October 2005

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Community Partnerships for Sustainable Resource ANALYSISManagement (COMPASS OF B II)IODIVERSITY staff. THREATS &

OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI PHASE I: ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT STATUS

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13

COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS FOR SUSTAINABLE

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (COMPASS II)

November 2005

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Stephen J. MILLINGTON, Biodiversity Analysis Specialist on contractAUTHORITY to Development Alternatives, Inc ., and Madalitso KAFERAWANTHU, Biodiversity Analysis Specialist on contract to the Wildlife & Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM) Prepared for USAID/Malawi under Contract Number 690-C-00-04-00090-00 awarded 30 April 2004, entitled Community Partnerships for Sustainable Resource Management in Malawi (COMPASS II) The views expressed and opinions contained in this report are those of the COMPASS II field team and are not intended as statements of policy of either USAID or the contractor companies.

PREPARED BY:

COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS FOR SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN MALAŴI (COMPASS II)

AUTHORS: Stephen J. (“Spike”) Millington and Madalitso Kaferawanthu

CREDITS: Cover photos: Yesetsani Kambewankako, John Dickinson Text editing and report layout & design by John Dickinson.

COMPASS II IMPLEMENTING PARTNERS:

Development Alternatives, Inc Private Bag 20, 1st floor Able House 7250 Woodmont Ave., Suite 200 #8 Hannover Ave at Chilembwe Road Bethesda, MD 20814 Blantyre USA Malawi

Tel: +1-301-718-8699 Telephone: +265 (0)1-622-800 Fax: +1-301-718-7968 Fax: +265 (0)1 622 852 email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

With: Wildlife & Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM) +265-1-643-502 Private Bag 578, Limbe, Malawi

And

Spectrum Media +1-617-491-4300 271 Willow Ave., Somerville MA 02144 USA

ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES PHASE I: ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT STATUS

A report to USAID/Malawi produced by COMPASS II BY: Stephen J. (“Spike”) Millington and Madalitso Kaferawanthu

DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

II MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

CONTENTS CONTENTS ...... III ACRONYMS...... V PREFACE...... VII INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ...... 1 STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY...... 1

ECOREGIONS AND VEGETATION ZONES ...... 1 SPECIES DIVERSITY...... 3 Plants...... 4 Mammals ...... 4 Birds ...... 5 Amphibians...... 7 LAKE MALAWI ...... 8 AGRO-BIODIVERSITY ...... 9 INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES ...... 9 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES...... 9 HISTORICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT...... 11

BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 12 WOODLANDS AND HIV/AIDS...... 12 COMMUNITY-BASED NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ...... 13 INSTITUTIONS, POLICIES, AND LEGISLATION ...... 15

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS ...... 15 POLICIES AND LEGISLATION ...... 15 Water Resources...... 15 Forestry...... 16 Environment...... 16 National Parks and Wildlife ...... 17 INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS ...... 18 PROTECTED AREAS...... 19

NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE RESERVES AND NATURE SANCTUARIES ...... 19 FOREST RESERVES ...... 20 THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR MALAWI’S BIODIVERSITY ...... 21

THREATS TO FORESTS AND WOODLANDS ...... 21 THREATS TO LAKE MALAWI ...... 21 POACHING...... 22 OPPORTUNITIES...... 22 PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ...... 23

LAKE MALAWI ...... 23 EC FOREST MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS PROGRAMME ...... 24 ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF MALAWI-ZAMBIA TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS ...... 25 MOUNT MULANJE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION PROJECT ...... 25 DANISH HUNTERS ASSOCIATION SUPPORT TO DWNP ...... 26 Lake Chilwa Bird Hunters Capacity Development...... 26 Capacity Building in CBNRM of Wildlife...... 26 Capacity Building of NGO CBNRM Network...... 26 MIOMBO RESEARCH PROJECTS...... 26

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II III ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

SADC BIODIVERSITY SUPPORT PROGRAMME ...... 27 NGO PROGRAMS ...... 27 OTHERS TO BE COVERED IN THE NEXT PHASE REPORT:...... 27 PRIORITY ACTIONS ...... 29

EVALUATING KEY SITES FOR BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPING A LIST OF PRIORITY SITES ...29 IDENTIFY KEY INTERVENTIONS PROMOTING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION TO EITHER SUPPORT AND ENHANCE EXISTING INITIATIVES ...... 29 SET UP AND SUPPORT PARTICIPATORY BIODIVERSITY MONITORING SYSTEMS AT KEY SITES...... 30 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 31 APPENDIX I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOREGIONS EXTANT IN MALAWI...... 1

SOUTHERN RIFT MONTANE FOREST-GRASSLAND MOSAIC ...... 1 Vegetative Communities...... 1 Endemism...... 2 Endangered or Threatened Species ...... 3 Type and Severity of Threats ...... 3 ZAMBEZIAN MIOMBO WOODLANDS...... 5 Flora ...... 5 Fauna ...... 5 Type and Severity of threats ...... 5 SOUTH MALAWI MONTANE FOREST-GRASSLAND MOSAIC...... 6 Location and General Description...... 6 Biodiversity Features ...... 9 Current Status ...... 10 Types and Severity of Threats...... 11 Justification of Ecoregion Delineation ...... 12 References ...... 12 ANNEX A: ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT DATA TABLES...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. ANNEX B: DEFINITIONS OF SELECTED INDICATOR TERMS...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

IV MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

ACRONYMS BDS Business Development Services

BVC Beach Village Committee

CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resources Management

CBO(s) Community-Based Organization(s)

CDIE Clearinghouse for Development Information & Exchange

COMPASS Community Partnerships for Sustainable Resource Management

CTO Cognizant Technical Officer (USAID)

DAI Development Alternatives, Inc.

DEAP District Environmental Action Plan

DESC District Environmental Steering Committee

DoLG Department of Local Government

FY Fiscal Year

IR Intermediate Result (USAID)

MAFE Malawi Agroforestry Extension project

MEET Malawi Environmental Endowment Trust

NGO Nongovernmental Organization

WESM Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II V ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

VI MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

PREFACE Development Alternatives Inc. (DAI) was contracted by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/Malawi to implement the second phase of the Community Partnerships for Sustainable Resource Management (COMPASS II) under Contract # 690-C-00-04-00090-00. USAID and DAI signed the contract on April 30, 2004 with effective dates of May 1, 2004 to March 31, 2009. The contract engages DAI and its implementing partners1 to assist USAID/Malawi in achieving progress toward the Strategic Objective of sustainable increases in rural income, and specifically the Intermediate Result of household revenue from community-based natural resources management activities increased. The purpose of COMPASS II is to enhance household revenue from participation in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) initiatives that generate income as well as provide incentives for sustainable resource use in Malawi. This is part of a strategy to mainstream community-based management of natural resources within a transformational development framework that progresses toward eventual graduation from developmental foreign aid, one of the USAID global operational goals for broad-based prosperity in stable, democratic countries such as Malawi. Building on solid foundations from previous investments by USAID and others of increased capacity among Malawian government and nongovernmental organizations to adopt strategies that ensure long-term economic and environmental sustainability, COMPASS II seek to accomplish three objectives: 1. To increase the decentralization of natural resource management, 2. To enhance rural communities' capacity to sustainably manage their natural resources, and 3. To increase sales of natural resource-based products by rural households. Achievement of progress toward these objectives requires a multi-faceted approach toward devolving authority and responsibility to manage natural resources to field levels, facilitating the acquisition of skills and tools to dispatch that authority responsibly, and profiting from sustainable utilization of those natural resources as an incentive to manage the natural capital assets sustainably. One way that the COMPASS II implementation team is working toward achieving these objectives is to build awareness among a wide range of CBNRM stakeholders about the opportunities that improved management of natural resources by communities could provide toward economic growth in Malawi. The CBNRM Occasional Paper series makes better information more widely available, highlighting some of the evolution in thinking among CBNRM practitioners in Malawi and throughout southern Africa. The series is intended to provide up-to-date information about various aspects of CBNRM, and promote wider discussions about the different approaches to field practice. It is hoped that by providing current information to audiences that may not otherwise have access to technical reports, and by stimulating discussions, practitioners in the region and beyond may be able to contribute to further improvements. This document is the 13th in the Occasional Paper series. It reports on the first phase of an assessment of the threats to the biodiversity of Malawi, and the opportunities that this biodiversity provides for either consumptive or non-consumptive use of the resources by present and future generations of Malawians. The authors—Spike Millington and Madalitso Kaferawanthu—have assembled into this Phase I report a compilation of the best available information on the current status of biodiversity in Malawi, challenges faced in maintaining that biodiversity, and responses by various agencies to mitigate or reduce the threats. Please feel free to send comments on this title in the Occasional Paper series, or request additional copies, through the COMPASS II offices in Blantyre, or by email to [email protected]. Todd R. Johnson Sr. CBNRM Specialist and COMPASS II Chief of Party Development Alternatives, Inc.

1 Wildlife & Environmental Society of Malawi and Spectrum Media

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II VII ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

VIII MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND his document is the 13th in the CBNRM Occasional Paper series of the Community Partnerships for Sustainable Resource Management activity of the United States Agency for International T Development (USAID) Malawi country mission. The report presents results of the first phase of an analysis of biodiversity threats and opportunities in Malawi. A forthcoming second phase report will describe the results of a participatory assessment process looking at the opportunities that the biodiversity of Malawi presents for economic growth and natural resource conservation. This report consists of six sections. This first section describes the present status of biodiversity in Malawi, both of ecosystems and species. Section Two presents the historical and social context for concern about Malawi’s biodiversity, while Section Three covers the institutional, policy, and legislative responses to that concern. Section Four details the protected areas network in the country. Sections Five and Six present results of a preliminary analysis – based on literature review and key informant interviews – of biodiversity threats and opportunities, and programs or projects addressing the threats or optimizing the realization of opportunities.

The objective of the current assessment was to undertake a preliminary biodiversity assessment for Malawi to provide baseline information on biodiversity, its status and conservation, and to identify threats and opportunities for improved biodiversity conservation in order to develop priority actions to address those threats and opportunities. This information will help USAID/Malawi to better integrate biodiversity into its ongoing programming. A two person team, Spike Millington and Madalitso Kaferawanthu undertook the assessment over ten days in early November 2005. The document is intended as a starting point to a more extensive and detailed assessment as part of the COMPASS II project of USAID.

STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY

ECOREGIONS AND VEGETATION ZONES ased on WWF Ecoregions, Malawi is principally represented by the central Zambezian miombo woodland ecoregion, which covers most of the central African peneplain west of Lake Malawi in B the northern part of the country. Small areas to the south west and southeast of this region are represented by Southern and Eastern Miombo Woodlands respectively, which differ mainly in rainfall, being rather drier woodlands. Further south, undifferentiated Zambezian woodland predominates, with areas of mopane woodland (also represented by a small area of NW Malawi), acacia woodland and dry deciduous woodland and thicket. Rising above the plateau are mountains of the Southern Rift Montane Forest-Grassland Ecoregion in the north, extending south to the center of the country, and the South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland ecoregion in the south, with the latter region being almost confined to Malawi, extending somewhat into Mozambique. By contrast the other ecoregions extend further beyond Malawi’s borders. The Southern Rift Montane Forest-Grassland Ecoregion marks the southern limit of many Afromontane species and the South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland ecoregion represents the northern limit for many species with more southerly distributions. Thus while the two ecoregions have superficial similarity in topography and habitats, in fact they are quite distinct in a number of their vegetation communities and ecological assemblages. This, in part, accounts for the high biodiversity found in Malawi. Of the non-terrestrial ecoregions, Lake Malawi is important for its exceptional fish biodiversity and the Zambezian flooded grasslands are represented by the low-lying Lake Chilwa and its surrounds. The Lake Malawi ecoregion should logically include not only the lake, but also Lake Malombe and the Shire River, which is the lake’s only outflow. This area, together with Lake Malawi’s catchment area is currently the focus of an ongoing WWF ecoregional program.

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II 1 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

The location, size and brief descriptions of Malawi’s major ecological zones are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Ecoregions in Malawi

DESCRIPTION OF MAIN FEATURES: PLANT, ECOLOGICAL ZONE EST. AREA (HA) LOCATION ANIMAL, FISH SPECIES ETC.

1. Central 4,739,360 Open canopy woodland of plateaus, Northern to central eastern Malawi, Zambezian Miombo hills and scarps (Brachystegia / along the Lake Malawi escarpment, Woodland Julbernadia / Isoberlinia spp.). covering Chitipa, part of Karonga, Animals are elephants, buffalo, sable Mzimba, Nkhotakota, Dowa, Ntchisi, e.g., in Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve. East Lilongwe and Dedza.

2. Southern Rift 592,420 Montane grassland and forests. In the Nyika National Park and the Montane Grassland Viphya areas Mosaic

3. Southern Miombo 355,450 Open canopy woodland of fertile Central-west of the country, i.e. Woodland areas Brachystegia spp. and south west of Lilongwe to Mchinji Piliostigma/ Acacia/ Combretum spp.)

4. Eastern Miombo 236,960 Open canopy woodland of fertile North of Lake Chilwa and just south Woodland areas Brachystegia spp. and of the southeastern arm of Lake Piliostigma/ Acacia/ Combretum spp). Malawi, i.e., Namwera area. Animals are mainly elephants moving from Liwonde National Park and Mangochi Forest Reserve

5. Zambezian and 1,184,840 Mopane woodland and woodlands on South of Lake Malawi, covering the Mopane Woodland fertile soils (Adansonia / Acacia / Upper Shire River region from Cordyla spp.). Animals are elephants, Mangochi, Balaka and west of waterbuck, hippos, sable, crocodiles Machinga (Liwonde area) and a in Liwonde National Park and fish in small portion west of the Elephant southern Lake Malawi, the Shire River Marsh, e.g., Lengwe National Park and Lake Malombe. area.

6. Zambezian 236,970 Swamp grasslands, perennially wet. Mostly Lake Chilwa and its Flooded Grassland This is important habitat for surroundings and some waterfowl. surroundings of Lake Malawi.

7. South Malawi 947,870 Montane evergreen forests, montane Zomba, Blantyre, Mulanje and Montane Forest- grasslands in high altitude areas. Thyolo area. Grassland Mosaic Areas of high rainfall.

8. Lake Malawi 3,554,520 Water in lakes. There is diverse fish Lake Malawi fauna in Lake Malawi and its catchment. Source: modified from Department of Environmental Affairs (2004) The principal vegetation types of Malawi correspond to the ecological zones and are summarized in Table 2. Details of the principal terrestrial ecoregions represented in Malawi (Southern Rift Montane Forest- Grassland, Zambezian Miombo Woodland and South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland), including descriptions of vegetation, biodiversity, conservation status and threats can be found in Appendices I, II and III. Apart from the South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland ecoregion, which has been retained in its entirety, these have been modified from the original WWF descriptions to refer specifically to their representation in Malawi. These appendices should be read as part of this chapter.

Table 2: Vegetation Types of Malawi

VEGETATION TYPE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS MALAWI EXAMPLES 1. Zambezian Woodland (subdivided into miombo, mopane, and undifferentiated woodlands) A. Zambezian miombo woodland Dominated by species of Small fragments are found in Brachystegia alone or with Chimaliro and Namizimu Forest Julbernadia and Isoberlinia Reserves and Kasungu National Park

B. Zambezian mopane woodland Dominated by Colophospermum Mua Tsanya Forest Reserve, Liwonde mopane National Park, and Vwaza Marsh and Majete Wildlife Reserves

2 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

VEGETATION TYPE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS MALAWI EXAMPLES

C. Undifferentiated Zambezian Defined by the absence of miombo or Once common in Lilongwe, Shire woodland mopane dominants; often dominated Valley, Phalombe, and drier by Acacia or Combretum spp. lakeshore plains

2. Transition Woodlands Intermediate between forests and Small fragments are found in Nkhata woodlands Bay, Vinthukutu, Mulanje, Viphya, and Nyika

3. Deciduous Forests and Thickets Characterized by canopy species Small patches of deciduous forest are deciduous for more than a month found in Lengwe National Park and and understorey species deciduous Sambani Forest Reserve, also for more than two months per year Mwabvi, Rumphi, and Karonga

4. Evergreen Forest (subdivided into riparian, lowland, mid-altitude, and Afromontane rain forests)

A. Riparian evergreen forests Characterized by species adapted to Rivers in Nyika and Viphya plateaux, banks of river courses or influenced Dzalanyama Forest Reserve by floods

B. Lowland evergreen forests Characterized by the presence of Foothills around Thyolo and Mulanje only 0-25% of Afromontane species mountains, and in Nkhata Bay (Kalwe, Nkuwadzi forests)

C. Mid-altitude evergreen Defined by flora containing a mixture Mulanje foothills, Kaning’ina Forest forests of lowland and Afromontane Reserve, Chipata mountain elements

D. Afromontane rain forests Essentially evergreen Ntchisi mountain, Misuku Hills, Nyika and Viphya plateaux; Dedza, Zomba, Mulanje mountains.

5. Undifferentiated Afromontane Hagenia abyssinica forest Nyika National Park Forests (occurring on high plateaux Juniperus procera forest Nyika National Park at 2250-2450 m) Widdringtonia whytei forest Mulanje mountain & Forest Reserve

6. Afromontane Bamboo Dominated by Arundinaria alpina Dedza and Mulanje mountains

7. Afromontane Evergreen Bushland Defined by the dominance of Erica Widespread and common on larger and Thicket species mountains (Dedza, Mulanje, Nyika)

8. Afromontane Shrubland Characterized by stunted individuals Nyika National Park, Mount Mulanje of bushland and thicket species

9. Afromontane Grassland Mainly secondary, fire-maintained Misuku Hills, Mount Mulanje, Nyika grassland and Viphya plateaux, Dedza Mountain, Zomba-Malosa Mountains Source: Dowsett-Lemaire 2001

SPECIES DIVERSITY ith its unique conjunction of bio-geographical regions, varied topography and range of habitats, Malawi has high biodiversity, especially for a landlocked country. Records indicate a W total of 5,000-6,000 plant species, 188 species of mammals, 69 species of amphibians, 124 species of reptiles, 648 species of birds and 600 species of fish. The level of endemism in plants, invertebrates, and mammals is not well known. However it is estimated that approximately 47 species of the 172 species of molluscs, 12 species of reptiles and seven species of amphibians (especially frogs) are endemic to Malawi. Detailed knowledge is lacking on the distribution and status of endemic and/or rare plant species in Malawi. The 2002 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants for Malawi lists 14 endangered, 89 vulnerable, and 25 critically endangered species. Approximately 114 plant species are known from only a few localities in Malawi but none of these are formally protected. Only eleven plant species have legal protection in Malawi. Currently, with over 800 species of fish, 90% of which are endemic, Malawi is one of the countries with the largest number and the most diverse communities of freshwater fish in the world. Around 15% of the global total freshwater species are found in Lake Malawi alone. Ninety-five percent of these species

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II 3 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

are haplochromine cichlids, which are internationally recognized as an outstanding example of rapid speciation, with a potential to provide greater insights into the understanding of the evolutionary process. Because of their sedentary habits, most of the cichlids rarely migrate long distances from their locality. The resultant isolation of communities has created species endemic not only to the lake but to certain restricted areas within the lake itself. In turn, this aspect has led to an unparalleled adaptive speciation of fish species in the lake. The high rate of habitat specialization also increases vulnerability to disturbance.

PLANTS According to Msekandiana and Mlangeni (2002), Malawi has a total of 5,000-6,000 plant species. A total of 248 taxa are listed on the red data list; of these, 128 are threatened (critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable) and 63 are categorized as data deficient. There are 114 species confirmed as being restricted to Malawi and a further eight are probably endemic. Thirty-one are near–endemic (distributed in adjacent areas of neighbouring countries). Summary details on plant diversity are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Red Data List assessment of plants in Malawi

CATEGORY NUMBER OF TAXA Total Species in Malawi 5,000-6,000

Listed on Red Data List 247

Endemic species 114

Possibly endemic species 8

Near-endemic species 31

Possibly near-endemic species 1

Extinct species 5

Critically endangered species 25

Endangered species 14

Vulnerable species 89

Lower-risk near threatened 24

Lower-risk least concern 27

Data deficient 63 Source: IUCN World Conservation Union

MAMMALS The majority of large mammal species has undergone severe declines in numbers in Malawi, especially in recent years, and is largely confined to protected areas. Despite the presence of protected areas, numbers continue to plummet, mainly due to poaching. Elephant populations have declined up to 80% in Kasungu and Nyika National Parks and were exterminated from Majete Wildlife Reserve in the past decade. Kasungu and Nyika have suffered severely from poaching of many species of large mammals. A report recently commissioned by the Danish Hunters Association indicates that levels of poaching are even higher than previously suspected and paints a gloomy picture for the future unless immediate and drastic actions are taken. Table 4 highlights what is known about the status of threatened mammals.

Table 4: Threatened mammal species of Malawi

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME (ENG.) DEGREE OF THREAT CURRENT LOCALITIES

Diceroa bicornia Black rhinoceros Critically Re-introduced to Liwonde National Park after prior endangered extirpation from Malawi

4 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME (ENG.) DEGREE OF THREAT CURRENT LOCALITIES

Loxodonta africana African elephant Endangered NATIONAL PARKS: Nyika, Kasungu, and Liwonde; WILDLIFE RESERVES: Vwaza and Nkhotakota; FOREST RESERVES: Thuma and Namizimu

Lycaon pictus African wild dog Endangered Significant decline in Kasungu National Park; now occurs only sporadically in Malawi

Rhynchocyon cirnei Checkered sengi Vulnerable Nyika and Kasungu National Parks

Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah Vulnerable Formerly widespread in protected areas; now probably extinct in Malawi

Panthera leo Lion Vulnerable Formerly widespread in protected areas; now rare in Malawi

Paraxerus palliates Red bush squirrel Vulnerable Liwonde National Park, Lower Shire, Mulanje and Ntchisi mountains, South Viphya plateau

Lutra maculicollis Spotted-necked Vulnerable Present where suitable riverine habitat occurs, even otter in Lilongwe Nature Sanctuary; also in Shire River, Lake Chilwa, Nkhotakota Source: IUCN World Conservation Union

BIRDS Birds are better known and documented than some other taxa, and are the subject of the Important Bird Area (IBA) analysis that considers bird species across Africa and seeks to identify a network of sites that, taken together, can assure the survival of all species across their ranges should there be a net loss of all remaining habitat elsewhere across the continent. The continued ecological integrity of these sites will be decisive in maintaining and conserving these bird species. Birds are also good indicators of the presence of other groups often confined to specialized habitats and can be good “proxies” for animal and plant species that may be less conspicuous and thus more difficult to document. Table 5 lists those species of global conservation concern that are known from Malawi. Apart from the migrant birds for which Malawi is only a very small part of their passage and wintering areas, most species are confined to forest habitats.

Table 5: Bird species of global conservation concern known from Malawi

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME (ENG.) DEGREE OF THREAT CURRENT LOCALITIES

Bugeranus Wattled crane Vulnerable Rare and declining breeding species on Nyika carunculatus plateau; formerly in Kasungu National Park and perhaps Zomba plateau

Alethe choloensis Thyolo alethe Vulnerable Rare resident in south-eastern montane forests

Zoothera guttata Spotted ground Endangered Very rare resident in southeastern montane forests thrush

Hirundo Blue swallow Vulnerable Breeding species of montane grasslands from atrocaerulea Misuku to Mulanje

Sheppardia East coast akalat Vulnerable Endemic race bensoni resident at high densities in gunningi forest of lakeshore (Nkhata Bay and eastern escarpment of Viphya Plateau (est. 3,000 pairs)

Apalis chariessa White-winged Vulnerable Rare resident of lowland and mid-altitude forest of apalis Shire highlands

Cisticola njombe Churring cisticola Near threatened Common in montane grasslands of Nyika plateau

Dendrocopus Stierling’s Near threatened Occurs commonly in Dzalanyama Forest Reserve stierlingii woodpecker and occasionally elsewhere in miombo woodland

Acrocephalus Basra reed – Near threatened Very rare winter visitor griseldis warbler

Circus macrourus Pallid harrier Near threatened Small numbers on passage and winter

OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 MALAWI COMPASS II 5 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME (ENG.) DEGREE OF THREAT CURRENT LOCALITIES

Ardeola idae Madagascar pond Irregular visitor heron

Falco naumanni Lesser kestrel Vulnerable Small numbers on passage and winter

Gallinago media Great snipe Near threatened Small numbers on passage and winter

Crex crex Corncrake Vulnerable Small numbers on passage and winter

Glareola Black-winged Near threatened Vagrant nordmanni pratincole

Phoenicopterus Lesser flamingo Near threatened Irregular visitor minor

Falco fasciinucha Taita falcon Vulnerable Has bred but irregular Source: IUCN World Conservation Union

22 Important Bird Areas have been identified in Malawi, based on the occurrence and distribution of 17 species of global conservation concern that are endemic to the Tanzania-Malawi Endemic Bird Area and 94 species restricted to three biomes – the Afro-tropical Highlands, the Zambezian biome (predominantly miombo-restricted species) and the East African Coast biome. The sites and species are shown in Table 6. Note that all sites are formal protected areas, with the exception of Lake Chilwa, a RAMSAR site important for its waterbird concentrations, and the private Thyolo tea estates. This reflects the lack of extensive habitat for these species outside of protected areas as a result of habitat degradation. Their future within these protected areas is another matter.

Table 6: Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Malawi

NO. OF EBA NO. OF AH NO. OF EAC NO. OF Z AREA RANGE- BIOME- BIOME- BIOME- IBA SITE NAME 2 COMMENTS (KM ) RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 1 2 3 4 SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES

The most floristically diverse 1. Misuku Hills forests in Malawi. Three bird 31 4 28 - - Forest Reserve species found only here in Malawi

The most important of the Southern Rift Valley mountains in Malawi; and second only to 2. Nyika National 3,134 8 42 - 20 Mount Mulanje in biodiversity Park importance. Poaching levels are high and fires a threat to forest patches

3. Uzumara Very small forest threatened by 5 6 29 - - Forest Reserve encroachment

Important for White-winged 4. Vwaza Marsh 986 - - - 17 Babbling Starling, a highly local Wildlife Reserve and relict species

Four small patches of 5. Lakeshore 150 - - 1 2 remaining lowland forest under forest reserves intense pressure

Patches of evergreen forest 6. South Viphya among exotic pine plantations 1,148 4 25 1 13 Forest Reserve and some remaining montane grassland

7. Mtangatanga and Perekezi 232 - 2 - 14 Relatively intact forests Forest Reserve

6 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

NO. OF EBA NO. OF AH NO. OF EAC NO. OF Z AREA RANGE- BIOME- BIOME- BIOME- IBA SITE NAME 2 COMMENTS (KM ) RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED RESTRICTED 1 2 3 4 SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES SPECIES

Habitat relatively intact but 8. Kasungu 2,316 - - - 22 poaching has drastically National Park reduced wildlife populations

9. Nkhotakota Habitat relatively intact but 1,800 1 3 - 20 Wildlife Reserve poaching widespread

Isolated evergreen forest with 10. Ntchisi Mtn. 97 2 11 - 13 miombo; intact but under Forest Reserve pressure

11. Dzalanyama Key area for miombo birds; 989 1 5 1 22 Forest Reserve receiving attention from NGOs

12. Namizimu Important for Stierling’s 870 1 8 3 13 Forest Reserve Woodpecker in eastern miombo

13. Mangochi High population pressure 326 1 10 - 9 Forest Reserve threatens reserve

Only site in Malawi for Lilian’s 14. Liwonde 548 - - 3 11 Lovebird and Brown-breasted National Park Barbet

15. Liwonde Hills Important for Thyolo Alethe 295 2 8 3 13 Forest Reserve and Green-headed Oriole

High numbers of waterfowl 16. Lake Chilwa 2,200 - - - - under strong hunting pressure

17. Mt. Soche Forest in process of destruction 2 2 10 3 - Forest Reserve from urbanization

Most important biodiversity site 18. Mulanje Mtn. 552 2 19 3 4 in Malawi. Destruction may Forest Reserve now be stabilized

Remnant forests important for 19. Thyolo tea 4 1 - 2 1 White-winged Apalis and estates Green-headed Oriole

Forest destroyed, with loss of 20. Thyolo Mtn. Afromontane species (incl. 10 2 13 3 - Forest Reserve second largest population of Thyolo Alethe in Malawi)

Poaching widespread and 21. Lengwe 887 2 - 3 9 encroachment in western National Park sector. Rudd’s Apalis extinct

Forest destroyed. As a result, 22. Malawi Hills 4 - - 1 2 Woodward’s Batis (100 pairs in Forest Reserve 1983) now extinct in Malawi Sources:

Notes: 1.: Tanzania-Malawi Endemic Bird Area (EBA) 2. Afro-tropical Highlands (AH) biome 3. East African Coastal (EAC) biome 4. Zambezian (Z) biome

AMPHIBIANS A list of threatened amphibian species is found in Table 7, but the distribution and abundance of amphibian species remains incomplete and new species may yet be discovered in Malawi.

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Table 7: Threatened and endemic amphibian species of Malawi

COMMON NAME (ENG.) SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY ENDEMISM IUCN GAA STATUS

France’s squeaker Arthroleptis francei Arthroleptidae Endemic Endangered

Reiche’s Squeaker Arthroleptis reichei Arthroleptidae Not endemic Near threatened

Nyika Dwarf Toad Bufo nyikae Bufonidae Endemic Endangered

Variable Reed Frog Hyperolius pictus Hyperoliidae Not endemic Vulnerable

Spiny Throated Reed Hyperolius Hyperoliidae Not endemic Near threatened Frog spinigularis

Stewart’s Puddle Phrynobatrachus Petropedetidae Endemic Data deficient Frog stewartae

Ukinga Puddle Frog Phrynobatrachus Petropedetidae Not endemic Vulnerable ukingensis

Johnston’s River frog Afrana johnstoni Ranidae Endemic Endangered

Mongrel Frog Nothophryne Ranidae Endemic Endangered broadleyi

Broadley’s Ridged Ptychadena Ranidae Endemic Endangered Frog broadleyi

Kirk’s Caecilian Scolecomorphus Ranidae Not endemic Vulnerable kirkii Sources:

LAKE MALAWI ake Malawi is widely regarded as the most biologically important lake in the world. It is particularly important for its concentrations of endemic fish species and especially its cichlid L species radiation (Table 8). More than 600 and perhaps as many as 1,000 fishes are endemic to the lake and the majority belongs to one monophyletic species flock of cichlids. At the higher estimations, this would mean that this lake of about 29,000 km2 holds more freshwater fish species than all of the freshwaters of North America and Canada combined (790 species described). The lake basin and its biodiversity are the products of millions of years of evolution. During that time a huge array of complex, interrelated physical and biological processes developed to sustain the system and its diversity. The species in the lake—especially endemic fish—are vulnerable to habitat change, being specialists with small populations and narrow distributional ranges. Although fourteen families of fish are represented in the lake’s catchment, the family Cichlidae dominates in terms of species richness. Formal scientific description and naming of many cichlids remains to be completed as professional systematists cannot keep pace with the rate at which new species are being discovered. It is certain that further new species of fish will be discovered as research continues.

Table 8: Riverine and lacustrine fishes of the Lake Malawi ecosystem and percentage endemism

FAMILY # OF GENERA # OF SPECIES ECOSYSTEM PRESENCE % ENDEMISM

1. Protopteridae 1 1 River 0.0

2. Anguillidae 1 1 River and Lake 0.0

3. Mormyridae 4 7 River and Lake 0.0

4. Salmonidae 1 1 River 0.0

5. Characidae 2 2 River and Lake 0.0

6. Cyprinidae 5 26 River and Lake 38.0

7. Bagridae 2 4 River and Lake 25.0

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8. Amphilidae 1 2 River 0.0

9. Clariidae 2 17 River and Lake 71.0

10. Mochokidae 2 3 River and Lake 33.3

11. Poeciliidae 1 1 River and Lake 0.0

12. Aplocheilidae 1 2 River 50.0

13. Mastacembelidae 1 2 River and Lake 100.0

14. Cichlidae 41 c. 750 River and Lake 99.5

TOTAL ENDEMICS c. 768 species Sources: Date from the systematics team of the SADC/GEF Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project Endemism is lower in rivers than in the lake. All families in the lake also have riverine representatives, but not all riverine families have representatives in the lake

AGRO-BIODIVERSITY nformation on landraces and wild cultivars of domestic crop species seems to be poor. The national Gene Bank has been collecting germplasm, but it is not known if wild cultivars and I ancestral genetic material has been targeted. The focus appears to be on the search for new and improved crop varieties. There has been a shift from traditional crops to maize, which is currently the staple crop for smallholders in Malawi although this is an introduced crop not historically grown in the country. Furthermore, it is not very well adapted to extremes of climatic variability and current varieties have been developed to be responsive to high inputs (principally inorganic fertilizers). While more drought-resistant varieties may be developed in the future, the limited adaptability of the species and the high input requirements may present difficulties in the face of local climatic change and increasing poverty.

INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES alawi faces a number of threats from invasive alien species (IAS). These include introduced water plants such as Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), M which, in addition to competing with native water plants, decrease oxygen levels, provide breeding sites for mosquitoes and bilharzias snails and impede navigation, hydropower schemes and irrigation. These species are already causing problems in the upper Shire River. A serious threat to the montane region is the uncontrolled invasion by the exotic Himalayan raspberry (Rubus ellipticus) and the Mexican pine (Pinus patula). These invaders have reached every corner of the ecoregion. A successful pine eradication program was carried out on Mount Mulanje between 1987 and 1988, leaving only two areas of the mountain to be cleared. This work, however, was not followed up, and the pines have re- appeared, with Mchese Peak the only area not invaded. The eradication effort was useful in that it proved the feasibility of controlling the pine invasion. The Himalayan raspberry, on the other hand, is firmly established and extremely difficult to eradicate. This vigorous bush, which grows up to 6 m high, was first recorded 60 years ago (WWF Ecoregion Sheet – Appendix 3). The introduction of exotic conifers has been accompanied by the arrival of various pests, one of which (an aphid) has caused serious damage to native Mulanje cedar trees. Perhaps the most serious threat is the potential introduction into Lake Malawi waters of non-native fish species. This has had a catastrophic effect in Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika where native fish radiations comparable to that of the cichlids of Lake Malawi have been decimated.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES uman society is highly dependent on genetic resources—including those from wild or semi- domesticated sources—for the productivity of its agriculture, livestock and fisheries. Malawi’s H economy is entirely based on the biological resources and services provided by the ecosystems.

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For instance, ecosystems perform services beyond production of food, fiber, fuel and income, such as recycling of nutrients, control of local microclimate, regulation of local hydrological processes, regulation of the abundance of undesirable organisms, and detoxification of noxious chemicals. Forests or grasslands prevent soil erosion, replenish groundwater, and control flooding by enhancing infiltration and reducing run-off and are major sinks for green house gases. Aquatic ecosystems provide sanctuary or breeding nurseries for aquatic biodiversity (NBSAP, 2005). Relatively few of these benefits currently have a direct market value, but the economic cost of degradation of ecosystem services is being increasingly recognized as crop yields decline as a result of soil fertility decreases and fish yields diminish as spawning areas become silted up. There are fundamental asymmetries in access and benefits to ecosystem goods and services in both the short term and long term. It is clear that short term exploitation of some resources is having negative impact on both short term and longer term benefits potentially accruing to a wider (and some arguably more needy) group of beneficiaries. This area has been little studied, even for relatively important areas such as fisheries. COMPASS is presently conducting a study of resource valuation for Mount Mulanje that could be an important awareness-raising tool.

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HISTORICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT n the pre-colonial area, Malawi was covered by natural vegetation, principally miombo woodland, relatively unmodified by human populations, which existed at low rate and densities. Natural I resource management patterns were largely determined through traditional authorities, though probably not without conflicts. With the advent of colonialism, traditional authorities were overlain by a state administrative framework of government. At this time significant areas of the country were demarcated as parks and reserves and human use severely limited, including traditional access in many cases. Laws were developed and enforced with little input from local populations. This administrative and legal framework was largely retained at independence. While most of the population depended on subsistence agriculture, a government policy of encouraging the estate industry reached a peak in the 1980s and had two significant impacts on biodiversity conservation. The first is the creation of these estates entailed the clearing of large areas of natural vegetation, primarily mid-altitude forest in the case of tea and tobacco estates and riparian habitats along the lower Shire valley for sugar cane and cotton. The second impact is that tea and tobacco estates are major consumers of forest resources. It is estimated that 30% of the demand for wood in Malawi comes from these estates, with 60% of this wood coming from natural woodlands. At the same time, a rapidly increasing population was beginning to be faced with relative shortages of suitable agricultural land and natural resources, notably fuelwood. An influx of refugees from the civil war in Mozambique exacerbated this situation. Change of government from one party rule to multiparty democracy in 1994 was another factor which influenced the rate of deforestation in the area. To some, democracy was equated with deregulation of state control. Forest reserves were invaded and cleared for agriculture and fuelwood. Wildlife poaching and encroachment of protected areas dramatically increased and there was a perceptible and immediate slackening in natural resource-related law enforcement. Entire forest reserves, particularly in the south, have been totally cleared in the last few years, with devastating consequences for biodiversity. This unregulated situation created conditions favorable to an explosive growth in the commercial abuse of natural resources, including the rapidly expanding charcoal industry to meet industrial and domestic demands, and the illegal wildlife trade. Fisheries has seen a similar situation to that of forestry with increasing fishing populations, open-access resources and the use of inappropriate gear (i.e., small mesh sizes) causing fish catches to decline, very rapidly in some cases (e.g., Lake Malombe). Ironically it is thought that some stocks of open-water fish in Lake Malawi remain under-exploited. However, from a biodiversity standpoint it is the inshore fisheries (together with sedimentation and pollution from upstream catchments) that pose the greatest threat to the Lake’s biodiversity. The economy depends heavily on the country’s natural resource base. Agricultural production, almost 70% of which comes from smallholder farmers, accounts for almost 90% of export earnings in Malawi and contributes 38% of GDP and supports more than 80% of the population. Despite the central importance of agriculture, the basis of agricultural production – the soil – is declining in fertility in Malawi. Increased land pressure, continuous cropping and the farming of fragile areas at very low levels of farming technology have together contributed to soil structure degradation, loss of soil fertility and widespread soil erosion. In the longer term, these effects contribute to the loss of base flows from rivers, or the total loss of dry season flow, and to reduced crop yields and deepening poverty. Evidence for long-term soil degradation and soil erosion in Malawi includes physical measurements of soil loss, declining yields from unfertilized crops, declining responses to fertilizer application and impaired watershed performance (WWF-SARPO, 2005).

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The poverty and chronic food insecurity that plague Malawi are inextricably linked to the natural resource and biodiversity base. Deteriorating ecosystem goods and services directly and disproportionately affect the poor, from decreased crop yields related to declining soil fertility, to increasingly scarce and distant fuelwood and water supplies and the disappearing fallback and coping options in times of stress. Women, the young and the sick are those principally bearing the burden.

BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE here is evidence that global weather patterns are changing as a result of climate change. This is exacerbated by local conditions such as reduced vegetation cover and although the consequences T are difficult to forecast, increased variability and unpredictability of local climatic conditions could lead to decreased crop yields and chronic food insecurity. Rapidly changing socio-economic factors can lead to increased sensitivity to climate shocks; for example, the high incidence of HIV and increasing levels of poverty increase the exposure of the population and its inability to cope with climatic stress. Changes in rainfall patterns and distribution through the seasonal cycle are likely to have devastating consequences. Furthermore, the options for employing traditional coping strategies, often dependent on biodiversity, are declining as a result of land and natural resource degradation and increasing vulnerability to climate variability and change. A further potential impact of climate change is that some ecosystems are more vulnerable to change than others. Among those most vulnerable are high altitude montane ecosystems where relatively small changes are predicted to have a significant effect in shifting altitudinal limits for certain ecosystems and habitats over a relatively short time frame. This could result in unique mountaintop animal and plant communities disappearing, to be replaced by examples of formerly lower altitude communities. While the alpine ecosystems of high mountains that are most vulnerable do not occur in Malawi, and human- induced short-term changes are certainly a greater threat, the situation is certainly deserving of close monitoring.

WOODLANDS AND HIV/AIDS recent study of the interactions between woodlands, vulnerability and rural responses to HIV/AIDS (Barany et al., 2005) explored the relationships between woodland management and A HIV/AIDS in Malawi. The research emphasizes the role of traditional woodland coping strategies in affected communities and suggests that this may become more commonplace as the epidemic matures and mortality rates increase. A correlation between HIV prevalence and woodland degradation was found, as the use of forest products increase to meet medical and other costs. This has potentially negative implications for affected households including: loss of income generating options, increase in labor spent collecting forest products, reduction in use of firewood (possibly leading to inadequate energy to meet household needs including cooking and sanitation), and reduced access to medicine. PA adult mortality increases dependence on woodlands is evident regarding change in the household collection of firewood. The study by Barany and others (op cit.) also found that collection and/or use of medicinal plants are common woodland-based responses to illness. Focus groups all identified the collection and/or use of medicinal plants as a primary response to illness. Of the households experiencing the illness of an adult member within the last 12 months, 60% relied on medicinal plants as a response. Even those who made clinic visits continued to use medicinal plants as a complement. Interviews with traditional healers revealed that medicinal plants are used in the treatment of at least 10 illnesses and symptoms related to HIV/AIDS. Medicinal plants in general are becoming less available with 93% of herbalists reporting a general decrease over the last ten years (Barany et al., op cit.). Thirty-two medicinal plant species were identified as vulnerable to over-exploitation and increasingly difficult to source in the last 5 years, including species used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS-related illnesses. When asked about the major factors driving this change, 85% of respondents reported destructive harvesting methods as the main threat, followed by increasing demand for trade (77%), commercial harvesting by outsiders (69%), conversion of forest land

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(54%), policies that prohibit collection (23%), and finally competing uses (15%). A large majority of the healers (77%) stated that over the last 5 years the number of people collecting medicinal plants in the community had increased with 40% indicating that this was a result of increased illness in the community and more people entering the trade for income generation. In general, these results agree with those from two studies undertaken by COMPASS II (see Irwin, 2004 and Greenberg & Irwin, 2005). To mitigate the impacts of HIV/AIDS among constituents, the fundamental goal of forest sector interventions should be to support the sustainability of those forest benefits relied upon by households and communities affected by HIV/AIDS (e.g., the specific roles of forests as a safety-net, provision of medicinal plants used in the management of HIV/AIDS-related illness, etc.), and to alleviate those interactions which aggravate the impacts of HIV/AIDS on households (e.g., household labor reductions and scarcity of subsistence forest needs, in particular firewood). This should include support for • Management of medicinal plants in natural woodlands (i.e., management plans, sustainable harvesting methods, organization of user associations) as a potential precursor to domestication; • Identification and advocacy of nutritional non-wood forest products (some non-wood forest products and other wild foods are high in some of the key nutrients required by people living with HIV/AIDS particularly protein, fat, vitamins A and C, iron and zinc. For example, 100g of Annona senegalensis fruits (collected and consumed in all study site communities) contain 103% of the daily recommended nutrient intake of vitamin A;

• Reducing labor requirements for subsistence woodland firewood collection; • Development of woodland-based income generating activities; • Forest revenue sharing for community members affected by HIV/AIDS; and

• Management of natural woodlands.

COMMUNITY-BASED NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT n line with the Decentralization Policy and Local Government Act, most environmental and natural resource policies promote the philosophy of community-based natural resources management. I Indeed, a supplement (2003) to the National Forest Policy specifically addresses community based forest management. However, the details of what constitutes the community and how it would manage natural resources are yet to be defined (apart from existing Village Natural Resource Management or Beach Committees). While the concept of empowering a local population interested in managing a set of natural resources in a sustainable manner to be able to effectively exclude other parties from exploiting the resource in an unsustainable manner is a simple concept, the political and institutional complexities involved require clear understanding to successfully implement such schemes. For example, in the European Union-supported miombo research, entrepreneurs, including those who used local natural resources but paid no resource rents (e.g., woodcarvers, firewood, charcoal and medicinal plant traders, and traditional healers) were found to be “powerful actors who tended to ignore local regulations and controls, undermining the authority of community institutions and appropriating the resource base at the expense of local community members. Such entrepreneurs posed one of the greatest threats to local management of natural resources in Malawi, where major conflicts existed between outside entrepreneurs and local people. The government attempted to assist the community to control this illegal use through roadblocks, fines and seizure of products, but with little effect.” Revenue sharing schemes have begun to be introduced for national parks. The Nyika-Vwaza Association for Natural Resource Management and Rural Development was established in 2000 and participates in the conservation and management of natural resources in the two protected areas. Largely funded through a revenue sharing scheme introduced in the Nyika National Park and Vwaza Marsh Wildlife

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Reserve protected areas, 30% of the entrance revenues accrue to the Association. In July 2000-July 2003, the Association received over one million kwacha as revenue share. Further, communities around the two protected areas are permitted to harvest thatch grass, anthill flies, caterpillars, mushrooms, fish, medicinal plants and reeds. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife has also signed co- management agreements with Tiyanjane, Chembe and Kasankha Trusts in and near Lake Malawi National Park and Nang’oma, Nkhangani and Misamvu Trusts surrounding Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve.

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INSTITUTIONS, POLICIES, AND LEGISLATION

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS he principal government agencies—including Ministries and Departments—of direct relevance T to biodiversity conservation in Malawi are the following: 1. The Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment that includes, among others, the following relevant departments:

a. DEPT. OF ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS: the national focal point for international environmental conventions and treaties, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (and hence the development of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan – NBSAP). It develops and is responsible for the implementation of the National Environmental Policy and produces biannual State of the Environment Reports;

b. DEPT. OF FORESTRY: responsible for implementing the National Forestry Policy and National Forestry Act; and

c. DEPT. OF FISHERIES: responsible for implementing the National Fisheries Conservation and Management Act.

2. DEPT. OF NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE, within the Ministry of Information and Tourism, is responsible for the management of national parks and wildlife reserves, as well as the management of wildlife outside of these protected areas, including the conservation of wildlife communities and the protection of rare, endangered and endemic species of plants and animals. Several political, technical and grassroots’ committees have been established in the country to guide or support policy, legislative and programme formulation as well as implementation of environment and natural resources management activities. The Cabinet Committee on Agriculture and Natural Resources (CCANR) is the highest-level policy and decision-making body responsible for environmental policy issues and informs Parliament on the state of the environment. The Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture and natural Resources (PCANR) lobbies Parliament on all environmental matters but the National Council for the Environment (NCE) advises both the CCANR and PCANR committees. As a policy advisory institution, the NCE operates through working groups and national steering committees. The Technical Committee on the Environment (TCE), which advises the NCE, examines scientific issues and makes recommendations for action.

POLICIES AND LEGISLATION

WATER RESOURCES In 1994, the Government produced and adopted the first water policy known as the Water Resources Management Policy and Strategies (WRMPS). The 1994 WRMPS was revised in 2000. During the revision of the policy, the Water Resources Act of 1969 was reviewed. The 2000 Water Policy was further reviewed and amended in 2004, following recommendations for strengthening of the Water Resources Board. The revision of the policy is aimed at strengthening and harmonizing issues of water resources management and utilization in order to guide the country in the sustainable use of water. The 2004 revised Draft Water Policy, which is currently awaiting approval by cabinet, includes the following guiding principles.

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• Water resources management shall be based on the concept of decentralization and local participation so that the unit of water resources management shall be the catchment; • Management, conservation, protection and development of water resources shall be undertaken in an integrated manner; • Water regulation shall be based on reliable continuous data collection, management, and analysis to ensure accurate assessment of water resources and dissemination of information for effective planning of water resources development; • Water demand management approaches shall be adopted in all cases of water resources development and management, and water allocations shall consider ecosystem integrity and biodiversity including marine and estuarine life (authors note: presumably referring to Lake Malawi); • There shall be no agricultural and infrastructure construction activities below the 477-metre above mean sea level contour line along Lake Malawi and below the 100-year flood water level along the rivers.

FORESTRY The National Forestry Policy (1996) and Forestry Act (1997) emphasized the: • Strengthening core roles of government (planning, programming, monitoring, regulating, extension and managing conservation/protection areas); • Increasing involvement of private sector and civil society; • Empowering communities to manage forest resources on customary land and, in collaboration with government, on reserves;

• Engaging with international obligations and processes; and • Coordinating with other sectors The National Forest Program is “the means to operationalize the Policy and the Act - to translate good intentions into real results. It does this by focusing on the key issues, drawing on experiences of good local and national practice in all the key areas needed for better forestry, and making better two-way connections between policy and practice so that both can be improved”. It consists of 12 strategies, each with priority actions and assigned lead responsibilities. While all twelve strategies are important for biodiversity conservation, those of the most immediate concern relate to management of forest reserves (Strategy #9) and support to community-based forest management (Strategy #4), although managing the process of institutional change (Strategy #1) and optimizing policy influences on forests and livelihoods (Strategy #2) have the potential for significant impacts on management of natural forests and biodiversity. The implementation challenges of the NFP can only be faced if the Forestry Department fully embraces the reorientation in philosophy, values and roles and relationships indicated above in a meaningful and demonstrable way.

ENVIRONMENT The National Environmental Policy (NEP) and the Environment Management Act (1996) were developed from the 1994 National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), which considered nine key environmental issues: i. Soil degradation; ii. Threats to forests; iii. Threats to fisheries; iv. Threats to water resources;

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v. Threats to biodiversity, including wildlife; vi. Human habitat degradation; vii. Unsustainable population growth, viii. Climate change; and ix. Air quality. State of the Environment Reports have been produced every two years from 1998 with the aims of (1) reporting on the current status of a number of selected environmental indicators and (2) reporting on progress in implementing the NEAP. A revised NEP (2004) included conservation of biodiversity as a cross-sectoral issue and included ten strategies for management of biological diversity in Malawi: 1. Identify valuable areas of biodiversity, particularly outside of protected areas, and in consultation with local communities, explore means of protecting such areas, including gazetting as protected areas, and purchasing of land-use rights or of conservation easements; 2. Promote biodiversity conservation programs undertaken by sectors such as forestry, fisheries and wildlife that protect biodiversity and provide benefits to local communities so that they are motivated to conserve the resources and use them in a sustainable manner; 3. Promote ecotourism both as a means of conserving biodiversity and of earning income; 4. Provide a mechanism for fair distribution of costs and benefits deriving from protected areas between central and local governments and local communities; 5. Foster public support and encourage private investment in biodiversity conservation through public awareness campaigns and appropriate incentive schemes; 6. Establish and develop biodiversity networks, both national and international for information exchange and consultation; 7. Promote and strengthen activities of the National Gene Bank; 8. Provide alternative income generating activities as a means of assisting the conservation of biodiversity; 9. Adhere to and implement international biodiversity treaty obligations that are relevant to Malawi’s situation; and 10. Develop legislation to promote and protect indigenous knowledge systems for conservation and sustainable management and utilization of biodiversity.

NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE The National Parks and Wildlife Act (Amendment) of 2004 allows for local community participation and private sector involvement in the conservation and management of wildlife through a wildlife management agreement or a concession agreement with a designated wildlife management authority. The Act also contains a declaration on endangered species. This can refer to individual species or to all or some species in a specified area. Lists will be published periodically. Malawi is also a party to the CITES convention on trade in endangered species (see below).

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INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS

alawi adheres to several international environmental conventions, treaties and protocols. The Government has signed and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity whose M objectives are the conservation of biodiversity, the suitable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of the genetic resources. In addition, Malawi is a signatory of the following conventions related to biological diversity: 1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Malawi ratified in 1992. 2. Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) ratified in 1997. Lake Chilwa is a Ramsar Site. However, the country still does not have a wetlands policy. 3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): elephants and rhino are Appendix 1 species because if they are not threatened with extinction now, they may become so unless trade in its specimens is subject to strict regulation. The crocodile is in Appendix II and Malawi has a quota of 200 crocodile specimens from the wild per year. 4. Convention on the World Heritage Sites. Lake Malawi National Park is a World Heritage Site. 5. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Malawi produced its first initial communication paper on climate change in 2003 through the co-ordination of the Environmental Affairs Department. 6. The Convention to Combat Desertification and Drought. 7. FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources. 8. Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. 9. Convention on International Plant Protection. 10. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The following Regional Protocols developed by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) also have bearing on biodiversity conservation, environmental management, and natural resources, or for those not yet in force, will require greater regional integration of biodiversity considerations: 1. Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems (in force since 1998); and Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses (Malawi is signatory; ratification pending); 2. Protocol on Wildlife Conservation & Law Enforcement (Malawi is signatory; ratification pending); 3. SADC Policy and Strategy for Environment and Sustainable Development approved by Ministers in 1996; proposed Environmental Charter in drafting stages since 2000;

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PROTECTED AREAS alawi has five national parks, four wildlife reserves, three nature sanctuaries and 69 M forest reserves (see Appendix 4).

NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE RESERVES AND NATURE SANCTUARIES ational Parks, wildlife reserves and nature sanctuaries are intended to preserve examples of Malawi’s natural heritage and to promote their use for scientific and recreational purposes. N They generally protect important wildlife populations, major water catchment areas, and landscapes of high aesthetic value. All plants and animals are strictly protected. Each of these protected areas should have a management plan with clearly defined conservation objectives. The amended National Parks and Wildlife Act allows for controlled harvesting in protected areas, including access to minor forest products, such as honey and thatching grass. Table 9 presents basic information on all of the National Parks and Wildlife Reserves.

Table 9: National Parks and Wildlife Reserves of Malawi and their characteristics

PROTECTED AREA 2 AREA (KM ) HABITAT IMPORTANT FEATURES NAME

NATIONAL PARKS

1. Nyika 3,134 Montane grassland Elephant, eland, reedbuck, roan and zebra. A total of 27 and forest patches mammal species were recorded in 1997 and 29 in 1999 by and miombo the Bio-search Nyika Project. Most predators now sporadic. woodland Recently, large declines have been noted for many species as a result of poaching

2. Kasungu 2,316 Miombo and Most large mammals have declined in numbers due to seasonal riverine poaching, notably elephants. The black rhinoceros became forest extinct in the late 1980s. Has the only resident population of cheetah and wild dogs though recently no sightings have been recorded. Puku antelope is another endangered species found in the park.

3. Lake Malawi 94 Islands and The park is a fresh water park; most research has been on lakeshore and fish. There have been no estimates of other animals inshore waters conducted.

4. Liwonde 338 Acacia and mopane 29 large mammals have been recorded. Several other woodland, with species of mammals have been translocated into the park baobab in the past few years. A black rhinoceros population has been reintroduced from South Africa. These introductions have brought the number of large mammal species in the park to 35.

5. Lengwe 887 Deciduous Buffalo, Impala and Kudu appear to be stable and probably woodland and increasing. The park is important for its nyala, which have thicket increased due to waterhole provision. Poaching and severe drought in 1991/92 have affected the nyala population

WILDLIFE RESERVES

1. Vwaza 986 Some mopane The SOER 2002 records 52 mammal species. However, Marsh woodland and numbers of species seem to be declining over time. miombo Poaching is a big problem.

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PROTECTED AREA 2 AREA (KM ) HABITAT IMPORTANT FEATURES NAME

2. Nkhotakota 1,802 Miombo The population of mammals is stable; may be increasing. From a detailed aerial survey of mammals show that there are buffaloes, bushbuck, bush pig, common duiker, eland, elephants, grysbok, kudu, reed buck, roan, sable, warthog, water buck, zebra, baboon, leopard and lion.

3. Majete 691 Deciduous The number of different species in Majete have declined woodland because of poaching and the development work (the Kapichira Falls Dam) that was taking place there. The many people involved in the work may have increased the level of poaching. Elephants were exterminated. African Parks Conservation have plans to restock the area.

4. Mwabvi 135 Deciduous Most species have generally been declining over time. woodland and However, the following can be found buffalo, sable, kudu, thicket impala, warthogs, klipspringer and nyala. Rhinos are now extinct.

TOTAL 10,376 Sources: The Nature Sanctuary in the capital, Lilongwe, has an important function as an environmental awareness and education area and is heavily visited. It is also one of the few areas of intact Acacia/Piliostigma/Combretum woodland on the central plateau and supports several scarce bird and mammal species.

FOREST RESERVES total of 69 Forest Reserves cover 7,905 km2 (about 30% of forest cover) in Malawi. Many were created for watershed protection and are located on mountains and escarpments. However, A timber plantations have been established in some forest reserves, notably on the Viphya and Nyika plateaux in the north but also at Dedza and, in the south, at Mulanje and Zomba. There are estimated to be 68,000 hectares of softwood plantation, mostly Mexican pine Pinus patula. Lack of management and neglect has meant that most of the small plantations are in poor condition and uneconomical, while the large bloc on the Viphya Plateau has not been managed since the envisioned pulp industry for which they were planted never materialized. Fires have been a major problem. Ironically some of these fires have been started by disgruntled forest workers – originally hired to protect and manage the forests – who were forced to be released by the Forestry Department due to the uneconomical state of the forests. While all estates are legally required to maintain 10% of their land area under tree cover (natural or planted) in many cases this requirement has not been met nor has it been enforced (Forestry NFP).

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THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR MALAWI’S BIODIVERSITY

THREATS TO FORESTS AND WOODLANDS he most immediate threat to Malawi’s biodiversity, as can be gleaned from previous sections of this report, is the severe degradation and loss of critical habitat, particularly forests and T woodlands. The rate and scale of this destruction has meant that important elements of the country’s biodiversity are now confined to a relatively small, and diminishing, set of protected areas, including forest reserves. The current immediate cause of this destruction is the need for new agricultural land by an increasing population and the unsustainable exploitation of a variety of forest products for domestic and commercial use, notably fuelwood and charcoal. While this much is clear, the underlying reasons for this trend are more complex and less well understood, but could include: • Over-cropping, leading to soil depletion and decreasing yields, resulting in expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; • Increased demand for fuelwood by rural and urban populations as populations increase and sources of fuelwood diminish, especially in nearby areas; • Increase in demand for charcoal, particularly for urban centers and industries, as transport and road networks open up, creating a new class of commercial traders promoting the exploitation of remaining forest resources; • High demand for wood for industrial estates and local tobacco curing and brick production;

• Erosion of traditional authorities and resource management systems as communities become more diverse and fragmented due to migration and settlement patterns and access to resources becomes more difficult to control;

• The influence of a new set of empowered and influential actors seeking rapid commercial gain through “smash-and-grab” of increasingly valuable land and resources;

• Lack of understanding and acceptance by local communities of state-imposed rules and regulations regarding land and resource access and management, in part due to low capacity of public services to explain and enforce such rules and regulations; • Lack of incentives and opportunities to better manage what are de facto open access resources or to shift to alternative off-farm sources of employment.

THREATS TO LAKE MALAWI he most important threats coming from the land are those that result in enhanced run-off of sediment and nutrients into the lake causing eutrophication of the mesotrophic lake waters, thus T allowing the growth of aquatic algae and invasive water plants. A hydrological and limnological working group identified those catchments from which highly nutrient and sediment-laden waters are entering the lake. Over time, these inputs will alter the chemistry or condition of the lake’s water, encouraging algal blooms, increasing the incidence of sediment plumes, and encouraging invasion by plants such as water hyacinth. Such changes will affect the fish species composition, as the endemic fishes of the lake are adapted to clear and quite nutrient poor waters (WWF, 2002). Small-scale fishing effort on the Lake is increasing, yet production and incomes have decreased. Between 1995 and 1999, the number of inshore boats increased by about a quarter and the number of fishermen by 16% - yet production fell by almost 10%. The indications are that the current small-scale inshore

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fishing efforts exceed sustainable fisheries resources, particularly at the southern end of the Lake. And regrettably, it is these inshore areas that contain many of the unique sedentary - and thus higher risk - fish species. Biodiversity is thus under increasing threat.

POACHING See Section I.A.ii, above.

OPPORTUNITIES overnment implementing agencies responsible for forestry, fisheries, national parks and wildlife have developed, often with donor support and in a relatively participatory manner at a G certain level, some quite progressive policies, legislation and programs in their respective fields, often highlighting partnerships and revenue sharing schemes with local communities and the private sector for devolved management of specific natural resources. In the case where government capacity is weak and pressures on resources, including land, are high, this is probably the appropriate response. However, two issues arise. The first is that the prescriptions on paper are a long way from being operationalized on the ground. It is relatively simple to develop the policies and programs, but they need to be developed to be realistic taking into account the likely capacity and resources available for their implementation. Even though some, like the NBSAP and NFP have been prioritized to a certain degree, they are somewhat optimistic relative to what can be realistically achieved, with the result that conditions in the field have not changed a great deal. Nevertheless, they at least provide an enabling framework and the challenge is to begin implementation, particularly as regards CBNRM initiatives, which need to be promoted in a considered manner, at least on a pilot basis, and lessons learned and promising approaches carefully documented and shared. The other issue, related to the above, is coordination among the line agencies. Given that they are ostensibly promoting the same type of devolved, community-based approaches, it is clear that there are potential benefits to coordinating activities. This does not mean creating additional coordinating structures at central level involving more “planning” meetings and “policy harmonization”. Rather, a focus at the sub-district and community level, where individuals and groups should be supported by some of these same service agencies and receiving complementary advice and services. Given the apparent reluctance on the part of some agencies to move forward with full devolution of authorities to local communities for fear of rapid resource depletion, an incremental process could be envisaged based on areas and approaches where relations between government and community actors have been good, preliminary actions and results have been demonstrated and there is something to be built upon. In forestry, a perceived lower risk approach seems to be to work first on CBNRM structures and mechanisms for forests on communal lands, including village woodlots, rather than forest reserves which have important conservation and watershed values. Once the structures and mechanisms are in place and capacity developed through demonstrated initiatives, then perhaps there would be more confidence in tackling co-management of forest reserves. In fact, this is what both USAID’s COMPASS II and the EU-supported Forest Management Project are seeking to achieve, building on the experience of the Participatory Forest Management project that developed processes for improved participatory forest management on communal lands. The new EU project will focus on selected forest reserves and look at management approaches for the reserves, surrounding communal woodlots and reforestation (asset recovery) or afforestation (asset creation) on communal lands. The risk is that without immediate attention to areas such as forest reserves, the present lack of management and control will only lead to further degradation.

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PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

LAKE MALAWI he GEF/SADC Lake Malawi Biodiversity Conservation Project was the first attempt to address the conservation issues facing Lake Malawi and its globally important fish biodiversity and was T intended to complement the World Bank’s Malawi Fisheries Development Project, which itself aimed to mitigate unsustainable levels of in-shore fishing in the lake (an objective it did not meet). The objective of the project was to assist Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique in creating the scientific, educational, and policy basis required to ensure conservation of the biological diversity and unique ecosystem of Lake Malawi and producing a Biodiversity Map and Management Plan for the lake. There were seven components of the project 1. Building scientific capacity to survey, study, and monitor the lake's biodiversity, identify threats, and provide recommendations for the lake's management. 2. Increasing conservation awareness among the lakeshore population and regional and national policy makers, whose decisions regarding regional development have an impact on the lake's ecosystem. 3. Surveying and inventorying species, identifying critical habitats and biodiversity hotspots, and recommending preliminary measures to demarcate and protect such areas. 4. Identifying pollution sources and measuring water quality at sites where human activities threaten biodiversity. 5. Preparing a Strategic Plan for the Nankumba Peninsula and Lake Malawi National Park for ecotourism development, consistent with the protection and conservation of the lake's biodiversity. 6. Preparing a comprehensive Biodiversity Map and Management Plan for Lake Malawi based on the information provided by the species, habitat, and water quality analyses. 7. Reviewing the adequacy of existing national environmental legislation in Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania and making appropriate legislative recommendations for revising and/or strengthening enforcement for conservation of the lake's biodiversity. A World Bank Performance Assessment Report (2001) noted that the scientific capacity building and research program was successful, including the production of a number of landmark publications relating to the ecology, biodiversity, limnology, and water quality studies of the lake, training of national research staff, the establishment of reference fish collections and the development of key environmental monitoring indicators. It states “conservation of the lake's biodiversity is now seen in the context of national environmental management”. However, there appears to be some differences within the World Bank about the objectives and focus of the project, with the regional department indicating that the project was fundamentally a scientific research project and that the institutional objectives were too ambitious. However, the Performance Assessment noted major weaknesses:

“There should have been more attention to training in natural resources management, and fisheries research staff are isolated from the mainstream environmental management institutions. Budgets are inadequate to maintain an active Lake research program, while cessation of staff benefits provided from GEF funds reduce performance incentives. Piloting use of a touring drama group to promote environmental awareness in riparian countries is not sustainable without external funding, and awareness training may have targeted the wrong people, thus limiting its effectiveness. A high quality strategic management plan for a selected

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area of Malawi was completed; but lack of implementation has caused enthusiastic stakeholders to lose interest. The Environmental Legislation component that was transferred to the FAO has yielded little to date, and is still ongoing. The scientific research and training agenda, which eventually cost more than twice the appraisal estimate, displaced forward-looking lake management planning: the Management Plan for Lake Malawi was not produced and the Biodiversity Map is only partially complete.”

A major finding related to the difficulty of assuring coordination, motivation and participation from all three riparian countries, when the bulk of implementation was in Malawi alone. As a result, an eight-year Lake Malawi Environmental Management was approved for Malawi (similar projects are proposed for the two other riparian countries) by the World Bank in 2003 to implement a landscape approach to management of the lake and its catchment areas, through pilot initiatives and building stakeholder constituencies. Components are integrated watershed management, fisheries resources management, mobilization of social and institutional capital and regional programs to encourage joint initiatives between riparian states. The current status of this project is unclear. However, a WWF-SARPO project is also looking at developing a landscape (ecoregional) approach to planning and management of Lake Malawi and held a workshop to identify priority conservation areas and a vision for biodiversity conservation in 2005 (WWF-SARPO, 2005). See Appendix 5 for Map of Priority Areas for Biodiversity Conservation.

EC FOREST MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS PROGRAMME his Programme has just started. It will adopt an ecosystem approach, taking a wider and longer- term perspective of the landscape, the communities, recognizing multiple land-use systems and T livelihood strategies. Key forest areas, both Forest Reserves and customary land forests, will provide the geographical focus for this approach, which will target the rural communities whose livelihoods depend on these forests and forest resources and are thus primary stakeholders in the resource. The Programme would operate within the Malawi National Forestry Programme and therefore is part of a coordinated approach to addressing forest sector-wide issues in a holistic, comprehensive, multi-sectoral manner. These are set in the context of wider strategies and programmes for sustainable development. Programme strategies include: • Strategy 1: Promoting pro-poor sustainable livelihoods strategies by means of immediate support to rural livelihoods through entry-point activities; creating natural resource assets (new planting); supporting income generating activities. • Strategy 2: Strengthening the livelihood assets of the forest dependent rural communities through securing their access to, and promoting more sustainable management of forest areas; a. Promoting shared and equitable community based forest management of ‘common’ forest resources on customary land; b. Negotiating and securing access rights to State Forest Reserves under collaborative management arrangements to reduce vulnerability and enhance income generating opportunities in the longer term. • Strategy 3: Promoting more effective and accountable institutions at National and local levels, strengthening policies and processes for improved governance of forest resources and pro-poor sustainable growth;

• Strategy 4: Improving communication and advocacy processes within and between stakeholder groups to effectively collaborate and coordinate to monitor and enhance impact.

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The Programme will support improved decentralized collaborative management of 12 Forest Reserves/ Protected Forest Areas/ customary land forests2 (4 impact areas per Region) through adopting an area- based approach which considers a key forest resource along with the surrounding impact area, in totality. Within each impact area, the Programme will support a multi-stakeholder strategic planning process involving local Government, civil society, traditional leaders and community representatives to develop an overall strategic forest management plan. Through multi-stakeholder strategic analysis and planning, the roles, rights and responsibilities for these areas would be agreed with all parties and site/community level activities promoted in a coordinated and collaborative manner with other development partners. The aim is to build on earlier successful pilot initiatives that complement each other and co-locate these to enhance the effectiveness and impact of the programme. In order to deliver the required field level impact, capacity building support will aim to ensure that the various stakeholder group representatives at different level, including forestry staff, have the appropriate skills, knowledge and understanding to fulfill their roles and obligations in an equitable and accountable manner within the policy and legal framework. To ensure the necessary enabling environment, the Programme will support the devolution of forestry services to District level and prepare the regional staff for their new planning, guiding and regulatory role under the forestry devolution process, as envisaged under the Local Government Act 1998 and National Forestry Programme, 2001.

ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF MALAWI-ZAMBIA TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS ith the support of the Peace Parks Foundation, transfrontier conservation areas (TFCA) have been proposed between Malawi and Zambia for the areas of Nyika National Park, Vwaza W Marsh Wildlife Reserve and Kasungu National Park and their neighboring protected areas on the Zambian side. A Memorandum of Understanding was signed by both governments in 2004. The project has prioritized the Nyika TFCA and has undertaken studies and developed a proposal that includes 17 sub-projects, including increased wildlife law enforcement to stem the uncontrolled poaching that has decimated wildlife populations in the area. The project also aims to re-introduce wildlife species once the situation has been stabilized, create improved infrastructure such as roads and fencing, improve fire management and better manage the exotic tree plantations around Chilinda. The planning process will identify different development and land use zones, the development of a Tourism Plan, a Joint Management Plan and a Business Plan for the Nyika TFCA. It is anticipated that the principal private sector investments will be related to tourism and that this will provide financial sustainability for the TFCA. The proposal recognizes that the “creation and expansion of present day protected areas involved eviction of communities, resulting in social and economic dislocation” and that “the result of most evictions is hostility toward the parks and park authorities, usually expressed through a wide range of illegal activities… which… appear to be escalating not only as a result of past hostilities, but also due to severe economic hardships [that] communities face”. However, the process for involving displaced communities and providing incentives (such as revenue-sharing) for their involvement in improved management is not clear from the proposal.

MOUNT MULANJE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION PROJECT his World Bank/GEF project was approved in 2000 and is still ongoing. Its goal is to maintain the Mount Mulanje ecosystem, including globally significant biodiversity and vital ecological T services. It has five components; 1. Setting the administrative structure for a Conservation Trust;

2 Matandwe Forest Reserve (Nsanje), Masenjere Escarpment (Chikwawa), Malosa Forest Reserve (Machinga & Zomba), Liwonde Forest Reserve (Machinga), Ntchisi Forest Reserve (Ntchisi), Mua-Livulezi (Dedza & Salima), Dzonze-Mvai Forest Reserve (Ntcheu), Chawa (Kasungu), Mtangatanga & Perekezi Forest Reserves (Mzimba), Uzumala Forest Reserve/Phezi Valley (Rumphi), Vinthukutu/South Karonga Escarpment (Karonga), Mughese & Wilindi Forest Reserves (Chitipa)

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2. Biodiversity Conservation, Research and Monitoring; 3. Environmental Education; 4. Forest Co-Management and Sustainable Livelihoods; and 5. Capitalizing the Conservation Trust Fund ($ 5.5 million). The project supports the Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust (MMCT), established in 1994 to protect the mountain. The Trust can provide a model and lessons learned for the establishment of similar institutions elsewhere in Malawi, e.g., Nyika.

DANISH HUNTERS ASSOCIATION SUPPORT TO DWNP

LAKE CHILWA BIRD HUNTERS CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT Snaring and shooting of wildfowl has been practiced for some time but commercial exploitation of wildfowl stared in 1996 following the drying up of the lake and the collapse of the fishery in 1995. It was estimated that 365,000 waterfowl were trapped on the western shore. Despite recovery of the fishing industry, commercial waterfowl trapping has remained at a very high level and a more detailed survey in 1998-99 showed that over 450 villagers were involved in the activity on a part-time or full-time basis. It is estimated that that over a million waterfowl were snared between December and April, and over 700,000 birds shot, all of this taking place in the breeding season. Birds shot include several legally protected species such as pelicans, flamingos, spoonbills, ibises and storks. Several large waterbirds have already been eliminated through hunting and others are clearly decreasing. The Danish Hunters Association (DHA) involves local communities in managing their waterfowl resources, by setting up some areas as breeding refugia where snaring would be abandoned, and by restricting access for bird shooters in various ways. The latter is popular since bird hunters come from the outside and cause a great deal of disturbance, hindering the efforts of local groups to control management.

CAPACITY BUILDING IN CBNRM OF WILDLIFE The 2004 amendments to the National Parks and Wildlife Act have added government staff in fisheries, forestry and environment to the list of “newly appointed wildlife protection officers”. In addition, local government, NGOs and private sector and others have been included as extension agents of wildlife CBNRM. This project aims to support the new Act in building capacity of both existing and newly-added service providers required to support sustainable co-management of wildlife resources. The project will establish a pilot model of wildlife CBNRM around Liwonde National Park, establish a training course in wildlife CBNRM and improve community livelihoods around Liwonde National Park.

CAPACITY BUILDING OF NGO CBNRM NETWORK The project aims to develop an NGO-based CBNRM lobby network, increase NGO capacity, develop pilot projects and put in place a monitoring and evaluation system for NGO CBNRM initiatives.

MIOMBO RESEARCH PROJECTS great deal of valuable research on the management of miombo ecosystems, including case studies from Malawi, has been supported under the EU Management of Miombo Woodlands A Project (1998-2002) with the support of CIFOR. This resulted in the publication of “Policies and Governance Structures in Woodlands of Southern Africa” in 2003. The Forest Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM), University of Malawi and the Malawi Forestry Department were involved in this work, and FRIM continues its research into miombo forest management in Malawi. WWF-SARPO also has an ongoing miombo ecoregion management program. Particularly relevant are the lessons and experiences from CBNRM initiatives, both in Malawi and the wider region.

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SADC BIODIVERSITY SUPPORT PROGRAMME he SADC programme, based in the Environmental Affairs Department of the Ministry of Mines, Natural Resources and Environment, has focused its program on two thematic areas to help T Malawi meet its objectives and obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity. These areas are (1) Invasive Alien Species; and (2) Access and Benefit Sharing. Two studies have recently been finalized. One is an assessment of user needs for databases, standards and guidelines on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) and establishment of the status of IAS in Malawi. The other is policy, legislation and other mechanisms for access to and benefit sharing of genetic resources in Malawi.

NGO PROGRAMS he Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi (WESM) has long been involved in biodiversity awareness-raising, education (promotion of wildlife clubs), monitoring (game counts) and non- T extractive natural resource-based activities (such as beekeeping). It partners with government and donor organizations on a number of initiatives related to its area of interest and expertise. Other active NGOs include the Wildlife Action Group, which works with DNPW in Thuma Reserve to develop wildlife conservation and ecotourism activities. As part of its private sector partnership emphasis, DNPW has also ceded management of Majete Wildlife Reserve to a private group, African Parks Conservation Ltd., which is currently aiming to undertake an ambitious game restocking program.

OTHERS TO BE COVERED IN THE NEXT PHASE REPORT: COMPASS II (USAID) Lake Malawi Artisanal Fisheries Development Project (African Development Bank) ???

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28 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

PRIORITY ACTIONS he fact that critical elements of Malawi’s biodiversity are located in a series of well-defined but mostly threatened localities throughout the country militates for a locally-based approach to T identifying and addressing threats and opportunities on the ground in those areas. This fits very well with the ecosystem-based approach promoted in draft text of the Revised National Environmental Management Act that is pending action in Parliament. Since the majority of these sites are under immediate and significant threat, the cost of doing nothing is enormous in terms of conserving the country’s biodiversity. Some species have become extinct in Malawi in the last few years. Where entire forests have been cleared, the biodiversity losses may never been known. On the other hand, there a number of promising initiatives ongoing in key areas, often with an explicit goal of conserving biodiversity, including the globally important sites of Lake Malawi, Nyika and Mount Mulanje. A strategy to do this would involve:

EVALUATING KEY SITES FOR BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPING A LIST OF PRIORITY SITES This would build on information about key sites, such as protected areas (including forest reserves) and Important Bird Area sites. Since the IBA report, it appears that there has been significant degradation and destruction at some sites. This needs to be verified and status updated. In the event that areas formerly critical for species of global concern are no longer capable of supporting viable populations, the existence of alternative sites should be assessed. Given that Malawi is quite well-explored, at least ornithologically, alternative sites may simply not exist. A simple matrix could be developed using key criteria including, inter alia: • Biodiversity importance

• Degree and type of threat • Opportunities for improved management • Existence of community-based groups

• Demonstrated capacity for improved conservation • Presence of ongoing or proposed activities This could also be a useful participatory exercise with stakeholder groups, including local communities, to build understanding about shared values, concerns and priorities, as well as to develop participatory inventory and monitoring systems (see below).

IDENTIFY KEY INTERVENTIONS PROMOTING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION TO EITHER SUPPORT AND ENHANCE EXISTING INITIATIVES This is a priority in consideration of ongoing or planned interventions at priority sites, or to initiate activities favoring biodiversity conservation. COMPASS II has already adopted a similar strategy through its development pathways approach (COMPASS Development Pathways: Occasional Paper 1, 2004) and is following this approach for the promotion and development of enterprise-based initiatives that can address conservation concerns. To the extent that enterprise-based solutions can be supported by complementary activities to either address immediate issues (e.g., conflict resolution over access and resource use) or build constituencies for

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biodiversity conservation (awareness-raising, facilitating access to medicinal plants, participation in biodiversity monitoring, etc.), these should be targeted to optimize the results of COMPASS interventions. The selection of priority activities should respond to the site-specific analysis of the primary threats and opportunities to biodiversity. There will be cases where ongoing conservation activities can usefully be supported by COMPASS enterprise-based approaches and there will presumably be opportunities to build complementary activities around COMPASS interventions. In both cases, the likelihood of achieving successful conservation outcomes should be enhanced.

SET UP AND SUPPORT PARTICIPATORY BIODIVERSITY MONITORING SYSTEMS AT KEY SITES Given recent trends in the conservation of key sites, continued monitoring will be required. The most effective and sustainable way to do this is by establishing and supporting participatory biodiversity monitoring systems involving motivated local groups and individuals. This is a field that is generating much interest (see, for example, ETFRN, 2002) and some best practice. Opportunities for collaboration with some of the projects and programs noted in Section VI should be actively sought. For example, the EU Forest Management project which has targeted several forest reserves of high biodiversity importance (including IBA sites). Biodiversity criteria were not a primary factor in the original selection of the sites, and biodiversity conservation is not, at least directly, a primary goal of the proposed project activities. However, a significant opportunity could exist to build on the institutional support and on-ground resources of the project to further biodiversity conservation objectives. In the case of poaching, where habitat loss is not the immediate issue, the solutions are problematic given the potential returns accruing to those individuals that have the resources and means to undertake these activities and the apparent low risk of incurring significant sanctions. In the case of elephants, international networks are presumably involved. It may be illustrative to look at the case of the one protected area where poaching is not prevalent: Liwonde NP. While this is a small park, and therefore relatively easy to patrol, it is also the park with the most significant activity in terms of tourist visits and investment in tourist infrastructure, based largely on the presence of large mammal populations. Thus there is perhaps a greater interest in, and ability to, monitor wildlife. Such a presence may help in other protected areas, but in the short-term, there seems little alternative to increased surveillance and the application of much heavier sanctions on poachers. Whether the political will is present to do this remains to be seen. In any case, it is very important that the disappearance of large mammals from individual protected areas is not seen as a justification for de-gazetting such areas. In a broader sense, an additional activity is probably indicated that responds to the threat of seemingly poor knowledge, understanding and communication about approaches to locally-based biodiversity conservation, including government policies and programs related to CBNRM, among a wide variety of stakeholders at all levels. This could take the form of a communication strategy that focuses on improving multi-directional dialogue about critical issues and serves to bring stakeholders to a common understanding of what can and needs to be done to improve biodiversity conservation through participatory approaches. It should also foster increased transparency and trust and enable the sharing of lessons learned and promising initiatives. While the idea of developing “another strategy” is not necessarily appealing in the Malawian context, developing the strategy should itself be part of an improved communication process. The key, however, is its application at the field-based level.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Barany M., C. Holding-Anyonge, D. Kayazabinthu and A. Sitoe (2005) Firewood, Fuel and Medicine: Interactions Between Forests, Vulnerability and Rural Responses to HIV/AIDS CIFOR (2003) Policies and Governance Structures of Woodlands in Southern Africa. ETFRN (2002) Policy Implication of Participatory Biodiversity Assessment EU (2003) Management of Miombo Woodlands: Terminal Report Fishpool, L.D.C and M.I. Evans, eds. (2001) Important Bird Areas in Africa (pp. 539-555 Malawi), Birdlife International Government of Malawi (2005) State of the Environment Report (draft) Government of Malawi (2005) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (draft) Government of Malawi (2004) National Environmental Policy Government of Malawi (2005) Policy, Legislation and Other Mechanisms for Access to and Benefit Sharing of Genetic Resources in Malawi Government of Malawi (2001) Malawi’s National Forestry Programme Government of Malawi (2004) National Parks and Wildlife (Amendment) Act Peace Parks Foundation (2005) Establishment and Development of Malawi-Zambia Transfrontier Conservation Areas: Project Plan for the Nyika TFCA Royal Society UK (2005) Food Crops in a Changing Climate Sambo, E.Y. and R.W.S. Nyirenda (2005) Assessment of User Needs for Databases, Standards and Guidelines on Invasive Alien Species (IAS) and Establishment of the Status of IAS in Malawi. Draft Report. Shackleton S. and B. Campbell (2000) Empowering Communities to manage Natural Resources: Case Studies from Southern Africa USAID/COMPASS (2004) COMPASS Development Pathways Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi (2005) Biological Diversity in Malawi World Bank (1994) Lake Malawi/Nyassa Biodiversity Conservation Project Document World Bank (2001) Performance Assessment Report: Lake Malawi/Nyasa Biodiversity Conservation Project World Bank (2003) Lake Malawi Ecosystem Management: Project Identification Document WWF (2000) Ecoregional Profile Sheets: Afrotropical Region. WWF Ecoregion Conservation Program (2003) Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Ecoregion: Report on the Donors and Partners Meeting. WWF-SARPO Lake Malawi/Niassa/Nyasa Ecoregion Conservation Program (2005) Priority Conservation Areas and Vision for Biodiversity Conservation.

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32 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

APPENDIX I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOREGIONS EXTANT IN MALAWI

SOUTHERN RIFT MONTANE FOREST-GRASSLAND MOSAIC lthough it boasts fewer endemics than the Albertine Rift and Eastern Arc Forests to the north, the Southern Rift Montane Forest-Grassland Mosaic ecoregion is by no means impoverished A nor lacking in unique species. The Nyika Plateau is renowned for its rich orchid flora, and hosts an impressive array of wildlife. . Numerous examples of endemic plant and animal taxa can be found throughout the ecoregion. With the exception of the Nyika Plateau, the ecoregion is poorly conserved, and is increasingly threatened by cultivation and overexploitation of both forest and grassland resources, activities which have already transformed large areas of the ecoregion. The Southern Rift Montane Forest-Grassland Mosaic consists of a series of mountains and plateaux centered on the eastern and northern shores of Lake Malawi/Nyasa. Altitude and climate are the main factors separating this ecoregion from the surrounding miombo ecoregions. This ecoregion is distinguishable from montane areas to the south because many northern plant taxa reach their southernmost distributions within the ecoregion, while Mount Mulanje in the South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland Mosaic forms the northern limit for many species belonging to the southern flora. The northernmost portion of the ecoregion in Malawi is found in the Misuku Hills, while the southernmost point of the ecoregion both within Malawi and Mozambique and overall lies in the Kirk Range. Between these two points are the extensive Nyika and North and South Viphya Plateaux, and a number of smaller mountains. Portions of the ecoregion within Malawi, including the Nyika Plateau and Kirk Range, overlap into either Zambia or Mozambique.

VEGETATIVE COMMUNITIES

Grasslands The Southern Rift Montane Forest Grassland-Mosaic ecoregion is composed of several structurally and compositionally distinct vegetation communities, the most dominant of which is grassland. The preponderance of this community is commonly attributed to the high frequency and extent of range fires, which have swept the ecoregion’s grasslands for centuries, continuously eroding the margins of the once abundant Afromontane forests. Dominant grass species in this vegetation type are Loudetia simplex, Exotheca abyssinica, Monocymbium ceresiiforme, Themeda triandra, Andropogon spp., Pennisetum spp., Setaria spp. A number of herbs, sedges, and geophytes also occur within the grassland community, as well as the occasional fire-resistant shrub, usually of the genus Protea. In areas of impeded drainage, permanent and seasonal bogs known as dambos may be found. These habitats, dominated by grasses and sedges, contain a remarkable abundance of species relative to their area, and are known for having rich orchid flora.

Afromontane forests Several other vegetation types are set within the grassland matrix, the most prominent of which is Afromontane forest, although this constitutes less than 5 percent of the landscape and is confined to fire- sheltered pockets, moist escarpments, valleys and watercourses. Afromontane forests can vary considerably in structure and composition, depending on available moisture, altitude, and disturbance regime. The most favorable circumstances produce tall, triple-canopied rain forest, in which the trees are festooned with epiphytes and lianas, while the patches found at higher altitudes and under poorer conditions are shorter and less developed in structure, and compositionally less diverse. Dominant tree and shrub species are Pouteria adolphi-friedericii, Apodytes dimidiata, Bersama abyssinica, Chrysophyllum gorungosanum, Cola greenwayii, Cylicomorpha parvifolia, Entandophragma excelsum, Ficalhoa laurifolia, Garcinia spp.,

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Ilex mitis, Kiggelaria africana, Myrianthus holstii, Ocotea usambarensis, Parinari excelsa, Podocarpus latifolius, Polyscias fulva, Rapanea melanophloeos, and Syzygium guineense. The most common constituents of the herbaceous layer are species of the family Acanthaceae, and of the genera Impatiens, Begonia, Streptocarpus, Plectranthus and Peperomia. A fringe of smaller trees and shrubs, usually pioneer species, often surrounds forest patches, the width of which varies according to its exposure to fire. After some form of disturbance Afromontane forests are frequently found in states in which a single tree species dominates. Hagenia abyssinica and Juniperus procera are commonly associated with this condition, although the latter is now rare. Communities of the bamboo Arundinaria alpina are also found on slopes with high rainfall, primarily in the northern portion of the ecoregion, in stands of varying height and density. Certain forest tree species such as Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, Podocarpus latifolius, Prunus africana, and Rapanea melanophloeos may be associated with bamboo. Bamboo patches are sometimes found within Afromontane forest, perhaps as a result of post-fire invasion.

Heaths The third distinguishing Afromontane vegetation type found within the ecoregion can be termed the heath ("ericaceous"), usually dominated by sclerophyllous shrubs of the family Ericaceae (heather), which occur on the higher mountains above the forest zone in a range of moisture and substrate conditions, although examples may be found at lower elevations in areas of shallow soil and frequent mists. Density of the shrub component varies according to environmental factors, and height ranges from 3 to 13 m.

Miombo woodlands Lastly, the lower reaches of the Southern Rift montane areas—the escarpments and broken hill country— are often occupied by vegetation associated with the miombo ecoregions. Most of the land between 1,200 to 1,800 m is clothed in woodlands dominated by Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia, which ascend as high as 2,050 m on the xeric western escarpment of the Nyika Plateau. These woodlands may comprise a significant part of the ecoregion, as they constitute more than half of Nyika National Park.

ENDEMISM The Southern Rift Montane Ecoregion is both poorer in species richness and endemism than the Eastern Arc Forest and Albertine Rift Montane Forest ecoregions to the north. For instance, the Eastern Arc’s moist mountain forests alone contain 67 endemic trees, while all of Malawi’s evergreen forests contain only 10 unique species. One possible factor contributing to this ecoregion’s lower biological richness may be its greater distance from the Equator. An inverse relationship between distance from the equator and species diversity is noticeable in Malawi’s Afromontane woody flora, where 232 species are recorded from northern Malawian forests, while southern forests have only 149 species. The forests of the Misuku Hills, the most northern portion of the ecoregion within Malawi, are the most diverse. However, the ecoregion’s biota is by no means impoverished. The highlands of Malawi are the country’s biologically wealthiest habitat type, particularly the Nyika Plateau, which has never been permanently settled and is now protected by Malawi’s 3,134 km2 Nyika National Park and the 80 km2 Zambian Nyika National Park. The Nyika Plateau is undoubtedly one of the most significant areas of the ecoregion, as it is home to south-central Africa’s richest orchid flora, totaling 214 species, as well as 400 bird species and important populations of reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), zebra (Equus burchelli) and eland (Tragelaphus oryx)1. Lion (Panthera leo), elephant (Loxodonta africana), and buffalo (Syncerus caffer) inhabit the lower woodland areas of the park. Significant populations of large mammals are unlikely to be found elsewhere in the ecoregion since no large-scale migrations occur within the Southern Rift montane areas, with the exception of the seasonal migrations of zebra, roan, and eland between the Nyika Plateau and

1 Note however, the dramatic decline in numbers of 85% for eland, 54% for roan, 61% for zebra and 87% for reedbuck over the period 1989- 2002 due to uncontrolled poaching (Nyika TFCA proposal).

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surrounding low-lying woodlands. Oribi (Ourebia oribi) are also found within the ecoregion. The top predator species include leopard (Panthera pardus), serval (Felis serval), and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). A number of restricted range species are found in this ecoregion, including 5 mammals, 18 birds, 6 amphibians, and 20 reptiles. The five near-endemic mammals include the, Tanganyika mountain squirrel (Paraxerus lucifer), which occurs at Nyika. Near-endemic bird species include the churring cisticola (Cisticola njombe), the buff-shouldered widowbird (Euplectes psammocromius), Chapin’s apalis (Apalis chapini), black-lored cisticola (Cisticola nigriloris), olive-flanked robin-chat (Cossypha anomala), and Fuelleborn’s boubou (Laniarius fuelleborni). Besides these species, there are numerous examples of plants unique to the ecoregion. Six protea species are limited to the ecoregion. Four orchid species and 2 sub-species are unique to the Nyika Plateau, and 4 more species are near-endemics, as they are also found on several of the highland areas adjacent to the Nyika Plateau. Besides these, the Nyika Plateau also holds 13 other endemic plant species, and 7 sub- species. Examples of endemic invertebrates are the dragonfly Teinobasis malawiensis, which is known only from montane streams in northern Malawi and three butterflies confined to the Nyika Plateau. The ecoregion also contains a number of sub-specific endemics, particularly on the Nyika Plateau, where the red-winged francolin (Francolinus levaillanti crawshayi), the greater double-collared sunbird (Nectarina afra whytei), the Baglafecht weaver (Ploceus baglafecht nyikae), the rufous-naped lark (Mirafra africana nyikae), the chequered elephant-shrew (Rynchocyon cirnei hendersoni), 3 amphibian sub-species, two sub-species of skink, and four sub-species of butterfly are found.

ENDANGERED OR THREATENED SPECIES A number of species of special concern occur in the ecoregion. The declining wattled crane (Bugeranus carunculatus) has an important breeding site in the Nyika National Park. The Nyika National Park also hosts the locally rare Denham’s bustard (Neotis denhami), the world’s largest breeding population of blue swallows (Hirundo atrocaerulea), considered vulnerable and numbering only 300 pairs, and one of Malawi’s two important populations of cheetah (now probably extinct). The archipelago-like nature of the Southern Rift Highlands means that its component habitat blocks are naturally isolated from one another by topography. However, human intervention has caused further fragmentation and degradation within these habitat islands. Cultivation has been widespread throughout the ecoregion, and is rapidly increasing in places. The majority of grassland on Malawi’s second largest plateau, the South Viphya, has been planted over with exotic pine trees and other areas of the ecoregion have been similarly afforested. In addition to the destruction caused by frequent wildfires, forests and woodlands have been further reduced by charcoal production, fuelwood harvesting, and cultivation. In Malawi this deforestation is particularly pronounced, as all that remains of the once extensive mid-altitude montane forests are small relict groves used as graveyards by local people. The protected area network throughout most of the ecoregion is woefully inadequate with the exception of the Nyika Plateau area, the majority of which is protected inside Zambia and Malawi’s contiguous Nyika National Parks. None of the other portions of the ecoregion are protected in Zambia and Mozambique, while conservation areas in Tanzania are inadequate. Part of Chipata Mountain is protected in Malawi’s Nkhotakhota Game Reserve, while Chirobwe Mountain in the Dedza-Chirobwe Highlands has a forest reserve, although this is under pressure from wood collectors.

TYPE AND SEVERITY OF THREATS The most significant force of natural disturbance within this ecoregion is undoubtedly fire. Each year, large areas of the Southern Rift Highlands are swept by fires, primarily anthropogenic. The intensity of this burning regime, which has been practiced for centuries, if not millennia, is believed to have been the main cause of the replacement of previously extensive areas of Afromontane forests with grassland and scrub-grassland. Although it is unknown exactly how long fire has been a driving force in the ecoregion, and to what extent it has caused grassland to replace forest, fire has definitely reduced forests within the

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last century, and continues to do so today. Of special concern are the few surviving pockets of the historically widespread Juniperus procera forests, particularly the patch on Nyika Plateau, as these have been reduced not only by fire but also by recent indiscriminate felling for charcoal production and other uses. Cultivation poses the other severe threat to the integrity of the ecoregion, as land is increasingly being converted to crops such as tea, coffee, banana, finger millet, potatoes, and pyrethrum. Although shifting cultivation is practiced in places, allowing secondary succession to take place on previously worked fields, fallow lands are generally re-colonized by widely distributed species which may preclude the regeneration of the unique elements of Afromontane primary flora. Cultivation does not only change the composition of the ecoregion’s flora, but it can create serious erosion problems, as fields are often plowed on steep slopes. Overgrazing by large numbers of livestock also cause erosion problems in areas of high human population, such as parts of Malawi’s Kirk Range. The continuing destruction of Afromontane grassland habitat threatens the locally occurring churring cisticola (Cisticola njombe) and the blue swallow. Alien organisms pose a threat to the ecoregion, chiefly in the form of exotic timber trees of the genera Pinus and Eucalyptus, which have been used in afforesting montane grasslands. The bramble Rubus spp. has spread extensively throughout the Nyika National Park, where exotic rainbow trout were also introduced into dams and streams on the Plateau

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ZAMBEZIAN MIOMBO WOODLANDS iombo woodlands form the dense forest woodland that bisects Africa directly south of the Congo Basin and East African savannas. They are dominated by trees of the subfamily M Caesalpinioideae, particularly species belonging to the genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia, which seldom occur outside miombo. In this ecoregion, mature miombo woodland trees are usually 15 to 20 m tall, with a broadleaf shrub and grass understorey beneath.

FLORA Although trees in this area are primarily deciduous, this area has a much higher proportion of evergreen trees than drier Zambezian miombo, about 24 percent compared to 9 percent in the Zimbabwean woodlands. Rich in species, this ecoregion includes nearly all the miombo dominants, such as Brachystegia floribunda, B. glaberrima, B. taxifolia, B. wangermeeana, Marquesia macroura, Julbernadia globiflora, J. paniculata, and Isoberlinia angolensis. Fire is an important ecological factor in miombo woodland. The strong seasonality in precipitation leaves the vegetation dry for several months of the year, and thunderstorms at the start of the rainy season can easily set the vegetation afire. However, in addition to being naturally fire-prone, miombo is frequently burned by people to clear land for cultivation, to maintain pastures for livestock, or in accordance with traditional beliefs (e.g., concerning rainmaking or social status). More than 95 percent of existing woodland cover in Malawi has been heavily modified.

FAUNA Miombo ecoregions do not support large animals in high densities, although due to the vast size of the ecoregion its overall importance for such species is very high. The low large-mammal density is attributed mostly to the harsh dry season, long droughts and the poor soils, which generally support only vegetation of low nutritional value. These conditions tend to favor low numbers of large-bodied animals, such as the endangered elephant (Loxodonta africana) and critically endangered black rhino (Diceros bicornis), as well as African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), which are able to survive on poor-quality forage by consuming large quantities of plant material. Specialized grazers are also common. They selectively feed on high-quality grass shoots, often making use of a range of non-miombo habitats throughout the year. Such specialists include sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), roan antelope (H. equinus), Lichtenstein’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus lichtensteini), and southern reedbuck (Redunca arundinum); all species largely restricted to the miombo belt, as well as eland (Taurotragus oryx), and greater kudu (T. strepsiceros). Many species make use of the wooded margins or open areas of the numerous grassy floodplains and swamps scattered through the ecoregion. Puku (Kobus vardoni) prefer open grasslands, seasonally flooded or marshy habitat. Waterbuck (K. ellipsiprymnus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), and blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) are mostly found in more wooded areas close to permanent water. Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) are relatively common to the ecoregion. Large carnivores characteristic to the region include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and side- striped jackal (Canis adustus). Smaller predators include caracal (Caracal caracal) and miombo genet (Genetta angolensis). The bird life in the ecoregion is particularly rich in species, with a characteristic set of species associated with miombo habitats. However, only Stierling’s woodpecker (Dendropicos stierlingi) qualifies as a near- endemic, although Boulder Chat Pinarornis plumosus is confined to rocky areas in miombo woodlands over a small area, mostly in Zimbabwe, but extending into southwest Malawi.

TYPE AND SEVERITY OF THREATS Although much of the ecoregion is sparsely populated, there are few areas that have not been affected by anthropogenic activities in some way. High population density in Malawi has already resulted in severe

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loss of savanna woodlands, increased habitat fragmentation, and diminished natural resources. In much of the remaining area, deforestation is one of the most widespread threats. Woodlands are being cleared for fuelwood, charcoal, and building materials as well as for agricultural land. More than 80 percent of people living in miombo depend on fuelwood and charcoal for cooking, heat, and light. Cutting woody vegetation for the production of charcoal, especially close to major roads and large urban centers is having a marked impact on the miombo vegetation. In many areas, including Malawi, large numbers of saplings are removed from the woodlands to be used as poles for building traditional houses. The high incidence of fires in the area poses further threats to the ecoregion. Although fire is an integral part of miombo ecology, human setting of fires is believed to have increased the frequency of fire far above the natural level. Most of the deliberate burning and the uncontrolled fires occur at the end of the dry season, just before the onset of the summer rains. The fires burn with greater intensity as quantities of dry fuel accumulate. These hotter fires are destructive even to fire tolerant trees and can also have negative impacts because this time coincides with miombo trees breaking their dormancy. Repeated late- season fires in many areas have decreased forest regeneration, seed germination, and seedling survival growth can be severely disturbed. In addition, fire removes species that are less fire-tolerant from the miombo, thereby reducing species diversity. Although large-scale cultivation is relatively uncommon, subsistence agriculture is practiced by as much as 75 percent of the population. Growing staple and cash crops such as maize, cassava, sorghum, millet, and tobacco, pose significant threats to areas of the ecoregion, such as in Zambia, Tanzania and Malawi. Growing tobacco for export has led to large losses of woodland for both land and fuelwood. These losses increase each year as new land is cleared to avoid the risk of root-knot nematodes. The curing of tobacco, is presently carried out using charcoal, compounding environmental problems. Poaching and illegal hunting for bushmeat have a significant impact on the wildlife throughout the ecoregion. Elephant poaching has been extremely severe throughout the ecoregion. Most of areas outside parks and reserves have relatively little wildlife left.

SOUTH MALAWI MONTANE FOREST-GRASSLAND MOSAIC ominating the surrounding countryside, Mount Mulanje is the highest point in South-Central Africa. The ecoregion forms part of the Afromontane archipelago-like regional center of D endemism, and is extended here to include the biologically important Afro-alpine and lowland forest areas. Floristically, the ecoregion shows low generic endemism and moderate levels of specific endemism, including 10 vertebrates and over 10 plants, including a species of cedar tree. The lowland forest has Guineo-Congolian (and eastern African coastal) affinities whereas the high-altitude forests of the ecoregion are largely Afromontane. This region is of great importance to human inhabitants: Mount Mulanje serves as an essential water catchment area for surrounding lowlands and tea and pine plantations that have replaced much of the original vegetation. Today, the remaining stands of Mulanje Cedar total less than 15 km2.

LOCATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION The South Malawi Montane Forest-Grassland Mosaic is situated at the southern end of Malawi. It lies between 15° and 16° S latitude and is about 100 km south of Lake Malawi, to the southwest of the stagnant Lake Chilwa. The ecoregion is made up of Mount Mulanje and other mountains of lower altitude to the west and northwest of Mulanje. Mount Mulanje (35° 30’ E, 16° 00’ S) is the core area of the ecoregion and is the most prominent mountain feature in South-Central Africa (Chapman 1962). The ecoregion is surrounded by areas of low altitude, particularly to the south and to the east where an expansive, flat plain extends into Mozambique. Mount Mulanje rises sharply and dramatically above the surrounding Phalombe Plain, which lies between 600 and 700 m a.s.l. (Dowsett-Lemaire 1988). The massif covers an area of 650 km2 and is comprised of

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high plateaux and basins lying about 2,000 m, incised by several deep ravines. The plateaux are surmounted by 20 rocky peaks, which generally reach about 2,500 m in altitude. One of these, Sapitwa Peak (3,200 m), is the highest point in South-Central Africa. To the north, Mchese Peak (2,289 m) is separated from the main mass of Mulanje by a broad saddle called the Fort Lister Gap, which is about 2 km wide and lies 340 m above the Phalombe Plain. To the west and northwest of Mount Mulanje, across the Thuchila Plain, lie the Shire Highlands (Briggs 1996). The southern portion of these highlands is dominated by Thyolo Mountain (1,462 m a.s.l.), which extends north and south in long ridges, and drops sharply to the Shire River in the west. The eastern slopes of Mount Mulanje undulate gently down to the Thuchila and Ruo Rivers (Boeder 1982). Further north, in the vicinity of Blantyre and Limbe, there is a group of peaks including the Michuru and Chiradzulu mountains. At the northern end of the Shire highlands, to the north west of Mulanje, lies the extensive Zomba Plateau. This Plateau lies at an average altitude of 1,600 m and has many peaks, such as Chagwa, Nawimbe and Mulunguzi, which range between 1,761 m and 2,018 m in elevation (Briggs 1996). While the Shire Highlands and its peaks are conspicuous, they only emphasize the magnitude of Mulanje, which dominates the landscape of the ecoregion.

Geology, Climate & Biophysical Characteristics Mount Mulanje consists of a cluster of coalescing plutonic intrusions of syenite, quartz-syenite and granite, which are uplifted and faulted (Chapman 1991). The rock is approximately 130 million years old and has gradually been exposed as the softer rock around it has eroded away. Bauxite deposits occur on the western side of the mountain, more especially on the Lichenya Plateau. The soils of Mount Mulanje are similar to those found in the fynbos regions of the southern Cape. Chapman and White (1970) examined a soil profile from Mount Mulanje and classified the soils as humic ferrisols. They contain a high silt fraction, are acidic (pH 4.2–4.9) and have low cation exchange capacity. Soil depth varies and is probably greatest in ravines and basins and shallowest on peaks, where sheets of granite lie near or at the surface. Information on the geology and soils of other mountains in this ecoregion is scarce. The ecoregion has a moderate, tropical highland climate (Chapman 1991). It experiences a single, austral summer rainy season, extending from November to April. During this season, rain can be expected most days, often in the form of short thunderstorms. The remainder of the year is drier, but is alleviated by maritime air from the Mozambique Channel which brings spells of mist, drizzle, and rain to the areas facing southeast (termed Chiperone weather). Such weather can occur any time from May to August and lasts a week or more. The quantity of rainfall is variable throughout the ecoregion, particularly on Mount Mulanje, largely due to rain-shadow effects. The average annual rainfall at the tea estates at the southern foot of Mount Mulanje (650 m a.s.l.) is 1,626 mm, with 16 percent falling in the dry season. On the Mountain itself (on the Lichenya Plateau at 1875 m a.s.l.), the average increases to 2,859 mm per year, with 19 percent falling in winter. On the western side of the mountain the rainfall is considerably lower, with very small amounts falling during the dry winter months. Average maximum temperatures within the ecoregion are 24°C in summer and 12°C in winter. At moderate altitudes, minimum temperatures are 15°C and 9°C in summer and winter respectively. At higher altitudes, temperatures drop to –3°C in winter and frosts are common (Chapman and White 1970). The period from September to the start of the rains is the hottest season, with temperatures regularly reaching above 30°C. Humidity levels are low during this season. Temperatures during the austral winter months are cool to moderate and increase towards spring (September). During Chiperone weather, with a southeast wind and driving rain, temperatures drop dramatically and on rare occasions snow has been reported on Sapitwa Peak (Mount Mulanje). During the wet season, the temperatures are warm and the air is humid. Mists are prevalent on the heights of the mountains all year round, except during the driest period in September/October. Mists are essential to forest survival; they condense in the crowns of trees, which

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continue to drip after the sky has cleared, keeping the forest floors damp for weeks after the ground outside the forests has become dry. The two major rivers flowing through this ecoregion are the Luchenza and Ruo. The Luchenza River has its source in the northern portion of the Shire Highlands and flows south, bisecting the ecoregion. The Ruo River has its source in the valley that divides Mulanje into unequal western and eastern lobes (Chapman 1962), and from there it flows south to the Shire River which joins the Zambezi River in Mozambique and flows into the Indian Ocean. Mount Mulanje is a major catchment area and is the source of all rivers in Mulanje District, which supply clean drinking water to the population and to the tea estates. Most of the valleys on Mount Mulanje are abruptly truncated upon reaching the sides of the massif. The rivers draining these valleys descend in fine waterfalls, which are a conspicuous feature of the massif. The Ruo River is the most impressive as its large valley ends abruptly and the river descends in a spectacular waterfall. The Zomba Plateau in the north of the ecoregion is the catchment area for the Mulunguzi River, which flows over the Mandala Falls. [TRJ comment: what about Phalombe River flowing into Lake Chilwa,

Vegetation, including cultivated estate crops The Thyolo Mountain, in the south west of the ecoregion, is a major tea producing area, and tea plantations dominate its gently undulating eastern slopes. These slopes were once covered in lowland rainforest with African mahogany (Khaya anthotheca), Chrysophyllum gorungosanum, Prunus africana, Suregada procera and Xymalos monospora as dominant trees. Lowland rainforest is rare in Malawi, occurring only on Thyolo and Mulanje mountains. The Chiradzulu Mountain, 15 km northeast of Blantyre, supports a small remnant (200 ha) of Afromontane forest above the 1500 m contour. Pine and eucalyptus plantations dominate the Zomba Plateau, whose indigenous vegetation is highly fragmented. Patches of Brachystegia woodland remain on the lower slopes of this Plateau, and at higher altitudes remnants of mid-altitude and Afromontane forests are found in ravines and gorges. The vegetation of Mount Mulanje has been studied in greater detail than that of other mountains in the ecoregion (Brass 1953; Chapman 1962, Dowsett-Lemaire 1988; Dowsett-Lemaire 1990). Five indigenous vegetation types occur on Mulanje, namely miombo woodland, lowland forest, Afromontane/Widdringtonia (endemic Mulanje cedar) forest, plateau grassland and the high altitude vegetation of the peaks (Chapman 1962). The southern and southeastern slopes of Mulanje were, until recently, vegetated by lowland rainforest dominated by Newtonia buchananii and Khaya anthotheca (Chapman 1991). Remnants of this lowland rainforest occur along streams on the lower slopes and on the tea estates at the foot of the mountain. The plateaux of Mulanje are dominated by tussock grasslands. Small groups of trees including Ilex mitis, Philippa benguelensis and Syzygium cordatum are found on the grasslands clumped among large boulders. The endemic Helichrysum whyteanum, with its showy silver and pink bracts, becomes conspicuous during winter. Streams flowing through the grasslands are fringed with tree ferns (Cyathea dregei) and bamboo (Arundinaria spp.). At higher altitudes, the vegetation becomes a heathland similar to those found on the Cape Mountains in South Africa. Mulanje is the only mountain in the ecoregion high enough to support heathland vegetation. Among the species that become prevalent at higher altitude are the endemic Erica milanjiana, Phylica tropica and Aloe arborescens (up to 5 m tall). Grasses include large tussocks of Festuca costata and Danthonia davyi interspersed with cushions of Eragrostis volkensii and the extraordinary grass Alloeochaete oreogena, a Mulanje endemic up to 3 m tall with a tree trunk-like structure. Between 900 m and 1,350 m mid-elevation forest is found. This forest has a low canopy and is hung with many lichens, mosses and epiphytes. Dominant canopy trees are Newtonia buchananni, associated with Albizia adianthifolia, Funtumia africana and Chrysophyllum gorungosanum. The largest remaining block of the mid-elevation forest is found at Chisongole, on the south east of the Mountain. At higher altitudes (above 1,600 m a.s.l.) Afromontane/Widdringtonia forests are found in gorges and ravines, where they are sheltered from dry winds and fire, particularly on the drier western and northern slopes. These forests are taller than the mid-elevation forests, and Olea capensis and the Mulanje cedar (Widdringtonia whytei) are the most common emergent trees. Pauw and Linder (1997) concluded that there

APPENDIX -- 8 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13 ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY THREAT & OPPORTUNITIES IN MALAWI: MILLINGTON & KAFERAWANTHU

are in fact two species of Mulanje cedar on Mount Mulanje, namely Widdringtonia nodiflora and Widdringtonia whytei. W. nodiflora is a multi-stemmed shrub with a swollen underground tuber that occurs on the edges of the forest and survives fire by re-sprouting. This species is widely distributed throughout South-Central Africa. On the other hand W. whytei is restricted to the fire-protected valleys on Mount Mulanje. It grows up to 40 m tall and persists as a broad-crowned canopy tree for hundreds of years. It has been declared Malawi’s National Tree (Chapman 1995). Currently, the cedar forests occur as small fragments on the mountain with a total area of about 14.6 km2 (Pauw 1998). Other important canopy trees present at high elevations include Podocarpus latifolius, Ekebergia capensis, Cassipourea malosana and Rapanea melanophloeos. The high-elevation forests have an abundance of epiphytic orchids and ferns, ground ferns and tree-growing club mosses. Much of the high-elevation forest is fragmented in widely distributed patches. The largest remaining block is on Lichenya (1,850 m a.s.l.) on the south west of Mulanje. It is notable that many species reach their northernmost limit on Mount Mulanje, where they grow unusually large. Diospyros natalensis, for example, is at its northernmost limit on Mulanje, where it is a shapely tree up to 25 m tall. Further south it is a straggling, 4 m high shrub (Chapman 1990). Other examples of gigantism as adaptation to montane environment are Euclea divinorum (25 m) and Haplocoelum foliosum (27 m), both of which reach a greater height on Mulanje than elsewhere in their ranges (Chapman 1991).

BIODIVERSITY FEATURES The ecoregion forms part of the Afromontane archipelago-like regional center of endemism described by White (1983). This center of endemism shows only moderate generic endemism and has only three endemic families, the uni-specific Barbeyaceae and Cornaceae and the uni-generic Oliniaceae. By contrast, the ecoregion has a high level of specific endemism with the majority of species in the region being endemic to it (Werger 1978). Chorological analysis of the trees and shrubs of Mulanje showed that the proportion of Afromontane elements increases from 22 percent in lowland forest, to 44 percent in mid-elevation forest and to 76 percent in the Afromontane forest (Dowsett-Lemaire 1988). The lowland forest has Guineo-Congolian affinities whereas the high-elevation forests of the ecoregion are largely Afromontane. The ecoregion itself has a relatively low level of specific endemism when compared to other Afromontane forest islands in the region, but has a high level of species richness (Werger 1978; WWF and IUCN 1994). The highest rate of endemism in the fauna of the ecoregion is found in the reptiles and amphibians. Two dwarf chameleons, Chamaeleo mlanjensis and Rhampholeon platyceps, are strictly endemic to Mount Mulanje, as are two geckos (Lygodactylus bonsi and L. rex), one skink (Proscelotes mlangensis) and one lizard (Platysaurus michelli). A further nine species of reptile are regarded as near endemic to the ecoregion, including the Mozambique wolf snake (Lycophidion acutirostre) and the Angola dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus angularis). Amongst the amphibians, one frog subspecies (Rana johnstoni johnstoni), a squeaker frog (Arthroleptis francei) and a ridged frog (Ptychadena broadleyi) are strictly endemic to the ecoregion. The Rana spp., and the squeaker frog are restricted to Mount Mulanje, while the ridged frog is found on Mulanje and on the Zomba Plateau (Chapman 1990).

Birds All of the forested mountains in this ecoregion are considered important areas for bird conservation (Strattersfield et al. 1998; Collar and Stuart 1988), and support a number of threatened bird species (Hilton-Taylor 2000; Dowsett-Lemaire 1989). The endangered Thyolo alethe (Alethe choloensis) is endemic to the forests of this ecoregion and is mainly found in the ground stratum of the mid-altitude forests (Keith et al. 1982). Other threatened forest bird species occurring are the spotted ground thrush (Zoothera guttata; endangered) and the white-winged apalis (Apalis chariessa; vulnerable) (Hilton-Taylor 2000). Less rare, but still notable bird species that occur are the olive-flanked robin-chat (Cossypha anomala macclounii), moustached green tinker bird (Pogoniulus leucomystax), and the green headed oriole (Oriolus chlorocephalus).

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A subspecies of the olive-flanked robin-chat (Cossypha anomala macclouniei) is endemic to Mount Mulanje. The grasslands are less important ornithologically. The significant grassland birds are mainly raptors, such as the black and crowned eagles (Aquila verreauxii, Stephanoaetus coronatus) and the lanner and peregrine falcons (Falco biarmicus, F. peregrinus). The blue swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea; vulnerable) and the scarce swift (Schoutedenapus myoptilus) are other notable grassland species, the first of which is globally threatened (Hilton-Taylor 2000). The only near-endemic mammal occurring in the lower elevations of the ecoregion is the greater hamster- rat (Beamys major), which is Locally Rare (Hilton-Taylor 2000).

Mammals All larger mammals in the ecoregion are under continuous threat from hunting (Chapman 1991). The vast herds of large mammals, such as eland (Taurotragus oryx) and sable (Hippotragus niger), that once roamed the foothills of this ecoregion are long gone. The only antelopes to survive are species such as bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) and blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola), which live hidden in dense vegetation. Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) has also survived hunting pressure because it occupies inaccessible, high, rocky slopes. Rock hyraxes are also common on these rocky slopes. Two narrowly distributed subspecies of rock hyrax were first described from Mount Mulanje: (Heterohyrax brucei manningi) and (Procavia capensis johnstoni). Hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) are common in the woodlands throughout the ecoregion and both the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) and the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) occur in the forests. A subspecies of blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis nyasae) is near endemic to the ecoregion, with Mount Mulanje as its type locality. These mammals are the main prey for the few leopards (Panthera pardus) that still survive in the mountains of the ecoregion. Besides leopard, other smaller predators include the small spotted genet (Genetta genetta), serval (Felis serval) and the African civet (Civettictis civetta). Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is also found in the ecoregion.

CURRENT STATUS The current status of conservation within the ecoregion is poor (Chapman 1990; Chapman 1991; Sakai 1989). The conservation areas, classified as forest reserves, have inadequate controls and are managed by the Department of Forestry. The reserves are generally dominated by pine and eucalyptus plantations, with remnant fragments of indigenous vegetation remaining in more inaccessible areas. The Thyolo Forest Reserve, situated on the Thyolo Mountain to the southwest of the ecoregion, conserves the largest remaining patch of lowland rainforest. The mountain is otherwise dominated by tea plantations (Briggs 1996). The Michiru Mountain Conservation area is situated northwest of Blantyre, covers 50 km2 of Michiru Mountain and serves as a center for environmental education, with areas set aside for forestry and agriculture. A small area contains indigenous woodland with patches of forest in the ravines (Stuart and Stuart 1992). The Chiradzulu Forest Reserve, 15 km north of Blantyre, supports a small remnant of forest (200 ha) above the 1,500 m contour. To the north lies the Zomba Plateau Forest Reserve. This is Malawi’s oldest forest reserve (gazetted in 1913), and is largely covered in plantations. Small fragmented patches of forest and miombo woodland remain (Stuart and Stuart 1992). The Mulanje Forest Reserve was formally gazetted a forest reserve in 1927, more to ensure the Forestry Department permanent exploitation rights for cedar than for conservation of the mountain (Chapman 1990). The reserve is under constant threat from the dense population surrounding it and its boundary has been adjusted a number of times due to encroachment by cultivators on the lower slopes. In November 2000, Mount Mulanje was approved as a new biosphere reserve. A biosphere reserve is an internationally recognized area promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with sustainable use.

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TYPES AND SEVERITY OF THREATS Forestry and agriculture are the two major threats to the conservation of the ecoregion. Large areas throughout the ecoregion have been turned over to pine and eucalyptus plantations. Nearly all of the indigenous vegetation on the Zomba Plateau has been supplanted by Mexican pine (Verboom 1992). The Thyolo and Mulanje districts are major tea producing areas and the natural vegetation on the south eastern slopes of these mountains has been replaced by extensive tea plantations. Tea was first planted on the slopes of Mount Mulanje in 1891 and then on Thyolo Mountain in 1933. Until the mid 1960’s this ecoregion was the most extensive area of tea under cultivation anywhere in Africa (Boeder 1988). Annual food crops are also planted on the rain-facing southern and southeastern slopes. In the early 1980’s, hundreds of hectares of lowland rainforest were destroyed on the southern slopes of Mulanje to grow maize (Chapman 1991). Crop fields continue to extend up the slopes of Mulanje today (above the Forest Reserve boundary) and repeated efforts by the forestry department to evict the encroachers have failed. The extensive, forested slope below Manene peak (2,650 m) is constantly being encroached upon, the situation compounded by a fast expanding population, and in the past by an influx of Mozambican refugees. The drier western and northern slopes of Mount Mulanje have been impacted to a lesser degree, largely due to the absence of tea plantations. However, the vegetation is still somewhat degraded, mainly by woodcutters. Other plants such as bamboo, thatching grass and Raphia palm are also harvested from these lower slopes. The destruction of the indigenous vegetation of Mount Mulanje had serious implications in March 1991 when heavy rains caused an avalanche on Mchese Mountain, killing 500 people. This avalanche could have been less horrific had the forests on the lower slopes of Mchese been intact (Chapman 1991). The Mulanje cedar, Widdringtonia whytei, is under serious threat from over exploitation. Exploitation of this tree began in about 1900, under the control of the Department of Forestry. In 1927 much of Mulanje was gazetted as a forest reserve, but cedar felling continued. Efforts were made to replant cedar stands, but these stands, which were developing well, succumbed to fire. No further attempt has been made to reestablish cedar on the mountain despite the economic incentive (cedar has become a high- priced wood) and the fact that Malawi has adopted the cedar as its national tree (Chapman 1991). A plan to replant cedar in the Chambe Basin in 1960 failed to materialize and the area has now become a pine plantation (Chapman 1990). High fire frequency on the mountain resulted in a large number of cedar trees being killed and as a result, the felling of living trees was made illegal. However, this has not stopped the felling and some of the finest cedar stands have been cut since this legislation was put into place. It has also been suggested that this legislation has encouraged arson to ensure supplies of exploitable (burnt dead) trees (Chapman 1991). Currently, the cedar forests are greatly diminished, occurring as small fragments with a total area of about 14,6 km2 (Chapman 1995). Another serious threat to the ecoregion is the uncontrolled invasion by the exotic Himalayan raspberry (Rubus ellipticus) and the Mexican pine (Pinus patula) (Verboom 1992). These invaders have reached every corner of the ecoregion. A successful pine eradication program was carried out on Mount Mulanje between 1987 and 1988, leaving only two areas of the mountain to be cleared. This work was however not followed up and the pines have reappeared, with Mchese Peak the only area not invaded (Chapman 1991). The eradication effort was useful in that it proved the feasibility of controlling the pine invasion. The Himalayan raspberry, on the other hand, is firmly established and extremely difficult to eradicate. This vigorous bush, which grows up to 6 m high, was first recorded 60 years ago (Chapman 1991). Hunting for food and skins is putting pressure on the wildlife of the ecoregion. Hunting parties set traps and wire snares throughout the mountains and the forests of Mount Mulanje are beset with snares. The poaching parties are largely responsible for the many fires that occur towards the end of the dry season (Chapman 1990). The hunting of small mammals is also indirectly threatening the survival of predators (e.g. leopard) through competition for food. Direct hunting of predators (for their skins) has also been reported. Bauxite deposits discovered on Mount Mulanje in 1924 contain at least 20 million tons of bauxite. The possible exploitation of this resource remains a serious threat to the mountain (Chapman 1991).

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JUSTIFICATION OF ECOREGION DELINEATION The ecoregion delineation follows the vegetation map of White (1983) that outlines Mount Mulanje, Thyolo, Shire and Chiradzulu mountains within the larger ‘undifferentiated montane vegetation’ and ‘altimontane vegetation’ units. The ecoregion ranges from c. 600 m to over 3000 m altitude to capture the transitions between lower and higher elevation fauna. The ecoregion is centered on Mount Mulanje, with a number of endemic species shared with other mountains within this ecoregion. It is distinguished as a Center of Plant Diversity (WWF and IUCN 1994) and as part of a larger Endemic Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1998).

REFERENCES Boeder, R.B. 1982. Peasants and plantations in the Mulanje and Thyolo Districts of Southern Malawi. African Studies Seminar Paper, African Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Brass, L.J. 1953. Vegetation of Nyasaland. Report on the Vernay Nyasaland Expedition. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden. Vol. 8 no. 3. Briggs, P. 1996. Guide to Malawi. Bradt Publications, United Kingdom. Chapman, J.D. 1962. The vegetation of the Mlanje Mountains of Nyasaland. The Government Printer, Zomba, Malawi. Chapman, J.D. 1990. Mount Mulanje, Malawi: a plea for its future. A publication of the World Wildlife Fund. Chapman, J.D. 1991. Centres of Plant Diversity: a guide and strategy for their conservation: Mount Mulanje. An IUCN – WWF report. Chapman, J.D. 1995. Notes on Mulanje Cedar, Malawi’s National Tree. The Wildlife Society of Malawi, Lilongwe. Chapman, J.D. and F. White. 1970. The evergreen forests of Malawi. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford. pp. 190. Collar, N.J. and S.N. Stuart. 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. 1988. The forest vegetation of Mt. Mulanje (Malawi): a floristic and chorological study along an altitudinal gradient (650-1950 m).Bull. Jard. Bot. Nat. Belg. 58: 77-107. Dowsett-Lemaire F. 1989. The flora and phytogeography of the evergreen forests of Malawi. I. Afromontane and mid-altitude forests. Bull. Jardin Bot. Nat. Belg. 59: 3-131. Dowsett-Lemaire, F. 1989. Ecological and biogeographical aspects of forest bird communities in Malawi. Scopus 13: 1-80. Dowsett-Lemaire F. 1990. The flora and phytogeography of the evergreen forests of Malawi. II. Lowland Forests. Bull. Jardin Botanique Nat. Belgique 60: 9-71. Hilton-Taylor, C. 2000. 1998. The IUCN 2000 red list of threatened species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, United Kingdom. Keith, S., E.K. Urban, and C.H. Fry. 1982. The Birds of Africa. Vol. IV. Academic Press, London. pp.451. Pauw, C.A. and H.P. Linder, 1997. Tropical African cedars (Widdringtonia, Cupressaceae): systematics, ecology and conservation status. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 123: 297-319. Pauw. C.A. 1998. Will a new name save Malawi’s cedars? Sabonet News. Vol. 3 No.1. pp.33-34. Sakai, I. 1989. A report on the Mulanje Cedar resources and the present crisis. Forestry Research Record No. 65. F.R.I.M., Zomba.

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Stuart, C. and T. Stuart. 1992. Guide to the Southern African Game and Nature Reserves. Struik, Cape Town. Stattersfield, A. J., M. J. Crosby, A. J. Long, and D. C. Wege. 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World. Priorities for biodiversity conservation. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 7. BirdLife International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Verboom, G.A. 1992. A Report on the Invasive Status of Pinus patula on Mount Mulanje, Malawi. Honours Thesis. University of Cape Town. Werger, M.J.A. 1978. Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. Junk, The Hague. White, F. 1983. The vegetation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa (3 Plates, Northwestern Africa, Northeastern Africa, and Southern Africa, 1:5,000,000). UNESCO, Paris. WWF and IUCN, 1994. Centres of plant diversity. A guide and strategy for their conservation. Volume 1. Europe, Africa, South West Asia and the Middle East. IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge, U.K.

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APPENDIX -- 14 MALAWI COMPASS II OCCASIONAL PAPER NO. 13