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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10172 Mihir Deb • Sanjib Chandra Sarkar

Minerals and Allied Natural Resources and their Sustainable Development Principles, Perspectives with Emphasis on the Indian Scenario

123 Mihir Deb Sanjib Chandra Sarkar Department of Geology Department of Geological Sciences University of Jadavpur University Delhi , India

ISSN 2197-9545 ISSN 2197-9553 (electronic) Springer Geology ISBN 978-981-10-4563-9 ISBN 978-981-10-4564-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4564-6

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The memory of Professor Sivasunder Deb (1905–1979), a pioneer teacher and researcher of Ore Geology in India, and a guiding light for our lifelong interest in the subject Preface

Human civilization since its inception has been tied to mineral extraction in some form or the other and mineral wealth has been considered by many as the starting point of economic growth. Thus, from the early days of Natural Science to the complex science and technology that foster human societies today, the discipline of Earth Science has played a key role in human development. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the fledgling science of Geology provided the basic inputs for the exploitation of coal and other raw materials which brought about the Industrial Revolution and subsequently, rapid economic growth in Europe and North America. During the twentieth century the increasingly robust Geoscience fuelled the “Hydrocarbon Age” and facilitated the so-called second industrial revolution based on microelectronics and information technology. This period saw unprecedented energy consumption and massive advancement in transportation and communication, which has shrunk our globe in relative terms. It also guided the exponential growth in the recovery of various metals and other mineral com- modities for the development of infrastructure for our increasingly prosperous societies. Changes in some fields in the last century have been more substantial than those that occurred during the entire preceding millennium. On the flip side, however, along with the obvious benefits there were many negative side effects. The pattern of growth in so-called developed, actually “overdeveloped” countries requires excessive, often wasteful consumption of natural resources entailing damage to the world’s ecosystem and environment. It is also easily overlooked that these georesources which are essential for poverty alleviation and in achieving a better quality of life in the developing world, as well as for all modern technologies that we are so dependent upon, have to be searched, found and finally extracted from different levels in the earth’s crust. From the initial stage of exploration to mining, processing and finally marketing, the exploitation of georesources is fraught with several critical issues. First, the georesources are distributed unevenly globally and also regionally, within a large country like India. To keep up the continuous supply of these resources according to the growing needs of the society, it is not only essential to know where they occur and their geological characteristics, but also why, how, and when did they

vii viii Preface form. This understanding will form the basis for most of the future discoveries that will ensure the long-term availability of these essential commodities. Second, to satisfy the ever-increasing demand of raw material in different industries, as well as to augment the foreign exchange reserve of the country, large-scale mining and increase in necessary imports are usually preferred. Besides, with exponential growth of mineral production in the last century, most near-surface deposits have either been exhausted or are nearing exhaustion. Consequently, exploration and exploitation at greater depths are fast becoming essential though they are rather expensive. For some commodities, improved technologies allow lower grade, high tonnage, and near-surface deposits to be exploited, but obviously at the cost of higher energy consumption. All these factors make the large producers (often multinational corporates) the most suitable players in the georesource extraction industry. Consequently, sustainability is an important issue and can be achieved by such players only by embracing ideas of corporate and social responsibility and by internalizing the costs of mineral production. Third, metal deposits and thick forest cover have a close association in many parts of the world, as in the five mineral-rich states of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh in east-central India. This region hosts extensive deposits of iron, manganese, chro- mium, and aluminum – all important metals that drive the consumer industries. But these forests also provide habitat to wildlife and forest dwellers, mostly indigenous people. In many places, the hills with forests containing the deposits within also act as the catchment areas for important rivers. Though a developing country like India needs its mineral resources, including energy resources, for its industrial growth, and water and fertile soil for food security of its growing population, the complex relationship that emerges between mining, forests, wildlife, change in life and livelihood, and displacement of tribals, along with rampant environmental degra- dation of air, water, and soil in mining areas produce an extremely complex socioeconomic challenge. Lack of inclusive growth of poverty-trapped people in mining areas over protracted periods and large land acquisition for mining and its infrastructure have fuelled discontent and even anger in large parts of peninsular India turning a socioeconomic problem into a political one through the ultra-left Maoist (Naxalite) movement. Mineral industry, however, can play a vital role in turning the situation around provided there is good and fair governance and sus- tainable mineral resource development. This book attempts to look at the georesources of India in a holistic way. Georesources are first defined as the nonrenewable materials in the earth’s crust which are essential for human civilization and human sustenance. Nonrenewability is here estimated against average human life-span. Thus, water and soil that we have long overlooked, along with the common minerals and industrial rocks, as well as energy-producing (both organic and inorganic) commodities come under the ambit of this treatment in the first two parts of the book, comprising eight chapters. The content is organized in a format that will help the reader to extract information on any aspect readily. For the uninitiated reader, an introductory chapter will look into some basic definitions as well as nature and characteristics of mineral deposits followed by a chapter on the different crustal processes that produce the various ore Preface ix deposits in the endogenous and exogenous environments. The third part of the book containing three chapters will reflect on the issues of sustainability and their rele- vance to the mineral industry of the country. Sustainability in this context is not only the durability of a deposit but also its relation with the ambient society. The various socioeconomic as well as regulatory and environmental issues that face the Indian mining industry today are highlighted and analyzed in the backdrop of different contemporary case studies. Finally, a roadmap of sustainable mining framework, which may not be free of the authors’ logical bias and prejudices, is put forward. The environmental issues related to the exploitation of various energy resources are also discussed at length. We have included Indian illustrations as examples in fair number in the interest of Indian students. However, we have not overlooked classical examples from around the world to aid our discussions. The authors’ efforts will be amply rewarded if the scientific fraternity finds the book useful.

Delhi, India Mihir Deb Kolkata, India Sanjib Chandra Sarkar February 2017 Acknowledgements

The authors are obliged to their students and colleagues for encouraging them – in fact, even prodding them, to write a book on Resource Geology that will critically review the nature of the geological resource material, their genesis and their sus- tainable development keeping in view the trans-generational needs. The treatment was required to be informative, critical and at the same time to be appreciated by the student beginners. With due humility, we submit that we have tried our best to do the same. We record our appreciation for our spouses who ungrudgingly lent us their support at the expense of family commitments to see that we reach our goal in good time. We also invoke the blessings of our late parents in our endevour. We are thankful to our friends and co-workers who have shared with us their data, field experience, and critical opinion and to our students, who raised pertinent questions in class and in the field, which we have tried to address in this book. We are sorry that we are unable to mention each one of them by name. Special thanks are due to Prof. D.M. Banerjee, Dr. Anupendu Gupta, Dr. Anupam Chattopadhyay, Dr. Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Dr. Tamal Pal, and Ms. Indrani Mukherjee for their individual inputs to the book. However, we alone are responsible for any com- mission and omission that may still be there. We are obliged to the Geological Survey of India, Atomic Minerals Directorate, National Geophysical Research Institute, Hindustan Copper Ltd., Hindustan Zinc Ltd., Metal Mining India Ltd., Centre for Interdisciplinary Research and Education, Kolkata and several other firms and agencies in the mining industry for their help, cooperation and encouragement over the years in our research activities, some results of which appear in this book. We also appreciate our erstwhile employers (universities) for giving us required facilities and support over the years. We are highly thankful to Shri Rajesh Mishra, a former student at Delhi University, who very ably and painstakingly drafted a major part of the figures presented in the book. Last but not least, we are thankful to Springer for undertaking the publication of this book.

xi About the Book

Nonrenewable natural resources – metallic and nonmetallic minerals, industrial rocks and energy resources (both organic and inorganic) – have been treated in a holistic manner in this book, including two important resources (soil and water), not commonly covered in most books on this topic. For the uninitiated reader, an introductory chapter looks into some basic definitions as well as nature and char- acteristics of mineral deposits followed by a chapter on the different crustal pro- cesses that produce the various ore deposits in the endogenous and exogenous environments. The strength of the book lies in its critical treatment of the genetic processes of the mineral deposits, their classification and the geodynamic context of metallogeny, and coverage of sustainable development of mineral deposits with special reference to various socioeconomic as well as regulatory and environmental issues that face the Indian mining industry today. The text is punctuated with examples of Indian deposits, balanced with classical deposits around the world, to cater to the interests of Indian students and the international readership. This is a book for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students of Geology, Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management.

xiii Contents

Part I Mineral Resources 1 Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Mineral Use and the Human Civilization ...... 4 1.2 What is a Mineral Deposit? ...... 6 1.3 Minerals in National and Global Economy ...... 13 1.4 Nature and Geological Characteristics of Ore Deposits ...... 15 1.5 Classification and Models of Mineral Deposits ...... 19 References ...... 26 2 How Do Mineral Deposits Form and Transform? A Systematic Approach ...... 29 2.1 Introduction ...... 29 2.2 Essentially Magmatic Processes ...... 33 2.2.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits ...... 34 2.2.2 Pegmatitic Deposits...... 44 2.3 Hydrothermal Processes of Ore Formation...... 51 2.3.1 Essentially Magmatic Hydrothermal Processes ...... 59 2.3.2 Essentially Amagmatic Hydrothermal Processes ...... 76 2.4 Sedimentary(-Diagenetic) Processes ...... 106 2.4.1 Placer and Paleo-Placer Formation ...... 107 2.4.2 Banded Iron Formations and Related Ores ...... 113 2.4.3 Sedimentary Manganese Deposits ...... 117 2.5 Lateritic and Non-lateritic Residual Processes ...... 124 2.5.1 Bauxites ...... 124 2.5.2 Lateritic Gold ...... 126 2.5.3 Supergene Oxidation and Enrichment (including “Exotic Ores”) ...... 128 References ...... 130

xv xvi Contents

3 Metallic Mineral Deposits...... 141 3.1 Introduction ...... 142 3.2 Iron Ores ...... 142 3.2.1 General Characteristics ...... 143 3.2.2 Iron Ore Deposits of India ...... 150 3.3 Manganese Ores...... 160 3.3.1 General Characteristics ...... 161 3.3.2 Manganese Deposits of India ...... 164 3.4 Chromite Deposits ...... 170 3.4.1 Origin ...... 171 3.4.2 Chromite Mineralization in India ...... 171 3.5 Ores of Platinum Group Elements (PGE)...... 175 3.5.1 PGE Mineralization in India ...... 176 3.6 Gold...... 177 3.6.1 Major Uses with Specifications...... 178 3.6.2 Geochemistry ...... 179 3.6.3 Mineralogy ...... 180 3.6.4 Different Mineral Deposit Types...... 180 3.6.5 Types Represented in India...... 182 3.7 Copper Ores...... 196 3.7.1 Geochemistry and Mineralogy ...... 196 3.7.2 Principal Types of Copper Ore Deposits...... 197 3.7.3 Copper Mineralization in India ...... 198 3.8 Lead–Zinc Ores ...... 204 3.8.1 Essentials of Lead and Zinc Metals and Their Mineralogy ...... 205 3.8.2 Types of Pb–Zn Deposits and Their Origin ...... 206 3.8.3 Pb–Zn Mineralization in India ...... 206 3.9 Tin–Tungsten Ores...... 212 3.9.1 Geochemistry and Mineralogy ...... 212 3.9.2 Types of Ore Deposits ...... 213 3.9.3 Sn-W Mineralization in India ...... 213 3.10 Rare Earth (REE) and Other Associated Metals Deposits ..... 217 3.10.1 Types of REE Deposits...... 217 3.10.2 REE Mineralization in India ...... 219 3.11 Aluminum Ores ...... 220 3.11.1 Chemical and Physical Properties of Aluminum ...... 220 3.11.2 Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Aluminum Ores .... 221 3.11.3 Distribution Through Space and Time ...... 221 3.11.4 Typology of Bauxite...... 222 3.11.5 Bauxite Formation in a Weathering Profile ...... 222 3.11.6 Why Bauxites Occur Where They Do?...... 223 3.11.7 India’s Resources of Al Ores or Bauxites ...... 223 References ...... 230 Contents xvii

4 Nonmetals, Industrial Minerals and Gemstones ...... 239 4.1 Introduction ...... 240 4.2 Nonmetals ...... 240 4.2.1 Refractory Minerals ...... 242 4.2.2 Minerals for Fertilizer Industry ...... 254 4.2.3 Minerals of Cement Industry ...... 264 4.2.4 Minerals of Chemical Industry ...... 266 4.2.5 Minerals for Electrical Industry...... 273 4.2.6 Minerals Used in Glass and Ceramic Industry ...... 277 4.2.7 Mineral Fillers ...... 279 4.2.8 Mineral Pigments ...... 279 4.2.9 Abrasives ...... 280 4.3 Industrial Rocks ...... 281 4.3.1 Building Stones ...... 281 4.3.2 Crushed Stones and Aggregates ...... 284 4.4 Gemstones ...... 284 4.4.1 Diamond ...... 284 4.4.2 Other Common Gemstones ...... 287 References ...... 290 5 Geodynamic Context of Metallogeny...... 293 5.1 Introduction ...... 294 5.2 Continental and Oceanic Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Upper Mantle, Lower Mantle and the Core of the Earth ...... 295 5.3 An Outline of Plate Tectonics ...... 296 5.4 Mantle Plumes ...... 299 5.4.1 Mantle Plume-Related Magma-Associated Principal Ore Deposits ...... 300 5.4.2 Plume-Related Hydrothermal Ore Deposits...... 301 5.5 Archean Geodynamics as Read from Greenstone Belts ...... 302 5.6 Major Type of Mineral Deposits and Their Geodynamic (Plate Tectonic) Setting ...... 302 5.6.1 Mineral Deposits Related to Intracratonic Magmatism ...... 302 5.6.2 Mineral Deposits Related to Intracontinental Rifting... 304 5.6.3 Mineral Deposits Related to Divergent Margin Tectonics ...... 305 5.6.4 Mineral Deposits Related to Convergent Margin Tectonics ...... 306 5.6.5 Mineralization at the Continent–Continent Collision Regions ...... 309 5.6.6 Some Controversies About the Geodynamic Status of Some Sediment-Hosted Ore Deposits ...... 311 5.7 Supercontinents and Superevent Cycles ...... 313 xviii Contents

5.8 Metallogenic Provinces in a Supercontinent Cycle Framework...... 317 5.9 Space–Time Framework of the Metallogenic Provinces in the Indian Shield ...... 322 5.9.1 Archean Metallogeny ...... 325 5.9.2 Proterozoic Metallogeny ...... 330 5.9.3 Concluding Remarks...... 335 References ...... 339

Part II Allied Natural Resources 6 Energy Resources ...... 351 6.1 Introduction ...... 352 6.2 Coal ...... 353 6.2.1 What is Coal? ...... 353 6.2.2 Use of Coal ...... 354 6.2.3 Distribution of Coal ...... 355 6.2.4 Varieties of Coal...... 356 6.2.5 Properties and Composition of Coal ...... 359 6.2.6 Mode of Occurrence and Structure of Coal Seams .... 360 6.2.7 Coal Petrography ...... 362 6.2.8 Evaluation of the Quality of Coal ...... 365 6.2.9 Coal-Bearing Basins ...... 365 6.2.10 Genesis of Coal/Coalification ...... 367 6.2.11 Coal in India...... 370 6.2.12 Reserves of Coal and Lignite in India ...... 379 6.3 Oil and Natural Gas ...... 382 6.3.1 Introduction ...... 382 6.3.2 Chemical Composition of Natural Hydrocarbons ..... 383 6.3.3 Surface Indications of Oil and Gas ...... 383 6.3.4 Origin, Migration and Accumulation of Oil and Natural Gas ...... 384 6.3.5 Oil and Natural Gas Fields of India ...... 386 6.3.6 Nonconventional Hydrocarbon Resources ...... 395 6.4 Nuclear Energy ...... 399 6.4.1 Introduction ...... 399 6.4.2 Radioactivity and the Principal Radioactive Elements ...... 400 6.4.3 Geochemistry of Uranium and Thorium ...... 401 6.4.4 An Outline of Ore Mineralogy ...... 404 6.4.5 Radioactive Ore Deposit Types...... 405 6.4.6 Uranium Mineralization in India ...... 407 6.4.7 Resources of Thorium and Associated Metals in India ...... 411 6.4.8 Nuclear Energy: The World and Indian Scenario ..... 411 Contents xix

6.5 Geothermal Energy ...... 415 References ...... 417 7 Soil: An Essential but Somewhat Neglected Natural Resource ...... 421 7.1 Introduction ...... 421 7.2 Soil Profile ...... 423 7.3 Characteristics of Soil ...... 425 7.4 Soil Nutrients and Their Supply...... 429 7.5 Soil Formation ...... 430 7.6 Soil Classification ...... 433 7.7 Acidification of Soils ...... 434 7.8 Contamination of Soil ...... 434 7.9 Salination of Soils ...... 435 7.10 Soil Erosion ...... 436 7.11 Soil in India ...... 437 References ...... 442 8 Water...... 443 8.1 Introduction ...... 443 8.2 Global Water Distribution ...... 445 8.3 The Hydrologic Cycle ...... 446 8.4 Water Quantity...... 450 8.5 Water Quality...... 452 8.6 Water Use ...... 458 8.7 Water Conservation and Its Sustainable Development ...... 459 8.8 Desalination of Sea Water ...... 461 8.9 Water Availability and Water Demand in India ...... 462 8.10 The River-Linking Proposal ...... 467 References ...... 469

Part III Sustainable Development of India’s Mineral and Allied Resources 9 Sustainable Development of Mineral Resources ...... 473 9.1 The Concept of Sustainable Development ...... 474 9.2 Sustainable Development of Mineral Resources...... 478 9.2.1 Essential Steps in Ensuring Sustainable Development of Mineral Deposits...... 481 9.3 Some Important Facts/Issues in the Above Context ...... 483 9.3.1 Evolution of Schemes for Sustainable Development of Mineral Resources ...... 483 9.3.2 Depletion of Reserves and Long-Term Supply ...... 485 References ...... 487 xx Contents

10 Mines and Minerals Sector in India and Its Regulatory Regime...... 489 10.1 Mineral Industry in India – An Overview ...... 490 10.2 Structure and Evolution of Indian Mining Industry ...... 495 10.2.1 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)...... 496 10.3 Regulatory Regimes in the Mines and Minerals Sector ...... 500 10.3.1 National Mineral Policy, 1993 (For Nonfuel and Nonatomic Minerals) ...... 502 10.3.2 Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation (MMDR) Act, 1957, 2015 ...... 505 10.3.3 Environment Protection Act, 1986 ...... 507 10.3.4 Environmental Impact Assessment, 1994, 2006 ...... 507 10.3.5 Forest Conservation Act ...... 509 10.3.6 Land Acquisition and Related Acts...... 510 10.3.7 Tribal Issues and Legislations ...... 512 10.4 Concluding Statement ...... 514 10.5 International Laws for the Exploitation of Marine Mineral Resources ...... 516 References ...... 518 11 Issues of Sustainable Development in the Mines and Minerals Sector in India ...... 519 11.1 Introduction ...... 520 11.2 Key Issues ...... 522 11.3 Illegal Mining ...... 526 11.3.1 Government’s New Policy to Check Illegal Mining ... 529 11.4 Inter-generational Equity Issue ...... 529 11.5 Sustainable Development Framework...... 531 11.6 Why and How Should We Close a Mine? ...... 532 11.7 Ecosystem Management in the Context of Mining and Metallurgy...... 534 11.8 Some Other Important Aspects of Sustainability ...... 535 11.8.1 Human Health Hazards Caused by Intake of Some Toxic Elements...... 535 11.8.2 Acid Production in Mines and Its Neutralization ..... 536 11.8.3 Cement Industry Is no More that Polluting? ...... 542 11.9 Environmental Issues of Energy Resources ...... 542 11.9.1 Coal as a Necessary Evil ...... 542 11.9.2 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Containment ...... 544 11.9.3 Environmental Hazards in Exploration and Exploitation of Oil and Natural Gas...... 545 11.9.4 Geochemical Contamination of Environment by Radionuclides ...... 546 11.9.5 Nuclear Energy Production—Still Has Its Challenges for Sustainable Development ...... 548 Contents xxi

11.9.6 Management of Nuclear Waste – A Challenging Problem ...... 549 11.9.7 Falling Back on Solar Energy...... 550 References ...... 550 Appendix A ...... 553 Appendix B ...... 557 Appendix C ...... 559 Appendix D ...... 561 Index ...... 563 About the Authors

Mihir Deb’s research interests for close to five decades have centered on nonre- newable natural resources, their environment of formation and sustainability of extraction. He has published over 100 scientific articles in peer-reviewed national and international journals and has edited three scientific volumes (published by Narosa Publishing House). With an undergraduate degree from Presidency College, Calcutta and Master’s and Ph.D. in Ore Geology from Jadavpur University, he joined as faculty in the University of Delhi in 1970 and then pursued postdoctoral research in the City University of New York. He was an Alexander von Humboldt fellow at the University of Göttingen, Germany and at the University of Leicester, U.K. He served as the Head, Department of Geology (2000–2003) and as Director of the School of Environmental Studies (2004–2009) at Delhi University where he initiated an innovative postgraduate course in Environmental Studies with a holistic approach. He has guided a dozen students for Ph.D. in these two disciplines and conducted several basic and applied scientific projects and international collabo- rative research. His geological and environmental field work have made him travel extensively in North and South Americas, Europe, Mongolia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and parts of Australia and Africa. He also served as Director of the University Science Instrumentation Centre during 2000–2006. He superannuated from Delhi University in 2010 and continued his research and teaching as INSA senior scientist till August, 2014. He joined the newly established Nalanda University at Rajgir, Bihar in September, 2014 and served as a Visiting Professor and the first Dean of the School of Ecology and Environment Studies for a full academic year and initiated an interdisciplinary postgraduate course. Professor Deb worked in different capacities in several national bodies. These included: Member, State level Environmental Expert Appraisal Committee, NCT of Delhi; Member, Geoscience Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Mines, Govt. of India; Member, Apex Exploration Research Advisory Committee, Department of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India; Member, Working Group on Mineral exploration and Development, Planning Commission (2006); Member, Academic Council of TERI University; Member, Council, Geological, Mining, Metallurgical Society of India. In the International sphere, Mihir Deb served as the Indian representative to

xxiii xxiv About the Authors

Communities and Small scale Mining (CASM), a World Bank initiative; Asian representative in IUGS-GEM (Geoscience for Environmental Management, an ICSU commission) and Member, UNECE Ad Hoc Group of Experts on Harmonization of Fossil Energy and Mineral Resources Terminology. Mihir Deb was awarded N.N. Chatterjee medal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta in 1976, the National Mineral Award (Govt. of India) in 1996 and a gold medal of the Indian Geophysical Union in 2013. He is a Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy since 2002 and a Fellow of the Society of Economic Geologists, U.S.A., since 2004. He is also a Life Fellow of the Geological Society of India and the Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Society of India. Sanjib Chandra Sarkar has taught and conducted research in the Department of Geological Sciences, Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India, for more than four decades. He has published a large number (+60) of research papers in national and international journals, particularly in his area of interest, Precambrian geology and Metallogeny. He has authored two books (One published by Jadavpur University Press, 1984 and the other, co-authored by A. Gupta, by Cambridge University Press, 2012) and an international conference Proceedings Volume (published by Oxford-IBH and Balkema, 1992). His present interest centers on India’s sustainable development in the context of its natural resources. was an under- graduate student in Presidency College and did his Master’s degree from Jadavpur University, Calcutta. Then he proceeded to Moscow State University (former USSR) for his Ph.D. degree in Geology & Mineralogy under the supervision of the eminent Academician, V.I. Smirnov. He also participated in a course in Experimental Sulfide Mineralogy at Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. He was the Head of the Department at Jadavpur University during 1981–1984 and was also the Coordinator of the UGC Center of Advanced Study in Economic Geology, Structural Geology and Petrology from 1984 to 1997. He guided 10 Ph.D. candi- dates during his tenure. He was the regional councillor for Asia in the International Association on Genesis of Ore deposits (1984–89). He also co-chaired the Working Group on Ore and Metamorphism (1992–99) and served as a Leader of an International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP-247) on Precambrian Tectonics and Metallogeny (1987–92). Professor Sarkar who also served as a member of the International Commission on Tectonics and Metallization has visited many mineral deposits around the world. He is a Fellow of the Society of Economic Geologist (SEG), USA; Fellow, West Bengal Academy of Sciences and Technology, Life Fellow of the Geological Society of India and the Geological, Mining, Metallurgical Society of India. Professor Sarkar was awarded Prof. N.N. Chatterjee medal for important contribution to Economic Geology by the Asiatic Society, Calcutta in 1969. He was also awarded the Geological Survey of India Sesquicentennial Commemorative Gold medal of the Asiatic Society in 2012 for “significant contribution in the field of Earth Science”. He was a DST National Lecturer during 1997–98. Abbreviations/Acronyms

AD Anno Domini (Year of our Lord in Latin) AMD Atomic Minerals Directorate Amu Atomic Mass Unit BC Before Christian Era BCM Billion Cubic Meter BP Before Present CBM Coal Bed Methane CLM Continental Lithospheric Mantle CSR Corporate Social Responsibility CWC Central Water Commission EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EGMB Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPA Environmental Protection Agency FICCI Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries FPIC Free and Prior Informed Consent GDP Gross Domestic Product GOI Government of India GSI Geological Survey of India GST Goods and Services Tax Gt Giga (billion) metric ton g/t gm per ton IBM Indian Bureau of Mines ILR Inter-linking of Rivers IOCG Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold LIP Large Igneous Province (Oceanic Plateau) M & M sector Mines and Minerals Sector MOEF & CC Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change

xxv xxvi Abbreviations/Acronyms

Mscmd Million standard cubic meter per day Mt Million metric ton Mtoe Million tons oil equivalent MP Madhya Pradesh MPa MegaPascal = 106 Pascals Mtpa Million ton per annum MVT Mississippi Valley Type Pa (Pascal; SI unit of pressure) 1 Neutron/meter2 (n/m2) = 1 kg/cm2 (kg/cm2)= lb/in.2 PGE Platinum Group Elements PIL Public Interest Litigation Ppm Parts per million PSU Public Sector Undertaking R & D Research and Development REE Rare Earth Elements SCLM Sub-Continental Lithospheric Mantle SEDEX Sedimentary Exhalative SSC Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper TARWR Total Actual Renewable Water Resource TCF Trillion Cubic Feet TCM Trillion Cubic Meter TOI Times of India TTG Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite UCIL Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. UP Uttar Pradesh UNFC United Nations Framework Classification UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development USD United States Dollar VMS Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides WRI Water Resource Institute