Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites

Home , Gulangyu, Jinggang Mountains, Jiuzhaigou, Longmen Grottoes, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Putuo

International Journal of Comparative Literature & Translation Studies ISSN: 2202-9451 www.ijclts.aiac.org.au

Siowai LO* Macao Polytechnic Institute, Macao Corresponding Author: Siowai LO, E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history This article identifies the translation approaches adopted in the translation of names of tourist Received: July 22, 2020 sites in China and examines how ‘fame’ and ‘popularity’ may influence these approaches. Upon Accepted: January 15, 2021 analyzing a corpus of scenic site names, it is found that ‘pure phonetic’, ‘phonetic (name) + Published: January 31, 2021 semantic (class)’, ‘pure semantic’, and ‘phonetic (location) + semantic (name) are the four major Volume: 9 Issue: 1 patterns in the translations of site names. On the whole, the data shows that phonetic translation is dominant over semantic translation. Meanwhile, ‘fame’ and ‘popularity’ have great impact on the translated names of scenic sites. The findings also suggest that a phonetic translation Conflicts of interest: None approach is preferred in rendering names of world-famous sites whereas a semantic translation Funding: None approach is more frequently used for the name translation of sites located in places with higher popularity. The conflicting results reflect China’s struggle between preserving its cultural flavor for the sake of national identity and catering to foreign visitors for the benefit of the country’s Keywords: tourism development. Attraction Names, Phonetic Translation, Semantic Translation, Foreignization, Domestication

INTRODUCTION place names. This article seeks to identify specific transla- As China receives more foreign visitors, the English translation approaches adopted in the English translation of tourist tion of tourist information plays an increasingly crucial role site names in China through scrutinizing a corpus of trans- in the development of the tourism industry. Among a range lated tourist site names and examine whether and to what of tourist information, the translation of the names of tourist extent fame and popularity may influence the preference of sites is one of the most fundamental and significant elements translation approaches. The specific research questions are in the sector. Despite a composition of only a few words, as follows: an improper translation of tourist site names can project a 1. What are the approaches adopted in the English transla- wrong impression of the sites among tourists who have not tion of tourist site names in China? How frequently are yet visited the place in person, or result in travellers’ mis- these translation strategies adopted in China? understanding and confusion (Dann, 1996). Although in- 2. To what extent do fame and popularity influence the creasing attention has been paid to the English translation translation of tourist site names in China? of Chinese attraction names following the growth of China’s tourism industry, the translation approaches adopted vary LITERATURE REVIEW greatly. There are comparatively reader-friendly translated names such as ‘Summer Palace’ and ‘West Lake’. There The Function and Importance of Place Names are semi-foreign translated names like ‘Mount Taishan’ and A geographical name, as defined by Aurosseau (1957, p. 8), ‘Huangguoshu Falls’ that are fairly understandable, but there is ‘the proper name, or geographical expression, by which are also translated names such as ‘Jiuzhaigou’ and ‘Shan- a particular geographical entity is known’. It can be simple haiguan’ that appear completely alien to most target readers. like ‘York’ or compound like ‘Isle of Wight’ (p. 8). Com- To date there has been no guidance on how tourist site pound names can be comprised of a generic part and a spe- names could be or should be translated. There is also a lack cific part. The general part of a geographical name, usually of studies on decisive factors that may contribute to pref- a common noun like ‘Cape’, indicates ‘what class of thing a erences for different translation. Unlike common nouns, geographical feature is’, whereas the specific part, which can proper nouns often create special problems for translators be a proper noun, an adjective, or a phrase, usually intends to as they cannot be easily omitted, especially in the case of tell ‘which of the indicated class is meant’ (p. 8).

Published by Australian International Academic Centre PTY.LTD. Copyright (c) the author(s). This is an open access article under CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijclts.v.9n.1p.31 32 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Despite sharing the same features as ordinary geograph- by Katharina Reiss in 1976, which argues that texts can be ical names, names of scenic sites carry significant missions classified according to informative, expressive and operative aside from simply an identification of location (Ecker, functions, and the selection of translation approaches should 1940; Kaups, 1966; McCulloch, 1989; Sofield and Li, 1998; be determined by text type. According to Reiss (1976), in Steward, 1945). Clark (2009) conducted a case study on translating informative texts, one should transmit the full the relationship between the names of indigenous tourism referential and conceptual content of the source text (ST) sites in Australia and tourists’ behaviour to demonstrate the and translation should be in plain language. For expressive significance of site names as tourism markers. The study texts, such as literature, novels, and poems, the translation found that visitors were often confused or disappointed by should follow closely the standpoint of the author and trans- misleading or inappropriate site names and some even took mit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST. As for operative extreme measures such as scratching words or drawings on texts, Reiss (1976) states that the translation should attempt the rock or public area nearby. For instance, tourists who to create equivalent effects among target readers. Despite visited ‘Cave of Fishes’ and found no fishes were annoyed Reiss’s attempt to provide a guide to the choice of transla- by the name and scratched drawings of fish into the rock or tion strategies based on the classification of text-types, her sarcastically rename the site as ‘Cave of Jaws’ (p. 111). In instructions in the translation of tourist texts, not to mention view of constant troubles caused by inappropriate names, the the specific concern of place names, are limited and ambig- Victorian Tourism Commission decided to replace aborigi- uous. In her famous text-type classification, Reiss classifies nal place names in and around the Grampians National Park tourist brochures somewhere between informative, expres- with more suitable names on the public art sites in March sive, and operative types. Suppose this multi-purpose nature 1989. Such acts, according to Clark (2009), demonstrate that holds true in the case of names of tourist sites, which belongs naming, which presents an image to tourists and is likely to the genre of tourism texts, the solution as to how to render to affect tourists’ attitude, function as a crucial management names according to their purpose still lacks clear guidance. tool in protecting and promoting tourism. The answer to whether one should adopt the translation ap- Correspondently, Leiper (1990) points out that name con- proach that caters to an informative text, an expressive text, notation serves as a vital marker, a promotional or operation- or an operative text is still unclear. Confronted by the dif- al device which is often used in tourism marketing to provide ferences in the language system and cultural background of tourists with information about the sites, and names of the the two languages (Cronin, 2003, 2006; Liu, 1999), some sites can entail connotations that influence tourists’ views of elements of the place names may inevitably be sacrificed in the place. Leiper (1990, p. 379) claims that ‘positive conno- the translation. Often, either the name loses its original fla- tation can contribute to the satisfaction of places, which is vor to be reader-friendly or it sacrifices the smoothness of why organizations trying to promote a place often coin new the translation to preserve its own taste. names for it with tourist markets in mind’. Translation of Proper Names Translation of Place Names One of the challenges with translation of proper names lies in In his book, The Rendering of Geographical Names, Aurous- identifying how it differentiates from common names. Prop- seau (1957) provides the following suggestions for the ren- er names can be names of people, things, places and animals dering of geographical names: and they refer to extralinguistic, unique and specific objects We may take it directly, if it be written in the Roman with distinct meanings. In the past, proper names were often alphabet; we may render it letter-for-letter from a for- naturalized, but there have gradually been more concerns as eign Roman alphabet or from any non-Roman alphabet; to whether proper names should be translated. Despite often we may render it sound-for-sound, either by ear from known as rigid designators, proper names can convey com- any language, or by transcription from any alphabet or plex meaning through their connotations and etymology. In non-alphabetical script; we may translate it, if it has dealing with proper names translators may sometimes resort meaning; or, if it is a compound name containing a geo- to solutions such as making the target text less clear or less graphical term and a proper noun or adjective, we may obvious than the source text in order to maintain their cul- turn it into an English name by partial translation. (Au- tural identity and foreign flavor, while in some cases they rousseau 1957, p. 87) may have to prioritize the law of usage (Ballard, 1993). However, Aurousseau (1957) acknowledges that the Compared to other categories of proper names (Hollis & hardship in translating geographical names is not in the sim- Valentine, 2001; Zabeeh, 2012), place name translation has ple conversion from the source text (ST) to the target text received relatively limited attention in the field of transla- (TT), but in how to preserve their identity after the transcription studies (Smith, 1876; Zhong & Lin, 2007). Hermans tion process. The resolution to the rendering of geographi- (1988) provides similar suggestions as Aurousseau’s (1957) cal names, according to Aurousseau (1957, p. 51), ‘depends and proposes that there are four major strategies to translate partly upon the kind of name under consideration, but main- proper names, including (1) reproduction (such as retaining ly upon the purpose for which transcription is required’. the English words ‘Charles’ in the Chinese translation); (2) In a broad sense, the concept of ‘purpose’ being the de- transliteration (such as the translation of the name ‘Charles’ terminer of the application of translation strategies corre- into its phonetic correspondence ‘查理斯’); (3) substitution1 sponds to the famous Text-type Functional Theory, proposed (which allows words unrelated to the source text to be used Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 33 in the target text; and (4) translation (such as rendering ‘西 Theoretical Notions: Meaning Translation and Sound 湖’ into ‘West Lake’ - a literal translation of the Chinese ‘西’ Translation 湖 west and ‘ ’ lake). On the whole, literature on translation of names suggests that Among various subordinates of proper names, brand phonetic translation and semantic translation, also known as name translation is also worth noting as it involves market- ‘sound translation’ and ‘meaning translation’ respectively, ing and promotional functions (Francis et al., 2002; Huang are the two major strategies for name translation (Li, 2007, & Chan, 2005; Keller, 1998), and therefore likely to offer p. 3). These two opposing approaches are allied with the special insights into the translation of names of tourist sites, two Chinese translation theories, ‘Yinyi’(音译) and ‘Yiyi’(意 which also struggles between the preservation of local iden- 译). The former refers to the transfer of sound and the latter tity and the use of promotional language that accommodates refers to the transfer of meaning. Meanwhile, the concept target audiences. In light of this, I turn to exploring strategies of sound translation is sometimes referred to as ‘translitera- in brand name translation. tion’, while the notion of meaning translation can be divid- The three major strategies for rendering brand names, ac- ed into word-for-word or sense-for-sense translation. In this cording to Zhang and Schmitt (2001), are phonetic transla- study, the concept of ‘translating by sound’ and ‘translating tion (translating by sound), semantic translation (translating by meaning’ will be referred to as ‘phonetic translation’ and by meaning), and phono-semantic translation (translating by ‘semantic translation’ respectively. sound plus meaning). Phonetic translation seeks to maintain the sound of the original by translating the ST phonetically, such as Disney ‘迪士尼’ (Di-shi-ni) and Pepsi ‘百事’ (Bai- METHODOLOGY shi), whereas semantic translation seeks to retain the meaning Data Collection of the name even at the cost of its sound, such as Microsoft One of the major obstacles in collecting corpus data for the ‘微软’ (Wei-ruan) and Apple ‘苹果’ (Ping-guo). ‘Wei-ruan’ present study is the existence of unstandardized English trans- literally means ‘micro’ (wei) and ‘soft’ (ruan), while Ping-guo lations of tourist site names in China. Even the translated is semantically known as apple in Chinese. Phono-semantic names of some major tourist sites lack uniformity and vary translation aims to maintain both the sound and the meaning from time to time, not to mention those located in remote or of the ST by selecting linguistic symbols that are both pho- less developed areas which receive less attention from the netically and semantically related to the original brand name. tourism authorities. To ensure a fair selection and analysis, the For instance, Coca-Cola is translated as ‘可口可乐’ (Ke-kou- corpus study of this article draws on the Chinese names and ke-le), which on one hand, achieves a match of sound, and on English translations of 66 tourist sites which have been ap- the other hand, entails a favorable meaning ‘taste good and proved to be national AAAAA-rated (a grading system of site make you happy’. However, the three strategies all have their qualities in the Chinese tourism industry, in which every ‘A’ respective constraints. Although phonetic translation contrib- represents a higher rank) tourist attractions and released on the utes to the preservation of the original sound, the combina- official website of the China National Tourism Administration tion of meaningless or irrelevant syllables cannot conjure up (CNTA, 2008). It was assumed that the translations of these relevant meaning and therefore will unlikely provide target 5A tourist sites are officially established and standardized. readers with any clue about the meaning or association of The location of the sites (city or province) were included in a the name. Semantic translation, on the other hand, is often corpus table for the convenience of further analysis. Sourced not applicable when the name is not semantically comprehen- between 2009 and 2019, this corpus of names (Table 1) was sible or is not lexicalized in the dictionary. Phono-semantic primarily utilized to identify the translation strategies adopted translation apparently suffers from the hardship of selecting a in Chinese-English translation of tourist site names. Two vari- name that contains both the phonetic and semantic essence of ables, including a list of attractions in this corpus that are also the ST (Zhang & Schmitt, 2001). titled as World Heritage sites (see Table 2) and statistical data Pragmatically, the concept of phonetic translation and se- that shows the number of foreign visitors in different areas mantic translation proposed by Zhang and Schmitt (2001) in China (see Table 3 and Appendix 2), were later examined for brand name translation is similar to the two approach- to explore factors that may affect the adoption of translation es, transliteration and translation, introduced by Herman strategies translating place names from Chinese to English. (1988). In addition, some existing place names in China are translated in favor of both their sound supplemented by relevant semantic meaning, which is similar to the concept The Study of phono-semantic translation introduced for brand name Translated names in the corpus were scrutinized to identify translation. For instance, ‘龙门石窟’ (龙 ‘long’ literally the common translation strategies used to render these names, means ‘dragon’, 门 ‘men’ literally means ‘door’, and 石窟 say, whether they were translated by meaning, by sound or by ‘shi-ku’ literally means ‘grottoes’) is translated as ‘Longmen other specific patterns such as the ‘phono-semantic’ method Grottoes’.‘Longmen’ retains the original sound, while identified in brand name translation. Items such as articles ‘Grottoes’ provides the semantic meaning of the original to and numbers in the names were excluded in the analysis as target readers. It is, therefore, considered that the three strat- they were universally rendered in the same way, i.e. seman- egies for brand name translation may also be well practiced tically. Their frequency of use was then examined, followed in place name translation. by investigation into the impact of fame and popularity on 34 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Table 1. Corpus study: 5A tourist sites in china Table 1. (Continued) Location Chinese name English translation Location Chinese name English translation Beijing 故宫博物院 The Palace Museum 龙门石窟 Longmen Grottoes 天坛公园 The Temple of Heaven 云台山 Mountain Yuntai 颐和园 The Summer Palace Hunan 南岳衡山 Nanyue Mountain 八达岭长城 Badaling Great Wall 张家界武陵源 Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan Tianjin 天津古文化街 Tianjin Ancient Culture Hubei 黄鹤楼公园 Yellow Crane Tower Street 三峡大坝 The Three Gorges 盘山 Panshan Guangdong 长隆旅游度假区 Chime-long Paradise Hebei 山海关 Shanhaiguan 华侨城旅游度假区 Overseas Chinese Town 白洋淀 Lake Baiyandian Guangxi 漓江景区 Lijiang River 承德避暑山庄及周 The Imperial Summer 桂林市乐满地度假 Guilin Merryland Resort 围寺庙 Resort and the 世界 Surrounding Temples Hainan 南山文化旅游区 Nanshan Cultural Shanxi 云冈石窟 Yungang Grottoes Tourism Area 五台山 Mount Wutai 南山大小洞天 Nanshan Big and Small Liaoning 沈阳市植物园 Shenyang Botanical Cave Garden Chongqing 大足石刻 Dazu Rock Carvings 大连老虎滩海洋公 Dalian Polar Aquarium of 巫山小三峡-小小 The little Three Gorges 园.老虎滩极地馆 Tiger Beach Ocean Park 三峡 and the little-little Jiling 伪满皇宫博物院 Puppet Manchukuo’s Three Gorges of Mount Royal Palace Museum Wushan 长白山 Mount Changbai Sichuan 青城山--都江堰 Mount Qingcheng and Heilongjiang 哈尔滨市太阳岛 Harbin Sun Island Park Dujiangyan Irrigation System Shanghai 上海东方明珠广播 The Oriental Pearl TV 电视塔 Tower 峨眉山 Mountain Emei 上海野生动物园 Shanghai Wildlife Park 九寨沟 Jiuzhaigou Jiangsu 钟山-中山陵园 Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s Guizhou 黄果树大瀑布 Huangguoshu Falls Mausoleum in 龙宫 Dragon Palace Zhongshan Hill 石林 Stone Forest 中央电视台无锡影 CCTV Wuxi Film/ 玉龙雪山 Yulong Snow Mountain 视基地三国水浒 TV Studio used for the shooting of The Three Shaanxi 秦始皇兵马俑博 The Terracotta Warriors Kingdoms and Water 物馆 and Horses Margins 华清池 Huaqing Hot Spring 拙政园 Humble Administrator’s 黄帝陵 The Yellow Emperor’s Garden Tomb 周庄古镇 Zhouzhuang Town area Gansu 嘉峪关文物 Jiayuguan Cultural Zhejiang 西湖 The West Lake Relics 雁荡山 Mount Yandang 崆峒山 Kongtong 普陀山 Mount Putuo Ningxia 沙湖 Sand Lake Anhui 黄山 Mount Huangshan 沙坡头 Shapotou 九华山 Mount Jiuhua Xinjiang 天山天池 Tianchi in the Tianshan Mountains Fujian 鼓浪屿 Gulangyu Island 葡萄沟 Grape Valley 武夷山 Mount Wuyi 喀纳斯 Resort Kanasi Lake Jiangxi 庐山 Mount Lushan 井冈山 Jinggang Mountain the translation of tourist site names. To examine whether and Shandong 蓬莱阁 Penglai Pavilion how fame influences the preference of translation strategies 三孔 Three Kongs in rendering Chinese site names into English, the tourist sites that were both included in this corpus and inscribed on the Mountain Tai 泰山 World Heritage were examined. The information was sourced Henan 嵩山少林 Mount Song Shaolin from the official site of UNESCO World Heritage between (Contd..) 2009 and 2019 (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2019). Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 35

Table 2. A list of world heritage sites translation, distinguished in prior studies hold true in the Chinese-English translation of tourist site names. Some Chinese Name English translation Translation names are translated phonetically according to their Pinyin strategy pronunciation, such as ‘Panshan’ (‘盘山’, literally around a 天坛公园 The Temple of Heaven Pure semantic mountain) and ‘Shanhaiguan’ (‘山海关’, literally ‘mountain, 颐和园 The Summer Palace Pure semantic sea and pass). Some are rendered semantically, such as the 八达岭长城 Badaling Great Wall Phonetic (name) + translation of ‘天坛公园’ into ‘The Temple of Heaven’ and ‘ semantic (class) 拙政园’ into ‘Humble Administrator’s Garden’. 云冈石窟 Yungang Grottoes Phonetic (name) + However, as shown in Table 4, aside from these two com- semantic (class) mon strategies evident in ordinary proper name translation, 黄山 Mount Huangshan Phonetic (name) + two additional distinct patterns are discovered in the trans- semantic (class) lation of tourist site names, i.e. phonetic (name) + semantic (class) and phonetic (location) + semantic (name). 武夷山 Mount Wuyi Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) ‘Phonetic (name) + semantic (class)’ refers to the pattern in which the core element of the name is translated phonet- 庐山 Mount Lushan Phonetic (name) + ically with semantic explanation of the class of the site. For semantic (class) instance, ‘五台山’ is translated as ‘Mount Wutai’, in which 泰山 Mountain Tai Phonetic (name) + the central subject name ‘五台’ is rendered phonetically as semantic (class) ‘Wutai’, while the descriptive noun ‘山’ which explicates the 龙门石窟 Longmen Grottoes Phonetic (name) + category of the subject is translated as ‘Mount’. Likewise, semantic (class) the translations ‘Mount Yandang’, ‘Mount Putuo’, ‘Mount 张家界武陵源 Zhangjiajie Pure phonetic Jiuhua’, and ‘Mount Lushan’ seek to maintain the phonetic Wulingyuan sound of the original name but offer readers with informa- 大足石刻 Dazu Rock Carvings Phonetic (name) + tion of the attraction by rendering a meaningful unit semanti- semantic (class) cally. Sometimes, the class type information is supplemented 青城山--都 Mount Qingcheng and Phonetic (name) + in addition to the phonetic translation, such as the case in the 江堰 Dujiangyan Irrigation semantic (class) translation ‘白洋淀’ into ‘Lake Baiyandian’. System On the contrary, in the pattern ‘phonetic (location) + se- 峨眉山 Mountain Emei Phonetic (name) + mantic (name), the core elements of the name are translat- semantic (class) ed semantically while the location of the site is maintained 九寨沟 Jiuzhaigou Pure phonetic phonetically. For example, in the translation ‘大连老虎滩海洋公园.老虎滩极地馆’ (‘Dalian Polar Aquarium of Tiger Beach Ocean Park’), the foundation of the name ‘老虎滩海 The rationale was that China would place great importance 洋公园.老虎滩极地馆’ is translated meaningfully as ‘Polar on sites submitted to strive for the title and name of ‘World Aquarium of Tiger Beach Ocean Park’, whereas ‘大连’, the Heritage’ and hence special attention and supervision must unit which indicates the location of the attraction, is retained have been given to the English translations of the names of phonetically. More examples can be found in Appendix 1. these tourist sites. These findings were then compared with Despite the prevalence of the above specific patterns in the general findings for the translation strategies adopted in the Chinese-English translations of tourist site names, in a the corpus to investigate whether and to what extent fame broad sense, the two patterns ‘phonetic (name) + semantic influences the preference for translation strategies. (class)’ and ‘phonetic (location) + semantic (name)’, is an Meanwhile, the impact of popularity on the translation of application of a phonetic translation approach and a seman- tourist site names in China was examined by analyzing the tic translation approach respectively. Even though the ‘class’ statistics of ‘international tourists by Chinese locality (city)’. of the site is translated semantically, the former pattern seeks The information was sourced from the China National to maintain the sound of the core elements of the name rather Tourism Administration and consists of two volumes of data than converting them into their semantic meaning. Based on (see Appendix 2). For simplicity the total number of foreign this reason, such a pattern can be considered as a phonetic visitors received in different cities were taken into consider- translation, though differing from a pure phonetic translation. ation. Cities that received more foreign visitors in total were Conversely, though retaining the sound of the location label, sorted in descending order. Finally, the English translations the latter pattern ‘phonetic (location) + semantic (name)’ in the corpus were analyzed to see whether popularity affects seeks to render the core elements of the name into semantic the choice of translation approaches. understandable units. It is hence practically an implemen- tation of a semantic translation approach, though departing RESULTS from a pure semantic translation. A Study of Chinese-English Translation Strategies for Names of Tourist sites Frequency of Use In dissecting the translated names in the corpus, it is found In addition to the translation approaches found in the English that the two translation strategies, phonetic and semantic translations in the corpus, the frequency of use of the four 36 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Table 3. International tourists by locality Location Number of international Number of international Total number tourists Jan-Dec 2008 (I) tourists Jan-Dec 2008 (II) of visitors 上海 SHANGHAI 4416223 16195342 20611565 广东 GUANGDONG 6088231 14268534 20356765 江苏 JIANGSU 3961095 16222695 20183790 北京 BEIJING 3357173 15644426 19001599 浙江 ZHEJIANG 3661293 9754249 13415542 辽宁 LIAONING 2072737 6378133 8450870 山东 SHANDONG 2064275 5729342 7793617 黑龙江 HEILONGJIANG 1933370 4118759 6052129 福建 FUJIAN 986440 4856313 5842753 天津 TIANJIN 1130037 3964604 5094641 内蒙古 INNER MONGOLIA 1532302 3205766 4738068 云南 YUNNAN 1691835 2981422 4673257 陕西 SHAANXI 936662 2547682 3484344 广西 GUANGXI 1200138 2075222 3275360 湖南 HUNAN 710983 2342399 3053382 重庆 CHONGQING 742792 2139292 2882084 湖北 HUBEI 926625 1734211 2660836 安徽 ANHUI 908195 1712550 2620745 河北 HEBEI 670210 1568507 2238717 河南 HENAN 679122 1389467 2068589 海南 HAINAN 530762 1502886 2033648 山西 SHANXI 579354 1071313 1650667 吉林 JILIN 524624 1010770 1535394 四川 SICHUAN 477740 929496 1407236 新疆 XINJIANG 327688 758724 1086412 江西 JIANGXI 30831 638139 668970 贵州 GUIZHOU 182231 288342 470573 西藏 TIBET 62934 159367 222301 甘肃 GANSU 59844 80824 140668 青海 QINGHAI 20591 59418 80009 宁夏 NINGXIA 9306 17820 27126 specific translation patterns identified above was- exam Translation of Names of ‘World Heritage’ Tourist ined. Attractions It is found that among the 66 site names in the corpus of this Table 2 presents the 14 tourist sites in the corpus of this pa- article, 51.51% of the names are translated through the pattern per which are granted as ‘World Heritage’ and thus reflect a ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class)’, and 28.8% of the names certain level of fame. It is found that the pattern ‘phonetic are rendered through ‘pure semantic’ approach, as shown in (name) + semantic (class)’ is mostly adopted. Among the Table 5. In contrast to the frequent use of the above two strate- 14 translated names, 10 of them followed such a pattern. gies, the other two patterns, ‘pure phonetic’ and ‘phonetic (loca- ‘Pure semantic’ and ‘pure phonetic’ translation strategies are tion) + semantic (name)’, are adopted relatively less frequently. equally adopted, with 2 of the 14 names rendered seman- Only 10.6% of the site names are rendered through a ‘pure pho- tically and the other 2 translated phonetically. Such results netic’ pattern. Similarly, merely 9.09% of the translated names reflect a relatively high preference for a phonetic translation are of the pattern ‘phonetic (location) + semantic (name)’. approach, with 71.4% of the examined names translated In general, the use of phonetic translation overrides that through the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class)’ and of semantic translation. Overall speaking, the former ap- 14.3% through ‘pure phonetic’ means. proach accounts for 62.11% of the translations in the corpus, This result shows a similar tendency as that discovered while the latter only makes up 37.89% in total. in Section 4.2, i.e. phonetic translation is applied more Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 37

Table 4 . Analysis of translation strategies of the corpus names Chinese name English translation Element analysis 故宫博物院 The Palace Museum Pure semantic 天坛公园 The Temple of Heaven Pure semantic 颐和园 The Summer Palace Pure semantic 八达岭长城 Badaling Great Wall Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 天津古文化街 Tianjin Ancient Culture Street Phonetic (location) + semantic (name) 盘山 Panshan Pure phonetic 山海关 Shanhaiguan Pure phonetic 白洋淀 Lake Baiyandian Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 承德避暑山庄及周围寺庙 The Imperial Summer Resort and the Surrounding Temples Pure semantic 云冈石窟 Yungang Grottoes Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 五台山 Mount Wutai Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 沈阳市植物园 Shenyang Botanical Garden Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 大连老虎滩海洋公园.老虎 Dalian Polar Aquarium of Tiger Beach Ocean Park Phonetic (location) + semantic (name) 滩极地馆伪满皇宫博物院 Puppet Manchukuo’s Royal Palace Museum Phonetic (location) + semantic (name) 长白山 Mount Changbai Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 哈尔滨市太阳岛 Harbin Sun Island Park Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 上海东方明珠广播电视塔 The Oriental Pearl TV Tower Pure semantic 上海野生动物园 Shanghai Wildlife Park Pure semantic 钟山-中山陵园 Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s Mausoleum in Zhongshan Hill Pure semantic 中央电视台无锡影视基地 CCTV Wuxi Film/TV Studio used for the shooting of The Phonetic (location) + semantic (name) 三国水浒 Three Kingdoms and Water Margins 拙政园 Humble Administrator’s Garden Pure semantic 周庄古镇 Zhouzhuang Town area Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 西湖 The West Lake Pure semantic 雁荡山 Mount Yandang Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 普陀山 Mount Putuo Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 黄山 Mount Huangshan Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 九华山 Mount Jiuhua Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 鼓浪屿 Gulangyu Island Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 武夷山 Mount Wuyi Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 庐山 Mount Lushan Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 井冈山 Jinggang Mountain Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 蓬莱阁 Penglai Pavilion Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 三孔 Three Kongs Pure phonetic 泰山 Mountain Tai Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 嵩山少林 Mount Song Shaolin Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 龙门石窟 Longmen Grottoes Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 云台山 Mountain Yuntai Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 南岳衡山 Nanyue Mountain Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 张家界武陵源 Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan Pure phonetic 黄鹤楼公园 Yellow Crane Tower Pure semantic 三峡大坝 The Three Gorges Pure semantic 长隆旅游度假区 Chime-long Paradise Pure semantic 华侨城旅游度假区 Overseas Chinese Town Pure semantic 漓江景区 Lijiang River Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) (Contd..) 38 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Table 4 . (Continued) Chinese name English translation Element analysis 桂林市乐满地度假世界 Guilin Merryland Resort Phonetic (location) + semantic (name) 南山文化旅游区 Nanshan Cultural Tourism Area Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 南山大小洞天 Nanshan Big and Small Cave Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 大足石刻 Dazu Rock Carvings Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 巫山小三峡-小小三峡 The little Three Gorges and the little-little Three Gorges of Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) Mount Wushan 青城山--都江堰 Mount Qingcheng and Dujiangyan Irrigation System Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 峨眉山 Mountain Emei Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 九寨沟 Jiuzhaigou Pure phonetic 黄果树大瀑布 Huangguoshu Falls Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 龙宫 Dragon Palace Pure semantic 石林 Stone Forest Pure semantic 玉龙雪山 Yulong Snow Mountain Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 秦始皇兵马俑博物馆 The Terracotta Warriors and Horses Pure semantic 华清池 Huaqing Hot Spring Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 黄帝陵 The Yellow Emperor’s Tomb Pure semantic 嘉峪关文物 Jiayuguan Cultural Relics Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 崆峒山 Kongtong Pure phonetic 沙湖 Sand Lake Pure semantic 沙坡头 Shapotou Pure phonetic 天山天池 Tianchi in the Tianshan Mountains Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 葡萄沟 Grape Valley Pure semantic 喀纳斯 Resort Kanasi Lake Phonetic (name) + semantic (class)

frequently in the translation of site names. However, com- Table 5. Translation patterns used in translating names pared to the proportion of the use of phonetic translation Translation approach Frequency Percentage versus semantic translation found in Section 4.2, which is approximately 5:3 (62.11:37.89), the results calculated in Pure phonetic 7 10.6% this section reflect a more extreme dichotomy between the Phonetic (name) + 34 51.51% applications of the two strategies. The ratio of phonetic trans- Semantic (Class) lation to semantic translation discovered in this section is Pure semantic 19 28.8% 18:3 (85.7:14.3). Obviously, compared to regular site names, Phonetic (location) + 6 9.09% the names of sites that enjoy more reputation have a stronger Semantic (Name) preference of phonetic translation over semantic translation.

also enjoyed a relatively high popularity, on average receiv- The Impact of Popularity on Translation of Tourist Site ing over 1 million foreign visitors during the year. Compared Names to the above 25 places, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Tibet, Gansu, In this study, the number of foreign visitors recorded in dif- Qinhai, and Ningxia enjoy far less popularity. ferent city locations in China was used as a variable to study The corpus of names were re-arranged based on the or- the impact of popularity on the translation of the tourist site der in Table 3, and the translations of tourist site names in names in the corpus (see Appendix 2). In Table 3, city loca- these three groups of places were evaluated separately to tions with the largest number of foreign visitors in total were examine how translations vary in places that enjoy different listed in descending order (according to the total sum). popularity. As none of the sites in the corpus paper are sit- Among all, Shanghai, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Beijing, and uated in Inner Mongolia, Yunan, Tibet, and Qinghai, which Zhejiang were the five places that enjoyed the highest popu- are included in Table 3, these four places were excluded in larity, receiving over 10 million foreign visitors on average Table 6. in 2008, followed by Liaoning, Shandong, Heilongjiang, In examining the translated names in group 1, which con- Fujian, Tianjin, Inner Mongolia, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Guangxi, sists of 15 sites situated at the top five cities with the highest Hunan, Chongqing, Hubei, Anhui, Hebei, Henan, Hainan, popularity, it is found that among the 15 names, 11 are trans- Shanxi, Jilin, Sichuan, and Xinjiang. These latter 20 places lated based on a ‘pure semantic’ approach, accounting for Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 39

Table 6. A study of corpus translation according to popularity Location Chinese name English translation Strategy Group 1 Shanghai 上海东方明珠广播电视塔 The Oriental Pearl TV Tower PS 上海野生动物园 Shanghai Wildlife Park PS Guangdong 长隆旅游度假区 Chime-long Paradise PS 华侨城旅游度假区 Overseas Chinese Town PS Jiangsu 钟山-中山陵园 Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s Mausoleum in Zhongshan Hill PS 中央电视台无锡影视基地三 CCTV Wuxi Film/TV Studio used for the shooting PLSN 国水浒 of The Three Kingdoms and Water Margins 拙政园 Humble Administrator’s Garden PS 周庄古镇 Zhouzhuang Town area PNSC Beijing 故宫博物院 The Palace Museum PS 天坛公园 The Temple of Heaven PS 颐和园 The Summer Palace PS 八达岭长城 Badaling Great Wall PS Zhejiang 西湖 The West Lake PS 雁荡山 Mount Yandang PNSC 普陀山 Mount Putuo PNSC Group 2 Liaoning 沈阳市植物园 Shenyang Botanical Garden PNSC 大连老虎滩海洋公园.老虎滩 Dalian Polar Aquarium of Tiger Beach Ocean Park PLSN 极地馆 Shandong 蓬莱阁 Penglai Pavilion PNSC 三孔 Three Kongs PP 泰山 Mountain Tai PNSC Heilongjiang 哈尔滨市太阳岛 Harbin Sun Island Park PLSN Fujian 鼓浪屿 Gulangyu Island PNSC 武夷山 Mount Wuyi PNSC Tianjin 天津古文化街 Tianjin Ancient Culture Street PLSN 盘山 Panshan PP Shaanxi 秦始皇兵马俑博物馆 The Terracotta Warriors and Horses PS 华清池 Huaqing Hot Spring PNSC 黄帝陵 The Yellow Emperor’s Tomb PS Guangxi 漓江景区 Lijiang River PNSC 桂林市乐满地度假世界 Guilin Merryland Resort PLSN Hunan 南岳衡山 Nanyue Mountain PNSC 张家界武陵源 Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan PP Chongqing 大足石刻 Dazu Rock Carvings PNSC 巫山小三峡-小小三峡 The little Three Gorges and the little-little Three PNSC Gorges of Mount Wushan Hubei 黄鹤楼公园 Yellow Crane Tower PS 三峡大坝 The Three Gorges PS Anhui 黄山 Mount Huangshan PNSC 九华山 Mount Jiuhua PNSC Hebei 山海关 Shanhaiguan PP 白洋淀 Lake Baiyandian PNSC 承德避暑山庄及周围寺庙 The Imperial Summer Resort and the Surrounding PS Temples Henan 嵩山少林 Mount Song Shaolin PNSC 龙门石窟 Longmen Grottoes PNSC (Contd..) 40 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Table 6 . (Continued) Location Chinese name English translation Strategy 云台山 Mountain Yuntai PNSC Hainan 南山文化旅游区 Nanshan Cultural Tourism Area PNSC 南山大小洞天 Nanshan Big and Small Cave PNSC Shanxi 云冈石窟 Yungang Grottoes PNSC 五台山 Mount Wutai PNSC Jiling 伪满皇宫博物院 Puppet Manchukuo’s Royal Palace Museum PLSN 长白山 Mount Changbai PNSC Sichuan 青城山--都江堰 Mount Qingcheng and Dujiangyan Irrigation PNSC System 峨眉山 Mountain Emei PNSC 九寨沟 Jiuzhaigou PNSC Xinjiang 天山天池 Tianchi in the Tianshan Mountains PNSC 葡萄沟 Grape Valley PS 喀纳斯 Resort Kanasi Lake PNSC Group 3 Jiangxi 庐山 Mount Lushan PNSC 井冈山 Jinggang Mountain PNSC Guizhou 黄果树大瀑布 Huangguoshu Falls PNSC 龙宫 Dragon Palace PS 石林 Stone Forest PS 玉龙雪山 Yulong Snow Mountain PNSC Gansu 嘉峪关文物 Jiayuguan Cultural Relics PNSC 崆峒山 Kongtong PP Ningxia 沙湖 Sand Lake PS 沙坡头 Shapotou PP PP = Pure phonetic PNSC = Phonetic (Name) + Semantic (Class) PS= Pure semantic PLSN = Phonetic (location) + Semantic (Name)

73.33% of the total. Three of the 15 site names are rendered and the other 6 (14.93%) applying a ‘pure semantic’ pattern. through the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class)’, Unlike the results found in the analysis of the translation of making up 20% in total. Only 1 of the 15 site names (6.66%) names of the top 5 places, the figure here indicates a partial- applied the translation pattern ‘phonetic (location) + seman- ity for phonetic translation rather than semantic translation. tic (name)’. The data here indicates that the translations of Similarly, in investigating the names in group 3, which the 5 areas that enjoy the highest popularity have a stronger refers to the remaining 10 sites located in the four places that preference for a semantic translation approach, including the have the less popularity, it is found that the use of phonetic pattern ‘pure semantic’ and the pattern ‘phonetic (location) translation dominates that of semantic translation. Among + semantic (name)’, as compared to a phonetic translation the 10 names, 7 are translated through phonetic means, with approach, including the pattern ‘pure phonetic’ and ‘pho- 5 translated through the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic netic (name) + semantic (class). On the whole, 80% of the (class)’, and 2 through ‘pure phonetic’. Only 3 of the names site names are translated semantically and 20% are rendered are rendered through the ‘pure semantic’ pattern. phonetically. The different results found in the three groups, which rep- However, in studying the translations in group 2, which resent a different degree of popularity, imply the influence of includes the 41 sites located in the 20 places that also en- popularity on the translation of tourist site names. Concretely, joy a great number of foreign visitors but rank behind the places that enjoy higher popularity tend to adopt a semantic top 5, it is found that 29 of the names are translated through translation approach whereas places that enjoy less populari- a phonetic translation approach, with 26 of the translations ty show a stronger preference for phonetic translation. realizing the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class)’ and the remaining 4 following the ‘pure phonetic’ pattern (63.41% and 9.76% respectively). On the contrary, only 12 DISCUSSION of the translations in total are rendered through a semantic One of the most obvious queries that one may raise regard- approach, with 5 (12.19%) of the translated names following the above findings is the conflicting preferences for dif- ing the pattern of ‘phonetic (location) + semantic (name)’ ferent translation strategies found in the same corpus. The Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 41 results in Sections 4.2 and 4.3 show that phonetic translation, sites shown in Section 4.2 still have a high preference for dominantly the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class), phonetic translation. A possible explanation is that China remains as the leading approach for translation of tourist considers that site marketing in places with higher popular- sites in China. Moreover, compared to Section 4.2, which ity is predominantly important for the growth of its tourism reflects the overall frequency of use of regular site names in development. Insisting to preserve its cultural flavor in areas China, the findings in Section 4.3, a section which specifical- with a mass of visitors may be a serious barrier to the coun- ly studied a list of extraordinarily famous attractions which try’s tourism development. Therefore, China is unwilling to are rated as World Heritage sites, show an even stronger par- take risk in areas that enjoy a high popularity. In contrast, the tiality for such tendency. However, inconsistently, the data tension derived from the employment of different translation in Section 4.4 shows that semantic translation, particularly strategies is comparatively less in regular sites that are situ- the pattern ‘pure semantic’, is more frequently adopted in ated in places that are not confronted with a great number of rendering site names located in places with higher popular- visitors. Hence, as an outcome of China’s struggle for pres- ity. These inconsistencies give rise to the question: In ren- ervation of its cultural flavor, phonetic translation is more dering tourist site names, why is phonetic translation more frequently adopted when rendering the names of these sites. preferred for world famous sites but less desired in places that enjoy higher popularity? CONCLUDING REMARKS A possible explanation is that China is struggling between preserving its own cultural essence by retaining the name’s In sum, the four common strategies for translation of tourist original flavor and catering to foreign visitors by adapting site names are ‘pure phonetic’, ‘phonetic (name) + semantic their language customs. On the one hand, China attempts to (class)’, ‘pure semantic’, and ‘phonetic (location) + seman- utilize the English translation of the site names to preserve tic (name)’The findings of this study suggest that phonetic its own national identity and present its cultural quintessence translation is generally used more frequently than semantic translation. Specifically, the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + se- including the Chinese language and underlying values to the mantic (class)’ ranks the highest frequency of use, followed outside world. This notion supports the reasoning behind the by ‘pure semantic’, ‘pure phonetic’ and ‘phonetic (location) decision to translate with strict devotion to the original taste + semantic (name)’ respectively. The findings suggest that and imbue foreign audience with as many Chinese flavors as the pattern ‘phonetic (name) + semantic (class) dominates possible. The more famous the sites are, the more important over semantic translation, but the pattern ‘pure semantic’ they are in serving as windows to spread Chinese culture. remains a more desirable approach in rendering names of Therefore, compared to the regular 5A-rated tourist sites, tourist sites located in places with more foreign visitors. a stronger preference for a phonetic translation approach is However, this paper only covers aspects of tourist site found in the translated names of the 5A-rated tourist attrac- name translation from Chinese to English, so the findings tions that are additionally crowned as World Heritage sites; may be limited to such context. Moreover, the focus was on the other hand, the findings in 4.4 can be deemed as an on examining the impact of ‘fame’ and ‘popularity’ on the indication of China’s endeavor to make its attractions more translation of site names. Future studies may investigate the appealing to foreign visitors by using translations with better impact of other factors, such as economic or political fac- readability, and ultimately achieve more desirable outcomes tors, linguistic factors, or human factors. The findings of this in its tourism development. Compared to sound translation, article shall help translators and practitioners in the field of a translation with meaningful units may be more attentive to tourism marketing to gain insights into the potential transla- foreign visitors. Given such reason, places with more foreign tion approaches for the rendering of tourist attraction names visitors tend to adopt semantic translation in rendering the and potential rationales for preferences for certain transla- names of tourist sites. tion approaches. Meanwhile, the findings of the article shall Though apparently similar, there is a subtle difference be- also serve as a basis for further research on other different tween ‘fame’ and ‘popularity’. Tourist sites indexed as World factors that may influence the translation approaches adopt- Heritage sites may automatically attract visitors around the ed in rendering other kinds of proper names. The method- world even if little efforts are engaged in the marketing of ology and findings of this present study hopefully provide the places, because the global reputation labeled on the sites aspirations to researchers in onomastics, translation studies is already a strong advertising tool. However, the same ef- and tourism marketing and contribute to the investigation of fect may not be generated in regular tourist sites. Although relevant studies. tourist brochures serve as effective tools in marketing- at tractions, visitors’ first impression of the sites may be their ‘names’, which are after all the subject of all descriptions. In END NOTE this sense, English translations of site names are significant 1. For instance, Fernandes (2006, p. 52) conducted a marketing tools. study on the Portuguese-English Parallel Corpus of However, merely the findings in Section 4.4 adhere to Children’s Fantasy Literature and it was found in the this course of thought, i.e. names of regular sites located in translation that the name of the historical figure ‘Rich- places with higher popularity are more likely to be rendered ard of York’ is replaced with ‘Aquenaton’, a character through a semantic translation approach to achieve a stronger whom target-text readers are more familiar with within marketing effect, whereas the translation of names ofregular their culture. 42 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Detailed analysis of translation patterns of the corpus names Chinese Name English translation Phonetic elements Semantic elements Element analysis 故宫博物院 The Palace Museum The Palace Museum Pure semantic 天坛公园 The Temple of Heaven The Temple of Heaven Pure semantic 颐和园 the Summer Palace the Summer Palace Pure semantic 八达岭长城 Badaling Great Wall Badaling (Name) Great Wall (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 天津古文化街 Tianjin Ancient Culture Street Tianjin (location) Ancient Culture Street Phonetic (location) + (Name) semantic (name) 盘山 Panshan Panshan Pure phonetic 山海关 Shanhaiguan Shanhaiguan Pure phonetic 白洋淀 Lake Baiyandian Baiyandian (Name) Lake (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 承德避暑山庄及周 the Imperial Summer Resort and the Imperial Summer Pure semantic 围寺庙 the Surrounding Temples Resort and the Surrounding Temples 云冈石窟 Yungang Grottoes Yungang(Name) Grottoes(Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 五台山 Mount Wutai Wutai (Name) Mount(Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 沈阳市植物园 Shenyang Botanical Garden Shenyang (location) Botanical Garden Phonetic (name) + (Class) semantic (class) 大连老虎滩海洋公 Dalian polar aquarium of Tiger Dalian (Location) polar aquarium of Tiger Phonetic (location) + 园.老虎滩极地馆 Beach Ocean Park Beach Ocean Park semantic (name) (Name) 伪满皇宫博物院 Puppet Manchukuo’s Royal Palace Manchukuo* Puppet Manchukuo’s Phonetic (location) + Museum (Figure’sName) Royal Palace Museum semantic (name) (Name) 长白山 Mount Changbai Changbai (Name) Mount(Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 哈尔滨市太阳岛 Harbin Sun Island Park Harbin* (Location) Harbin Sun Island Park Phonetic (name) + (Name) semantic (class) 上海东方明珠广播 The Oriental Pearl TV Tower The Oriental Pearl TV Pure semantic 电视塔 Tower 上海野生动物园 Shanghai Wildlife Park Shanghai Wildlife Park Pure semantic 钟山-中山陵园 Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s Mausoleum in Dr.Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum (Class); hill Pure semantic Zhongshan Hill (Figure’s Name); (Class) Zhongshan (Location) 中央电视台无锡影 CCTV Wuxi Film/TV Studio used Wuxi* (Location) CCTV Wuxi Film/ Phonetic (location) + 视基地三国水浒 for the shooting of The Three TV Studio used for the semantic (name) Kingdoms and Water Margins shooting of The Three Kingdoms and Water Margins (Name) 拙政园 Humble Administrator’s Garden Humble Administrator’s Pure semantic Garden 周庄古镇 Zhouzhuang Town area zhouzhuang (Name) Town Area (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 西湖 The West Lake The West Lake Pure semantic 雁荡山 Mount Yandang Yandang (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) (Contd...) 44 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Appendix 1. (Continued) Chinese Name English translation Phonetic elements Semantic elements Element analysis 普陀山 Mount Putuo Putuo (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 黄山 Mount Huangshan Huangshan (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 九华山 Mount Jiuhua Jiuhua (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 鼓浪屿 Gulangyu Island Gulangyu (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 武夷山 Mount Wuyi Wuyi (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 庐山 Mount Lushan Lushan (Name) Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 井冈山 Jinggang Mountain Jingang (Name) Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 蓬莱阁 Penglai Pavilion Penglai (Name) Pavilion (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 三孔 Three Kongs Kongs (Name) Pure phonetic 泰山 Mountain Tai Tai (Name) Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 嵩山少林 Mount Song Shaolin Song Shaolin Mount (Class) Phonetic (name) + (Name) semantic (class) 龙门石窟 Longmen Grottoes Longmen* (Name) Grottoes (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 云台山 Mountain Yuntai Yuntai (Name) Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 南岳衡山 Nanyue Mountain Nanyue (Name) Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 张家界武陵源 Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan Zhangjiajie Pure phonetic Wulingyuan 黄鹤楼公园 Yellow Crane Tower Yellow Crane Tower Pure semantic 三峡大坝 The Three Gorges The Three Gorges Pure semantic 长隆旅游度假区 Chime-long Paradise Chime-long Paradise Pure semantic (Name) 华侨城旅游度假区 Overseas Chinese Town Overseas Chinese Town Pure semantic 漓江景区 Lijiang River Lijiang (Name) River (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 桂林市乐满地度假 Guilin Merryland Resort Guilin (Location) Merryland Resort Phonetic (location) + 世界 (Name) semantic (name) 南山文化旅游区 Nanshan Cultural Tourism Area Nanshan (Name) Cultural Tourism Area Phonetic (name) + (Class) semantic (class) 南山大小洞天 Nanshan Big and Small Cave Nanshan (Name) Cave (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 大足石刻 Dazu Rock Carvings Dazu (Name) Rock Carvings (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 巫山小三峡-小小 the little Three Gorges and the Wushan (Name) Mount (Class); little Phonetic (name) + 三峡 little-little Three Gorges of Mount Three Gorges; little- semantic (class) Wushan little Three Gorges (Name) 青城山--都江堰 Mount Qingcheng and Dujiangyan Qingcheng(Name); Mount (Class); Phonetic (name) + Irrigation System Dujiangyan(Name) Irrigation System semantic (class) (Class) Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 45

Appendix 1. (Continued) Chinese Name English translation Phonetic elements Semantic elements Element analysis 峨眉山 Mountain Emei Emei (Name) Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 九寨沟 Jiuzhaigou Jiuzhaigou Pure phonetic 黄果树大瀑布 Huangguoshu Falls Huangguoshu Falls (Class) Phonetic (name) + (Name) semantic (class) 龙宫 Dragon Palace Dragon Palace Pure semantic 石林 Stone Forest Stone Forest Pure semantic 玉龙雪山 Yulong Snow Mountain Yulong (Name) Snow Mountain (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 秦始皇兵马俑博 The Terracotta Warriors and Horses The Terracotta Warriors Pure semantic 物馆 and Horses 华清池 Huaqing Hot Spring Huaqing (Name) Hot Spring (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 黄帝陵 The Yellow Emperor’s Tomb The Yellow Emperor’s Pure semantic Tomb 嘉峪关文物 Jiayuguan Cultural Relics Jiayuguan (Name) Cultural Relics (Class) Phonetic (name) + semantic (class) 崆峒山 Kongtong Kongtong Pure phonetic 沙湖 Sand Lake Sand Lake Pure semantic 沙坡头 Shapotou Shapotou Pure phonetic 天山天池 Tianchi in the Tianshan Mountains Tianchi (Name); Mountains (Class) Phonetic (name) + Tianshan (Name) semantic (class) 葡萄沟 Grape Valley Grape Valley Pure semantic 喀纳斯 Resort Kanasi Lake Kanasi (Name) Resort (Class); Lake Phonetic (name) + (Class) semantic (class) 46 IJCLTS 9(1):31-47

Appendix 2. International tourists by locality, Jan-Dec 2008 (no.1) 接待人数同比增长(%) 接待人数构成 (人次) (人次) Breakdown of arrivals

Arrivals Growth(%) 外国人香港同胞澳门同胞台湾同胞 Foreigners Hong kong Macau Taiwan province 总计 TOTAL 75 007 496 2.59 42 753 133 20 689 361 2 704 624 8 860 378 北京 BEIJING 3 790 378 -12.96 3 357 173 280 894 12 869 139 442 天津 TIANJIN 1 220 392 18.22 1 130 037 35 787 5 119 49 449 河北 HEBEI 750 182 -8.25 670 210 29 539 11 342 39 091 山西 SHANXI 939 260 27.29 579 354 149 291 79 623 130 992 内蒙古 INNER 1 549 328 3.67 1 532 302 8 661 3 151 5 214 MONGOLIA 辽宁 LIAONING 2 418 707 20.88 2 072 737 152 689 30 938 162 343 吉林 JILIN 617 302 13.56 524 624 53 886 2 993 35 799 黑龙江 HEILONGJIANG 2 006 116 41.86 1 933 370 31 663 1 593 39 490 上海 SHANGHAI 5 264 727 1.23 4 416 223 363 247 15 575 469 682 江苏 JIANGSU 5 443 022 6.20 3 961 095 497 464 54 728 929 735 浙江 ZHEJIANG 5 396 682 5.57 3 661 293 700 548 120 006 914 835 安徽 ANHUI 1 320 947 24.11 908 195 135 612 29 332 247 808 福建 FUJIAN 2 931 908 9.10 986 440 894 813 65 894 984 761 江西 JIANGXI 802 052 20.67 308 321 257 874 110 753 125 104 山东 SHANDONG 2 536 651 1.61 2 064 275 223 285 37 855 211 236 河南 HENAN 1 043 580 18.47 679 122 148 309 54 408 161 741 湖北 HUBEI 1 187 549 -9.91 926 625 130 352 22 279 108 293 湖南 HUNAN 1 110 221 -7.92 710 983 160 365 74 615 164 258 广东 GUANGDONG 25 679 721 4.35 6 088 231 15 194 066 1 720 324 2 677 100 广西 GUANGXI 2 010 225 -2.19 1 200 138 352 383 37 376 420 328 海南 HAINAN 706 492 -6.19 530 762 108 209 10 576 56 945 重庆 CHONGQING 871 907 14.47 742 792 73 139 1 649 54 327 四川 SICHUAN 699 525 -59.06 477 740 106 340 19 905 95 540 贵州 GUIZHOU 395 359 -8.06 182 231 81 808 26 097 105 223 云南 YUNNAN 2 502 170 12.76 1 691 835 358 570 99 117 352 648 西藏 TIBET 67 997 -81.39 62 934 1 640 1 214 2 209 陕西 SHAANXI 1 257 278 2.11 936 662 135 602 53 529 131 485 甘肃 GANSU 83 196 -74.88 59 844 7 678 370 15 304 青海 QINGHAI 29 879 -40.25 20 591 4 821 744 3 723 宁夏 NINGXIA 11 586 23.61 9 306 821 44 1 415 新疆 XINJIANG 363 157 -17.17 327 688 10 005 606 24 858 (CNTA, 2008) Translation Approaches in Rendering Names of Tourist Sites 47

International tourists by locality, jan-dec 2008 (no.2) 接待人数( 同比增长(%) 接待人数构成 (人次) 人次) Breakdown of arrivals

Nights Growth(%) 外国人香港同胞澳门同胞台湾同胞 Foreigners Hong Macau Taiwan Kong province 总计 TOTAL 197 911 958 1.45 125 346 014 43 270 745 5 490 808 23 804 391 北京 BEIJING 17 442 332 -4.07 15 644 426 1 099 384 38 607 659 915 天津 TIANJIN 4 717 780 20.90 3 964 604 367 192 22 997 362 987 河北 HEBEI 1 736 008 -10.23 1 568 507 63 635 24 830 79 036 山西 SHANXI 1 724 404 31.52 1 071 313 304 684 124 719 223 688 内蒙古 INNER MONGOLIA 3 254 727 3.13 3 205 766 22 793 9 745 16 423 辽宁 LIAONING 7 357 397 22.33 6 378 133 458 808 72 041 448 415 吉林 JILIN 1 163 503 13.16 1 010 770 91 823 5 178 55 732 黑龙江 HEILONGJIANG 4 286 484 29.58 4 118 759 69 971 3 503 94 251 上海 SHANGHAI 19 558 967 1.99 16 195 342 1 218 439 60 657 2 084 529 江苏 JIANGSU 22 476 178 6.85 16 222 695 1 980 908 168 938 4 103 637 浙江 ZHEJIANG 14 100 961 5.76 9 754 249 1 625 136 263 684 2 457 892 安徽 ANHUI 2 411 853 35.26 1 712 550 241 737 49 777 407 789 福建 FUJIAN 11 948 470 0.94 4 856 313 3 776 607 256 485 3 059 065 江西 JIANGXI 1 697 483 27.94 638 139 544 664 253 405 261 275 山东 SHANDONG 6 808 955 0.75 5 729 342 496 780 77 751 505 082 河南 HENAN 2 308 697 18.80 1 389 467 365 411 118 657 435 162 湖北 HUBEI 2 217 172 -5.36 1 734 211 207 946 35 692 239 323 湖南 HUNAN 3 204 686 -12.62 2 342 399 369 459 149 886 342 942 广东 GUANGDONG 50 786 560 -2.74 14 268 534 27 571 082 3 226 744 5 720 200 广西 GUANGXI 3 299 946 -0.09 2 075 222 537 221 57 696 629 807 海南 HAINAN 1 824 840 -3.63 1 502 886 194 496 20 934 106 524 重庆 CHONGQING 2 491 119 16.49 2 139 292 192 701 4 681 154 445 四川 SICHUAN 1 279 773 -54.95 929 496 174 361 28 803 147 113 贵州 GUIZHOU 690 917 -13.76 288 342 163 219 38 399 200 957 云南 YUNNAN 4 527 585 13.07 2 981 422 712 492 236 105 597 566 西藏 TIBET 171 864 -79.48 159 367 4 034 2 940 5 523 陕西 SHAANXI 3 392 849 2.58 2 547 682 379 119 134 488 331 560 甘肃 GANSU 107 855 -78.61 80 824 9 140 797 17 094 青海 QINGHAI 77 377 -31.79 59 418 9 642 1 488 6 829 宁夏 NINGXIA 21 057 15.36 17 820 1 043 79 2 115 新疆 XINJIANG 824 159 -22.31 758 724 16 818 1 102 47 515 (CNTA, 2008)