The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Well-Being of Student-Athletes

Laura Burge

Department of Applied Human Sciences

University of Prince Edward Island

Charlottetown, PE, Canada

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements of the Honours Program in the

Department of Applied Human Sciences

This Thesis is Accepted

Dean of Science

University of Prince Edward Island

March 2021

PERMISSION TO USE HONOURS PAPER

Title of paper: The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Well-Being of Student- Athletes

Name of Author: Laura Burge

Department: Applied Human Sciences

Degree: Bachelor of Science with Honours in Kinesiology

Year: 2021

Name of Supervisor(s): Dr. Dany MacDonald

In presenting this paper in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an honours degree from the University of Prince Edward Island, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection and give permission to add an electronic version of the honours paper to the Digital Repository at the University of Prince Edward Island. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this paper for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professors who supervised my work, or, in their absence, by the Chair of the Department or the Dean of the Faculty in which my paper was done. It is understood any copying or publication or use of this paper or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Prince Edward Island in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my paper.

Signature [of author]: Laura Burge

Address [Department]: 550 University Avenue, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3

Date: 15 March 2021

ii ABSTRACT

Extensive research has been conducted investigating the university experiences of student-athletes. Additionally, there is significant literature to suggest that major disruptions to one’s life can have negative effects on their well-being (Lu, 1994;

Reynolds & Turner, 2008). Given the onset of a global pandemic amidst their university careers, it is important to investigate how the cancellation of their varsity seasons and the transition of their courses to a primarily-online platform has impacted student-athletes.

However, due to the novelty of the pandemic, its impact on their experiences has yet to be explored. As such, the purpose of this study was to determine how the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the well-being of student-athletes. To do so, a total of 18 student- athletes (9 male, 9 female) participated in the research. The sample had representation from 2nd-, 3rd-, and 4th-year student-athletes from varsity soccer, basketball, and hockey at

UPEI. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant to gain an understanding of what their lives were like during the pandemic. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and a thematic analysis was conducted to identify key themes from the data. Themes emerged across four dimensions: personal impact, psychological/academic impact, physical impact, and social impact. Discussion of the results examined how these factors influenced the physical and mental well-being of the student-athletes and compared the findings to past literature. As well, a series of recommendations for student-athletes, coaches, and universities to improve the well- being of student-athletes moving forward, was provided. In conclusion, it was determined that the majority of participants reported negative impacts on their overall well-being as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research project would not have been possible without the help I received from my supervisor, Dr. Dany MacDonald and committee member, Dr. Mike MacLellan.

Thank you, Dr. Mike for being so positive and motivating throughout this experience.

Your first-hand observations of NCAA athletics provided a unique outlook on this project, and your feedback throughout the year was extremely helpful. Dany, thank you so much for all the time and energy you invested into helping me with this project. Your extensive knowledge and experience in this field were very valuable to both me and the project as a whole. You have been an incredible supervisor, and I am very grateful to have had the opportunity to learn from you and work with you in this capacity.

A special thank you to my family for always being so supportive and encouraging of everything I do. You guys have always been my biggest fans, and I truly appreciate everything you have done for me. You made online university bearable and working from home fun. Thank you to all of my friends for getting me through the highs and the lows. I couldn’t have finished this degree without your on-going support.

A big thanks to all of the student-athletes who took the time to sit down for my interviews. I know your time is important and it was greatly appreciated. The information you all gave provided the foundation of this entire project. It would not have been possible without your willingness to participate.

Finally, to all my fellow Kin grads, I’m thankful for all the memories we’ve had in our four years together. Although it wasn’t the senior year anyone expected, I’m glad that we got through it together. I wish you all the best of luck in the future.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

PERMISSION TO USE HONOURS PAPER……………………………………………ii

ABSTRACT ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………….….vi

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...1

LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 3

METHODS ...... 14

RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………..20

DISCUSSION ...... 31

CONCLUSION ...... 41

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..42

APPENDIX A ...... 41

APPENDIX B……………………………………………………………………………52

APPENDIX C ...... 55

APPENDIX D ...... 58

APPENDIX E ...... 60

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Participant Demographics...……………………………………………………12

Table 2: Higher-Order and Lower-Order Themes Identified in the Data……………….18

vi INTRODUCTION

University student-athletes have been a population of study interest in recent years

(e.g., Rathwell & Young, 2019). As young adults, they represent a new developmental period between adolescence and adulthood, called emerging adulthood. Arnett (2000) coined this term and defined the transitional period to consist of independence, exploration, and change. Therefore, the activities that student-athletes partake in during this period are important for their personal development and define their university experience.

Because their varsity sport involvement occupies a significant amount of time and energy during this period, it is common for many student-athletes to develop an athletic identity, in which they view their athletic involvement as part of who they are (Killeya-

Jones, 2005). Nonetheless, with strong extrinsic motivation to succeed in their university studies, student-athletes often perform well academically. Many positive developmental outcomes have been reported by student-athletes, including improved initiative, teamwork, and social skills (Rathwell & Young, 2016). However, the significant influence being a student-athlete has on one’s life may be consequential to their well- being when they are unexpectedly removed from sport (Appaneal et al., 2009; Wippert &

Wippert, 2010).

Well-being can be described as “what is ultimately good for a person” (Crisp,

2001). For the purpose of this study, one’s physical and mental health will be considered key components of one’s well-being. Factors influencing physical health include diet, exercise, and sleep habits (Government of Canada, 2020; Ross et al., 2020); while factors

1 influencing mental health include routines, social interactions, and the activities individuals engage in (Koome et al., 2012; Shankar et al., 2015; Haar et al., 2014).

Significant disruptions in one’s life can have negative effects on their well-being

(Lu, 1994; Reynolds & Turner, 2008). The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a major disruption in the lives of people across the globe, by sparking a shut-down of all non-essential services (Liu et al., 2020). In addition to experiencing similar repercussions as the general population, student-athletes at the University of Prince Edward Island

(UPEI) had their university experiences drastically altered. Their course instruction shifted to a primarily-online format and their varsity sport seasons were cancelled, which changed both their role as a student and an athlete. Given these implications for student- athletes, the effects the pandemic has had on their well-being is a worthwhile area to investigate.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Lying somewhere on a continuum between high school and professional athletes, university student-athletes are a unique population of study interest. While these student- athletes are competing at a level much higher than high school, they are still considered amateurs. And though the time commitment is more significant than high school, they are not able to dedicate all of their time and energy to their sport as professionals can

(Rathwell & Young, 2019). Rather, student-athletes must balance the demands of a university education with their rigorous athletic schedules.

University Sport

In Canada, the national body for university sports, U SPORTS, reported that each year over 12,000 student-athletes from 56 universities compete for national championships in 12 varsity sports (Ridout, 2018). These student-athletes are spread across four regional conferences: Atlantic University Sport (AUS), Ontario University

Athletics (OUA), Réseau du Sport Étudiant du Québec (RESQ), and Canada West. On a much larger scale, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) – the United

States (U.S.)’ U SPORTS equivalent – has close to 500,000 student-athletes from 1,098 institutions who compete in 24 varsity sports (NCAA, 2020a). While U SPORTS has only one division, the NCAA has three. In addition, they have over 100 regional conferences compared to Canada’s four.

These two national bodies evidently differ in their magnitude, but they also differ substantially in their financial capabilities and pathways to professional leagues. The

NCAA, for example, generated over $1billion in revenue in 2019 (NCAA, 2019), while

U SPORTS raked in less than $5million (U SPORTS, 2020). As a result, NCAA schools

3 are able to provide athletic scholarships to cover tuition, housing, and living expenses

(i.e., “full ride”), while their Canadian counterparts can only subsidize tuition costs

(Benrimoh & Smith, 2020). Thus, although the minimal cross-over between Canada and the U.S. makes it challenging to compare the levels of competition, assumptions can certainly be made about the ability for NCAA schools to acquire greater talent based on the financial incentives for student-athletes.

Additionally, with major professional leagues in the U.S. such as the NFL, NBA, and WNBA, American student-athletes may have a greater drive to make it to that level.

For example, considering the NBA’s rule that prohibits players from entering the NBA directly from high school, many prospects have begun to play one year in the NCAA before transitioning directly to professional. This has become commonly known as “One- and-Done” (Weber, 2009). For this particular group of student-athletes, their focus on academics is likely minimal, as they have no intent to earn a degree. With no similar scenario in Canada, the student-athlete experiences could differ significantly in terms of motivation for playing and studying at the university level.

Despite these differences, there are also many similarities in terms of the basic rules and regulations for student-athletes in U SPORTS and the NCAA. Academically, both have minimum requirements for averages and course loads. U SPORTS requires at least 9 credit hours per semester, while the NCAA requires 6. A minimum average of

60% is required by U SPORTS, while similar minimums are determined by each respective NCAA institution (U SPORTS, 2019; NCAA, 2016). The NCAA also has a limit on the amount of time student-athletes can spend practicing. They are limited to 20 hours per week, with no more than 4 hours per day. This, however, does not include any

4 additional training or treatment that student-athletes take on individually (NCAA, 2016).

U SPORTS does not have a similar guideline, but it can be assumed that teams are not exceeding this 20-hour rule in Canada either. Finally, both U SPORTS and NCAA teams have, on average, one to two games per week when in season. Therefore, notwithstanding significant discrepancies, it can be said that student-athletes in both countries have comparable experiences solely in terms of their time spent practicing, playing, and taking classes. Nonetheless, it is important to keep the discrepancies in mind when examining literature from both the NCAA and U SPORTS context, so as to not make generalizations.

University Student-Athletes

As university-goers, the vast majority of student-athletes are between the ages of

18 and 25, with the exception of outliers (namely individuals starting university earlier and mature students). In 2000, Arnett deemed this age demographic to represent a new developmental period between adolescence and adulthood, called emerging adulthood.

Emerging adulthood is a key transitional period that represents independence, exploration, and change for individuals (Arnett, 2000). The facets of emerging adulthood become increasingly prevalent during educational transitions, such as beginning university (Negru, 2012), because of the opportunity it presents for a considerable change. The experiences in which individuals partake during their time at university are important for their personal development and thus the formation of their personal identities.

According to Luyckx and colleagues (2006), identities are formed through a series of four stages: exploration in breadth, commitment making, exploration in depth, and

5 identification with commitment. From a university student-athlete standpoint, exploration in breadth may consist of exploring the possibility of pursuing university athletics by speaking to coaches, visiting schools, and researching varsity programs, for example.

Commitment making may be the act of signing a letter of intent to play a particular sport at a university. Exploration in depth may include being a student-athlete for a short period of time and evaluating if the fit is right. Finally, identification with commitment is likely to be one’s full acceptance of their commitment to being a student-athlete, and thus internalizing it as part of their identity (Luyckx et al., 2006).

Because of the significant investment of time and energy in their sport, it is common for many student-athletes to develop an athletic identity (Killeya-Jones, 2005), which means that they believe being an athlete is a part of who they are. And, although these student-athletes are receiving a university education, some see themselves as more of athletes than students. For example, a nation-wide study of NCAA athletes conducted by Potuto and O’Hanlon (2006) concluded that 61.8% of university student-athletes at least “somewhat agreed” to self-identifying as an athlete over being a student.

Correspondingly, Lally and Kerr’s (2005) study consisting of in-depth interviews with eight Canadian university student-athletes yielded similar results. By associating so strongly with their athletic identities, many indicated that their “student role was negligible”, at least in the early years of their degrees.

Interestingly, despite strong associations with their athletic identity, student- athletes have also shown to fare well academically. This is likely a result of many extrinsic motivators student-athletes have to succeed in their studies. Student-athletes must meet academic minimums to remain eligible to compete (U SPORTS, 2019). And,

6 for those in receipt of athletic scholarships, the averages must often be even higher so as not to forfeit the award. As a result of these strict rules, students are heavily inclined to perform well. In fact, a 2003 study conducted by Rishe examined graduation data from

308 Division I schools and found that Division I student-athletes had a higher graduation rate than non-athletes, by roughly 4%. Additionally, NCAA student-athlete graduation rates have steadily increased since then, and as of 2020, 90% of Division I NCAA student-athletes who started their university studies in 2013 graduated (NCAA, 2020b).

With a strong athletic identity, it is no surprise that university sport involvement has a major influence on student-athletes’ overall university experience. Like every experience, there can be both positive and negative outcomes, and university sport is no exception. One study conducted by Pritchard and Wilson (2005) examined stress levels in a sample of athletes and non-athletes at a Division I NCAA institution. They determined that student-athletes had higher stress levels concerning interpersonal conflicts, lack of time for sleep, and high demands for extracurriculars than their non-athlete peers; all factors which can lead to burnout (Gomez et al., 2018). Another study of university student-athletes concluded that the innate elements of competition, such as competing for a starting position, took away from their overall experience. They indicated that it created a source of conflict within the team and subsequently decreased team cohesion (Warner

& Dixon, 2015). Finally, abusive coach relationships can be detrimental to student- athletes’ experiences. In 2013, Stirling and Kerr interviewed 14 retired elite athletes and concluded that those who had emotionally abusive coaches reported having decreased mood, self-efficacy, self-esteem, motivation, as well as increased anxiety.

7 However, many positive developmental outcomes are possible (Alahmed et al.,

2016). In one study conducted by Rathwell and Young (2016), 498 U SPORTS student- athletes from 39 Canadian universities responded to the University Sport Experience

Survey (USES). The USES was modified from the Youth Experience Scale (YES) to assess positive development through sport. Results showed that the majority of student- athletes “agreed” that they improved initiative, teamwork, and social skills as a result of their university sport involvement. Additionally, they “somewhat agreed” to developing interpersonal relations, adult networks, and social capital (Rathwell & Young, 2016).

Another study conducted by Umbach et al. (2006) yielded similar results. They used the

National Survey of Student Engagement to analyze data from over 57,000 first-year students at nearly 400 American universities, and found that student-athletes had more satisfactory experiences and perceived more supportive campus environments than non- athletes (Umbach et al., 2006).

In addition, student-athletes typically spend over twenty hours per week practicing, playing, and travelling when in season (Gayles, 2009), and in many cases, they have mandatory study halls and tutoring sessions as well (Jolly, 2008). Therefore, given the amount of time spent playing their sport, it is possible that the time student- athletes have for social interactions with people outside of their team is minimal (Miller

& Kerr, 2003). So, since the majority of social interactions student-athletes have are with their teammates, these relationships can significantly impact their experiences. A study conducted by Stander et al. (2015) concluded that, amongst 235 South African student- athletes, strong teammate relationships had the potential to increase overall enjoyment and performance, but negative relationships can make the opposite true. Similarly, Al-

8 Yaaribi and Kavussanu (2017) concluded that student-athletes that perceived prosocial behaviour from teammates experienced greater team cohesion and lower rates of burnout.

Because of the massive role university sport involvement plays in the lives of student-athletes, there can be serious consequences to their well-being when they are unable to compete. One study conducted by Appaneal et al. (2009) evaluated the mental health of 164 student-athletes who sustained injuries that removed them from competition at 1 week, 1 month, and 3 months post-injury. They concluded that at 1 month and 3 months post-injury, there were greater risks of Major Depressive Disorder. In addition to temporary removal from sport due to injury, the permanent transition from sport into retirement may also prove challenging on one’s well-being (Bernes et al., 2009). For example, athletic retirees often experience weight gain (Marquet et al., 2013), a loss of identity, diminished self-esteem (Botterill, 1981), and diminished self-confidence (Lally,

2007). While this transition is unique for each student-athlete and can be eased with adequate preparation, those forced into retirement for reasons other than their own choosing, may face consequences to their well-being (Webb et al., 1998).

A study conducted by Blinde and Stratta (1992) found that athletes who were removed from their sports in “involuntary and unanticipated” ways, such as via de- selection or career-ending injuries, experienced significant trauma. Correspondingly, in a study of 42 professional athletes whose careers were terminated, those who were unexpectedly dismissed experienced greater psychological distress and longer transition periods than their voluntarily-retired colleagues (Wippert & Wippert, 2010). In addition, according to Lally and Kerr (2005), individuals whose athletic identities were more defined than their student identities had poorer career planning, which could make the

9 transition even harder. This further reiterates the benefits of preparing for the transition of ending one’s career, so as to minimize these negative effects as much as possible.

Well-Being

When considering a person’s overall well-being, it is typically described as being related to one’s health or “what is ultimately good for a person” (Crisp, 2001). In this case, a holistic view is important to account for both mental and physical health. As such, there are many extrinsic factors that have an influence. From a physical health point of view, an individual’s diet, exercise, and sleep habits are key factors. In Canada, there are national guidelines for each of these areas. First, Canada’s Food Guide provides recommendations and benefits of a healthy diet. They encourage Canadians to consume many fruits and vegetables, high-protein foods, and whole grains, whilst limiting highly- processed foods. They also promote mindfulness while eating as well as sharing meals with others (Government of Canada, 2020). Secondly, Ross et al., (2020) have created

24-hour movement guidelines that encompass recommendations for both exercise and sleep. They recommend that adults aged 18-64 should accumulate at least 150 minutes of moderate-vigorous physical activity per week and 7-9 hours of sleep per night. In following these guidelines, individuals may decrease their risk of developing chronic diseases, maintain a healthy weight, and have more energy. Not to mention, strong physical health can also improve one’s mental health (Government of Canada, 2020;

Ross et al., 2020).

When looking at one’s mental health directly, a combination of effective scheduling, social interactions, and the types of activities they engage in have an impact.

Routines are important to provide consistency and stability in peoples’ lives (Koome et

10 al., 2012). Therefore, any major disruption in routine can interfere with that balance, and is linked to poorer mental health (Lu, 1994; Reynolds & Turner, 2008). Social interactions are key to human survival, so when they are minimized, there can also be a negative influence on one’s well-being. For example, Shankar et al., (2015) conducted a longitudinal study aimed at measuring the link between social connections and well- being. They concluded that decreased social connection was correlated with greater loneliness and poorer mental health. Because of the daily activities people partake in, such as work and/or extracurriculars, they can also have an impact on mental well-being.

For example, Haar et al., (2014) conducted a large scale study, which found that poor job satisfaction was related to depression and anxiety. Thus, if the activities people engage in are unsatisfactory, they may inevitably have consequences on well-being.

COVID-19

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-

19 outbreak as a global pandemic (WHO, 2020). What is believed to have begun as the release of a novel virus in December of 2019, sparked a global shut-down of all non- essential services (Liu et al., 2020). As well, it placed limits on many regular activities like travel, public transportation, social functions, work, and school. Needless to say, the daily lives of people around the world were disrupted. There is significant literature to suggest that major changes in one’s life have been associated with decreased mental health (Lu, 1994; Reynolds & Turner, 2008). In combination with social isolation experienced by many during the pandemic, the adverse effects on mental health may be amplified (Reger et al., 2020; Usher et al., 2020). Upon surveying American adults in

June of 2020, Czeisler et al. (2020) concluded that rates of substance abuse, adverse

11 mental health conditions, and suicidal ideation were elevated above the norm. In addition, with an emphasis on the importance of staying home to minimize the spread of the virus, the physical health of many was at risk, due to an increase in sedentary behaviour (e.g.,

Barkley et al., 2020).

Among those adversely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic were Canadian university student-athletes whose varsity seasons for the 2020-21 academic year were cancelled, and their studies were moved primarily to an online format. In response to the pandemic, like many other universities, UPEI transitioned all courses to online as of

March 16, 2020 (Novel Coronavirus, 2020). As well, the AUS conference, in which

UPEI student-athletes compete, announced its suspension until January 2021 on June 8,

2020, and subsequently announced the cancellation of the 2021 winter season on

November 25, 2020 (AUS, 2020a; AUS 2020b). For AUS student-athletes, this means that they will not have a varsity season at all this year.

As a result of the lockdown, there were many consequences on the ways in which student-athletes lived their lives. Firstly, considered non-essential services, gyms and training facilities were closed for extended periods preceding the student-athletes’ seasons. As many likely have formal training programs, this would have impacted the ways in which they physically prepared for competition, and could have resulted in detraining (Jukic et al., 2020). Secondly, there were extensive restrictions on interactions with members from outside of one’s household, so it can be assumed that their social interactions were limited, or at least looked much different than usual. Thirdly, with online studies, their academic experience was, and continues to be, modified from what they are typically used to. In 2012, Lyke and Frank surveyed college students’

12 experiences in online classes compared to traditional classrooms. They found that students in the online classes had lower satisfaction with both the course and the instructor, despite achieving similar grades as the in-person students. The collection of these factors may have a negative influence on the well-being of student-athletes.

Many universities, however, have taken initiative to make this athletic season as

‘normal’ as possible in attempts to preserve the student-athlete experience. For example,

UPEI has given sports teams the go-ahead to practice and engage in exhibition play

(Annear, 2020), but there is no question that the student-athlete experience differed significantly this year. For all but first-years, it will be the first year that student-athletes will not be representing their respective universities in competition. And for those that are graduating in May of 2021, the pandemic may have sparked their athletic retirement earlier than planned.

Given the crucial life development stage that the majority of university student- athletes are navigating and the notion that their university experiences have largely been defined by their athletic involvement, the cancellation of their varsity seasons due to the

COVID-19 pandemic is bound to have effects. However, because of its novelty and uniqueness, the impact of the current global pandemic on their well-being is unknown.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate how the changes brought forth by the

COVID-19 pandemic have affected the well-being of university student-athletes. Insight gained from this study is relevant, as it is hoped to assist in understanding how student- athletes and their respective institutions can be better prepared and supported both now and in the future.

13 METHODS

Participants

Participants in this study were 18 (9 males, 9 females) varsity student-athletes at

UPEI. As per the inclusion criteria, they were required to be in their second, third, or fourth year of studies during the 2020-21 academic year and play one of three team sports: soccer, basketball, or hockey. Three participants of each gender were selected from each of these three teams. These criteria were required to provide an inclusive and diverse sample of student-athletes. Those entering their first year of studies were not selected as they do not yet have experience as a student-athlete. Similarly, individuals in their fifth year of studies were excluded, as their university experience may differ from the other year-class students. Additionally, club sports such as field hockey, volleyball, and men’s rugby, and individual team sports such as cross country and track & field were not included as they likely have different student-athlete experiences than their varsity, team-sport counterparts.

Participants were recruited by the researcher via word of mouth, email, or social media messaging platform (Appendix A). Based on the researcher’s involvement in athletics at UPEI, a convenience sample was obtained. Athletes were between 18 and 24 years of age at the time of selection, with a mean age of 20.7 (SD=1.4). Seven participants were from PEI, six were from Atlantic Canadian provinces, four were from other Canadian provinces, and one was from outside of Canada. Six participants were in their second year of studies, four were in their third, and eight were in their fourth year.

Fourteen participants indicated their contributions to their team as starters/1st or 2nd liners, while the remaining four were substitutes/3rd or 4th liners. No participants considered

14 themselves practice-only players. Eight participants were Bachelor of Science (BSc) students, six were Bachelor of Arts (BA), and four were Bachelor of Business

Administration (BBA). Sixteen participants were taking courses exclusively online during the Fall 2020 Semester, while two had a mixed method of instruction (partially in- person, partially online). Two participants indicated a previous diagnosis of mental illness at the time of data collection, and only one of them stated that it was currently well- managed. The remaining 16 participants did not indicate a diagnosis of mental illness at this time.

Table 1. Participant Demographics

Soccer Basketball Hockey Total Gender 3 Women 3 Women 3 Women 9 Women 3 Men 3 Men 3 Men 9 Men Age 20 (19-21) 20.7 (18-22) 21.5 (19-24) 20.7 (18-24) (average) Program of 3 Science 2 Science 3 Science 8 Science Study 3 Arts 2 Arts 1 Arts 6 Arts 2 Business 2 Business 4 Business Administration Administration Administration Hometown 4 PEI 2 PEI 1 PEI 7 PEI 1 Atlantic 2 Atlantic 3 Atlantic Canada 6 Atlantic Canada Canada Canada 1 Other Province 4 Other Province 1 Other 2 Other 1 Outside of 1 Outside of Province Province Canada Canada Academic 2 2nd Year 2 2nd Year 2 2nd Year 6 2nd Year Year 2 3rd Year 0 3rd Year 2 3rd Year 4 3rd Year 2 4th Year 4 4th Year 2 4th Year 8 4th Year Eligibility 2 2nd Year 2 2nd Year 2 2nd Year 6 2nd Year Year 4 3rd Year 0 3rd Year 2 3rd Year 6 3rd Year 0 4th Year 4 4th Year 2 4th Year 6 4th Year Contribution 5 Starters 4 Starters 5 1st/2nd Liners 14 Starters or to Team 1 Substitute 2 Substitutes 1 3rd/4th Liner 1st/2nd Liners 4 Substitutes or 3rd/4th Liners Method of 4 Online 6 Online 6 Online 16 Online Course 0 In-Person 0 In-Person 0 In-Person 0 In-Person Instruction 2 Mixed 0 Mixed 0 Mixed 2 Mixed

15 Mental 1 Yes 1 Yes 0 Yes 2 Yes Illness 5 No 5 No 6 No 16 No Diagnosis

Materials

The materials used in this study were a letter of information (Appendix B); a consent form (Appendix C); a demographic questionnaire (Appendix D); an interview guide (Appendix E); an audio recorder on an iPhone 8; and a video conferencing service,

Zoom. The letter of information provided the rationale for the study and illustrated what would be expected of participants. The consent form sought the permission of the participants with a signature. The demographic questionnaire, delivered online via

Google Forms, asked the participant’s name, age, gender, hometown, sport played, year of eligibility, role on team, and program of study. It also asked the method of instruction of their program during the 2020-21 academic year, their primary reason for attending

UPEI, and if they had been diagnosed with a mental illness either before, during, or after

COVID-19. The interview guide consisted of a series of open-ended questions aimed at identifying the psychological, physical, academic, and social impacts of the pandemic on the athletes.

A pilot interview was conducted with a former student-athlete to establish an effective interview flow. The duration of this interview was approximately 15 minutes and it was determined that the questions sparked adequate reflection and discussion to provide insight into how a student-athlete could have been affected by the pandemic.

However, three additional questions about sleeping/eating habits, support systems, and positive/negative experiences of COVID-19 were added to elicit a more holistic view of the participants’ experiences.

16 Procedure

Ethical clearance was obtained by the UPEI Research Ethics Board to conduct this study involving human participants. Once participants were recruited by the researcher, they were sent the letter of information and the Google Forms demographic questionnaire via email. Online consent was obtained on the first page of the Google

Form. The second step of the data collection process consisted of one-on-one interviews with the participant and researcher. The first interview was conducted in-person in the

Health Sciences Building, while the remaining were conducted using Zoom video conferencing software. All interviews were conducted in a private room (in-person or virtually via Zoom) and were audio recorded.

Upon arriving to the interview, participants had a chance to read the letter of information and had time to ask any questions. Once their questions had been addressed, they were asked to read the consent form and provide verbal consent to participate, in addition to electronically signing the formal consent form. Then, the audio recorder was turned on and data collection began. The interviews consisted of the researcher asking a series of 18 questions, categorized into five categories. All questions were open-ended to allow room for explanation and reasoning. The first section focused on getting to know the participant’s story with their sport. This was followed by the second category which sought to address the psychological and academic impacts the COVID-19 pandemic has had on the participants. The third part aimed to identify the physical impacts the pandemic has had on the participants. The next part examined the social impacts of the pandemic on the lives of participants. Finally, the last category focused on the athlete’s overall experience with the pandemic.

17 Following the interview, the researcher transcribed the recorded interviews verbatim in a Microsoft Word document to allow for an in-depth analysis of the data.

Microsoft Office 365’s transcription service was utilized to create a first draft of the transcripts, which were then edited by the researcher. The transcription was anonymized by assigning an ID number to each participant (e.g., P3) and removing any specific information such as names mentioned during the interview. The edited transcripts were emailed to the participants, thereby allowing them to make any changes where they saw fit. They were given a time limit of one week for any edits and were informed that providing no response would be taken as their approval. One participant responded with minor edits, while the remaining 17 indicated their approval. Once approval was obtained from the participants, data analysis began.

Data Analysis

Once the modifications or acceptances were received from participants, the data analysis began. The interview transcripts were read over multiple times and the main ideas from each question were highlighted. The highlighted data was then exported into another Microsoft Word document. This facilitated the data analysis process by removing the irrelevant comments. A thematic analysis was then used to identify themes in the data

(Braun & Clarke, 2019)

A Microsoft Excel spreadsheet was used to conduct a matrix analysis for each question (Averill, 2002). To do so, participants were represented on the y-axis and questions were represented on the x-axis. This structure allowed for similarities to be identified and codes, representing initial understandings of the data, to emerge for each question. From these codes, the items were grouped into themes and sub-themes (Braun

18 & Clarke, 2020). Once the themes and sub-themes were established, quotations from the participants were retrieved from the transcripts to support the findings.

19 RESULTS

The results of this study are divided into four sections. Part I includes the data relevant to the participants’ personal experiences with their sport and the pandemic. Part

II examined the psychological and academic impacts that the pandemic has had. Part III looked at the physical impacts. Part IV demonstrates the social impacts.

Table 2. Higher-Order and Lower-Order Themes Identified in the Data.

DIMENSIONS THEMES SUB-THEMES Personal Athletic Identity University Experience Daily Life Negative Overall Experience Psychological/Academic AUS Cancellation Disappointed Adapted to Cope Mental Health Increased Anxiety and Depression/Sadness Adapted to Cope Education Grades are Comparable to Previous Years Work Ethic is Worse than Previous Years Time Management is Worse than Previous Years Interest in Campus Life is Lower than Previous Years Status of Future Educational/Career Plans Physical Lifestyle Habits Changes to Eating Habits Changes to Sleeping Habits Training Habits Changes in Pre-Season Training Motivation for Pre-Season Training Changes in Team Training Changes to Intensity in Team Training Motivation and Energy Invested into Team Training Social Social Interactions Social Supports Personal Support Systems Intra-Team Support Systems

20 Time Alone More Time Spent Alone Experience Being Alone

Personal Dimension

The initial few questions of the interview aimed to gain a better understanding of who the participants were as both students and athletes. This assisted in providing an introduction of the participants as well as gaining an understanding of their overall experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, two themes were identified: athletic identity and university experience.

Athletic Identity:

When asked if they considered their athletic involvement to be a part of their personal identity, all participants indicated that they did, at least to some degree.

Considering the elite level of play they have reached and the significant time commitment associated with being a varsity athlete, this was not surprising. “Because we do [sport] every day for like a certain amount of months, so like it’s everything that we are for like a bit. And then in the offseason, we're training to play and stuff.” (P4).

Interestingly, despite these strong athletic identities, the majority of interviewees indicated that their student-athlete experience consisted heavily of a balance between their academics and athletics. “A student-athlete is somebody who not only takes care of their business on and off the court, but also takes care of their business in school too.”

(P17).

University Experience:

Because of significant changes brought forth by the pandemic, student-athletes were asked to compare their everyday life to that in previous years. Many of the

21 participants indicated that a major difference was the amount of time they are spending at home this semester because of the lack of in-person classes. “I'm just at home all the time and I wake up every day it’s pretty much the same. I wake up and I do school online and then take notes and I make food at home.” (P4). In addition, the absence of a structured schedule has been a key difference for many. “Last year, we got up and went to classes and after, we'd have practice, games, or team events. But now we get up and don't do anything.” (P13).

Evidently, these changes in the student-athletes’ daily lives have impacted their overall university experience. For the vast majority, it was negatively affected by two primary causes: the cancellation of the AUS season and online course instruction. P6 illustrates their negative feelings towards having no competition this year: “It sucks because there's no season and it definitely takes away from the training a little bit 'cause we want to play games against other universities and that's the whole reason why we play on varsity sports teams. So, that's disappointing.” Similarly, P12 said, “But it’s just monotonous never having a game and just practicing and doing the same thing.

The days are repetitive.” When discussing online classes, P11 stated, “I get distracted really easily and it's very hard to just sit and look at your computer screen all day.” Similarly, the lack of student-professor relationships has been challenging for others. “I really like going to class and be being able to have a relationship with my professors and not being able to go to class and have those designated times and places to be has probably negatively affected my schedule.” (P1).

Psychological/Academic Dimension

22 The questions aimed at identifying the psychological/academic impacts of the pandemic produced three themes in the data: AUS cancellation, mental health, and influence on education.

AUS Cancellation:

Although it did not come as a surprise to many, the student-athletes were quite disappointed by the news of their cancelled AUS seasons. “I was pretty devastated that we weren't going to have a season. It started at Nationals last year when we were told we weren’t going to play. So, I was like heartbroken.” (P11). In addition, some student- athletes indicated their frustration with the number of times the announcement for the winter semester was delayed. “The decision just kept getting pushed back, so that was pretty frustrating. We just wanted a definite decision, but it was always prolonged in hopes that by then the circumstances would be better.” (P14).

The initial reaction to the announcement has been lessened for many of the participants, as time has passed. The normalcy of continuing to train has enabled some student-athletes to cope. “It’s very frustrating not being able to play ever, knowing that it’s one of my last years. But I've kind of just put things in perspective, enjoying the time that you're here, practices, and time with your team.” (P11). For others, shifting their focus to improving for next year has helped with accepting the news. “This year is just a year for like building the team and that's how I think I started to look at it because we can’t really change anything.” (P4).

Mental Health:

As a key part of one’s well-being, participants were asked about how the pandemic has impacted their mental health. It was determined that the majority of

23 participants experienced increased anxiety and/or sadness. For example, P15 discussed their heightened anxiety: “I’m more anxious. The uncertainty of not knowing what's next, what we're going to do for sports, school, and just a general sense of uncertainty about the pandemic. And then add a lack of structure in there and those two play a pretty big part in a little bit of heightened anxiety.” Similarly, P11 reported their experience with increased sadness: “I’m more sad, more often—or frustrated. I’m more down because I don’t get to see people.”

Some participants indicated that their mental health got worse as time passed.

“It’s worse because it's never ending. I feel like it's not going to end and it's just fearful for how long it's going to last.” (P12). Fortunately, however, the majority of participants indicated that their mental health has improved since the beginning of the pandemic.

Some of these individuals were able to cope as restrictions were lifted and social interactions could increase: “And being able to go to [sport] and see people every day is better for my mental health.” (P3). On the other hand, others sought professional help to address their conditions: “It was May when I went to my doctor and got help. I've been going to therapy recently, so now I'm doing better, but it's because I got help.” (P4).

Education:

As full-time university students, their academic life was bound to be affected by the pandemic, especially since most of their instruction has shifted to an online platform.

First, many participants discussed their discontentment with their online studies. “Doing the online stuff is really annoying and I don’t like doing that.” (P9). Surprisingly, though, the majority of participants indicated that their grades were similar or had actually improved when compared to previous years. “So far my grades have pretty much been

24 the same, like I haven't really fluctuated too much.” (P2). However, this may not be as a result of fully honest improvements. “I've probably been doing better, but it's not a trustworthy better. I have my notes out in front of me, I can search something up so they

[grades] are better because of the resources we're allowed.” (P12).

Secondly, the majority of participants indicated declines in their work ethic this semester. P7 illustrates this point well in saying, “I have no motivation to do anything and I'm not learning anything interesting.” Thirdly, student-athletes are often required to have strong time management skills in order to accommodate their busy academic and athletic schedules. As a result of the pandemic, poorer time management skills were also reported by nearly all of the participants, as they are not used to having this much free time. “But I definitely leave things to the last minute now. Before, I would have only like

2 hours to complete a certain task because I had [sport] at certain times. But I have so much time on my hands.” (P11). Fourthly, a large part of one’s university experience is their involvement in campus life. Unfortunately, for the vast majority of participants, this was also significantly tarnished this semester. “I just don't really spend any time on campus, which is too bad 'cause I did enjoy studying there last year.” (P5).

Finally, due to the pandemic’s significant disruption in the lives of the student- athletes, the impact it has had on their future educational/career plans was investigated.

Many of them indicated that their end goal remained the same. “My end goal is kind of the same, even though it might have impacted it or might not have worked out the same way that I kind of assumed it would.” (P2). However, nearly half of the student-athletes indicated that they would consider returning to use their extra year of eligibility.

25 “I've definitely thought more into the idea of doing a fifth year... because I feel like I can't end my [sport] career on 2 years of not competing because that's a huge part of it.” (P1).

Physical Dimension

The implications of the COVID-19 pandemic have influenced the physical well- being of many student-athletes. Two themes were identified from the participants’ responses: lifestyle habits and training habits.

Lifestyle Habits:

Participants were asked questions about any changes to their eating and sleeping habits as a result of the pandemic. Interestingly, when it came to their eating habits, there were mixed results. Many of the student-athletes indicated that their diet was actually healthier given the additional time to cook meals at home. “I actually eat more of the proper stuff now 'cause I'm always home so I don't have to get takeout.” (P17). However, in contrast, many also indicated that they snacked more often and didn’t feel the need to worry about their diet as much. “Since I felt like I wasn't working towards anything, I probably ate a lot more snacks and indulged in unhealthy ways because I felt like there was no reason to eat healthy.” (P1).

In terms of their sleeping habits, many participants indicated changes to their sleep schedules. For example, P13 indicated, “Now I'm up ‘til 3 in the morning because there's nothing to do. I'm used to being active and getting really tired at the end of the day. But now we don't do anything, so I'm not tired.” Similarly, P9 mentioned, “Being at home is just a lot easier to take a nap in the middle of the day rather than having to be at

UPEI. So, I take more naps during the day and then sleep a little less at night.”

Training Habits:

26 When it came to their individual pre-season training leading up to this athletic season, some participants reported having similar experiences compared to previous years. “I was training similar to how we would do a season here. So, I was in the gym with my trainer 4 out of 4 or 5 days a week and then we had [sport] specific training that we were allowed to do and I would do that twice a week, so I was still going fairly hard.”

(P3). However, some had different experiences, as gyms were closed and their training was done independently. “I looked up videos on YouTube 'cause our gyms weren't open.

And also, just ran outside. I wasn't getting the weights, but there's still lots of ways to get moving.” (P12).

Despite the knowledge that their varsity seasons were cancelled (at least for the fall semester), student-athletes were still motivated to train in the pre-season. Many indicated their primary motivator as self-care. For example, P4 stated, “Self-care first.

Working out really helped me with my mental health and my anxiety.” Many other participants indicated their motivation was remaining fit regardless of not having a season. “I still wanted to be fit. Knowing that we were still going to have to play every day, we'd have to still be fit if you wanted to play in the exhibition games and everything.” (P5).

Fortunately, it appeared that UPEI’s efforts to maintain somewhat of a normal student-athlete experience was successful, as the majority of participants indicated their in-season training was comparable to previous years. “It's actually really similar compared to previous years, which is good.” (P6). Additionally, the majority reported similar intensity to previous years: “But the intensity is pretty similar to last year despite not knowing what's going on. I think everybody's done a pretty good job of still putting in

27 maximum effort.” (P7). Some participants did, however, indicate declines in intensity at practice, as demonstrated by P11’s response: “Some are very good and some days you can tell that people are not there or are sad 'cause of this whole thing. So, intensity levels have gone down since previous years. You have nothing to look forward to—there's no game on the weekend to prep for or to prove that you should be playing.”

When questioned about the impact of no varsity season on their motivation to continue training, the majority of student-athletes indicated that it was negatively affected. A prime example of this is shown in P12’s response stating, “I'm at the point that I don't care to play anymore. I just want it to be done because I obviously play a sport not just for practicing and right now there is no competition. So, it's really hard to find motivation to still want to play.” A similar trend is observed in P6’s response: “I think about it less now. Before, I would have thought about how I played, but I don't as much. I just kind of go to practice, play the games and not think about how I played as much afterward.”

Social Dimension

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, many of the participants indicated changes to their social lives. Three themes were identified from the data: social supports, social interactions with friends and teammates, and time alone.

Social Supports:

When asked if they felt they were well supported, all 18 participants indicated they were. Personal relationships, namely family and friends, were commonly reported as key support systems. “I have a pretty good network of friends and [girlfriend]. And

I'm pretty close with my family.” (P15). Similarly, P5 indicated, “My family is close by

28 and they’re always supportive. And then I live with my roommates who are always around to hang out and support me.” However, intra-team relationships, including teammates and coaching staff, were also key support systems for the student-athletes.

“My teammates are like my brothers. We do everything together, so if I need anything, I'm with them, talking to them every day.” (P10). P11 expressed the following views on their coaching staff: “Our coach does a really good job of making sure everyone's okay. If we ever have any issues, he's there for us.”

Social Interactions:

Although there may have been social limitations brought forth by the pandemic, the student-athletes indicated spending more time with teammates than in previous years, for a variety of reasons. For example, as P8 illustrated, “There's a lot more free time on weekends, and we all have it in the back of our mind that we need to stay close together and keep checking on each other.” However, student-athletes reported spending less time with friends outside of their team than in previous years. This may be partially as a result of online classes and therefore decreased interactions with classmates. “Going to classes, I had a group of friends I would see and we’d have lunch or coffees together. I don't really see them that much anymore.” (P7). Another reason for the decline in time spent with friends may have been a conscious effort to protect a “could-be” season.

“When you play on a team and you're trying to have a season, we have to be careful who we go around. So that affected our social lives pretty big 'cause we have to stay within our team.” (P13).

As a result of the pandemic, these social interactions looked different when compared to previous years. Many participants’ social circles shrank as the limitations

29 imposed challenges for large group interactions. “Socially, when we have off days, the limits of COVID and numbers definitely affects what we're able to do socially with our team, and with other teams.” (P1). While they were not interacting with a large network of individuals, it is clear that a significant amount of time was spend with small members of their teams. “But you don't see a whole lot of other people. You just see like who you're around regularly.” (P16).

Time Alone:

When investigating changes in the student-athletes’ time spent alone, it was found that it increased for many. “I'm spending a lot more time alone than in the past. Because school is online, I'm doing a lot of my schoolwork and spending class time and study time in my house by myself.” (P1). While some of the participants admitted that they didn’t mind spending time by themselves, many indicated that their experiences being alone were negative. “I’m very extroverted, I don't like being alone.” (P8).

These experiences included overthinking: “But at the beginning, when I was in self isolation, I was alone 24 hours a day and that was definitely very hard to do, especially 'cause you're left alone with your own thoughts a lot of the time.” (P3).

Another common experience was feeling overwhelmed: “It can be overwhelming to feel that it's all really on you to get everything done, in terms of like staying fit and getting your work done.” (P5). Finally, many indicated that spending time alone simply led to boredom. “I get very bored. I'm so used to being active, so I can't sit still. So, I'm trying to find other things to occupy me when I'm alone.” (P13).

30 DISCUSSION

Student-athletes’ university experiences are largely defined by their athletic and academic involvement. However, given the cancellation of their varsity seasons and the transition of their course instruction to a primarily-online environment due to the

COVID-19 pandemic, their student-athlete experience has significantly changed.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how the changes brought forth by the pandemic have affected the well-being of university student-athletes. This was accomplished via 18 semi-structured interviews with 2nd-, 3rd-, and 4th-year student- athletes from basketball, soccer, and hockey at UPEI. This discussion is organized into five parts. Part I will discuss the personal dimension; Part II will explore the psychological/academic dimension; Part III will delve into the physical dimension; Part

IV will examine the social dimension; and Part V will consist of a general discussion that includes recommendations, limitations, and future directions.

Part I

Part I examined the student-athletes’ perceptions of an athletic identity, as well as how their overall university experience was impacted by COVID-19. Each of the 18 participants indicated that their athletic involvement was part of their personal identity.

This finding was consistent with that of Killeya-Jones (2005), in which the significant time investment associated with athletic involvement was linked to the formation of an athletic identity. However, when discussing their role as a student-athlete, they also indicated the importance of balancing their athletics and academics. When considering the extrinsic motivators that student-athletes have to succeed academically, such as

31 minimum GPA and course load requirements (U SPORTS, 2019), the need to balance both roles is imperative.

Research conducted by Umbach and colleagues (2016) demonstrated that student- athletes acquire many positive experiences at university, even more so than their non- athlete peers. However, the UPEI student-athletes reported that their experiences have been negatively influenced this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Their cancelled varsity season and the transition of their courses to a primarily-online format were key factors contributing to the negative experience. The two things they came to UPEI for

(i.e., being a student and an athlete) were significantly disrupted. With no AUS conference, student-athletes were unable to compete in their sport, and with minimal in- person instruction, they missed the element of physically attending a class as a university student.

Part II

Part II demonstrates the effects the COVID-19 pandemic has had on the student- athletes in the psychological/academic dimension. These results help paint the picture of how the student-athletes were feeling mentally, as well as how their academic life has been impacted. The results showed that the majority of participants experienced having increased anxiety and/or sadness. In an examination of National College Health

Assessment surveys distributed to university students in the U.S., Davoren and Hwang

(2014) compared results of student-athletes versus non-athletes. They discovered that

79% of student-athletes reported that they felt anxiety and 49% felt depressed in the last

12 months. Given this already-incredibly high statistic, it is concerning that student-

32 athletes may be experiencing these feelings to an even higher degree as a result of the pandemic.

Though concerning, it is not, however, surprising to see mental health problems increasing, given the significant disruption in the everyday lives of student-athletes, in combination with the lack of structure in their schedules. Koome et al. (2012) indicate the importance of having a routine to provide stability and consistency in one’s life.

Correspondingly, Reynolds and Turner (2008), indicate that major changes to such routines are commonly associated with poorer mental health. Therefore, the onset of the pandemic likely had this effect on many people, including the student-athletes. In fact, a recent survey conducted by the Canadian Mental Health Association indicated that over

40% of Canadian respondents indicated declines in their mental health since the onset of the pandemic (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2021).

On a more positive note, results showed that most of the participants’ mental health improved as time went on. This shows that they have begun to cope and adjust to their lives during the pandemic. Given the uncertainty of the pandemic’s duration, this type of resilience will be important for them moving forward. Nonetheless, the select few who indicated that their mental health was progressively declining should follow this lead and seek help as soon as possible.

In terms of their academics, student-athletes reported negative experiences with online classes. Despite this, they had consistent grades to previous years but admitted that the availability of resources could be a large reason why. Lyke and Frank (2012) had nearly identical findings in which their respondents had lower satisfaction with online course instruction, although maintaining similar grades as their in-person peers. The

33 biggest negative effect on the student-athletes’ academics was their time management and work ethic towards their schoolwork. The majority of participants indicated that their time management skills were poor as a result of having too much free time on their hands. According to Ustun et al. (2017), effective time management is essential for academic success, productivity, and psychological well-being. Additionally, poor time management is linked to increased stress and subsequent declines in performance (Misra

& McKean, 2000). Therefore, it is important for student-athletes to find ways to manage their time effectively without having a fully-structured schedule laid out for them. In doing so, this will inherently improve their work ethic as well.

Part III

Part III illustrates the results of the interview section regarding the student- athletes’ well-being in the physical dimension. Through examining their lifestyle and training habits, these results provide a better understanding of the pandemic’s impact on the physical well-being of student-athletes. The participants’ eating habits remained fairly consistent to those in previous years. Many indicated they had time to cook more meals at home, thereby reducing their fast-food consumption. Canada’s Food Guide discusses the importance of taking the time to cook one’s own meals to decrease highly-processed food intake, so it is great to see the student-athletes doing so (Government of Canada, 2020).

Nonetheless, this healthy eating behaviour may have been counteracted by the student- athletes’ reports of having an increased tendency to snack throughout the day.

Treats/snacks are okay in moderation, but individuals should be mindful when eating to avoid snacking simply out of boredom.

34 Results from this study demonstrated that the participants experienced poorer sleep habits due to later bedtimes and sporadic sleeping (i.e., naps during the day). These are consistent with research from Gupta et al. (2020), who surveyed adults during the

COVID-19 pandemic, and determined an overall shift to later bedtimes and an increase in day-time napping. If student-athletes are not getting adequate sleep, this could be detrimental to their well-being. The 24-hour movement guidelines for adults recommend at least 7-9 hours of sleep per night and indicate that later sleep times and variations in sleep patterns were linked to adverse health outcomes (Ross et al., 2020). Similarly,

Davoren and Hwang (2014) posit that difficulty sleeping is strongly associated with depression and anxiety. As such, adequate sleep should be a priority.

When it came to the student-athletes’ pre- and in-season training, the general consensus was that it felt comparable to previous years, but intensity at practice was slightly lower and motivation to continue training in the absence of a varsity season decreased. The lack of short-term goals, such as preparing for an upcoming game, resulted in less intensity in practices. Literature surrounding the idea of SMART goals helps justify this finding by stating that effective goals must be timely (i.e., achievable in a reasonable amount of time) (Lawlor, 2012). Therefore, it can be challenging to invest significant energy into training for something that is not within tangible reach (i.e., the

2021-22 season, one full year later). Although the majority of the participants indicated that self-care and fitness were factors that motivated them to continue training this year, they were not motivated to the same degree as in previous years. This is likely similar to student-athletes’ motivation levels in an off-season, as it is not uncommon for individuals to slack off a little bit when they are not directly in competition (Ryan, 2012). Because of

35 no formal competition this year, the participants of this study may not have felt the need to give 100% effort all of the time. These findings beg the question of how coaches can try to motivate their players moving forward.

Part IV

Part IV covers the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of student-athletes in the social dimension. These results show how their social lives have been affected, the social supports they have in their lives, as well as their experiences spending time alone. The majority of student-athletes indicated that their social interactions with teammates actually increased in comparison to previous years. This is a very positive finding as teammate relationships, according to Stander et al. (2015), are correlated with overall sport enjoyment and performance. Perhaps the pandemic increased student-athletes’ abilities to bond with their teammates to strengthen those relationships and that of the team as a whole. On the other hand, it was concluded that time spent with friends outside of the team was drastically reduced. These results also reinforce Miller and Kerr’s (2003) notion that the time student-athletes have for relationships with non-teammates may be minimal. The pandemic may have even further heightened this as participants lacked relationships with their friends and classmates.

Each of the participants in this study indicated that they felt well supported by their personal and team relationships. Personal relationships consisted of family, friends, roommates, and significant others, while team relationships included both teammates and coaching staff. Regardless of the source, having a strong support system is essential for one’s mental well-being, and has also shown to be an indicator of physical well-being

(Hale et al., 2005). The fact that all participants could name a support system is very

36 positive. It is also commendable to coaching staff and teammates for stepping up during this time to act as supports outside of the student-athletes’ direct, personal networks.

Finally, the majority of student-athletes indicated that they spent more time alone compared to previous years. Moreover, most of them discussed having difficulty being alone, such as overthinking, overwhelm, and boredom. This is not an uncommon finding, as Banerjee (2020) identified that individuals across the globe are experiencing significant social isolation leading to loneliness, boredom, and ultimately adverse mental health effects due to COVID-19. With this in mind, it is important for student-athletes to find ways to cope when alone to try to figure out how to live with themselves.

Part V

The results of this study strengthened our understanding of how student-athletes at

UPEI were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. It was concluded that, for the most part, student-athletes experienced declines in their mental health and poorer academic experiences. It was also observed that while their diet was consistent, they had poor sleep schedules and lower motivation to train for their sport. Finally, results showed that the student-athletes had strong support systems but struggled to be alone. These results yield important suggestions for student-athletes, coaches, and universities to improve student- athletes’ experiences moving forward.

Recommendations:

For student-athletes, it is important that they prioritize their physical and mental well-being. To do so, they should set goals to continue to exercise, eat well, and sleep well. Creating a consistent daily routine has shown to improve mental health during the

COVID-19 pandemic (Hou et al., 2020), and will help to achieve these goals. Having this

37 structure may also assist in increasing their motivation and productivity. They may also practice mindfulness during time spent alone in order to self-identify their feelings, find out what coping mechanism works for them, and seek help when it is needed. Finally, they should remain socially engaged and rely on the support of the people in their lives.

For coaches, it is important that they are acting as supporters and motivators to their student-athletes during these unprecedented times. They should take the time to let their players know they are there for them, check in on them frequently, and assign team leaders to act as someone to talk to when players need to reach out but don’t feel comfortable speaking to a coach. In order to motivate them to continue training, especially in the off-season, coaches should set short-term goals, hold players accountable by offering encouragement for effort, and incorporate games/competitions into training to allow them to compete for something. They should remind players what they are training for and encourage them to treat training as a form of self-care. Finally, coaches should try to encourage players to remain socially connected by initiating team- building activities and team interactions outside of practices to ensure that players have strong social connections.

Universities can do their part to support their student-athletes in a variety of ways.

Firstly, they must ensure that there are official supports in place and communicate them very clearly to all student-athletes. For example, having counselling services and academic advisors could be beneficial. Secondly, universities should continue to try their best to make the sport seasons as normal as possible, regardless of the status of the varsity conference. Thirdly, some student-athletes indicated missing the aspect of a ‘Panther community’. Universities should try to increase student-athlete engagement by creating

38 activities for them to meet other student-athletes from different sports, programs, and years of eligibility, whilst adhering to COVID-19 regulations. For instance, such activities could take a virtual format, or be done in smaller groups with representation from different teams. Finally, professors could also try to make their online classes synchronous to assist the student-athletes’ scheduling. They should do their part to continue to connect with students and check in on them frequently to ensure they understand the course content and are feeling well.

Limitations:

It is important to keep in mind that although the sample in this study was intended to be representative of the population of student-athletes at UPEI, some groups were excluded. Club sports such as men’s rugby and women’s field hockey, as well as individual varsity sports such as cross-country and track & field were not included in the sample. As well, in order to preserve the equal male to female ratio, the varsity women’s rugby team was excluded. Finally, student-athletes in their 1st and 5th year were excluded as their university experience is likely different than their 2nd-, 3rd-, and 4th-year teammates’. Therefore, the information gathered from this sample of student-athletes cannot be generalized to the entire population of student-athletes.

Another limitation may have occurred during the interview process, as the researcher conducting the interviews had personal relationships with many of the participants. As such, it is possible that some of their responses could have been shaped based on how they perceived the researcher wanted them to respond. A final limitation is the fact that many of the basketball and hockey student-athletes were interviewed before the final decision was made to cancel the second half of their seasons. Some of these

39 individuals may have been hopeful that they were going to play the second half, thus their responses may not have captured the full essence of their experience with the COVID-19 pandemic in regard to the cancellation of their entire season.

Future Directions:

This study could lay the foundation for other possible directions to be taken in the future. First, because student-athletes were interviewed about their experience in real- time as the pandemic was in effect, this could present a unique opportunity to examine how student-athletes re-adjust to university life post-pandemic. Perhaps, in one year’s time the AUS conference could resume as normal and classes could be in-person.

Therefore, it could be interesting to see how their thoughts and feelings have evolved as they have returned back to their ‘normal’ student-athlete roles.

Another potential direction could be to examine a different sample of student- athletes. As individual and club sport student-athletes were excluded from this sample, it could be beneficial to examine how they have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

They may be able to offer some valuable information that could complement or completely differ from their varsity, team-sport counterparts. Their responses would help to provide a more holistic representation of the student-athlete population at UPEI.

40 CONCLUSION

This study assisted in increasing our understanding of how student-athletes were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a semi-structured, open-ended interview guide, the researcher was able to conduct one-on-one interviews with 18 (9 male, 9 female) varsity student-athletes from soccer, basketball, and hockey at UPEI. This approach enabled participants to feel comfortable disclosing and elaborating on their personal experiences with the pandemic.

Results from the interviews showed that student-athletes at UPEI were significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, participants experienced poorer mental and physical well-being due to the collection of psychological, academic, lifestyle, training, and social changes. Results reinforce the notion that all parties present in the lives of the student-athletes, including themselves, play a role in determining their well-being. As such, student-athletes, coaches, and universities must do their part to contribute to improving their well-being moving forward.

Shifting the focus of future research to explore student-athletes’ re-integration into ‘normal’ university life post-pandemic or examining the COVID-19 experiences of individual or club sport student-athletes are two valuable areas to investigate further.

Findings from such studies would assist in determining what supports student-athletes require during transitions and provide a more holistic representation of the university student-athlete population.

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50 APPENDIX A

Researcher Recruitment Script

Hi Athlete, my name is Laura Burge, and I am a fourth year Kinesiology student at UPEI.

I am also a member of the women’s soccer team. I am conducting a Research Ethics

Board approved research study as part of a project for my Honours thesis to analyze how the COVID-19 Pandemic has influenced the well-being of student-athletes at UPEI. I am reaching out to you as a student-athlete on the Xsport team to see if you would be interested in participating. Your insight would be very helpful to see the effects of the pandemic first-hand. Participation is voluntary and you can withdraw at any point without consequence. If you choose to participate, you will be given a letter of information and be asked to sign a consent form. You will then be asked to complete a brief questionnaire and an oral interview with myself. The interview will be audio recorded and transcribed for later analysis. Your entire involvement should be no longer than one hour at maximum, and I can assure you that your responses will remain anonymous and confidential. If you are interested in participating or have any questions at all, please let me know! Thanks so much in advance for your time.

51 APPENDIX B

Student-Athlete Letter of Information

The information below describes a research study and invites you to volunteer to participate in the research being conducted. You are free to keep a copy of this form.

The purpose of this study is to gather information from 18 student-athletes at UPEI to gain an understanding of how the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic have affected their well-being.

The researchers for this study are Laura Burge and Dr. Dany MacDonald from UPEI.

Eligible participants are varsity soccer, basketball, hockey, and rugby student-athletes in their 2nd, 3rd, or 4th year of studies in the 2020-21 academic year. The data collection, which is expected to take approximately one hour, will take place at a time and location agreed upon by the researcher and participant. If the participant is unable to meet face-to- face, interviews may be conducted via Zoom. During the data collection process, participants will be asked to complete a brief questionnaire containing demographic information and mental health history on Google Forms when they agree to participate.

At a later date, agreed upon by the researcher and participant, they will then be asked a series of open-ended questions regarding their experiences during the pandemic. The participants’ responses will be audio recorded and transcribed for analysis. Once the data has been transcribed by the researcher, participants will be sent a copy of their transcript for review. The participant will then have the opportunity to add, withdraw, or edit any responses within one week of receiving it. Once data collection is complete, data will be pooled together to ensure anonymity and confidentiality of participants. Each participant will be given an identification number to further protect anonymity as it is possible that

52 individual quotes may be used in the reporting of results. As a reminder, participation in the study is completely voluntary and participants may withdraw at any time without consequence. In the event that a participant withdraws, any data collected up until that point will be destroyed. After having completed the study, if a participant wants to withdraw, they may do so until March 1, 2019 without penalty or reproach. The data collected in this study will provide insight into how the lack of a varsity season due to an unprecedented pandemic affects the well-being of the student-athletes.

All information collected throughout the study will remain confidential to the researchers listed below. For the duration of the study, data will be stored in a secure, password- protected computer in a research lab that is locked when the researchers are not present.

At no point in this study will participants’ personal information be shared with others. However, it should be noted that the online survey is being administered by

Google, an American software company. The data can therefore be accessed by

Homeland security as per the US Patriot Act, so data confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. The risks associated with participation in the Google Forms survey are minimal and are similar to those associated with many email programs and social media platforms, such as Hotmail© and Facebook©, for example.

There are no physical, psychological, economic, or social risks associated with participation in this study. However, there will be questions related to mental health that could present a trigger risk for those who are not comfortable discussing these matters. If you need any support at this time, please call the island mental health hotline at 1-800-

218-2885. Additionally, UPEI Student Affairs offer free counselling services, and can be reached at 902-566-0488 or [email protected] to book an appointment.

53 ***This research project has been approved by the Research Ethics Board of the

University of Prince Edward Island. I understand that I can contact the UPEI Research

Ethics Board at (902) 620-5104, or by e-mail at [email protected] if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of this study.***

Laura Burge, BScK

Department of Applied Human Sciences

University of Prince Edward Island

Email: [email protected]

Dany MacDonald, PhD

Associate Professor

Department of Applied Human Sciences

University of Prince Edward Island

Email: [email protected]

Phone: 902-566-6482

54 APPENDIX C

Student-Athlete Informed Consent Form

I have read the letter of information and understand the purpose of the present research study. I have been given the opportunity to ask any questions or discuss the project with the researcher(s) and my questions/concerns have been answered to my satisfaction. I also understand that all of the information collected will remain confidential, within the limits of the law, to the research team and that anonymity of my identity will be ensured.

However, it should be noted that the online survey is being administered by Google, an

American software company. The data can therefore be accessed by Homeland security as per the US Patriot Act, so data confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. The risks associated with participation in the Google Forms survey are minimal and are similar to those associated with many email programs and social media platforms, such as

Hotmail© and Facebook©, for example.

I understand that the interview will be audio recorded and quotes may be used in the dissemination of results. I understand that I will be provided with a transcribed copy of my interview and will be given a one-week period to make comments or edits. I understand that I can keep a copy of the signed and dated consent form. Finally, I realize that participation in this research is voluntary, I can choose not to answer any question posed without consequence, and I can withdraw from the study at any moment. I understand that if at any point during data collection or the question period I wish to withdraw from the study, the collected data up to that point will be destroyed. Data can be withdrawn until the data collection is complete, which is when the researcher and I

55 have concluded data collection, I have had the opportunity to ask questions, and the researcher has left.

***This research project has been approved by the Research Ethics Board of the

University of Prince Edward Island. I understand that I can contact the UPEI Research

Ethics Board at (902)620-5104, or by email at [email protected] if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of this study. ***

I consent to participate in this research project.

Participant Name Signature Date

______

___

Researcher or Research Assistant Name Signature Date

______

___

If you wish to receive a summary of the results, please check the box below and provide your contact information.

□ Yes, I would like to receive a summary of the results.

Email address: ______

56

Laura Burge, BScK

Department of Applied Human Sciences

University of Prince Edward Island

Email: [email protected]

Dany MacDonald, PhD

Associate Professor

Department of Applied Human Sciences

University of Prince Edward Island

Email: [email protected]

Phone: 902-566-6482

57

APPENDIX D

Demographic Questionnaire (Google Forms)

1. Name:

2. Age:

3. Gender: □ Male □ Female □ Other/prefer not to say

4. Hometown (include Province/State and Country):

5. Varsity sport(s) played at UPEI:

6. Year of eligibility during 2019-20 season: □ 1st □ 2nd. □ 3rd □ 4th □ 5th

7. Year of study during 2019-20 academic year: □ 1st □ 2nd. □ 3rd □ 4th □ 5th

8. Role on the team: □ Starter/1st or 2nd line □ Substitute/3rd or 4th line □

Practice only

9. Program of study:

10. Program instruction for 2020-21 academic year: □ Online □ In person □

Mixed

11. Primary reason for choosing to attend UPEI:

12. Do you have a diagnosed mental illness from before the COVID-19 Pandemic began?

□ No □ Yes (please specify)______

If yes: Do you feel that it is currently well-managed?

□ No □ Yes

If no: Were you diagnosed with a mental illness during or after the COVID-19

Pandemic (from March 2020-on)?

□ No □ Yes (please specify)______

58

If yes: Do you feel that it is currently well-managed?

□ No □ Yes

59

APPENDIX E

Interview Guide

Introduction

1. Can you tell me about your history in your sport and how it plays a role in your life? o Probing questions: When did you first start? Did you play other sports? When did you specialize in your current sport? Why did you decide to pursue it at an elite level?

2. Did your sport affect your decision to attend UPEI for post-secondary? Were there other reasons? What was the primary deciding factor?

3. What does being a student-athlete mean to you? Would you consider your university sport involvement to be a part of your personal identity?

4. What does a day in your life look like right now? How is that different from previous years at this time? o Probing questions: Where are you doing your courses? Where are you living?

5. What has been the most negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on you, personally? What has been the most positive?

Psychological/Academic Impact

6. How did you take the news when you first heard the AUS cancellation announcement? Have those feelings changed at all?

7. Have you noticed any change in your mental health/mood as a result of the pandemic? When it first started vs. now?

60

8. How has your academic life been affected without a varsity season? Have you noticed any changes in your grades? How is your work ethic? Time management? Stress?

Interest in campus life?

9. Has this altered your educational/career plans? Will you be staying for an additional year since you didn’t lose eligibility this year? Are you left feeling unsure of future plans?

Physical Impact

10. Have there been any changes to your eating habits? Sleep habits?

11. What did your individual pre-season training look like with no upcoming season?

How did this differ from previous years? If not to get fit for season, what was your primary motivation to train (i.e. self-care, aesthetics, etc.)?

12. What sort of training is your team currently doing? How does it differ from previous years? What is the intensity like at practices?

13. How has the lack of a season affected your motivation to continue training? Do you feel that you are investing the same amount of energy as in previous years?

Social Impact

14. In what ways has your social life been affected? Do you spend the same amount of time (outside of training) with friends and teammates as in previous years?

15. Do you feel that you are well supported? Do you have a strong support system?

Who?

16. Are you spending more time alone than in the past? If yes, what is that like for you?

Concluding

61

17. Overall, how has the cancellation of your season as a result of COVID-19 affected your university experience? Has it been positive or negative?

18. Is there anything else you would like to share that could provide insight into how your life has been affected by the pandemic?

62