NGOS, the State and Subaltern Classes during a Crisis: Relations and Experiences in Mangwe District, Zimbabwe by ZENZO MOYO DISSERTATION Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MASTERS in DEVELOPMENT STUDIES in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPERVISOR Professor David Moore ABSTRACT Between 2000 and 2010, Zimbabwe experienced a protracted socio-economic and political crisis. At the height of the crisis (towards the end of 2008), inflation was at 89.7 sextillion per cent year-on-year. The period witnessed an increase in the number of non-governmental organisations operating in rural areas. This study draws from theories of the state to investigate state-NGO and community relations that ensued due to the proliferation of NGO activity. It goes on to explore the extent to which NGOs implemented participatory approaches in their interventions, and how the rural subaltern classes experienced these interventions. The setting for this study is Mangwe, a rural district situated in the south-western part of Zimbabwe. Semi- structured interviews and observations were used as data collection techniques. The participants were villagers, state agricultural extension officers, NGO managers and fieldworkers. My findings are that despite heightened anti-NGO rhetoric spewed by the ruling elite during this period, in Mangwe relations between NGOs and local state structures are amiable and cordial. The study also argues that even though the state works closely with NGOs, it is the latter that are now responsible for delivering basic services to the subaltern. This has not only helped to legitimise the state, but concomitantly de-mobilised subaltern classes by keeping them at the periphery of the political economy. Subaltern classes in the district do appreciate the role NGOs are playing. However, most of the projects are not assertive enough to offset the challenges faced by the subalterns. Hence within the foreseeable future, the subalterns will be caught in a conundrum - dependant on NGOs for limited service provision, but not challenging the state for not playing its constituted role of service delivery. ii Mangwe in Zimbabwe iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Professor David Moore, for his unwavering support, guidance and patience. I gained tremendously from his academic prowess and deep knowledge of the socio-political economy in Zimbabwe. I am also indebted to the Department of Anthropology and Development Studies at the University of Johannesburg for the support I got whenever I popped in, even without an appointment. Nqobizitha Mahole Mlilo: in this thesis you will find numerous traces of our never-ending debates on interesting, but sometimes confusing political issues in Zimbabwe. Moffat Ncube, thank you very much for your assistance during my fieldwork. Dereck Ncube, you will never know how much I appreciate the insight you gave regarding the field of NGOs. Taderera. H. Chisi, wherever you are, thank you very much for the interest you aroused in me. Lastly, but not the least, I would like to acknowledge the support from my wife Nomasiko, and my two daughters, Noluthando and Minenhle, who both often “reminded” me to always pack my books safely if I wanted them in one piece. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… ii Map of Zimbabwe ……………………………………………………………….. iii Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………... iv Acronyms …………………………………………………………………………. viii List of figures ……………………………………………………………………… ix CHAPTER ONE: Introduction and Research Background 1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Background information about the area under study…………………... 3 1.3 Motivation and rationale for the study…………………………………..…4 1.4 Research questions……………………………………………………….. 6 1.5 Research Methodology …………………………………………………… 6 1.5.1 Research design………………………………………………….. 7 1.5.2 Sampling ……………………………………………………………. 7 1.5.3 Data collection …………………………………………………….. 8 1.5.4 Data analysis process …………………………………………… 10 1.5.5 Limitations and ethical considerations ……………………….... 11 1.5.5.1 Limitations …………………………………………….. 11 1.5.5.2 Ethical considerations ……………………………….. 11 1.6 Outline of chapters ………………………………………………………. 12 1.7 Central findings of the study ……………………………………………. 13 1.8 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………... 14 CHAPTER TWO: State, government and class formation – A theoretical Framework 2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 15 2.2 What is government? ……………………………………………………. 15 2.3 The state ………………………………………………………………….. 16 2.3.1 What is a state? ………………………………………………….. 16 2.3.2 State and state-formation in Africa …………………………….. 17 2.3.3 Class-formation…………………………………………………… 19 2.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………... 24 CHAPTER THREE: NGOs, their role and participation 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 25 3.2 What are NGOs?................................................................................. 25 3.3 NGO-state relations ……………………………………………………… 29 v 3.4 NGOs and development ………………………………………………… 32 3.4.1 NGO role in development ……………………………………….. 33 3.4.1.1 Strengths ………………………………………………….. 33 3.4.1.2 Weaknesses ……………………………………………… 35 3.5 Participation ………………………………………………………………. 41 3.6 Are NGOs apolitical? …………………………………………………….. 44 3.7 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 45 CHAPTER FOUR: Zimbabwe’s political economy and NGOs in Mangwe 4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 47 4.2 NGOs and Zimbabwe‟s political economy …………………………….. 47 4.3 NGOs and communities ……………………………………………….... 52 4.4 NGOs and the promotion of rural agriculture in Zimbabwe …………. 58 4.5 NGOs in Mangwe District ……………………………………………….. 60 4.5.1 World Vision Zimbabwe …………………………………………. 60 4.5.2 ORAP ……………………………………………………………… 62 4.5.3 Caritas Zimbabwe ……………………………………………….. 65 4.5.4 Practical Action Zimbabwe ……………………………………… 67 4.6 NGO interventions in Mangwe………………………………………….. 69 4.7 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 70 CHAPTER FIVE: State-NGO Relations in Mangwe 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 71 5.2 NGO entry and gate-keeping …………………………………………… 71 5.3 NGOs and community relations in Mangwe …………………………. 74 5.3 NGO and state relations ………………………………………………… 79 5.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 85 CHAPTER SIX: NGOs, subaltern classes and participation in Mangwe 6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 86 6.2 Community development priorities …………………………………….. 86 6.3 Participation and power relations ………………………………………. 92 6.3.1 Participation ………………………………………………………. 93 6.3.2 Power dynamics …………………………………………………. 97 6.4 NGOs: Benefits and costs …………………………………………….. 103 6.4.1 Benefits ………………………………………………………….. 103 6.4.2 Costs …………………………………………………………….. 106 6.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 111 Chapter Seven: Research findings and conclusions 7.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 112 vi 7.2 NGO-state relations ……………………………………………………. 112 7.3 Participation …………………………………………………………….. 113 7.4 Development priorities, challenges and experiences ………………. 114 7.5 NGO costs ………………………………………………………………. 115 7.6 Areas for further research ……………………………………………... 116 7.7 Concluding remarks ……………………………………………………. 117 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………. 118 Appendices…………………………………………………………………………….. 132 vii List of Acronyms ADP Area Development Programme AfDB African Development Bank ARDA Agricultural Rural Development Authority DA District Administrator DAC Development Assistance Committee ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Programme FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FTLRP Fast Track Land Reform Programme GNU Government of National Unity IMF International Monetary Fund LMB Local Management Board LMC Local Management Committee MDC Movement for Democratic Change MOU Memorandum of understanding NGOs Non-governmental organisations OECD Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development ORAP Organisation of Rural Associations for Progress PRIZE Promoting Recovery in Zimbabwe PVO Private Voluntary Organisations RDCC Rural Development Coordination Council SAPs Structural Adjustment Programmes UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees USAID United States Agency for International Development VIDCO Village Development Committee WARDCO Ward Development Committee WFP World Food Programme ZANU PF Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front ZCBC Zimbabwe Catholic Bishop‟s Conference ZimVac Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee viii List of figures Figure 1.1 Occupational breakdown of the respondents ……………… page 9 Figure 3.1 Relationship between states, NGOs, Donors and the subaltern in developing countries ……………….page 30 ix CHAPTER 1 Introduction and research background 1.1 Introduction How did the people of Mangwe, a rural Zimbabwean district, experience non- governmental organisations‟ (NGOs) interventions during the “crisis” period between 2000 and 2010? This study will be investigating how the people of Mangwe have experienced NGO interventions and what relations developed between the state, NGOs and the subaltern during this period. The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee‟s (ZimVac) 2009 National Report states in its preface that: Since the year 2000, Zimbabwe has been experiencing economic and humanitarian challenges resulting from a complex web of overlapping factors, some of which include erratic weather patterns; hyperinflation; shrinking economy and a receding international community. Even though this characterisation clearly ignores political complicity in the chaos, it captures part of the