International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET) Volume 9, Issue 13, December 2018, pp. 989–997, Article ID: IJMET_09_13_104 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJMET?Volume=9&Issue=13 ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL TECHNOLOGY IN SUNGAI MAS, FROM THE 5th TO THE 10th CENTURY AD

Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir, Mohd Shamsul Bahari Abd Hadi and Siti Salina Masdey Institute of the Malay World and Civilization Universiti Kebangsaan

ABSTRACT Sungai Mas in Kota Kuala Muda was an ancient entrepot and the center of governance to the Old Kedah government during the proto-historic era. The importance of Sungai Mas started after the discovery of various types of artefact like building materials, trade ceramic, beads, earthenware, ceramics and religious sculptures that were unearthed during canal construction projects in 1979 until recent excavation studies in 2007. This study was conducted to restructure the development of local technology in Sungai Mas from the 5th until 10th century AD. The method used in this study is more focused on the development of Sungai Mas based on the high value of physical and scientific archaeological finds, such as the discovery temple building materials, temple building, the discovery of makara, jar granite and beads. This study will discuss the chronology of the Sungai Mas, which began as a small trade and subsequently developed into an entrepot as a result of the use of technology and science by the local community at that time to enable Sungai Mas to flourish as the central government, as well as the establishment of permanent settlements built by the local community. As a result of these developments, local people adapted skills and knowledge from outside communities and by themselves to develop the Sungai Mas area by themselves. Therefore, this study is seen to be important in contributing to the understanding of the development of Candi Sungai Mas in Old Kedah in a systematic and accurate manner. Key words: Sungai Mas, technology, proto-historic, Old Kedah, local genius Cite this Article: Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir, Mohd Shamsul Bahari Abd Hadi and Siti Salina Masdey, The Development of Local Technology in Sungai Mas, Kedah from the 5th to the 10th Century AD, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology 9(13), 2018, pp. 989–997. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJMET?Volume=9&Issue=13

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJMET 989 [email protected] Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir and Siti Salina Masdey

1. INTRODUCTION The Old Kedah Malay Kingdom was once an area located in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia. Old Kedah also refers to the Bujang Valley, which was one of the Malay kingdoms that existed before the establishment of the Melaka Sultanate in the 13th century. In terms of its location, the Old Kedah covered the area of Bukit Choras to the north, to the south, the Melaka Strait to the east and the North-South Expressway to the west [1]. The Old Kedah is also known as an area that had experienced the development of the protohistoric era, based on the result of the archaeological research conducted in the area. Based on written and archaeological data, the Old Kedah Malay Kingdom is estimated to have started around the 2nd century until the 13th century AD. Written sources from , and Arab-Persia are used as proof of the existence of this kingdom, which began around the 2nd century AD, based on the written record of the merchants or royal messengers, sources of Hindu and Buddhist literature, and travelers from the area. However, if reference is made to the archaeological data, the existence of the Malay Kingdom of Old Kedah can be dated to the 5th century AD based on the relative dating of the inscription, with the earliest dating of the Inscriptions of Sungai Mas I found in Kampung Sungai Mas. The Old Kedah was once the most important area, covering two main areas, namely Sungai Mas and Pengkalan Bujang. Sungai Mas was an area that had its own distinctive civilization located near the Muda River. This area served as the earliest government center and main entrepot for the Old Kedah Malay Kingdom – a notion that remains debatable among scholars until now.

2. GEOMORPHOLOGY OF SUNGAI MAS SITE (SITE 32/34) The Sungai Mas archaeological site is located at Lot 735, Kampung Sungai Mas, Mukim Kota, Kota Kuala Muda, Kedah. Site topography reading is recorded in longitudinal dam 5 ° 35 '15' 'North and latitude 100 ° 22' 30 '' East (Map reading 1C Sheet 16 Series L 7010). Elevation reads from sea level is 3.7 meters. The site is also broken down into land lots and is situated near the Muda River to the south and Terus River to the east (Figure 1) [10]. The Sungai Mas archaeological site is located on the highland ridge of old beaches. The site is adjacent to the shoreline that is long oriented in the north-south direction and is cut by the Muda River in Kota Kuala Muda. Generally, the site is located above the new sediment produced during the Holocene period.

Figure 1 Bujang Valley Map Source: Nadarajan 2011 [12] The fluctuation of sea level since the past 10,000 years has impacted some of the old shoreline, coastlines, and marine terraces situated a few meters above sea level today [10].

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Thus, the 3-meter height coastline may have been formed 4,000 years ago based on the Bujang Valley offshore study, which shows that the altitude is the ideal height to build settlements and survive from natural disasters as it is higher than the highlands.

3. RESEARCH IN SUNGAI MAS The discovery of the inscriptions of Buddhagupta and the discovery of tens of thousands of artifacts as a result of canal construction activity in 1979 marked the beginning of the dismantling of the importance of the Sungai Mas sites. This disassembly had attracted Jane Allen from the United States, in collaboration with students from the Department of Geography, , to conduct surveys to collect data on the ground and obtain samples for geomorphological study purposes. The survey was included in his research entitled “Trade, transportation and tributaries: exchange, agriculture and settlement distribution in the early historic-period of Kedah, Malaysia" [4]. The first excavation attempt was made by Nik Hassan Shuhaimi in the land area of lot 567 (site 33) with a research mission entitled "Art, archaeology and the early kingdoms in the Malay Peninsular and Sumatra: 400-1400 A.D." In this excavation, there is a variety of artifacts, beads, ceramics, and sculptures found that led to the strengthening of the role of Sungai Mas [9]. The second excavation was conducted by Leong Sau Heng from the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, with archaeological students in the same year, but only for practical training. In 1984, archaeological teams from the Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum – led by Kamaruddin Zakaria – have conducted selective excavations to identify the potential of the site. Concurrently, the selective research and excavation of Bukit Choras Temple (site 1), Mukim of Sala, were conducted to study the comparison between the site's stone and Sungai Mas [13]. In 1985, the Intra-Asean research team chose Sungai Mas based on the discovery of various data. The project was headed by Nik Hassan Shuhaimi and accompanied by experts from Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia. Two excavations were carried out, one of which was aimed to uncover, identify, and determine the structure of architectural monuments that existed. Whereas the second excavation involved excavation work in the C-14 plot located approximately 26 meters from the site of the excavated monument. These excavations were aimed at learning the geomorphology of the land [2]. In the period between 1986 and 1991, the Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum, in collaboration with Nik Hassan Shuhaimi and students from the Department of History, National University of Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, had conducted excavation projects at Pengkalan Bujang Complex, especially at site 23. There were six temples located within 3.5 hectares. This excavation was conducted to obtain data on density and diversity of artifacts for comparative studies with Sungai Mas. Jacq-Hergoualc'h [5] also discussed the site in his book that was published in Paris entitled 'La civilization de ports du sud kedah'. In 2007, research and excavation at Sungai Mas were continued by an archaeological research group from the National University of Malaysia [21]. The excavation had uncovered some important artifacts in the research and development of proto-historic era, as well as the rapidity port that was previously reported by Nik Hassan Shuhaimi. An important aspect of the assessment was to look and uncover the history of the Bujang Valley and the achievement of the Bujang Valley community in science and technology [7].

4. CANDI SUNGAI MAS The Candi Sungai Mas was reputed to be one of the earliest temples built in the Bujang Valley. This is evidenced by the relative dating to determine the age of the candi based on the findings made on the discovery of the candis and artifacts. The dating accorded to this candi

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJMET 991 [email protected] Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir and Siti Salina Masdey site is about the 5th century. The construction of the candi at Sungai Mas had a characteristic with a single pit that were similar to the candi construction in Terus River, Guar Kepah, Meriam Hill, sites 16a and 17. The construction of the Buddhist candi at Sungai Mas proves that the structure of the temple building of the Buddha is the earliest temple building compared to Hindu temples. Based on the inscriptions, two of the earliest candis in the Sungai Mas are believed to have been built between the 4th century and the 5th century AD. This candi is oriented north-south and represents Buddhist teachings. The candi was also built on the adoption of technology adapted by the local community based on the analysis of brick size and scientific analysis made on the raw material of bricks at the candi in Sungai Mas.

5. THE FINDING AND LOCALLY TECHNOLOGY IN SUNGAI MAS The discovery of thousands of artifacts that arose on the surface of the ground during the construction of a canal in Kampung Sungai Mas in 1979 had given a new perspective to the Bujang Valley. The discovery of important artifacts, such as the Sungai Mas Inscription, Hariti statue, Buddha head, granite stone, glass, beads, earthenware, ceramics and temple construction made an interesting impact on Sungai Mas as an important administrative area [8]. The latest excavation in 2007 had also revealed the entire candi with the discovery of important artifacts, such as the makara, the Inscription of Sungai Mas II, votive tablet, gantha and Padma seams, large jar made of granite stone and door knob findings, sculptures, and pillars, which was also made of granite stone. Based on the archaeological excavations that were carried out around the River and Muda River basins, they revealed some of the social settlements associated with the Old Kedah government. The data analysis also showed that the archaeological remains can be divided into two main cultural layers: the pre-Buddhist-Hindu cultural layer associated with the Metal Age, and Buddhist-Hindu cultural layer associated with the protohistoric period [20]. This cultural lining covers the political, social, language, technology, and beliefs of the community at the time [6]. Before the 5th century AD, there was already a society with a well- organized social system in the Old Kedah. However, the community leaders had not yet fully assimilated with the Indian culture and the classification of the society was still at the disposal of chiefdom or tribal chiefs. Based on the inscription evidence, it also proves that the Old Kedah royalty system had already existed since the 5th century AD, during which it began to adopt the title of the King in its government system. Excavations and research that were carried out in Sungai Mas have revealed a pre- Buddhist-Hindu culture. In this layer, there is a large amount of earthenware that indicates the skills of the local community to produce pottery for their own use or to sell to the interior. The pottery roulette ware from Arikemadu is also not found on this layer. This is due to the production of pottery in Sungai Mas, which had already reached a large scale, which also meant that the local community no longer depended on pottery from India. In this layer, there was a discovery of wooden pillars that showed that the community at the time had built their homes on the banks and estuary of the river. The discovery of large quantities of earthenware and wooden piles shows that Sungai Mas had begun to function as a main entrepot. The chronometric dating using the carbon-14 analysis technique provided the 1810 ± 50 BP dating in the 2nd century AD, while the charcoal sample associated with the bricks used to build the temple showed the dating of 1720 ± 50 BP in the 3rd century AD [18]. However, the study of the structure of the candi with the discovery of artifacts associated with the candi shows that the Candi Sungai Mas can only be dated at the beginning of the 5th century AD or the 6th AD based on the characters on the Inscription of Sungai Mas I and the Buddha face that has the style of the Gupta era.

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Recent excavations in 2007 have revealed the basic structure of the candi, which still remained even though the entire candi had been destroyed. Based on the observations and findings of artifacts, this candi was probably built in the 5th or 6th century AD as a result of the discovery of the candi associated with the votive tablet and the Inscription of Sungai Mas II, which used materials made from natural rocks, such as laterite stones, slates and mud stone [3]. The structure of this candi is oriented north-south and the structure of a circle of slabs is believed to be a and there is a semicircle found in the structure of the stupa. This candi clearly once stood as a and the acceptance of is seen first in the community, contrary to that came after. In the meantime, the makara, door knob, and seams that were discovered are believed to have been built in the next century, as it was built on the old candi where additions were made using brick and stone granite as an additional building material for the new candi. The candi was also believed to have been built for the King who ruled the Old Kedah government at the time and Sungai Mas was the center of the Old Kedah government. At the time, Old Kedah not only grew socio-culturally but also in line with the development of science and technology, with its revenue sharing technology was derived either from India or from other areas. The study of material composition on the ancient brick at Kampung Sungai Mas also shows that the bricks produced to build the candi in Sungai Mas incorporated raw materials, such as local clay. Comparisons were made between the composition of the materials in the brick with clay composition found in the Sungai Muda basin, which also showed similarities in the types of material used. This situation clearly shows that the local community at the time had been proficient in the brick production industry [18]. Furthermore, the probability of the bricks taken from Sungai Mas was also used to build the candi in Bujang Valley was accurate. Excavations in 2007 also revealed two stages of building material used in the candi at Sungai Mas. The first stage of the candi used natural stones, such as laterite stones, mud stones, and slate rocks. This first stage of construction of the candi was dated in the 5th to the 6th century AD. The second stage of the candi was upgraded using building materials, such as granite and brick stones, in which the use of bricks had increased since the 6th century AD [19]. The use of brick growing innovation occured as a result of a society that began to dominate in brick-making technology. These blocks of stone are cut intricately and each block of stones had a certain size. This clearly demonstrates that local communities at that time have been skilled in cutting and stone cutting technology by adapting technologies brought from India and the surrounding areas. To link the evolution and transformation of the maritime prehistoric community of Bujang Valley to the people who practiced Indian culture, archaeological findings like pillars of wood, earthenware pottery in the cultural layer of pre-temple, and the discovery of stone tools placed at the bottom of the foundation of the candi was located in the center of the candi or at the well of the candi found in the Candi Sungai Mas. These can serve as proof of the evolution of society. The central part of the candi or the well of the candi is often associated with the elements of the reliquary with instruments like the peripih (stone box) [11], which is a tradition of the Malay Archipelago that was not available in India. The stone tools found in the center of the temple are likely to be considered as accompaniment tools and used as religious symbols. The findings of the reliquary were also found in the corner of the candi. However, there was no discovery of the peripih in the reliquary. The discovery of all these artifacts shows that there is a local element in the construction of the candi at Sungai Mas [21]. Local elements will not be successfully adapted if there is no cultural acculturation between the local community and the outside community. The result of the cultural

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJMET 993 [email protected] Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir and Siti Salina Masdey accumulation had allowed the process of knowledge transformation to take place in the local community in Old Kedah. The discovery of a makara associated with the pole liner, the door knob of a large stone block, and the seams are believed to be one of the structure of the candi staircase. It also showcased the diversity of the function of the Sungai Mas itself (Figure 2). The makara was often placed in the king's throne, which symbolized the power of the king who owned it [14]. The engraved art at the Sungai Mas makara also exhibits a strong local element based on the combination of diversity of animal motifs and carved art that was not fully completed [7]. This proves that Sungai Mas was developed as a result of local expertise with the achievement of local community in stone technology and also carving of animal motifs in makara. Moreover, the makara's findings in their ‘in-situ’ condition also proved the importance of the Sungai Mas as a center of socio-cultural development of the Malay community and the rapidly expanding port since the early-century AD. The makara at Sungai Mas is believed to have been carved earlier than other makara in the archipelago and dates can be given between the 7th century and the 9th century AD [14]. The discovery of this makara proved that the Candi Sungai Mas plays an important role as a center of government ruled by the King of Kedah. The findings concluded simultaneously with the discovery of ceramics, beads, and glass dating back to the 7th century, which was a glorious time for Sungai Mas to be established as the most important entrepot at the time. Other than the makara, the discovery of a jar made of granite is the most appropriate elements to trace the Malay origins (Figure 3). The jar was discovered during the excavation in 2007, where it was placed in the structure of the candi stairs and adjacent to the makara findings. The jar served as a place to store water. The existence of these jars in the structure of the stairs was due to their function as water storage, as temple visitors would wash their feet upon entering the temple [21]. This practice is similar to past Malay people’s tradition and practice of cleaning their feet before entering any premise. The discovery of granite-shaped jars was found along with other foundations made of granite. The way of making this jar also required high expertise and patience. This is due to the hard texture of granites, as compared to slate stone, sandstone, andesite stone or shale – all of which are too fragile and would break easily. Locally functioned jars that were made from local raw materials shows that the community at that time was well versed with stone-cutting technology. In addition, the process of acculturation of knowledge also occurred when the community began to incorporate the function of the Buddhist temple with the function of the local jars.

Figure 2 Sungai Mas Makara Figure 3 Granite Jar Source: Archeological Excavation Report 2008 Source: Private Collection Meanwhile, the existence of thousands of monochrome glass beads, polychrome glass beads, and beads from other areas also proves that Sungai Mas functioned as one of the world-famous Pacific-Indo bead production center in the 6th century to 12th century AD, as

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJMET 994 [email protected] The Development of Local Technology in Sungai Mas, Kedah from the 5th to the 10th Century AD well as the most important entrepot in Old Kedah [17]. The discovery of raw materials to make beads and beads on the cultural lining in the 6th century AD reinforces this argument. Analysis of the composition of the alkaline material in Sungai Mas beads and the Arikemadu beads also prove that they were locally found. This clearly shows that the monochrome glass beads were produced by the local community [16][20]. Moreover, the high number of beads has also earned Sungai Mas the recognition of being the center of production of Indo-Pacific beads. The existence of quality beads had also attracted traders from outside to carry out sales and transaction of goods. This trade activity had propelled the growth of the port of Sungai Mas from the 5th to the tenth century. Based on all archaeological data that were discovered and analyzed, the glorious era of the Sungai Mas had begun in the 5th century AD, based on the findings of the breakdown of the Buddha's head sculpture, the remains of the Buddha statue, and the Hariti statue – all of which dated back to the 5th or 6th centuries. Generally, based on written sources, the greatness of Old Kedah began in the 2nd century AD. Nevertheless, evidence from archaeological sources has not yet been met during that period. Previous researchers cannot provide a concrete dating based on written sources alone. Hence, the writer has taken the views put forward by Nik Hassan Shuhaimi, who placed Sungai Mas as the center of government and the first port of the Old Kedah government, based on the existence of archaeological data. The role of the local genius in the technology development is also seen as an important part of shaping the glory of the Candi Sungai Mas.

6. THE CONTRIBUTION OF SUNGAI MAS SITE TO THE COMMUNITY IN OLD KEDAH The glory of Sungai Mas as a government center and the earliest entrepot in Old Kedah was driven by several factors. Among them are trade, political, and religious factors. Trade is the most important aspect in shaping the political environment, economic situation, and a socio- cultural community. The advanced living conditions and adaptability of the state using existing resources had led Sungai Mas to become the most important area for the Old Kedah government. This clearly shows the contribution of Sungai Mas in creating a community that had settled in Sungai Mas at the time. The discovery of artifacts in Sungai Mas has given a special justification to the Old Kedah history. The discovery of artifacts with local architectural features had successfully brought Old Kedah to its peak of societal achievement through science and technology. Art production or artifacts that bore the influence of the local community were driven by the transformation of community knowledge. This transformation of knowledge had enabled the community to create their own artifacts based on local skills and international expertise to create a transformation towards a better and advanced culture. From the architectural and artistic aspects, local elements have been highlighted in the discovery of the structure of the temple. Additionally, the basic use of pole liners, as well as the discovery of makara and granite jars reinforce the argument that Old Kedah was developed by the local community. The Old Kedah community also began to produce religious statues that had different styles or antlers with religious sculptures that were similar to those found in India. For example, makara production has its own motifs and animal elements. The makara production was one of the highest creation of the community as it was placed on a staircase structure that symbolized the king's power. It was also produced from fragile granite rocks made by local communities that highlight the community's skills in stone carving and cutting technology. Meanwhile, Sungai Mas was also advancing in socio-economic development that led to its glory. In addition to its development as an advanced area of architecture and art, the

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJMET 995 [email protected] Nuratikah Abu Bakar, Zuliskandar Ramli, Muhammad Nu’man Mohd Nasir and Siti Salina Masdey community in Sungai Mas also had the ability to produce their home-made beads and earthenware. The discovery of earthenware shows that the community at the time had attempted to produce their own earthenware. Analysis of clay types also shapes this perception, in which the results explain that the clay used to make earthenware was derived from the area around Bujang Valley rather than from the outside world. Meanwhile, the Sungai Mas community had also become the largest monochrome production center in the world. The discovery of raw materials for bead-making and the finding of beads on the cultural layer in the 6th century AD and alkali substances that differ from alkali from other regions also indicate that the beads were local products. This clearly shows that the monochrome glass bead was produced by the local community and the extremely large quantity of beads had established Sungai Mas as the center of production of Indo-Pacific beads.

7. CONCLUSIONS The discovery of archeological artifacts in Sungai Mas has given an overview of Sungai Mas role as a center of the government and the earliest entrepot in Old Kedah. The Sungai Mas dating was given from the 5th to 10th century AD following the discovery of archeological data made by researchers from 1979 to 2007. Through these sessions, Sungai Mas is seen to have played a role in enhancing the civil society, especially with innovation and skills, as well as the excellence in achievement of its local community.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was carried out with the assistance of the research grant DCP-2017-008/1 and DPP-2018-009. Therefore, we would like to express our gratitude to the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) for the research grants awarded.

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