival unit (abbreviated as a.u.) which con-
Archival Sources Archives of the Socialist Alience of the Working All the records were studied at the Archives of the People of Slovenia Republic of Slovenia (National Archives). The AS 531, a.u. 139 citations below include: