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VOICING MOTHER : ECOMUSICOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON AND IN JAPANESE SHAKUHACHI PRACTICE

A thesis submitted to the of the of Kent State in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

By Lydia L. Snyder 2019

Thesis written by

Lydia L. Snyder

B.A., Hiram College, 2014

M.A., Kent State University, 2019

Approved by

______Andrew Shahriari, Ph.D., Advisor

______Jane K. Dressler, D.M.A., Interim Director, School of

______

John R. Crawford-Spinelli, Ed.D., Dean, College of the Arts iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES ...... v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... vi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Selected Review ...... 5 Topic and Scope ...... 13 Source Materials and ...... 14 Projected Results ...... 15

II. TRACING THE OF ...... 16 Timeline of ...... 16 Environmental Awareness and Music ...... 21 The Birth of Ecomusicology ...... 23 Weighing the Pros and Cons of Ecomusicology As Its Own ...... 26 How Does Writing and Enact Change? ...... 28 Future Directions in Ecomusicology ...... 28 Environmentalism in Japan ...... 30

II. AN ECOMUSICOLOGICAL VALUE SYSTEM ...... 35 Schwartz Theory of Basic Values ...... 35 Hierarchy of Music ...... 39 Categories of : A New Conception ...... 42 Participants & Description of the University ...... 43 Survey...... 43 Data Analysis & Discussion ...... 44 Eastern & Western Philosophy and Values...... 54 Japanese Religious Philosophy ...... 59 Gender Values ...... 65 ...... 66 Conclusions ...... 71

IV. THE SHAKUHACHI AS A VOICE FOR “MOTHER NATURE” ...... 72 Historical Background...... 72 Environmental Awareness...... 74 Silence “Ma” ...... 75 Mimesis, , and Music ...... 78 Cultural Ideas of Listening ...... 83 Gender & The Shakuhachi ...... 86

V. CONCLUSIONS ...... 90 iv

Overview ...... 90 A New Ecomusicological Conception of Music ...... 91 The Shakuhachi as Sensitization to the Natural World ...... 93 Directions for Further Research ...... 98 Conclusions: The Shakuhachi as a Voice for “Mother Nature”...... 101

APPENDICES A. Survey and Consent Form ...... 103 B. Comments From Survey ...... 107

REFERENCES ...... 110

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1. Andy Goldsworthy’s Pebbles, Broken and Scraped ...... 6 2. ’s temperature 1880-2013 ...... 18 3. Nattiez’ views of music ...... 40 4. Gender of participants graph ...... 44 5. Class rank of participants graph ...... 45 6. Race of participants graph ...... 45 7. This is music graph ...... 46 8. Preference rating graph ...... 47 9. What is music? chart ...... 47 10. Preference chart ...... 47 11. Themes of reasoning chart ...... 48 12. Themes of reasoning graph ...... 48 13. Hierarchy of ...... 52 14. Spectrum of sounds ...... 53 15. Hierarchy of sounds ...... 93 16. Spectrum of sounds ...... 90 17. Kyorei in Japanese notation with echo ornamentation illuminated ...... 97 18. Nayashi in “Kyorei”...... 98 19. Nayashi in “Kyorei” represented in staff notation ...... 98

vi

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

I must take the to thank those who have led me to this point in my and have shaped who I am as a scholar and as a person. First, my advisor Dr. Andrew Shahriari for his time and guidance through thesis writing, teaching, and the overall graduate studies process; Dr.

Joe Clark, for his painstaking attention to detail as a committee member- the kind only the most skilled music librarians can give, and for his much needed humor; Dr. Jennifer Johnstone, for her insightful work on my committee, her endless encouragement, and most importantly, her friendship; Dr. Craig Resta for his help on the entire survey portion of my thesis. I also owe a great deal to Drs. Terry and Sara Miller, whose generosity cannot be topped. These created the right mixture of guidance to make this thesis come to fruition.

Thank you to Dr. Aaron Allen, Dr. Christopher Yomei Blasdel, and to all the participants of the 2018 World Shakuhachi Festival and the 2017 Seiha ho-gaku Summer School, for their contributions to my research- including my first shakuhachi , Michael Chikuzen Gould.

I extend my thanks to all the faculty at Kent State University who have shaped my ; to Dr. Eve McPherson, Dr. Priwan Nanongkham, and Dr. Janine Tiffe, for intellectual stimulation, patience, and some very interesting travel experiences. And, of course, Tyler

Rounds, who didn’t get to see the completion of this document but would have called it

“groovy.” Her compassion and changed my life.

I must also express my gratitude to the music professors at Hiram College who steered me toward my passions; to Dr. Dawn Sonntag, who was the first person to truly believe in me, make me want to study music, and stand up for my decision to do so; and Dr. Tina Dreisbach for introducing me to and the shakuhachi. These two women formed the basis of vii my career and continued to provide constant support throughout my graduate schooling at Kent

State. I am forever indebted to them.

A special thank you to Sydney Shawgo for her endless proofreading and loving support.

Finally, thank you to the earth, to the - especially my cat Smokey, who provides the most support of all, to the , the rocks, the dirt, the , the , and the fire. Thank you for blessing us and collaborating with us to create beautiful music.

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

During my undergraduate studies at Hiram College, a liberal arts school in a pastoral setting, I took courses in . I fell in love with the transcendental movement and writers, such as (1843-1916) and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-

1882)), as well as activists like . I read Walden while walking the woods of

Hiram and endeavored to “listen” like Thoreau.1 I was introduced to the Japanese shakuhachi by a visiting artist, Michael Gould, and began taking lessons. It was during my research on the meditative qualities of the shakuhachi that I discovered the field of ecomusicology.

The term 'ecomusicology' first emerged in the early 2000s among Scandinavian scholars and is slowly gaining interest across the world. Aaron Allen, director of the Environmental &

Sustainability Studies Program and associate of at the University of North

Carolina Greensboro, defines the academic field of ecomusicology as “the study of music, , and nature in all the complexities of those terms. Ecomusicology considers musical and sonic issues, both textual and performative, related to and the .”2

For centuries, philosophers have written on the relationship of music to the , such as the

Greek philosopher, Pythagoras (570- 495 BC), in his book, of the Spheres.3 The

Hindu Vedas, the scripture of the oldest practiced today, equates vibration to life itself, considering everything as interconnected through vibration.4 Since the relationship between music, culture, and nature has been recognized and written upon for centuries, it may seem

1 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2018 ed., s.v. "Transcendentalism," by Russell Goodman. 2 The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2014 ed., s.v. “Ecomusicology,” by Aaron Allen. 3 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 4 Ibid. 2 strange that a new field, such as ecomusicology emerges centuries afterward. However, Jeff

Todd Titon gives further explanation of ecomusicology as “the study of music, culture, sound and nature in a period of environmental crisis.”5 Thus, it is our awareness of our “environmental crisis,” as evidenced by global warming, depletion of our natural resources, extinction of , and projected death of our planet, that gave birth to this new field. Further, Allen explains that ecomusicology is a combination of and musicology.6

Ecocriticism is a literary field that focuses on the relationship between and the environment. Ecocritical scholars describe and interpret these connections through political or critical approaches, such as legislation toward the environment. While being self-critical, scholars read into subtexts of the media and advertising, for instance, how the media portrays nature. The end goal of this research is to enlighten the public and bring awareness and concern for our current environmental crisis.7

Ecomusicology, like all music scholarship, makes use of literary , such as , phenomenology, etc. Allen states that ecomusicology combines ecocriticism and

Charles Seeger’s views of musicology- as encompassing historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and other interdisciplinary fields such as and sociology8. As ecomusicology is interdisciplinary, various fields that generally operate independently can interact with one another.9 Scholars can be flexible and interdisciplinary in their approach, as ecomusicology lends itself to interdisciplinary studies due to the open-ended semantics of the words “nature," "music," and "culture." The ambiguity of these terms can suggest a multitude of definitions depending on the contexts in which they are used.

5 Jeff Todd Titon, “The Nature of Ecomusicology,” Música e Cultura vol. 8 (2014): 8-18. 6 Ibid. 7 The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2014 ed., s.v. “Ecomusicology,” by Aaron Allen. 8 . Studies in Musicology: 1935-1975. (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1977). 9 Ibid. 3

Ecomusicology can be considered an overarching label to a variety of literary and artistic ventures, such as descriptive narratives of listening to nature or even sonic installations about the environment. Beginnings of the field were articulated through the connections of and non-human sound worlds (sounds created by a particular species, e.g., or ) coming from the discipline of studies, also known as . As landscapes are physical features of an area, refer to the sonic features of an area. R.

Murray Schafer, who considers himself “the father of acoustic ecology,” founded the World

Soundscape Project (known as the World Forum for Acoustic Ecology since 1993), which combines elements from composition, , , engineering, general music, and to understand sonic environments. Soundscape artists and acoustic ecologists use both and activism to raise awareness on issues, such as , urban development, loss, and .10

Bio music is another interdisciplinary field that falls under the umbrella term ecomusicology. and in this area collaborate to study non-human sound worlds, such as those of whales, birds, and , in relation to human sound worlds and music.11 A major advancement for this discipline came in the 1960s, when the was invented and the ability to record whales underwater became a reality. Since then, there have been studies across species and time, as well as studies on the philosophy of interspecies musicking and semiotic zoomusiciology, yet another term for the study of music.12

There are many different ecomusicological approaches to studying the music of humans and their system of organizing sound, including their compositions, surrounding

10 The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2014 ed., s.v. “Schafer, R. Murray,” by Stephen J. Adams and Megan E. Hill. 11 P.M. Gray, “The Music of Nature and the Nature of Music,” 291, no. 5501 (Jan. 2001): 52–4. 12 Dario Martinelli, Of Birds, Whales, and Other Musicians: An Introduction to (University of Scranton Press, 2009). For interspecies musicking see the work of David Rothenberg. 4 music and its use, and their about sound. Musicologists can focus on the music's natural influence from extra-musical inspirations, or the music’s references to the natural environment implicit or explicit using text or sound, or how the music mimics sounds of nature.

Many of these approaches have roots in other music related disciplines, including ethnomusicology and historical musicology. This interest in nature-related topics within those two disciplines are reflected in their individual academic . In 2007, the American

Musicology established the Ecocriticism Study Group, and in 2011 the Society for

Ethnomuscology established the Ecomusicology Special Interest Group.

A common theme in ecomusicology is studies with respect to place, an idea borrowed from anthropology. Ethnomusicologists, such as Nancy Guy and Alexander Redhing take this approach beyond descriptive and into a critical realm.13 Ecomusicological themes are present through various historical epochs from different genres through multiple lenses, e.g.,

Western , , and gender studies. Historical studies of regions in North

America, such as Von Glahn’s Music and the Skillful Listener and Toliver’s “Eco-ing in the

Canyon: Ferde Grofè's Grand Canyon Suite and the Transformation of ,” focus on how local environments affect music.14

13 Nancy Guy, “Flowing Down Taiwan's Tamsui River: Towards an Ecomusicology of The Environmental Imagination,” Ethnomusicology vol. 53, issue 2 (2009): 218-248, accessed November 10, 2016. Alexander Rehding, “Brauchen wir eine Ӧkomusikwissenschaft?” Archiv Für Musikwissenschaft vol.69, issue 3 (2012): 187-95. 14 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). 14 Brooks Toliver, “Eco-ing in the Canyon: Ferde Grofè's Grand Canyon Suite and the Transformation of Wilderness,” Journal of the American Musicological Society vol.57, issue 2 (2004): 325-68, accessed December 28, 2016. 5

Selected Literature Review

As ecomusicology is a relatively new field, scholars are still exploring and debating foundational ideas. One of the founders of the field, Aaron S. Allen asks fundamental questions for the field in his article, “Ecomusicology: Ecocriticism and Musicology.” He insists that musicologists must start asking:

• Is musicology part of the problem or part of the solution? • What role does musicology play in the welfare and survival of humanity? • How does nature inform music, and what can the study of music tell us about humans, other species, the built environment, the natural world, constructed “nature” and their connections? • Does musicology adapt us better to life on earth, or does it sometimes estrange us from life? • Does it contribute more to our survival than to our extinction? • Is the environmental crisis relevant to music- and more importantly, is musicology relevant to solving it?15

Allen describes “the problem” as rapid change perpetuated by human activity. Allen does not specifically explain the topics of “built environment” or “constructed nature,” but infers that the reader understands these field specific terms. Built environment refers to human infrastructure (e.g., buildings, roads, parking lots, etc.), while constructed nature would include gardens and landscaping, as well as natural artwork like that of the artist Andy Goldsworthy, who works with nature to create art (see Figure 1).16

15 Aaron Allen, “Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature…and Change in ?” Journal of Environmental Studies and 2, no. 2 (2012): 192-201. 16 Andy Goldsworthy, Andy Goldsworthy: A Collaboration with Nature (New York: Abrams, 1990). 6

Figure 1. Andy Goldsworthy’s Pebbles, Broken and Scraped

Titon elaborates further on the field in his article “The Nature of Ecomusicology,” by insisting that ecomusicology include the aspect of .17 Titon says that ecomusicologists can overcome the challenges of environmental degradation through co- presence, an understanding that environmental beings co-inhabit the same time and , both physically and sonically.

Aaron Allen expands his own ideas further in his new volume, Current Directions in

Ecomusicology, co-edited with Kevin Dawe. Allen and Dawe call for an all-inclusive field to further conversations on the environment and on our "environmental crisis."18 Current

Directions in Ecomusicology is the newest volume of collected essays on the topic of ecomusicology. This volume is divided into four sections, including Ecological Directions,

Fieldwork Directions, Critical Directions, and Textual Directions. The editors provide an introduction to each section and make connections between the essays. Allen and Dawe argue the field of ecomusicology, like the field of ethnomusicology, is rooted in interdisciplinary

17 Jeff Todd Titon, “The Nature of Ecomusicology,” Música e Cultura 8 (2014): 8-18. 18 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 7 studies, but should be viewed as a “multi-perspectival field” and therefore the main goals include making interdisciplinary connections, and diverse perspectives (much like a diverse eco-system).19 Allen and Dawe distinguish ecomusicology from simple studies of music and nature for being self-reflective, analytical and political.20

Within Current Directions in Ecomusicology, five authors have written ecomusicological accounts based on site-specific fieldwork. Anthony Seeger discusses

Kisedje/Suya Indians of Brazil and the ways they interact with different species through listening. For example, a Suya Indian can know whether today would be a good day to catch by listening to birdcalls. He suggests that the distinction between animal and human, both in music and in nature, is more fluid than the Western concept.21 He says scientists have recently found other species experience music in similar ways as humans; yet, the Suya Indians already knew this information22. Seeger states “we are being ethnocentric if we discredit other knowledge simply because it is not scientific.”23 What Seeger articulates, i.e., dominant in the West, is a plight among many non-Western cultures.24

The first set of articles in Current Directions in Ecomusicology focuses on ecological directions in ecomusicology. Ecologist and , W. Alice Boyle, paired with ethnomusicologist, Ellen Waterman to write, “Ecology of Musical Performance: Towards a

Robust Methodology.”25 The two authors suggest adopting ecological methodologies to study

19 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature. (New York: Routledge, 2016). 20 Ibid. 21 Anthony Seeger, “Natural Species, and Humans in Lowland South America: The Kĩsêdjê/Suyá, Their World, and the Nature of Their Musial Experience,” in Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen and Kevin Dawe. (New York: Routledge, 2016): 89-98. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid 25 Alice Boyle, and Ellen Waterman, “The Ecology of Musical Performance: Toward a Robust Methodology,” in Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2016), 25-39. 8 musical performance. The benefits from doing so would include systematically identifying issues, while structuring and developing research, such as comparative studies. They argue that performance is a major concern for ecomusicology, because both involve individuals’ interaction with space, place, and time. They also detail how birdsong and other forms of animal are a type of performance and provide a comparative analysis on the factors that affect avian and human performance. For example, the size of an audience might influence a musician’s choice in volume. Similarly, the proximity of other birds may affect a ’s call.

The strengths in this article are in such comparisons. Boyle and Waterman also compare animal behavior ecologists to the fieldwork of ethnomusicologists - both are observing behavior, one among animals and the other among humans. In providing these comparisons, a clear connection and argument is made for using ecological methodologies for ecomusicological research. Such methods include program planning, collecting field data and data analysis, as well as repeat observational studies.

Describing the natural world and the interactions between humans began as a literary movement among transcendentalist authors, such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo

Emerson. Titon writes extensively about the phenomenological approach to relating music and nature. In his article, “Why Thoreau,” which is also in Current Directions in Ecomusicology, he describes the ways in which Thoreau experienced nature at Walden Pond and in doing so, developed a greater understanding for his environment. Thoreau describes listening in his book,

Walden or Life in the Woods.26 He makes connections between nature, music, sounds and presence. Just as Thoreau found sound an indicator of a thriving , Titon suggests that ecomusicologists do the same in seeing ourselves as co-inhabitors of an ecosystem.27

26 Henry David Thoreau, Walden or Life in the Woods (: Houghton Mifflin, 1995). 27 Jeff Todd Titon, “Why Thoreau?” In Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. (New York: Routledge, 2016), 69-80. 9

In Current Directions in Ecomusicology, many authors have taken critical and ethical approaches to understanding music and the environment. James Rhys Edwards’ article, “Critical

Theory in Ecomusicology,” elaborates on this subject.28 Edwards considers ecomusicology from a humanistic perspective. Edwards focuses on Japan and insists that we critique our understanding of nature and music using reason, drawing on modern and post-modern approaches, citing philosophers Heidegger and Adorno. He references Japanese studies that explain the differences in ways of listening in Japan versus Western cultures and finds connections between and the modernization of Japan.29 He, like Titon, believes in a

“dialectical approach to listening,” in which humans and the natural world are in conversation with one another.30

W. Luke Windsor, in his article “Nature and Culture, Noise and Music,” Windsor notes that all sounds have the potential to be musical, but whether we consider them such depends upon the performed behavior.31 He draws on ideas from the field of ecological , which studies the relationship between the environment and human behavior, to distinguish music from noise. He also discusses music and noise within the context of . He explains how education systems teach toward a specific culture and . Music education, he says, should challenge students to think critically about music and listening. In doing so, students engage actively with their surroundings rather than passively. The goal of school

28 James Rhys Edwards, “ in Ecomusicology,” in Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2016): 153-164. 29 To see full list of studies referenced by Edwards, consult James Rhys Edwards, “Critical Theory in Ecomusicology,” in Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2016): 153-164. 30 Idem, p. 161. 31 W. Luke Windsor, “Nature and Culture, Noise and Music,” in Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. (New York, NY: Routledge, 2016): 165-175. 10 should not be to fill student minds with prescribed facts, but rather to give them the tools to deduce their own ideas from their surroundings.

Nancy Guy further addresses the issue of climate change within music in her article,

"Flowing Down Taiwan's Tamsui River: Towards an Ecomusicology of the Environmental

Imagination." She briefly discusses the history of the climate change issue, as incorporation of environment in literature began in the early 2000s. She insists that the environment be on the forefront of all scholars’ minds and must be considered in all the work that we do. Guy draws on the concepts of ecocriticism in asking the questions, "Might the role of music, including its creation, performance, and consumption, offer insight into how we have arrived at the current environmental crisis," and "What role might music play in mending our seemingly broken ties to the natural world?"32 She focuses on the concept of place with attention paid to environmental materiality, relationships between human and non-human, and human and experience with their physical environment.33 Guy goes in depth into a specific culture and a specific place - Taiwan's Tamsui river. She is one of the first ecomusicologists to incorporate geographic regions outside of Western culture.

Denise Von Glahn also applies the concept of place as she writes on the issues of gender in relation to ecomusicology in her book, Music and the Skillful Listener.34 She considers how women are viewed in relation to nature, as well as the varying themes and of women . In her interviews with composers, she found that most people connected their relationship with nature to something more spiritual or philosophical. Von Glahn briefly mentions the Western idea of "mother nature," that nature is placed into the role of a parental

32 Nancy Guy, “Flowing Down Taiwan's Tamsui River: Towards an Ecomusicology of The Environmental Imagination,” Ethnomusicology 53, no. 2 (2009): 218-248, accessed November 10, 2016. 33 Ibid. 34 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). 11 female figure. This idea is not explained in depth and would benefit from further discussion.

Von Glahn acknowledges that her research is based solely in America and does not incorporate other cultural perspectives. In addition, she does not compare differences in gender, but elaborates on the feminine perspective. She recognizes the potential for further research in gender comparison in both observational studies and cognitive studies.35

Since the 1960s in America, when the became a controversial political issue, many scholars and journalists alike have written about popular music and the environment. Pedelty addresses this historical period and phenomenon in his book,

Ecomusicology: Rock, folk, and the Environment.36 He expounds upon the subject of artist as political activist in an ethnographic study. Pedelty specifically focuses on rock and while addressing issues of music as communication, expression, and advocacy. He asks similar questions as Allen, such as, "Is there some way for us to put music in the service of local ?"37

One of the most influential works to date is by R. Murray Schafer, entitled The

Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World.38 Schafer pioneered the method of soundscape studies. He and his students produced works that questioned the way that we listen, and in doing so, identified some of the most damaging elements on our environment, such as noise pollution. His work attempts to answer the question, "What is the relationship between man and the sounds of his environment and what happens when these sounds

35 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). 36 David Ingram, The Jukebox in the Garden: Ecocriticism and American Popular Music Since 1960. (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010). 37 Mark Pedelty, Ecomusicology: Rock, Folk, and the Environment. (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2012). 38 Murray Shaffer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World. (Rochester, VT.: Destiny Books, 1994). 12 change?"39 He identifies noise as the music in which we have been conditioned to ignore. In answering the question of “what is the difference between music and noise?” Shaffer would say that music is what we pay attention to; it is what is given value in our society.

A fast-growing environmental awareness movement in mainstream literature and media since has surfaced in the new millennium. Hollywood films, like “The Lorax” (2012) and

“Avatar” (2009), invoke a sense of urgency.40 Alexander Rehding explains in his article,

“Ecomusicology: Between Apocalypse and Nostalgia,” that mainstream media and ecocriticism provide a sense of crisis, and thus the environment becomes politically relevant. Since narrative arts are presentational, they have an advantage over music in conveying political messages. He explains that the challenge for eomusicologists is invoking this sense of crisis using music.

Rehding explains that ecomusicology must begin by defining its goals and political leanings, as well as clarify its fundamental questions, such as “what is nature?” and “what is music?”

Just as in ethnomusicology, which once aimed to cover the globe with ethnographic research, the same needs to be done with ecomusicology. Much of the literature in ecomusicology thus far focuses on Western music, but the environment is a global issue, just as music is a world phenomenon. Since ecomusicology is a relatively new field, most topics have not been thoroughly looked at through an ecomusicological lens, including and philosophy. Gender has only been explored in relation to female composers, thus differences in gender is an undocumented topic. Finally, the field itself has not been entirely solidified in its goals and purpose.

39 Murray Shaffer, “The Music of the Environment,” In Audio Culture: in Modern Music (New York: Continuum, 2004). 40 The Lorax movie is based upon a book by Dr. Seuss written in 1971, however it was likely made into a major motion picture now, due in part to the increased popularity of environmentalism. 13

My contribution to the discussion on ecomusicology is a critical reflexive perspective on the field of ecomusicology. I will add further discussion of the goals of ecomusicology, as well as address fundamental questions, such as “what is music,” from an ecomusicological perspective. I will elaborate on the research of Denise Von Glahn regarding perspectives of gender on the environment and delve further into the concept of “mother nature.” To broaden ethnographic fieldwork in ecomusicology, I examine the role nature plays in the musical tradition of the shakuhachi, a Japanese bamboo flute. In doing so, I can address issues relating to how understanding cultural values of nature and music aid ecomusicologists in their goals

Topic and Scope

In this thesis, I examine the emerging field of ecomusicology, past, present, and future. I explore the subject of 'what is music' within the context of ecomusicology, adding research to this area. I suggest musicians and non-musicians alike often place sounds within a musical hierarchy. Humanly organized sounds are viewed as most musical, while natural sounds and unorganized sound are viewed as less musical. I posit ecomusicologists conceptualize music as a spectrum rather than a hierarchy and in doing so, place a higher value on nature than those who ascribe to a hierarchy of music. I provide models for each of these views of music and address varying gender identities’ relationship with nature and the model to which they ascribe.

Finally, ecomusicology seldom strays outside of Western philosophy and music.41 I broaden

41 The instances where non-western ideas have entered nature-music related studies since the advent of ecomusicology studies include Seeger’s “Natural Species, and Humans in Lowland South America: The Kĩsêdjê/Suyá, Their World, and the Nature of Their Musial Experience.”; James Rhys Edwards’ “Critical Theory in Ecomusicology,” Joseph Browning’s “Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi.”; Kyker, Jennifer W. Kyker’s “Listening in the Wilderness: The Audience Reception of Oliver Mtukudzi's Music in the Zimbabwean Diaspora.”; Helen Rees’ “Environmental Crisis, Culture Loss, and a New Musical Aesthetic: China’s “Original Ecology Folksongs” in Theory and Practice.” ; Michael B.Silver’s “Birdsong and a Song About a Bird: Popular Music and the Mediation of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Northeastern Brazil.”; and Sarah Weiss’ “Listening to the World but Hearing Ourselves: Hybridity and Perceptions of Authenticity in .” 14 the scope of ecomusicology by narrowing in on a specific location, Japan, and a specific instrument, the shakuhachi. I address how Japanese culture views music and nature ecomusicologicaly in comparison to Western thought, and I compare gender issues in Japan and surrounding the shakuhachi with similar issues in the West. I posit that the Japanese shakuhachi is an ideal advocate for the environment and for women due to its philosophical and gendered history, playing technique, repertoire, and as and stalk of bamboo.

Source Materials and Methodology

Most resources for this investigation were obtained through Kent State University's

Performing Arts Library. Journal articles, such as from Ethnomusicology, Ethnomusicology

Review and the Journal of the American Musicological Society, were accessed in JSTOR,

RILM, Music Index, Proquest Dissertations and Theses, including the article “Ecomusicology” in Oxford Music Online. The Summer 2011 issue of the Journal of the American Musicological

Society has an ample collection of essays on ecomusicology. This collection, in which Aaron

Allen introduces ecomusicology as a field, is one of the founding publications for ecomusicology. Current Directions in Ecomusicology is the most extensive collection of articles on the subject and provides conversation on fundamental ideas of the field. Resources were also gathered from the internet - www.ecomusicology.info is particularly useful, as it contains supplemental information to Current Directions in Ecomusicology and information from the

Ecocriticism Study Group of the American Musicological Society and the Ecomusicology

Special Interest Group of the Society for Ethnomusicology. I also include information obtained from attending the 2016 Society for Ethnomusicology conference, as attendees drafted a mission statement as a result of the 2016 presidential election, as well as information from past proceedings. In addition, other resources, such as Music and the Skillful Listener: American 15

Women Compose the Natural World and Ecomusicology: Rock, Folk, and the Environmentwere obtained at the Society for Ethnomusicology conference, OhioLink and via interlibrary loan42.

Finally, information from interviews and recordings from e-fieldwork (recordings found via the internet) and personal fieldwork are included. Interviews with Japanese and American musicians of the shakuhachi via phone, email, and Skype are also a primary resource.

Projected Results

The result of this study shows differing perspectives on nature and its relationship to music. What is considered musical is reflected in what is considered valuable, which differs depending on philosophy. Eastern philosophical thought tends to put a higher value on nature than Western philosophical thought, which is much more humanistic and logic based. If we understand how people view and value music and nature, we can understand how to advocate for nature through music and vice versa. This study will broaden the scope for ecomusicology studies by adding further site-specific research outside of the Western realm, such as the

Japanese shakuhachi, and thus strengthen the bond between ecomusicology and ethnomusicology.

42 Mark Pedelty, Ecomusicology: Rock, Folk, and the Environment (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2012); Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). 16

CHAPTER II

TRACING THE HISTORY OF ECOMUSICOLOGY

Ecomusicology is a combination of ecocriticism and musicology.43 Ecocriticism, which examines the relationship between literature and the natural environment, emerged from the widespread environmentalism during the 1960s in the United States, which quickly spread worldwide. Ecocriticism combines ecology, the study of the relationship between and their environment, and criticism, the analysis or critique of literary or artistic works.

Therefore, ecocriticism analyses the merits and faults of the ways in which humans and organisms interact with their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws in scholars from a multitude of disciplines to study the environment in ways that might spread awareness, or enact change toward environmentalism, i.e. sustainability.44 This chapter will explore the historical events that gave birth to ecomusicology in order to critique the field and predict where the scholarship may lead. I then draw specific attention to Japanese environmental history to direct the scope of my thesis and provide background knowledge for the following chapter on values and philosophy as they relate to Japanese ideals of sound.

Timeline of Environmentalism

Environmentalism became increasingly popular in the 1960s as people began accepting the theory of global warming. Global warming is often referred to as climate change, however global warming is considered a direct result of human interaction, while climate change is a

43 The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2014 ed., s.v. “Ecomusicology,” by Aaron Allen. 44 Greg Garrard (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ecocriticism (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2014). Sustainability is a facet of environmentalism that refers specifically to creating a lifestyle that is sustainable and utilizes renewable resources rather than depleting the earth of its natural resources. 17 natural progression in the course of earth’s life cycle. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), a governmental body created under the United for the purpose of reporting a scientifically objective view on climate change, stated in their 2013 Fifth

Assessment Report that "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.”45 Human’s emission of greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide and methane, are the biggest contributors to the increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1750, concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively, according to a study done in 2007.46 NASA has published reports stating Earth’s average global temperature has increased by about 1.4° Fahrenheit from

1880 - 2010. Two-thirds of the warming (.93° Fahrenheit) has occurred since 1975.47 Prior to the industrial revolution, earth’s temperature had remained stable for nearly 2000 years. The chart below was taken from the 2013 ICPP report.48 It shows the increase in earth’s temperature from 1880 to 2013. According to NASA, sixteen of the seventeen warmest years of Earth’s history have been since the year 2000.

45Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.). IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2013), p. 17. 46 United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Recent Climate Change: Atmosphere Changes". Climate Change Science Program (2007). 47 National Research Council, “America's Climate Choices,” (Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2011), p. 15. 48Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.). IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2013), p. 17. 18

Figure 2: Earth’s Temperature 1880-2013

One can look to the change in the world’s over time to add to the evidence toward humans as the cause of this spike in global warming. Since 1820, the world’s population has septupled from 1 billion people to 7.5 billion people. Modern human civilization has existed for about 6,000 years. But not until the industrial revolution, in the past 200 years, did our population rapidly surge.49 The earth’s temperature is also surging.

Less than 2° Fahrenheit change in earth’s temperature sounds like a very small amount until we explore the effects this change has on our planet. The sea level is rising at an alarming rate as the polar ice caps melt, resulting in widespread coastal flooding.50 Higher levels of carbon dioxide have led to an increase in the ’s acidity, threatening oceanic .51

Scientists have declared that there is no conceivable way to save our ocean’s coral reef at this point.52 These elevated levels of Co2 are affecting most ecosystems and climate change is resulting in species extinction and reduced eco-diversity of both plants and animals. As the

49 Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations. “World Population Estimates and Projections,” Population Connection, 2014. 50 United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Recent Climate Change: Atmosphere Changes". Climate Change Science Program (2007). 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 19 temperature keeps rising, our planet will increasingly look like a (milder) scene from the movie

The Day After Tomorrow, landslides and seismic activity will increase as landmasses become lighter due to the thaw of ice. Extreme , such as hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves, and blizzards will become more prominent.53 Not only will there be vast consequences in terms of natural activity and ecological systems, but also regarding social systems. The growth and survivability of crops, as well as the livelihoods of will be heavily affected, as will people in poor low countries, like those in the Caribbean. Additionally, as stated by a meta-analysis study conducted in 2014, each degree the temperature rises will increase violence and crime by up to 20%, primarily due to poverty brought on by natural disasters and changing crops.54

Understanding the potential consequences of human action has induced panic among some individuals. This sense of urgency was initiated by Rachel Carson when she published her monumental work, , in 1962, which propelled ecocriticism and the environmentalist movement forward.55 Silent Spring is an exposé that focuses on the harmful effects of DDT, pesticides that were sprayed aerially in mass quantities to control . Carson was revolutionary in her ideas, especially regarding sound. The ‘silence’ in

Silent Spring holds symbolic significance as Carson imagines a town whose natural life (all plants, animals, humans) has died off from an unknown powder, yet the town remains in eerie silence. The silence is a symbol for the death of the natural world, and the end of an idyllic, unindustrialized world full of birds and . Carson sends a warning to humans that if they do not change the ways in which they negatively impact the environment, the world will

53 National Research Council, “Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia,” (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2011). 54 Richard Larrick, “Temper, Temperature, and Temptation: Heat-Related Retaliation in Baseball.” Psychological Science. (22:4, 2011). 55 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (: Penguin Books, 1962). 20 soon be barren, lost of all earthly music.56 Carson’s book drew so much attention that it influenced the United States politicians and their environmental policies. When Carson testified before a Senate subcommittee on pesticides, Senator Ernest Gruening stated, “Every once in a while in the history of mankind, a book has appeared which has substantially altered the course of history, and created a ripple effect across the globe, as many countries developed environmental policies of their own.” 57 These policies include, but are not limited to the Clean

Air Act of 1963, the Wilderness Act of 1964, the Act and the Solid Waste

Disposal Act of 1965.58 These types of policies continued to snowball through the 1960s and

1970s. In 1970, the EPA was established, just one year after the Cuyahoga River, which feeds into Lake Erie, famously caught fire.59

Rachel Carson was not the first naturalist writer to advocate for the environment. Some of the earliest and well-known nature writers include Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Thoreau’s essay “Civil Disobedience,” published in 1849, insisted on and influenced non-violent, pacifist resistance to government.60 Thoreau, although often classified as a pastoral author, advocated for conservation of the woods at Walden pond. In

Walden, first published in 1854, Thoreau imagined an alternative life to the increasingly industrialized culture of America.61 He spent two years in a cabin near Walden Pond to learn about himself and how to become self-reliant. His experience is one of spiritual awakening as he describes his feelings toward the natural world versus that of the industrialized town life.

56 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (London: Penguin Books, 1962). 57 Eliza Griswold, “How ‘Silent Spring’ Ignited the Environmental Movement.” The New York Magazine, Sept 21, 2012. 58 United States Environmental Protections Agency “Milestones in U.S. EPA and Environmental History: A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Timeline,” Accessed October, 2017. 59 Ibid. 60 Thoreau, Henry David, and Lewis Hyde, The Essays of Henry D. Thoreau (New York: North Point Press, 2002) p. 70. 61 Henry David Thoreau Walden or Life in the Woods (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995). 21

Thoreau is particularly relevant to ecomusicology because much of his writings were focused on the soundscape he experienced at Walden Pond. Jeff Todd Titon writes “Sound was the source of Thoreau’s deepest veneration of the natural world and a chief motivator in his desire to preserve and protect it.”62 Thoreau spoke of a “co-presence” between humans and their environment. He describes the sounds he hears, from church bells, to the “midnight hags,” i.e., owls. He rejoices in the intermingling of the sounds.63 This idea of “co-presence” is rather progressive, as it highlights human , the elevation of humans above all other beings and elements.64 Ecomusicologists criticize anthropocentrism and suggest that it is a contributor to the impending death of our planet. As Aaron Allen expressed, “So much of music study, ethnomusicological, historical, and performance study is only about the human.”65 If humans were less self-centered and more aware of their impact on the world, we might not be in an environmental crisis.66

Environmental Awareness and Music

Since the environmentalist movement began, masses of people have advocated for a more sustainable way of life and search for solutions to our environmental crisis. Some direct solutions include energy conservation and efficiency, renewable energy, carbon capture and storage, and reforestation.67 Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring was an indirect answer to our global warming problem: awareness.

62 Jeff Todd Titon, “Why Thoreau?” In Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature, ed. Aaron S. Allen, and Kevin Dawe. New York: Routledge, 2016. p. 69-80. 63 Henry David Thoreau, Walden or Life in the Woods, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), p. 122. 64 Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, “Anthropocentric,” 2011. 65 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview, Ohio, September 27, 2017. 66 Naomi Oreskes, "The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change," Science. 3 December 2004: Vol. 306 no. 5702 p. 1686. 67 Carbon capture and storage is a method still being developed in which carbon dioxide is collected from earth’s atmosphere and stored. NASA, “Solutions,” Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of The Planet. 22

Academic concern for the environment was reflected as new fields of interdisciplinary studies, such as environmental science, which emerged in the 1960s and 1970s due to the increasing environmental awareness generated by Rachel Carson.68 Within music, the beginning of soundscape studies arose, as Murray Schafer published his works, A New Soundscape: A

Handbook for the Modern Music Teacher in 1969, and The Book of Noise in 1970.69

Soundscapes are the whole listening landscape of a place: animals, traffic, wind, people, etc.; all contribute to the overall soundscape of a place. Schafer also later published The Soundscape:

Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World in 1994.70 R. Murray Schafer began the discipline of Acoustic Ecology, or soundscape studies, through the development of The World

Soundscape Project (WSP), whose goals are "to find solutions for an ecologically balanced soundscape where the relationship between the human community and its sonic environment is in harmony."71 The applications of this goal were that of education and understanding of environmental , such as noise pollution. WSP recorded soundscapes with an emphasis on dying sounds. These studies spurred interest in the environment and soundscape studies scholarship began to grow in response.

In 1993, also contributed valuable information to the soundscape world through his ideas on “Echo-Muse-Ecology.”72 Feld explains how an echo is a reverberation of something past, which is how he understands music. It is something that invokes memory, and thus has importance regarding place and environment.

68 Neil S. Shifrin, “Environmental Management and Its History,” EnvironmentalScience.org (accessed August 2018). 69R. Murray Schafer. A New Soundscape: A Handbook for the Modern Music Teacher (New York: Associated Music Publishers Inc., 1969). ------, The Book of Noise (Arcana Books, 1970). 70 ------, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1994). 71 Simon Truax, “World Soundscape Project.” Simon Frasier University. 72 Steven Feld. “From Ethnomusicology to Echo-Muse-Ecology: R. Murray Schafer in the Papua New Guinea Rainforest,” The Soundscape Newsletter. vol. 8 (1994). 23

Prior to soundscape studies, the concept of environmental sounds as music had already been a hot topic of discussion, especially pertaining to listening. The was prolific in this sense, as he changed the way in which we listen to music and to the world. Cage was an American composer, who spent time studying with Arnold Schoenberg, famous for atonality, music that does not ascribe to a key or tonal center. Cage’s well-known piece, 4’33’’ written in 1952, is an entire page of rests. The performer deliberately does not play any sound, but rather the sounds of the audience and the environment become the music. This challenged how people listened; it challenged people’s definitions of music; and it challenged the compositional world in terms of unorganized music. Each time 4’33’’ was performed, the performance was different, because the performance consisted of unplanned audience sounds.

This concept reflects Cage’s experiences in Asia and with Buddhism, which is explored deeper in future chapters regarding contemporary ways of life and intolerance toward silence.73

John Cage was also a pioneer of the prepared . He would place objects, such as screws or rubber bands on the piano strings to produce unexpected sounds. He continually pushed the envelope in terms of expectations. He shifted the audience’s attention and made them think about the things we are not paying attention to, such as our environment. Perhaps

John Cage’s works are becoming more and more progressive as the world is increasingly distracted. One rarely takes the time to listen to their surroundings, but rather, all attention is given to the electronic box that is seemingly glued to each individual’s hand.

The Birth of Ecomusicology

While some musicians and environmentalists were publishing and talking about the environment and how we listen to it, a need for a broader term and field became apparent to

73 John Cage, Silence: Lectures and Writings (University Press of New England Press, 1961). 24 effectively facilitate communication between scholars in interdisciplinary fields, thus ecomusicology was born. The term ecomusicology has been in circulation since the late 1990s, especially among Scandinavian scholars, with earlier uses of the term mentioned in Troup’s newsletter from the Guild Hall school of music, which involved a visit from R. Murray

Schafer.74 This is significant because it connects R. Murray Schafer to the forefront of the evolving field of scholarship. Aaron S. Allen explains that he was unable to find any mention of the term ecomusicology or scholarship about sound and the environment between the 1970s and

1990s.75 In its modern usage with connection to the environmental crisis, ecomusicology grew from Alexander Rehding’s 2002 book review essay on “Eco-musicology.”76 However, Allen found that much scholarship up to the 19th century can be considered ecomusicological. For example, the Hindu Vedas and The Harmony of the Spheres express ways that humans relate to their environment.77

Musicologist and environmentalist Aaron S. Allen, has played an integral role in the development of ecomusicology, defining it in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and

Musicians as, “the study of music, culture, and nature in all the complexities of those terms.

Ecomusicology considers musical and sonic issues, both textual and performative, related to ecology and the natural environment.”78 In 2011, he and several authors introduced ecomusicology in the Summer issue of the Journal of the American Musicological Society.79 In this issue, Allen sets the foundation for the field, explaining the over-arching questions musicologists should be considering, such as, how musicologists deal with the problem of

74 Malcolm Troup, ed., Guildhall School of Music and Drama Review, (London, 1972). 75 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 76 Alexander Rehding, “Review: Eco-Musicology,” Journal of the Royal Musical Association (127, no. 2: 305–320. 2002). 77 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 78 Aaron Allen, “Ecomusicology,” in The Grove Dictionary of American Music. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. 79 Journal of the American Musicological Society (64/2, summer 2011), 391-424. 25 climate change. The following year, on October 29th and 30th of 2012, an international gathering for ecomusicology was held in , aptly named “Ecomusicologies 2012.”80 Similar conferences followed yearly as researchers made personal connections to one another and their environment. Scholars Aaron Allen, Denise Von Glahn, and Jeff Todd Titon, made a great effort to spread awareness of ecomusicology and attract interested scholars. They have presented together on ecomusicology at the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in , The Society for Ethnomusicology, The American Musicological Society and at special events like “Music in a Changing Climate,” a public talk held at the University of

Minnesota.81

Thanks to the surge of interest resulting from the Ecomusicologies conferences and efforts of Allen, Von Glahn, and Titon, nearly two dozen scholars came together to write the defining publication for ecomusicology, Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture,

Nature, edited by Aaron S. Allen and Kevin Dawe in 2016.82 This collection is the largest to date about ecomusicology. Authors contributed interdisciplinary research ranging from ecological to ethnographic. Aaron S. Allen and Kevin Dawe set the tone for each section of essays and to strengthen connections between them. In a recent interview with Aaron Allen, he describes his understanding of ecomusicology in greater depth, asserting, “I know it when I see it.”83

If someone is talking in very vague senses about place or , or situating a particular musical practice in a country or linguistic area, that’s not ecomusicology to me. Even though there is an engagement somehow with place and its position in the world, that’s more ethnomusicological because for ethnomusicology, that’s a standard part of what they do. But if they are going

80 “Ecomusicologies 2012,” . 81 Mark Pedelty, Music in a Changing Climate, video (April 29, 2015). 82 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 83 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 26

to talk about environmental impacts or environmental ramifications, resource use of musical instruments, the positions where performances take place and engage with non-human species or , then we’re starting to get more into the realm of dealing with the environment.84

He explains that there must be an engagement with non-humans, natural resources, or conceptions of place within the environment that move beyond just sound to connect with them in order to be considered ecomusicology. More ecomusicological scholarship is being gathered, circulated, and discussed about the environment among musicians now than ever before. Ecomusicology has created an outlet for interested musicians, but perhaps there are possible downsides to consider.

Weighing the Pros and Cons of Ecomusicology As Its Own Field

There are potential positive and negative outcomes in creating and distinguishing the field of Ecomusicology. An obvious positive outcome is the connections that ecomusicology can make between disciplines. Ecomusicology has the potential to bring together and create dialogue among scholars within the sciences, social sciences, arts, and . Just as diversity in an ecosystem indicates health and life, so too does diversity in ecomusicology indicate a healthy field and abundant energy. The more disciplines involved, the greater our level of understanding of our environment and how to care for it.

A potential negative is in creating yet another field dealing with sound and the environment, as there currently exists several related areas of study, including acoustic ecology, , soundscape studies, zoomusicology, , , and . These disciplines have a similar purpose of studying the natural world and its sounds. The goal of ecomusicology is to bring each of these areas of study together and

84 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 27 facilitate communication, as each are different. For example, zoomusicology relates specifically to music produced by animals, whereas biomusicology references music created by non-humans

(plants and animals). Allen is against making ecomusicology an all-encompassing term. He wants the term to be interdisciplinary. However, the new term could easily confuse new and seasoned scholars, due to the way search indexing works by terms. Thus, causing further separation between researchers in these fields - the opposite of its goal.

Aaron Allen has expressed that many scholars among these fields in acoustic ecology, soundscape studies, and ecomusicology, wall themselves off and only converse within their specific discipline. In reaction, Allen attempts to make connections between these fields and encourage growth and interaction.85 There is currently confusion about the difference between and ecomusicology. In Current Directions in Ecomusicology, Allen describes ecomusicology as an umbrella term, something that would hold all the sound-plus- environment disciplines together.86 However, in a recent interview, he explained how that term

“ecomusicology” is not quite right. It is not that ecomusicology is the main discipline and all these other disciplines are subfields, “but more that it would have mycorrhizal root type interactions,” meaning that ecomusicology would create symbiotic connections with other fields.87 Overall, ecomusicology could facilitate conversation among various disciplines, or it could create a greater divide.

85 Aaron, Allen. Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 86 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 87 Aaron, Allen. Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 28

How Does Writing and Research Enact Change?

One of the greatest criticisms of environmental scholars, especially literary scholars, is that their efforts could be more useful elsewhere, as activists. Literary or artistic works with an environmental focus can be an indirect solution to the global warming problem, rather than a direct solution. However, dialogue, as evidenced by Silent Spring, can create change in both policy and human values. When our values change, then so do our ideals as a society. This is a deeper-rooted change than energy conservation. Conservation may be just a temporary fix, because if values do not change, people will not sustain their actions if they do not agree with why it is being done; whereas dialogue, writing, and research helps long term, by potentially changing values. Dialogue changes policy and policy controls social values, and social values change dialogue. The world can be more complex than action. Ideas and thoughts are the root of all human interaction.

Future Directions in Ecomusicology

As the 21st century continues, technology is changing at an exceedingly fast pace, so too is the natural and built environment changing. Species of both plants and animals are diminishing as the human population continues to skyrocket.88 The defining question of ecomusicology is, what can musicologists do to contribute to our planet’s well-being during this environmental crisis? To answer this question, musicologists must not only understand cultural values of music and nature, but also follow current events and international legislation regarding the protection of the natural environment. In doing so, we can predict future trends in ecomusicology.

88 Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, “World Population Estimates and Projections,” Population Connection (2014). 29

A popular subject among ecomusicologist is music as political activism.

Ecomusicologists have discussed ways that music can spread awareness to people and raise funds for various environmental causes. Mark Pedelty writes in his book Rock, Folk, and the

Environment how music can aid the environment and also addresses the detriments of the numerous ostentatious popular music , such as U2’s 360 tour, which he calls “the height of industrial excess.”89 Pedelty explains there is not a consensus as to what is causing our environmental crisis, however many blame the political economy, such as capitalism and hypocritical consumerism:

Some believe that capitalism is a major cause of the world’s most extreme environmental problems…Global corporations seek to find profit everywhere and by every means, including the transformation of biodiverse environments into ecosystems that provide short-term profits, turning , wetlands, and prairies into farms, mines, and strip malls…U2’s internal contradictions reflect the cognitive dissonance of contemporary capitalism: a rhetoric of sustainability matched by unsustainable acts of consumption.90

The world is witnessing a rise in inequality caused by capitalism, especially in the

United States since the 2016 election. This sudden change in power and ideals of America will likely cause trends in musicology to lean toward politics and American policy. From the executive orders to build the Dakota Access Pipeline in North Dakota to the U.S. pulling out of the Paris Climate Agreement, President Trump is making huge detrimental changes to environmental policy.91 These changes have attracted the attention of ecomusicologists. At the

Society for Ethnomusicology conference in Washington D.C., just days after the 2016 election, scholars were beside themselves at the results. Many special interest groups held meetings to discuss plans and mission statements that reflected the American political climate. In May of

89 Mark Pedelty, Ecomusicology: Rock, Folk, and The Environment (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2012). 90 Ibid. 91 Michael Greshko, Laura Parker, and Brian Clark Howard,“A Running List of How Trump Is Changing the Environment,” The National Geographic (Accessed February 1, 2018). 30

2017, the Society for Ethnomusicology sent out an email asking members to take action toward saving the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and the National Endowment for the

Humanities (NEH).92 Indeed, it is evident that the future directions in ecomusicology and ethnomusicology point towards politics. Perhaps the everlasting question for ecomusicologists is how do we create positive change in environmental policy?

Whether political or not, ecomusicology is a field open to multiple perspectives and differing ideas. The Ethnomusicology Review’s article “Introducing Ecomusicology” states “we encourage submissions by anyone writing about subjects like the following: Music and Climate

Change, Music in and about Landscape, Natural Sounds and Acoustic Ecology, Music and

Environmentalism, Music and Place.”93 Additionally, Aaron S. Allen and Kevin Dawe suggest that there is still much need for foundational research in defining the field of ecomusicology.

From collections of environmentally themed music programs, to more comprehensive studies on issues, the current realm of ecomusicology is largely uncharted.94

Environmentalism in Japan

The timeline of environmentalism in the West parallels the timeline of environmentalism in Japan. Rapid industrial growth occurring between the mid-1950s and early

1970s caused great pollution problems throughout the country. However, different events propelled the Japanese environmentalist movement forward. Industrial mercury poisoning, from the giant petrochemical complex in Yokkaichi, and cadmium pollution caused by

92 The Society for Ethnomusicology, “Save the National Endowment for the Arts!” Email. March 20, 2017. 93 Ben Cosgrove, “Introducing Ecomusicology,” The Ethnomusicology Review (May 20, 2014). 94 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 31 brought about severe diseases and health issues.95 In response, residents launched anti- pollution campaigns. These campaigns began small and quickly spread across the country, as the public became increasingly environmentally aware and understood that they had the power to influence government and society. As a result of this local pressure, government pollution control laws were introduced in the 1970s; fourteen bills were passed through the Diet, Japan’s legislature.96

Another significant event in Japanese environmental history was the outbreak of a red , which was algae blooms caused by excess nutrients in Japan's largest lake, Lake Biwa, in

1977. The lake was the central source of drinking water for residents of western Japan in cities such as Kyoto and Osaka. The cause of the red tide in the lake was traced to the contamination of phosphorus from synthetic detergents used in local households. The locals were baffled to learn that they caused the pollution. They quickly took responsibility for their actions and put their energy into protecting the lake. They began campaigns to use only natural, biodegradable soap instead of their synthetic detergents. This campaign became widely popular and is known as the "soap movement." As a result, water quality laws and protections were put into place to protect the lakes and other bodies of water.97

The Lake Biwa incident caused many to reevaluate their lifestyles, especially as they interacted with their environment. Rather than simply protesting and blaming the government or large corporations for the degradation of their natural world, they looked at the ways they could individually make a positive impact toward the environment.

95 Yoshiro Hoshino et al., “The Ashio Copper Mine Pollution Case: The Origins for Environmental Destruction” In Industrial Pollution in Japan (United Nations University, 1992). 96 Junko, Edahiro, “A Brief History of the Environmental Movement in Japan (Part I),” Japan for Sustainability. (Newsletter No. 82, June 2009). 97 Hiroya Kawanabe, Machiko Nishino, Masayoshi Maehata (eds.), Lake Biwa: Interactions Between Nature and People (NYC: Springer, 2012). 32

Throughout the next decade, citizens awareness of the environment went from local issues, such as stream pollution or landscape degradation, to realizing that environmentalism is a global issue. In the 1990s a global shift in awareness occurred, largely in part due to the 1992

Earth Summit conference, which was a gathering of numerous international government officials, who created an agenda for sustainable development worldwide.98

Other events in Japanese environmental history include the Great Hanshin-Awaji

Earthquake in 1995, as well as the international conference of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change held in Kyoto in 1997, which successfully adopted the Kyoto Protocol which is an international treaty that extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) and commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and set international emission limits.99 The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995 devastated the area of Kobe with death rates over 6,000, effectively shutting down the city. The entire country came together to restore this area, and this event is regarded as the first year for volunteers in

Japan. The Japanese were reminded of their communal values during this time of crisis. They thought less about their own well-being and more about others and for the greater good of society.100

A resurgence in environmental awareness in Japan has taken place recently in the aftermath of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. This nuclear accident was caused by the tsunami that followed the Tōhoku earthquake on March 11, 2011. The tsunami caused water damage to the cooling pumps, which led to three nuclear meltdowns, and hydrogen-air

98 United Nations, “UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992),” Department of Public Information (May 23, 1997). 99 James M. Lindsay, "Global Warming Heats Up: Uncertainties, Both Scientific and Political, Lie Ahead," The Brookings Review (19, no. 4, 2001), 26-29. 100 The City of Kobe, "Statistics,” The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake: Statistics and Restoration Progress, (January 1, 2009). 33 explosions, causing the release of radioactive material.101 The Fukushima disaster, which is still causing negative effects on health and the environment, has caused many Japanese people to be more mindful of their actions and remember their traditional values, such as community, and purposeful, mindful living. Historically, after disasters communities come together in solidarity.102

The culture, aesthetics, and religious history of this island provides complexity to the environmental narrative. The native religion in Japan, Shintoism, is often considered an animistic tradition. Those who follow this religion believe in kami. Kami is a similar concept to qi in Chinese philosophy, referring to the sacred essence, which can manifest in forms such as rocks, trees, bodies of water, animals, places, and people. All things are believed to be connected through kami. Additionally, the teachings of Zen Buddhism, the prominent religion of this region, are based on the elimination of desire. This concept has led to a traditional cultural aesthetic of minimalism, an idea that there is abundant beauty in simplicity. When one eliminates the unnecessary in their life, such as their desires for wealth, lust, or material objects, their world becomes clear and pure.103 One can find manifestations of this idea in all the

Japanese traditional arts, especially that of the Japanese Tea Ceremony and Noh . These ritualistic acts emphasize purpose in one’s actions, as each movement is meticulously planned.104 In doing so, an appreciation for each object is developed, which transfers into other areas of life, including appreciation of the natural world. Japan’s value and appreciation of the natural world is expressed in all their traditional arts, including music. The following chapters

101 World Nuclear Association, “Fukushima Accident,” (October 2017). 102 Recent American examples of communing after tragedy include the 9/11 terrorist attack and hurricane Katrina. 103 Roger R. Jackson, and John J. Makransky, Buddhist : Critical Reflections By Contemporary Buddhist Scholars (London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016). 104 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, s.v. "Philosophy and Aesthetics," by Shimosako Man. 34 will provide further insight into how the natural world is reflected in Japanese music, what others can learn from Japan’s philosophy and value system, and how a world-wide adoption of similar values could aid our environmental crisis. 35

CHAPTER III

AN ECOMUSICOLOGICAL VALUE SYSTEM

The field of environmental deals with ethical questions regarding the role of humans in the environment and what obligations humans have toward the welfare of the environment for future generations.105 questions the use of human inventions and actions that cause environmental distress. Environmentalism, i.e., advocacy for the environment, is often criticized by environmentalists and philosophers for being shallow, as it focuses on the utility of nature to humans, such as the argument that we should not use up all our resources because we must conserve for future generations.106 In response to the arguments against environmentalism, came to fruition. Deep ecology is a term coined by

Arne Dekke Eide Naess, a Norwegian philosopher influenced by Gandhi, Buddha, Rachel

Carson, and European philosophers, such as and Baruch Spinoza.107 Deep ecology refers to nature’s intrinsic value or inherent worth, regardless of its usefulness for humans needs. To understand the difference, we must understand the different basic human values.

Schwartz Theory of Basic Values

According to the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values, values are what people deem important that are then used to evaluate actions and ideas.108 This theory defines ten basic values that are universally recognized among all cultures: self-direction, stimulation, hedonism,

105 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. "Environmental Ethics,” (by Brennan, Andrew and Lo, Yeuk-Sze), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/ethics-environmental/ (accessed December 2017). 106Michael N Mautner, "Life-Centered Ethics, and the Human Future in Space" Bioethics 23, no. 8 (2009): 433-40. 107 Næss, Arne, “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement,” Inquiry 16 (1973): 95-100. 108 Shalom, Schwartz, “An Overview of the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture 2, no. 1 (2012):1. 36 achievement, power, security, conformity, tradition, benevolence, and universalism.109 These values have a dynamic relationship, some of them are conflicting, while some are compatible.

Though these values are recognized among all cultures, the importance that is placed on each varies from culture to culture, group to group, and individual to individual, i.e., different cultures have different priories, or value hierarchies.

Self-Direction is defined as “independent thought and action.”110 This value develops from the need for control and independence or freedom. One exercises this value when creating or making choices. Schwartz defines stimulation as “excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.”111 These values derive from the need for stimulating activity and relates to self-direction values. Those who greatly value stimulation have a need for a varied, exciting life. Hedonism relates to pleasure and self-indulgence. These values often overlap with stimulation and are most controversial; they are discussed among theorists and philosophers, such as Freud.

Achievement, according to Schwartz, is “personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.”112 Achievement values come from a person’s need for social recognition. By demonstrating ability and skill, determined by the society, one receives approval and support. Power is one’s status, wealth, and control over people and resources. Like self-direction values, power values derive from a need for control, both as a control of one’s own life and control over others. Each relationship among individuals and groups contain a power dynamic in which dominance and submission are expressed. Social esteem needs are both met with power and achievement; power emphasizes a dominant position within a social system, whereas achievement emphasizes success in interaction. Security values

109 Shalom, Schwartz, “An Overview of the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture 2, no. 1 (2012):5. 110 Ibid. 111 Ibid. 112 Idem, p. 6. 37 are those of safety and stability. Security can be indicated on an individual or group level (e.g., national security and social order).

Conformity is defined as social and self-restraints within a certain group. Conformity values from the need for peaceful interaction and group functioning. Some characteristics that fall under conformity include politeness, honoring elders, and self-discipline. Tradition values accept the customs, practices, or ideas of a culture or religion that represent shared experience and group identity. Tradition is often cited as respect or commitment within a group.

Tradition and conformity have a similar goal, i.e., to follow social expectations. Conformity refers to social expectations regarding social interactions in the present, whereas tradition involves cultural customs, religious , and ideas that carry on from the past.

Benevolence values are concerned with the welfare of one’s social group and, like conformity, stem from a need for peaceful interactions among group members. The difference between benevolence and conformity is in the . Benevolence is an internal motivation of kindness, whereas conformity is an external motivator that seeks to avoid negative outcomes. Universalism, the value that is of most concern to environmentalists, comprises appreciation, understanding, and protection for the welfare of all people and for the environment. Universalist values are not formed until individuals encounter others beyond their primary social groups and accept their differences. According to Schwarz, “ [Universalists] may also realize that failure to protect the natural environment will lead to the destruction of the resources on which life depends.”113 Universalism concerns both the welfare of the human and non-human societies, and includes social justice, equality, unity with nature, world peace, and spirituality. Spirituality was originally considered by Schwartz to be a separate value, the need

113 Shalom, Schwartz, “An Overview of the Schwartz Theory of Basic Values” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture 2, no. 1 (2012):7. 38 to find greater meaning in life. However, spirituality is not cross-culturally consistent, and thus cannot be considered a universal human value.

Allen cites his beginnings in interdisciplinary studies as what motivates him toward the environment.

I think that there are very few people in the realm of music studies that started out interdisciplinary. Because in order to become a musicologist or an ethnomusicologist there’s so much of a disciplinary knowledge base that you need, that it’s hard to start interdisciplinarily and then move into the discipline. Many people start disciplinarily as undergrads and then move through very much in a disciplinary fashion.114

Allen started out as a dual degree major as a B.A. in music and B.S. in environmental studies. He discovered that he did not want to be a performer, but rather speak about the environment and be a musical environmental activist. His ecomusicological interests were stifled in , and so it became a personal mission to explore ecomusicology. He had the education and the values about both music and environmentalism instilled in him during childhood and thus he concludes that he became motivated toward the environment in a very musical way.

For people to be motivated toward the preservation of the environment, they must value the environment. The best way to instill these values is through education and interaction with nature. People must foster an appreciation for our natural world, not just for what nature can offer us, but for its intrinsic value, including the sounds of the natural world. How people listen to the environment and differentiate music versus noise illustrates where their values lie and also illuminates their anthropocentrism, i.e., the belief that humans are the most important entity.115

114 Aaron Allen, Interview with Lydia Snyder, Personal Telephone Interview. Ohio, September 27, 2017. 115 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Anthropocentrism,” by Sarah E. Boslaugh. 39

Hierarchy of Music

Scholars within each discipline of music, historians, theorists, , therapists, etc., have debated the difference between music and noise. Many believe sounds become musical when they are organized in some fashion.116 For others, such as theorist Thomas Clifton, music is that which creates an “experiential phenomenon”; it is something that changes our emotions.117 While, semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, and ethnomusicologist, , believe the concept of music is culturally formed.118

John Blacking’s book, How Musical is Man?, is a building block in the fields of ethnomusicology and music education.119 Through his experiences with the rhythmically complex music of Veda peoples of Africa, he describes how the complexities of music are not limited to European music, but rather music is structured by each society and definitions within it are culturally relative. His thoughts are in line with the anthropological theory of , where each culture should be seen and valued in its own terms. He defines music as

“humanly organized sounds,” which humans have selected from nature, rather than what nature has imposed upon man. However, Blacking recognizes that man is nature in and of himself.120

Blacking also describes the differences between music and speech as being related to various musical elements, such as rhythm, pitch, timbre, and organization. He explains how society is as much a part of the as these musical elements. “The source of cultural creativity is the consciousness that springs from social cooperation and loving interaction.”121

116 John Blacking, How Musical is Man (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1973). 117 Thomas Clifton, Music as Heard: A Study in Applied Phenomenology (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983). 118 Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Carolyn Abbate (Princeton: Press, 1990). 119 John Blacking, How Musical is Man (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1973), p.1. 120 Ibid. 121 Idem, p. 5. 40

Thomas Clifton is a musicologist who has done extensive research on the concept of music and noise. In his book, Music as Heard, he defines music as “an ordered of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative.”122 This definition distinguishes music as an end in itself, apart from compositional technique. It also outlines music from sounds as purely physical objects. Clifton suggests music is more than its definition, but it is a specific experience and emotion, or a phenomenon. In his definition, he describes a phenomenological approach to defining music. Thus, the difference between music and non- music is based upon the experience and involvement an individual has with sound.

Perhaps the greatest contribution to the “what is music?” debate comes from musicologist and semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez. His views are ethnomusicological as he remarked in his book, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music. "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined.”123 Nattiez organizes varying definitions of music into a chart.

Figure 3. Nattiez’ views of music

122 Thomas Clifton, Music as Heard: A Study in Applied Phenomenology (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983), p. 45. 123 Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Carolyn Abbate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 8. 41

Within this chart, he differentiates music and non-music based on the level of sound, the creator of the sound, the sound itself, and the perception of the sound. The poietic level is the process in which the composer is hearing the sound, a type of internal sound that he or she finds when experimenting with sound. This is the intention in creating sound. The esthetic level is not just the perception of sound, but how an individual describes the sound that is heard, the process of understanding. The neutral level is the physicality of the music, the score, a sound image, a spectral slice; it is the actual sound in a physical form. Both the poietic process and the esthetic process lead to the neutral process. So, both the creator and the listener attempt to describe the music in some physical way.

Renowned ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl also takes the same view as Nattiez. Nettl explains various cultures differ in their concept of music and various languages, in many sub-

Saharan African cultures, there is not a separate word that translates as “music,” because it is so integrated with life and .124

R. Murray Schafer, famous for his work in soundscape studies, sorts sounds into a classification system to better describe a soundscape. He defines a soundscape as “our sonic environment, the ever-present array of with which we all live.”125 He sorts sounds into six main categories, each with their own subset groups.

These categories include:

• Natural Sounds • Human Sounds • Sounds and Society • Mechanical Sounds • Quiet and Silence • Sounds as Indicators126

124 Bruno Nettl, The Study of Ethnomusicology (2nd ed) (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2005). 125 R. Murray Schafer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1994). 126 Ibid. 42

He asserts that classification systems illuminate new relationships, but are arbitrary, as they reflect the interest of the user. His classification system was created for The World

Soundscape Project, a venture to record and catalog soundscapes to preserve dying sounds and soundscapes. 127 Thus, categories were a means to convey sounds literally. Though Schafer is a clear proponent for the environment, he separated “Natural Sounds” from music, classifying them under “Sounds and Society.”

Categories of Sound: A New Conception

I was curious how many people agreed with Schafer’s categories, particularly regarding natural sounds or non-human music. I created a psychoacoustic study that surveyed undergraduate students in order to analyze their understandings of music and how they draw conclusions on what is human and non-human music. This study was quantitative in nature and used an anonymous survey design, which was distributed to students via the internet. The survey was formed using Qualtrics and was modeled after Victor Fung’s survey entitled

“Undergraduate Nonmusic Majors' World Music Preference and Multicultural Attitudes” (Fung,

1994).128 This method was chosen to collect data on a large population of students. Fung surveyed undergraduate students on their preference and their understanding of multicultural music examples and their attitudes toward multiculturalism. He found that there was a significant correlation between preference for certain world music and multicultural attitudes.

This result suggests that sociologically and culturally formed attitudes play a role in shaping preference for world music.

127 Barry Truax, “The World Soundscape Project,” Simon Frasier University. 128 Victor C. Fung, "Undergraduate Nonmusic Majors' World Music Preference and Multicultural Attitudes," Journal of Research in Music Education 42, no. 1 (1994): 45-57. 43

Participants & Description of the University

The participants included undergraduates from Kent State University who were enrolled in music courses in the spring semester of 2017. The students were recruited from four sections of two different music courses, three introductory level Music as a World Phenomenon courses and one higher level course. Students level of music experience ranged from no experience, to 15 + years of experience. Kent State University is a 4-year midwestern public research university located in Kent, Ohio.

Survey

The survey, generated on Qualtrics, collected demographic information such as age, gender, level of music experience/ education. As well as ten 30 second listening samples.

Examples were selected based upon varying levels of organization and origin to test Blacking’s definition of music as “Humanly organized sound” (Blacking, 1973).

Samples included: Example 1: Orchestral Music Example 2: Birdsong Example 3: Overlapping Church Bells Example 4: Howling Wind Example 5: Jackhammer Example 6: Atonal Piano Piece Example 7: Native American Flute Example 8: Cityscape Example 9: Waterfall Example 10: song

Students did not know the origin of each example; each clip was not labeled. Students listened to one clip at a time and rated on a Likert scale from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree” whether they agreed with the statement “This is music.” Students also rated each clip on a

Likert scale for preference, from “Strongly Like” to Strongly Dislike.” A total of 102 students 44 completed the survey out of 250 who were presented the survey- approximately a 50% response rate.

Data Analysis & Discussion

Data was analyzed using quantitative methods of analysis and SPSS software in order to look for patterns in the data such as correlation and groupings. The mean of each student’s responses was recorded and crossed analyzed in regard to demographics. All data collection took place within a two-week period.

One hundred and two undergraduate students completed the survey (N=102). Responses showed that 40 participants (39.2%) were male, 61 (59.8%) were female and one (1%) identified as other. (See Figure 4).

Gender

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Male Female Other

Figure 4. Gender of participants graph

Ages of the students ranged from 18-26. Fifty nine students indicated they were freshmen (57.8%), 26 sophomores (25.5%), 13 juniors (12.7%), and four seniors (3.9%) (See

Figure 5).

45

Class Rank 70

60

50

40

30

20

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0 Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

Figure 5. Class rank of participants graph

One hundred students were born in the United States (98%), while two students were international students (2%). Ninety-six students were non-majors (94%), while six were music majors (6%).

Eighty-five participants were of white ethnicity (83.3%), nine were African Americans

(8.8%), one Native American student (1%), three of Asian ethnicity (2.9%), and four of mixed ethnicity (3.9%) (See Figure 6).

Race of Participants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 European/white African/ Black Native American Asian Mixed

Figure 6. Race of participants graph 46

Figure 7. This is Music graph

The survey question rating musicality yielded predictable results. Figure 7 shows the mean of the student’s responses toward musicality. Undergraduate students rated Orchestral music and the solo Native American Flute as being most musical, followed by the Atonal Piano,

Overlapping Church Bells, Birdsong, Whale song, Waterfall, Wind, Cityscapes and at the very bottom, the Jackhammer rated as least musical.

The results for the preference ratings were less predictable (See Figure 8). Preference of the examples among the undergraduate students surveyed did not correlate exactly with their musicality rating of the same examples. While the Solo Native American Flute rated highly in both, and the Cityscape and Jackhammer both correlated with a low rating. Examples such as the Waterfall, yielded much different results. Students somewhat disagreed that the waterfall was music, yet they found it a pleasing sound, rating it as Like/Somewhat like.

47

.

Figure 8. Preference Rating graph

Question Male Female Other Question Male Female Other 6.4 6.79 7 Orchestra 4.86 4.78 4 Birdsong 3.58 3.97 6 Birdsong 4.42 4.83 5 Churchbells 4.33 5.07 7 Churchbells 3.69 3.5 7 Wind 2.83 2.79 6 Wind 3.65 3.9 7 Jackhammer 1.54 1.98 6 Jackhammer 1.49 1.72 4 Atonal Piano 4.9 5.52 7 Atonal Piano 2.97 3.5 6 Solo Flute 6.35 6.77 7 Solo Flute 5.49 5.83 7 City Scape 2.05 1.98 6 City Scape 2.51 2.2 3 Waterfall 3.26 3.1 6 Waterfall 5.14 5.53 5 Whale song 3.9 3.67 6 Whale song 3.78 3.17 6

Figure 9. What is Music? chart Figure 10. Preference chart

Figure 9 breaks down the average rating of the statement “This is music” between of undergraduate students. 7=Strongly Agree, 1=Strongly Disagree. The differences between male and female are very slight. On average, female’s definition of music might be slightly more broad than that of males, but with the sample size it is inconclusive. The other 48 category was comprised of one student’s response, which is not enough of a population to make any conclusive remarks on the subject. Figure 10 shows the preference for the same examples

7= Strongly Like, 1=Strongly Dislike. The difference between male and female is so slight, that there is no conclusive evidence that there is any difference between genders. The population of music majors who completed the survey was too low to draw very decisive conclusions. Of the six music majors that completed the survey, the only noticeable difference was that they rated the Atonal Piano example much higher than the non-music majors. This suggests that exposure and education play a role in defining music. Students also had the option to provide a rational for their responses. Sixty students wrote a response, 59 of which were usable and grouped into common themes (see figure 11 & 12). 129

Common Themes 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 Themes Count 4 2 sound/ noise 19 0 rhythm/ 6 context/culture 10 purpose/intent/organized 11 preference 6 source 6

Figure 11. Themes of reasoning chart Figure 12. Themes of reasoning graph

In the students’ comments, the most cited reason for rating whether a clip was music or not, was if they considered it to be simply noise or sound. The next common theme was the

129 See appendix B for a full list of student responses. 49 purpose, intent, or organization of the examples, followed by context or culture. Groupings such as rhythm/melody, preference, and source of sound all had six mentions.

Students cited their reasons for rating whether a clip was music, or if it not, either sound or noise. This response gives insight into students’ definition of music, and their idea of what is not music. The fact that most students had difficulty clearly explaining their rational for defining music suggests that students’ concept of music has been formed through socialization, supporting Nattiez’ theory and Nettl’s theory that the definition of music is culturally formed and the hierarchy of music they ascribe to reflects their cultural values.130 Many of the students indicated in their survey, that the sounds that they disliked most “lacked pattern,” and this became determiner for what they considered music:

Selected student responses when asked to explain the reasons for their rating responses: • it just angered me because there was no pattern • organized sounds (2) • Music has rhythm and beat. Some were just sounds with no pattern • Also the ones that I marked as not music either had no flow/pattern131

Michael Tenzer has suggested that the only universal of music is pattern or periodicity.

“Periodicity in the general senses of regularity, repetition, or recurrence, is clearly a central, perhaps even definitive characteristic of music.”132 However, if this were truly the only indicator of musicality, the jackhammer, which is very rhythmic, would rate higher in preference. Cultural relativism complicates this, because cultural relativism affects what people will define and consider patterns. It also affects how and if one’s will hear patterns; the music majors found the atonal example more musical than non-majors because of their previous

130Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Carolyn Abbate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). ; Bruno Nettl, The Study of Ethnomusicology (2nd ed) (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2005). 131 See Appendix B 132 , and John Roeder, “Music 403/532: Periodicity in Music.” Michaeltenzer.com (Jan, 2007). 50 experience they were taught to recognize those kinds of patterns, suggesting that their schooling has influenced what they understand to be music.

The ambiguous distinction between noise and music in Japanese culture, suggests a more blurred concept of what is music, than much of Western thought, and perhaps a boader concept of patterns. Much music, such as the shakuhachi, is unmetered, often lacking rhythmic and melodic pattern, or the melodic pattern is lost in the sustained pitches. However, pattern can be found in the pulse of the sound wave itself of a sustained pitch. This could be true of any sound or noise, the wave itself could indicate pattern. Thus, describing music as something that contains pattern, is stating that all noises and sounds are inherently musical.

By surveying a small population of undergraduate students at Kent State, I was able to determine that the participants ascribe most to Blacking’s definition of music as “humanly organized sound.”133 They rated humanly organized sounds as being most musical. In addition, because there was not an exact correlation between what students found musical and their preference, the participants did not agree entirely with Thomas Clifton’s ideas that music is based upon experiences and emotions. Due to the limitations of the student population that was collected, differences among various cultural backgrounds were too marginal to determine.

However, slight differences among music majors and non-majors were detected as well as slight differences in gender. Students placed the examples into clearly definable groups in which I visualized in my hierarchy of music. This hierarchy of music (see Figure 13) suggests that students place a greater value on human music over non-human music, and natural sounds over artificial sounds.

The only sounds that the students unanimously declared music were organized sounds created by humans. Noticeable in creating this hierarchy is the seeming relationship to level of

133 John Blacking, How Musical is Man (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1973), 37. 51 or intent, which led the participants to classify something as music. This ranged from humans who function at a high level of cognition and intent, animals who function at a lower level of cognition with the intent to communicate, to natural and artificial environmental sounds that lack cognition or intent. The placement of humans at the top of this hierarchy (which I have structured as a pyramid (see Figure 13), and the organization from high levels of cognitive to absence of cognition suggests just how anthropocentric and logic driven these students, and perhaps Americans in general may be; however, more studies would need to be done on a larger scale though to make any definitive claims.

The results of the study were as I predicted. Students found organized sounds more musical than unorganized sounds and generally placed the examples into groups or categories: organized sounds created by humans, sounds created by animals, natural environmental sounds, and artificial environmental sounds. The groupings by preference and understanding of what is musical, suggest a hierarchy of sounds. Figure 13 illustrates the students’ hierarchy of sounds they considered music or non-music. This model that I created is a new conception of how humans view sounds. In my research, I have not found other models that attempted to place sounds into a hierarchy. 52

Figure 13. Hierarchy of sounds

The only sounds that the students definitively declared (100% agreed) music, were organized sounds created by humans. In creating this hierarchy, there seemed to be an aspect related to cognition or intent, from humans who function at a high level of cognition and intent, animals who function at a low level of cognition with the intent to communicate, to natural and artificial environmental sounds that lack cognition or intent. I refer to cognition in refence to the thing that is producing the sound as opposed to the perceiver of the sound. The placement of humans at the top of this hierarchy and the organization from cognitive to absence of cognition suggests that these students, and Americans by extrapolation, may be anthropocentric and logic driven. I speculate that a society, like Japan, which places a greater value on nature as a whole in comparison to American society, might have a different hierarchy. For this study to make 53 any claims or comparative assertions, it would need to be repeated on a much larger scale in both the U.S. and Japan.

My research suggested the need for a new model, one ecomusicologists and naturalists aspire to uphold that aligns with appreciation of natural sounds and not a domination of human sounds. In this model, each category falls on a spectrum. All categories of sound are celebrated for their differences and individual qualities, just as each culture’s music is celebrated for its own qualities, but all are equally important and valuable. This is conceptualized as a circular spectrum to emphasize how each are equal but different, and each is a component of the whole.

This contrasts with the pyramid format, which suggests a hierarchy. As shown in Figure 14 below, this conceptualization further supports the all-inclusive model of ‘what is ecomusicology’ that Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe outline in their book Current Directions in

Ecomusicology.134

134 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 54

Figure 14. Spectrum of Sounds

Eastern & Western Philosophy and Values

Many , such as various Native American belief systems, Buddhism, and

Jain (an Indian philosophy where body and soul are distinct entities) are often used as positive examples when critiquing the predominant Western Judeo-Christian , which disregards the natural world and the continuation of life. Arne Dekke Eide Naess, the Norwegian philosopher who coined the term “Deep Ecology,” argues that the Judeo-Christian religion is at the core of not valuing the natural world.135 Ethics are intricately connected to values and religious beliefs. The English word “ethics,” from the Greek ethos, translates as morality. The

135 Næss, Arne, “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement,” Inquiry 16 (1973): 95-100. 55 notion of morality is comprised of rudimentary regulations and principles that guide evaluations and actions. However, ethics are not rules, but ever changing and evolving philosophical teachings that developed in culture through the influence of family, , and other community members.136

Cultural norms display ethics in practice, but the interpretation and value of ethical awareness differs across cultures and . Disregard for nature permeated through the

Western world because the Bible is anthropocentric. Judeo-Christian ethics comprise three foundations of moral enlightenment: biblical teachings, ethical traditions, and moral reasoning.137 The Bible suggests that humans are called on to watch over or tame nature - an anthropocentric idea suggesting superiority of the human race. Naess also criticizes the

Reformation’s perspective on creation, which views the earth as that man must maximize use of - a view that has been used to justify the expulsion of native populations in

North America and elsewhere.138 The superiority of humans is an all too common theme in

American history of the United States.139 According to Christine Pierce and David Van de Veer,

“almost all traditional Western moral outlooks and theories suppose that only harm or benefit to humans is morally significant.”140 This can be understood to mean that human beings are positioned in the dominant position of moral decision making for their own benefit.

Lynn Townsend White, Jr., an American historian and professor of medieval history, develops Pierce and Van de Veer’s ideas in his article, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological

136 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography (13:1, 2010), 57-73, DOI: 10.1080/13668790903554204. 137 R. H. Preston, The Future of Christian Ethics. (London: SCM Press, 1987), 7. 138 Næss, Arne, “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement,” Inquiry 16 (1973): 95-100. 139 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 140 Christine Pierce and David Van de Veer, The Environmental Ethics and Policy Book. (Belmont: Wadsworth, 1994), 11. 56

Crisis,” by calling attention to the relationship between the environment, human beings, and religion. He states, “human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny – that is, by religion.”141 While he acknowledges ethical beliefs vary among individuals, even those within the same culture, he asserts that ethics and religious belief are intertwined, and that Western ethics is conditioned by Judeo-Christian beliefs. He passionately argues,

“Christianity, especially in its Western form, is the most anthropocentric religion the world has seen in its arrogant attitude to nature.”142 Man’s relationship with nature in Western thought is a one-way transaction with man acting upon nature or other non-humans.143

Much of the support for White’s argument lies within the Bible in Genesis 1 and the church’s concern with that passage. Genesis 1:26 says:

And God said, let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.144

In many other translations, the word dominion is translated as “rule over” or “care over.”145

White offers an alternative Christian viewpoint in opposition to the traditional view of control over nature one that advocates for caring, more in line with the ideas of Saint Francis of

Assisi, who believed in equality of all creatures. Many sects of Protestantism now interpret the

Bible’s command for , not as divine middlemen given the natural world for their own profit, but rather having the responsibility to take care of nature and not exploit it, focusing more on Genesis 2: “God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it,” implying a responsibility towards nature.146

141 Lynn Townsend White Jr., “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” Science (155: 3767, 1967), 1203-1207. 142 Idem, p. 1206. 143 B. Walker, The Lost Wolves of Japan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006). 144 The Holy Bible, King James Version (New York: American Bible Society, 1999). 145 The Holy Bible, New International Version (Grand Rapids: Zondervan House, 1984). 146 The Holy Bible, New International Version (Grand Rapids: Zondervan House, 1984). 57

The ethics and values of a given country or society are based upon their culture. The culture dictates the laws, and in turn, the laws influence the ethics and culture, to a cyclical point.147 In the case of Western societies, the values and ethics of culture come largely from the

Judeo-Christian belief system, and thus the laws do as well. Western laws and punishments are future based, being that law-breakers are punished not necessarily for what they did, but for the fact that they could break the law and cause more damage again, perhaps even more severely.148

Though laws express values as if they are universal, not every person within a given society has the same ethics and morals. Not all Westerners think the same and place the same value upon nature. Some Western philosophical teachings follow “the community value,” an ethical theory that is similar to the Japanese community-based values. The German philosopher,

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), an important figure in German idealism, taught that ethics is reconciling individual autonomy and liberty with the values of the greater community.149 Placing value on aligning one’s individual actions with the good of the community has parallels to the Japanese view of social values, where the commanding principle of harmony within the society is exemplified by working diligently to serve one’s own community. Aldo Leopold, American author, philosopher, , ecologist, forester, conservationist, and environmentalist, articulates the difference between Western and Eastern thought most clearly, "We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us.

When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.”150

147 Menachem Mautner, Three Approaches to Law and Culture. (96. Cornell L. Rev. 839, 2011). 148 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography (13:1, 2010), 57-73, DOI: 10.1080/13668790903554204. 149 P. Singer, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in: T. Honderich (Ed.), The Philosophers: Introducing Great Western Thinkers (New York: Oxford University, 1989), 134. 150 A. Leopold, Sand County Almanac and the Sketches Here and There (Oxford UP. New York, 1949), viii. 58

While Western ethics is based highly on the Judeo-Christian religious belief system,

Japanese ethics are immensely different. While the etymology of the word “ethics” in English comes from the Greek “ethos,” translating as sense of morality, the Japanese word for ethics, rinri, conveys the give and pull that maintains a healthy relationship with others in the community, where community is not limited to other humans, but animals and nature, too. This idea is a significant and distinct aspect of Japanese culture. Interpreting ethics in this manner in

Japan dates back to Japan’s early history.151

Prince Shōtoku (Taishi Shōtoku), who lived from 574 to 622, taught about the importance of human relationships, emphasizing aspects of harmony, or wa, and concord, based on his morals forged by his background in both Buddhist teachings and Confucian values.152

Shōtoku’s seventeen articles has been seen as providing the foundation for Japanese ethical understandings153. Tetsuro Watsuji (1889–1960), a prominent Japanese philosopher, stated that rinri are the guiding principles in which people of different ranks and classes, both men and women, adults and children, interact effectively and appropriately with one another.154 The terms rinri and dotoku, both are foundational terms for the conception of Japanese ethics, rinri deals with human’s relationships, and dotoku based upon Meiji collectivist Confucian thought.

Watsuji viewed rinri as a focus on expressions of self-restraint in Japanese ethics, due to the

Japanese values of respect, courtesy, and modesty.

While Judeo-Christian ethics are encapsulated by religious teachings and legal justification, Japanese ethics focus on this theme of rinri, which is echoed in their legal system.

151 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography (13:1, 2010), 57-73, DOI: 10.1080/13668790903554204. 152 Ibid. 153 W. J. Boot, "Shōtoku: Ethnicity, , and Violence in the Japanese Buddhist Tradition (review)," Monumenta Nipponica 65, no. 2(2010): 397-400. 154 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, s.v. “Tetsuro Watsuji,” by R. Carter. 59

The Japanese legal system functions to protect harmony, accord, and compromise, as opposed to the Western focus of human rights and obligations.155 The Japanese legal system is influenced by the Japanese moral principle of relative retribution punishment, meaning that the punishment is for past actions, not a fear of future actions, like seen in Western law. Western

Law is based upon the idea that imprisoning or punishing someone will prevent or deter them from causing future harm, and is not entirely direct punishment for past actions.156Rinri, with its value of human relationships, has had a major influence on rulings made within the Japanese legal system.157 The Justice Minister Kunio Hatoyama stated in an interview regarding Japan’s death penalty in 2007, “As the Japanese place so much importance on the value of life, it is thought that one should pay with one’s own life for taking the life of another.”158

Japanese Religious Philosophy

In Japan, there are multiple traditional sets of spiritual and philosophical beliefs including: Shinto, Buddhism and Confucianism. While many Japanese people today are not actively participating in any particular religion, the beliefs of these religions and philosophies are still deeply rooted and engrained in Japanese culture, society, ethics, and values.

Shinto is an indigenous set of beliefs that evolved from animism, the worship of ancestors and nature spirits and a belief in sacred power in both animate and inanimate beings.

Shinto is a polytheistic religion, where each god functions individually and exists among the people in the water, air, mountains, and other divine beings of the physical earth. Shinto, having no founder or religious text, is built on the myths and history of Japan. Thus, it is only practiced

155 F. Upham, Law and Social Change in Postwar Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 209. 156 Mark Tunick, Punishment: Theory, and Practice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). 157 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography (13:1, 2010), 57-73, DOI: 10.1080/13668790903554204. 158 D. McNeill, “Justice Minister talks in death-penalty riddles” Japan Times, 2008, National Edition. 60 in Japan and has become closely intertwined with the emperor system. Shinto is more than just a religious faith, but expresses ideas, attitudes, and manner of doing that have become the ways of Japanese people. Shinto “is both a personal faith and a communal way of life according to the mind of kami.”159 The literal meaning of Shinto is ‘the road of god (kami)’.

“Shinto is a racial religion and is inextricably interwoven with the fabric of Japanese customs and way of thinking.”160 Relics, ideals, and symbols of Shintoism still exist widely in today’s Japan. Arising from animistic ideals that fed into Shintoism was the Japanese ideal of harmony with nature and its animals, with a profound respect and admiration for the natural community. Japan’s eventual historical flexibility towards religion came out of Shinto teachings.

When Buddhism was introduced to Japan during the sixth century, there was a hostile clash with the predominant religion of Shintoism that eventually resolved.161 What distinguishes Japanese society from many others is that Buddhism and Shintoism, two systems of belief with differing ideas, never began a religious war. Instead, the people decided to live peacefully in co-existence, amalgamating the religions. This union was called Shinbutsu-shūgō or Shinbutsu-konkō, which means to unite two different religious teachings compatibility.162

This merging of Buddhism and Shinto emphasized “the intrinsic value and unity of all things participating equally in a dynamic cosmos,” as stated by the founder of the Shingon school of

159 Ono, Shinto, the Kami Way (Tokyo: The Charles E. Tuttle Co.Inc., 1962), 3. 160 Idem, p. 111. 161 H. Iwai, Nihon no kamigami to hotoke (Japan’s Gods and Buddha) (Tokyo: Seishun Shuppan-Sha, 2002), 31. 162 H. Iwai, Nihon no kamigami to hotoke (Japan’s Gods and Buddha) (Tokyo: Seishun Shuppan-Sha, 2002), 33. 61

Esoteric Buddhism in Japan.163 Because of their cultural history, flexibility and patience are key facets of Japanese Buddhism and thus, Japanese culture.164

Additionally, Confucianism was brought to Japan in the early sixth century. Although it has been practiced as a philosophical, rather than religious, system, its ideals greatly influenced and became imbedded within Japanese moral philosophy. Confucian ethics reinforced the notion of belonging to a family.165 A vital value within Confucian teaching was the reverence for one’s parents, which became a crucial component of the Japanese value system. Since

Japanese Confucianism was understood and formed under the feudal system, its original ideological influence declined throughout the Meiji restoration during the abolishment of classism.166

During the emerging nation-state of Meiji Japan (1868–1912), there was a struggle for labeling and instilling a common morality. The Japanese state sought to cultivate national unity to defend its sovereignty against Western intrusion by suppressing social disruption and uprisings. A unified morality became the path to these goals. Moral remedies for re-organizing and categorizing the population came from all views of thought, including Shinto, Buddhist,

Confucian, and Christian defenders.167 During and following the Meiji restoration, Shinto continued to flourish with its new emphasis on nationalistic sentiments; Confucianism evolved into codified national ethics or Kokumin Dotoku.168 The new national ethics, or Kokumin

163 D. E. Shaner, 1989. “The Japanese experience of nature, in Nature in Asian Traditions of Thought (New York: University of New York Press, 1989), 166. 164 J. Clammer, Japan and its Others, , Difference and the Critique of Modernity (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001), 60. 165 H. Befu, H, Hegemony of Homogeneity, an Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron (Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press, 2001), 28. 166 R. E. Carter, A Study of Japanese Encounter with Enlightenment Ethics (State University of New York Press. New York, 2001). 167 R. M. Reitan, Making a Moral Society: Ethics and the State in Meiji Japan (: UP, 2009). 168 T. Watsuji, T., 1979. Watsuji Tetsuro Zenshu (Collected works of Watsuji Tesuro), Vol. 11. (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1979), 350. 62

Dotoku, was a set of moral principles based on Confucian thought, defining and constructing the idea in a purely Japanese manner, despite the incoming and intruding cultural values. Kokumin

Dotoku became the word often used for morality or ethics. The idea of Confucian ethics remains widely influential today.

The Japanese religions of animism, Shinto, and Buddhism have encouraged a symbiotic

Japanese relationship with animals. In the Shinto religion, lions and dogs are important because they are considered guardians. Many shrines were made in their shape and honor. Deer and foxes are considered in Shinto to be messengers of gods (kami).169 The human-animal relationship in the Shinto religion was that of reverence, reciprocal care, and compassion.

These positive attitudes towards animals reveal themselves in Japanese attitudes towards wolves. Brett L. Walker, American Professor and scholar of Japanese history, points out the vast contrast between the mindset of Westerners and the Japanese regarding wolves. In the

West, during the 19th and 20th centuries, wolves were so heinously detested that they were exterminated nearly to the point of extinction, which may be in part due to their depiction in the

Bible as devilish creatures that contain “place without God,” symbolic of the wilderness.170

Meanwhile, in Japan, farmers worshiped wolves and revered them as sacred sentient beings, a practice that came out of Shintoism. Farmers even offered them ceremonial dishes of rice and red beans, because it was thought that the wolves had the power to protect farmers from various hardships.171 The spiritual implication of wolves differs immensely between Japanese and

Christian religious belief systems. The Japanese in general, have great empathy with both wild and domesticated animals, because they view it as a symbiotic relationship.

169 Ono, Shinto, the Kami Way (Tokyo: The Charles E. Tuttle Co.Inc., 1962), 33. 170 Walker, The Lost Wolves of Japan (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2009), 9. 171 Walker, The Lost Wolves of Japan (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2009), 7. 63

Japan also has a positive relationship and approach to whales and , compared with much of the world, the in particular, where they were often seen as nothing more than a product. The Japanese reverence for whales is reflected in Japanese religious services that acknowledge their gratitude towards whales as a valued resource. The Japanese were reluctant to slay whales because it went against their traditional Buddhist beliefs, despite whales being means of survival. In 1760, whales were not regarded as fish, but acknowledged that they were mammals, like humans ranking them higher as all-knowing beings.172 This special sentiment and veneration for whales was displayed by the whaler’s religious devotion to them.173 Reverence for whales was exhibited in many religious statues for whales in shrines and temples in Japanese whaling regions erected during the Edo period (1603–1867), a sign of respect for deceased whales.174 Although a comprehensive list made of all whale statues in

Japan has yet to be created, over 50 have been documented.175

Animals play key roles in Japanese myths, often being depicted as gratefully indebted to human compassion and kindness. Japanese also depicts animals in positive ways accompanying gods. Fables that feature animals contain religious significance and cultural importance, representing the positive relationship the Japanese people should have with other animals and the natural environment.176 The concept of rinri, the beneficial relationship between all humans and non-humans, is a reoccurring theme in Japanese folklore.

One beloved story that exemplifies this attitude of grace is titled “Tsuru no on gaeshi” or

The Crane Repays Kindness. Written in 1949, “Tsuru no on gaeshi,” tells the story of a

172 Hara, Za Kujira (The whales). (Tokyo: Bunshin-do, 1993), 222–223. 173 Idem, p.224. 174 Idem, p.223. 175 K. Nasu, Hogei seisuiki (The story of whaling’s rise and fall) (Tokyo: Kourin,1990), 172. 176 John Knight, “Feeding Mr. Monkey: cross-species ‘exchange’ in Japanese monkey parks” in J. Knight (Ed.) Animals in Person. (New York: Berg, 2005), 234. 64 reciprocal relationship between humans and cranes. A couple of humans free the crane from a trap, and a few days later the crane returns to them to repay their kindness. The word “on” in the title refers to gratitude, kindness, and obligation, which is a tremendously important concept in

Japanese culture still today. If on is given, then it must be returned, and if not, the recipient is considered impolite or bad-mannered (shirazu).

Japanese rinri, or mutual respect for all others, including animals and the natural world, does not depend on religious teachings in temples and shrines, but upon the inherent value of life and society at large. Gratitude clearly affects the Japanese relationship with the environment, as witnessed by rinri “Togetherness is the key in shaping environmental ethics in

Japan, whereas in the West, there is a clear division between humans and non-humans. The

Western environmental ethics is a one-way approach, whilst in Japan it is two-way, gratitude and care.”177

Overall, while both cultures still maintain an anthropomorphic view, the Japanese perspective on environmental ethics comprising the notion of beneficially living with nature is more sensitive towards the environment than the Western ideal of taming nature. Despite the positive Japanese notions of nature, the Japanese have a turbulent history with their environmental issues and politics (see previous chapter). The negative aspects of Japanese culture with respect to the environment are likely due to the collectivist attitude, which could lead to decreased sense of personal agency and responsibility for ecological concerns.178

177 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography (13:1, 2010), 57-73, DOI: 10.1080/13668790903554204. 178 P. Singer, How are we to Live?: Ethics in an Age of Self-interest. (Port Melbourne: Mandarin, 1995), 151. 65

Gender Values

The extent to which different people place value on certain ethical stances, collective opinions and morals, also varies across subcultures, such as gender or occupation179. Both the gender of the individual and the way they engender concepts and activities, such as nature and music, can affect the value one places on an idea or notion.

Particularly in Western culture, women have been linked to the natural world, most commonly as a mother figure, as in “Mother Nature” or “Mother Earth.” This mother figure personification of nature connotes a caregiver and nurturer to the world. However, as natural disasters highlight that nature is a powerful force, capable of mass destruction - so is the female, which is not always accepted.

“ Shakuhachi players talk about playing the instrument in nature, how its sound evokes nature, how compositions are inspired by nature; they name a singular Nature. But they practice many different : finding it in materials, places and forces that are variously wild, cultivated (as in a Japanese garden), threatened, inspiring, sacred and so on.”180

This destructiveness of nature has led to man’s desire to control nature, and in extension man’s desire to control the female, if nature is seen as female. This connection between controlling nature and controlling women birthed the eco- movement in the mid-1970s and continued through the 1990s, amidst the rise of second wave feminism, and the Green

Movement (environmental awareness).181

179 Subcultures are an ethnic, regional, economic, or social group exhibiting characteristic patterns of behavior enough to distinguish it from others within an embracing culture or society. Merriam-Webster, “Subculture.” 180 Joseph Browning, “Mimesis stories: composing new nature music for the shakuhachi”, Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017): 171-192. 181 Second wave feminism is a 1990’s feminist movement that aimed to be inclusive and intersectional by understanding that not all women experience the same level of prejudice; racism Britannica, 2013 ed., "Ecofeminism," by Kathryn Miles. 181 Kathryn Miles. 2013. "Ecofeminism." Encyclopædia Britannica and homophobia and class affect a women’s experience. ; Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013 ed., "Ecofeminism," by Kathryn Miles. 66

Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism is a political and philosophical movement that combines ecological concerns and feminist ones. Ecofeminism regards these issues as both resulting from a male dominated, patriarchic, view of society. It draws the conclusion that because women are marginalized in society, and because the natural world is seen as a female, nature too, by implication, must be marginalized. Ecofeminists cite imagery, such as “out of control,”

“unpredictable,” and “untamed,” when relating nature to negative stereotypes about women.

They argue that the patriarchic, capitalistic society of the West has led to a detrimental divide between culture and nature. They advocate for an alternative worldview, one which values the earth as a sacred entity that humanity depends upon, where humanity seeks to act collaboratively for the best interests of the natural world while embracing all life as valued.182

The idea of a female earth is a multifaceted proposal as voiced in various works by ecofeminists, such as Maria Mies, Greta Gaard, Karen Warren, Rosemary Radford Ruether,

Lorraine Anderson, Kate Soper, Carolyn Merchant, and Vandana Shivaand.183 Gendering nature could be “potentially liberating or simply a rationale for the continued subordination of women.”184 While this imagery has the potential to motivate responsible interactions with the environment by drawing attention to nature’s “supposed” fragility and positioning as submissive to humanity, it also has the possibility to weaken society’s views about women by making them appear similarly weak and helpless. This idea of nature as women, and nature as frail in need of humanity’s help, keeps nature and women both disempowered as outsiders and

182 Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013 ed., "Ecofeminism," by Kathryn Miles. 183 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 184 Ynestra King, "Engendering a Peaceful Planet: Ecology, Economy, and Ecofeminism in Contemporary Context," Women's Studies Quarterly 23, no. 3/4 (2009): 15-21. 67

“the other.”185 While these associations could lead to a dismissive view of women, society’s view of women, rather than the imagery of -as-nature, needs to change. It is not the link between gender and natural world that causes suppression, but rather the association of women and the association of nature to helplessness.

Throughout Western history, nature has been described as feminine and women were thought to be closer and more in-tune to nature than men. Reasons for this association include women’s physiological position as a womb and menstrual cycles being akin to lunar and tidal cycles, evidencing the intimacy of the female body with the rhythm of nature. The cultural notion of premenstrual women as being highly irrational and overemotional also surmises an association between women, the physical body, and irrationality. Anne Archambault claims the idea that women are by some means more naturally connected to nature restricts the progress of environmentalism. She says, "The claim that women are biologically closer to nature reinforces the patriarchal ideology of domination and limits ecofeminism's effectiveness."186

Depicting nature not just as a woman, but as a parental womanly figure is from a psychological standpoint an important distinction. In Western culture, there is a tendency during various stages of life for children to rebel against their parents, and then could lead to rebellion against nature when it is viewed as mother. The idea of nature as mother and caregiver conflicts with the Biblical notion that we, as humans, have dominion over the natural world. Instead,

“Mother Earth” suggests the earth’s dominion over humans. Because nature is viewed as womanly in Western culture, but God the creator in Judeo-Christian society as male, the idea of

Mother Nature does not have its roots in this tradition. The idea of Mother Nature likely

185 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 186 Anne Archambault, “A Critique of Ecofeminism,” Canadian Women Studies/Les Cahiers De La Femme 13, no.3 (1993) 19-22. 68 evolved from Greek mythology, where the goddess Gaia personifies the entire ecosystem of

Earth, delicately and passively maintaining harmony and health.187

Linda Vance critiques this male-dominated portrayal of nature as a “mother, protectress, provider, and nurturer” as being based essentially in male desire. She instead argues for a new feminist conceptualization of nature as sister, an idea growing out of the mutual oppression shared by women and nature. Vance views ecofeminism as connecting women together by a sisterly bond, and, at its core, rejecting of all systems of domination, in an effort to create dualism as opposed to diversity.188

Denise Von Glahn elaborates on these ideas by focusing on Western women composers of Western music in her book, Music and the Skillful Listener.189 One of the concepts she discusses is prominent Western imagery associated between various genders and the natural world. She references how women are viewed as caretakers who value nature, acting with positive treatment toward the natural world, citing imagery of playing in meadows with flowers and gardeners cultivating the land to help plants grow. Conversely, while women are aiding in creation, men are assisting in destruction, citing prominent imagery, such as lumberjacks.

Another prominent point that Von Glahn makes is that music is highly suited to conveying and interacting with the natural world. “Music as a sounding, temporal art provides a sympathetic expressive mode for suggesting the essence of the natural world. It can get beyond words and offer a moving account denied [by] more static arts.”190 She discusses how the temporal nature permits it to exist on a plane in time allowing for representation of natural

187Cassell’s Dictionary of Classical Mythology, 1998 ed., “Gaia” by Jenny March, p.324. 188 Linda Vance, “Ecofeminism and the Politics of Reality” in Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature. Ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1993). 189 Von Glahn, Denise, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 190 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 69 cycles and rhythms. Acoustic instruments are made of natural materials and produce vibrations that move air; these vibrations produce music, which exist by encompassing space, like air that continually envelops us. Von Glahn also discusses how the women composers in her study

“welcome and seek out collaborators in their creative process- sometimes other human collaborators, and sometimes non-human others; they also see the interrelatedness of humanity and non-human nature as a work of supreme collaboration,” expressing that some Westerners do see their interactions with nature as a collaborative effort, more akin to Eastern thought.191

While Western society sees nature as womanly, it is not a universal concept. Eastern society as whole does not explicitly engender nature. Chinese society, according to Chinese academic Huey-li Li, does not have the same idea that "women equal nature," despite similar issues concerning female inferiority. He says, "the association of women and nature is not a cross-cultural phenomenon, since nature as a whole is not identified with women in Chinese culture."192 In the Shinto religion of Japan, some of the many gods are male and some are female; there is not just one god of nature, but various gods for very specific differing aspects of nature. Perhaps this gender-neutral conception of nature, removing the association of women, allows Eastern societies to have a more positive, symbiotic relationship with their environment.

Ecofeminism was introduced in Japan through Western cultures in the 1980s by Yayohi

Aoki.193 However, it was not well received. In 1995, Masahiro Morioka, a Japanese philosopher, called “Ecofeminism a dangerous concept, which will lead to motherhood restoration and bring back women simply as male counterparts. It is a notion of anti-modernism

191 Idem. p. 16. 192 Huey-li Li, “A Cross-Cultural Critique of Ecofeminism” in Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993). 193 Sandra Buckley, Broken Silence: Voices of Japanese Feminism (Boulder, CO: NetLibrary, 1999). 70 and going backwards.”194 Japan denied ecofeminism for many years and Japanese women were afraid to discuss ecofeminism.

Since the Fukushima earthquake in 2011, Japan has seen a resurgence of ecofeminism as women are concerned about their reproductive health due to the long-lasting effects Fukishma is having on women and children.195 Many women evacuated with their children, against their husband’s wishes, going against traditional gender roles of Japan by disobeying their husbands.196 Now, women are protecting the land and urging for cleaner air and water. Women circulated petitions shortly after the earthquake to prevent movement of -contaminated rocks, as this would cause further airborne radiation. Masses of Japanese women gathered in

New York City to stage protests, as they did not feel safe to do so in their own city of Tokyo.

Many young women protested because they are afraid to birth children with birth defects due to the poor treatment of disabled people in Japanese society.197 The environmental movement in

Japan closely aligns with the fight for disabled people’s rights. Disabilities and birth defects are now more common in the general Japanese population than before Fukishima. Disabled people were also harshly affected by Fukishima because they were unable to evacuate.198 As mothers sought to raise awareness of the Fukishima disaster, their campaigning emphasized stereotyped gender roles, such as the mother as caregiver and father as destroyer of nature. A common critique of this movement is that all genders need to be invited and included to accomplish goals and not be pitted against one other.

194 M. Morioka. Ekorojî to josei: Ekofeminizumu [Ecology and women: Ecofeminism], In Kankyô shisô no tayôna tenkai [Various developments of environmental thoughts], (Kanagawa, Japan: Tokai University Press, 1995), 152- 162. 195 Kakuchi, S, “Japanese Mothers Rise Up Against ”, The Guardian, December 22, 2011. 196 Ibid. 197 Ibid. 198 Shiraishi Kiyoharu, "Human Rights Violations of Persons with Disabilities in Fukushima after the Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunami, and Nuclear Power Accident," Pacific Rim 2013 International Conference on Disability and Diversity (Accessed March 1, 2018). 71

Conclusions

Since basic values vary from culture to culture, and, as stated above, Japan is philosophically more unified with their natural environment than the United States, Japan’s hierarchy of music might more closely resemble that of the spectrum in my proposed model

(see figure 14), where there is less of a distinction between human and non-human music.

Further research is needed to validate this conclusion. This survey would need to be replicated on a larger scale in both the United States and Japan to make this assertion.

Similarly, in regard to gender, my study showed a slight variation between males and females. Males were slightly firmer than females in their convictions and distinctions between human and non-human music, whereas females tended to find natural sounds slightly more musical.199 This could indicate a greater inclination toward the natural world among females in the United States. Since Japan and its philosophies have less of a history of gendering the earth female, I speculate that Japanese values toward nature might vary less between genders. Again, for this study to make any claims or comparative assertions, it would need to be repeated on a much larger scale in both the U.S. and Japan.

199 Specific statistics are discussed in chapter 2. 72

CHAPTER IV

THE SHAKUHACHI AS A VOICE FOR “MOTHER NATURE”

Historical Background

The shakuhachi, an end-blown Japanese bamboo flute, made its way to Japan from

China in the early 7th century CE, as part of the court orchestra.200 It was invented by

Lu Cai (呂才) during the Tang dynasty.201 After its transfer to Japan, the shakuhachi fell out of practice in China and was replaced with flutes, such as the dong xiao.202 The name of the instrument, (shakuhachi) refers to its length in ancient China, and also later in Japan. The shakuhachi was 18 sun in length or 1 shaku (10 sun) and 8 (hachi) sun.203 This early shakuhachi, called the gagaku shakuhachi, or kodai (ancient) shakuhachi, or shosoin (named for the region) shakuhachi was more slender than the modern shakuhachi and had six holes.204 It was a delicate instrument, different than the heavy root-end instrument known today. Only those in the imperial court or Buddhist priests supported by the state played the instrument at this time through the Heian Period (12th century), though there is evidence that the shakuhachi fell out of practice in gagaku beginning in the 9th century.205

The shakuhachi developed into its modern form around the seventeenth century, when the Fuke sect of Zen Buddhist monks embraced the shakuhachi as a spiritual tool. During the

Edo period (1603 -1868), the shakuhachi was primarily associated with the Komuso, or “priests

200 Yuko Kamisango and Christopher Blasdel. The Shakuhachi, A Manual for ; Learning to Play; History and Development (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha, 1988), 1. 201Ibid. 202 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, s.v. "Instruments: Dizi and Xiao” by Frederick Lau. 203 18 sun is about 21 inches. 204 Shosoin Jimusho, ed., Shosoin no gakki [Musical instruments of the Shosoin]. (Toyko: Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha, 1967). 205 Yuko Kamisango and Christopher Blasdel. The Shakuhachi, A Manual for Learning; Learning to Play; History and Development (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha, 1988),5. 73 of nothingness,” who were considered mysterious vagabond monks.206 These monks wore identity-concealing straw basket hats (tengai) because of Buddhism they aimed to be without ego and did not want to become known for their playing. They also had official government passes granting them travel through feudal Japan’s many provinces to collect alms freely. The

Komuso lifestyle embodied freedom and anonymity, which appealed to many outside of the original Buddhist enlightenment seekers.

Several members of the samurai class (ronin) joined the Fuke sect of Buddhist monks, donned their signature basket hats, and learned enough shakuhachi to provide themselves the socially state-sanctioned cover necessary to do as they pleased. They could travel, end vendettas, and seduce women with their newfound identity as a komoso monk. 207 They would use the shakuhachi itself as a weapon, either as a club with its blunt root end or even for blowing darts if the end was not curved.208

The samurai’s abuse of the shakuhachi and exploitation of the Zen tradition drastically changed how the instrument came to be viewed. No longer viewed solely as a spiritual tool or instrument, but symbolizing violence and sex because of the samurai’s actions. This also drew attention to its phallic structure, in stark contrast to its older connotation as a spiritual tool.

Many kabuki and noh dramas were written about “the mysterious, alluring of shakuhachi- playing Komuso.”209 As a way to combat the samurai infiltration into the Fuke sect, the monks founded shakuhachi schools to differentiate the true monks from the imposters tarnishing their name and practice. Repertoire and playing technique were the measures used for distinguishing

206 Yuko Kamisango and Christopher Blasdel. The Shakuhachi, A Manual for Learning; Learning to Play; History and Development (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha, 1988), 6. 207 James H Sanford, "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komuso," Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4 (1977): 411- 40. 208 William P Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2001), 169. 209 Zachary Wallmark, “Sacred Abjection in Zen Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Review. Vol 17 (2012). 74 purposes with high stakes; if a Komuso monk played a honkyoku, classical piece, incorrectly, he may be executed immediately.

When the Meiji Restoration began in the late 1860s, the new imperial Western-oriented government ended the confusion for the Fuke sect by calling for their disbandment. They also made a decree outlawing the shakuhachi’s use as a tool for meditation, opting instead for secular non-solitary contexts of ensemble music with the shamisen and koto (known collectively as sankyoku), and folk song, minyo. The government directly redefined the shakuhachi a “” (gakki) associated with music, as opposed to its previous category as a “spiritual tool” (houki) associated with non-music.210

Environmental Awareness

The shakuhachi was traditionally used as a meditation tool for the Fuke sect of Buddhist monks through their practice of suizen, or "breathing meditation." In this practice, a single note is often sustained for the length of the breath, drawing the attention to the breath and to the of the universe. Understanding various musical and cultural practices, such as suizen, could positively impact the Western high-paced, egocentric, competitive lifestyle, as well as expand our global awareness and promote environmental awareness.

As the 21st century propels itself forward into a period of visual and auditory overstimulation, individuals are losing their ability to focus.211 Electronic screens are demanding people’s attention, drawing them away from the natural environment, and into a technological land and soundscape. Public venues blare the newest top 40 hits on a perpetual loop. We are becoming addicted to distraction, intolerant of boredom, and most importantly,

210 Jay Keister,“The Shakuhachi as Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,” Asian Music 35, no.2 (2004): 99–131. 211 Ibid. 75 afraid of silence. Schafer states, “a recovery of contemplation would teach us how to regard silence as a positive and felicitous state in itself.”212 This statement is very Zen Buddhist in nature, as the concept of silence in Buddhism, as well as Japanese music, is important culturally. However, when we speak of silence, we are never speaking of true absence of sound, for itself is vibration. The world is not silent, but rather humans are roaring. When we speak of silence, we speak of human silence. As Schafer states, “a recovery of contemplation would teach us how to regard silence as a positive and felicitous state in itself.”213 Certain philosophies and religions lend themselves well to this idea of celebrating silence. Regaining this very quietude would help to keep fewer intrusive sounds at a distance, far from one’s focus.

Our hearing is more alert in the absence of sound—or in silence— and we notice silence in a more vibrant way when sound is recovered.

Silence “Ma”

John Cage (1912 – 1992), American Avant-garde composer and music theorist who was highly influenced by Eastern aesthetics, has controversial thoughts on silence, epitomized in his well-known composition 4’33”and book, Silence. In 4’33”, the entire score consists of all rests, thusly the musician performing the piece goes to their instrument and plays nothing, hitting no keys, for four minutes and thirty-three seconds, as the title suggests. Often the musician(s) turns the pages and keeps time with a stopwatch. Every performance of this piece is vastly different, because the environmental sounds from the audience and surrounding locale create the performance. Sound has elements of pitch, volume, timbre, and duration. Silence, which is

212 R. Murray Schafer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1994), 223. 213Idem, p. 258. 76 sounds nonexistent opposite, has only duration. These are the thoughts that John Cage mused upon that lead to 4’33’’.214 John Cage talks about his philosophy behind this piece:

For in this new music nothing takes place but sounds: those that are notated and those that are not. Those that are not notated appear in the written music as silences, opening the doors of the music to the sounds that happen to be in the environment. There is always something to see, something to hear. In fact, try as we may to make a silence, we cannot.215

John Cage saw that the absence of intentional man-made music does not equate to silence or even a lack of music. Being silent allows other sounds to be heard. “Is there such a thing as silence? Even if I get away from people, do I still have to listen to something? Say I'm off in the woods, do I have to listen to a stream babbling?”216

John Cage refutes the idea that silence is the opposite of sound. He also goes on to explain that even in a soundproof location, there is never silence, there is only ever sound; even if none of intentional making, there are still unintentional human sounds, which are by-products of existing, e.g., blood circulation, heart beating, nervous system operation, stomach digesting, etc. This situation is not an objective delineated dichotomy of sounds versus silence, but much more subjective - inclusive sounds only, “those intended and those others (so-called silence) not intended.217” If one does not discriminate from intentional and non-intentional sounds, the world opens up; binaries are gone; the separation between subject and object, art and life disappear.218 John Cage has not been the only one to blur these lines, atmospheric music and tone clusters that prioritize timbre and soundscapes over melody has become a trend in modern composition including film scoring.

214 John Cage, Silence: Lectures and Writings by John Cage (London: Calder & Boyars, 1968),167. 215 Idem, p. 6-7. 216 Idem, p. 41-49. 217 Idem, p. 14. 218 Idem, p 12-13. 77

The Japanese concept of silence (ma), is similar in many ways to John Cage’s conception of silence, likely due to Eastern influences in his philosophy and aesthetics. Ma is the tension between sounds. The environment interacts with the music in the silences. The

Garland Encyclopedia of World Music defines ma as, “a unit consisting of a single sound and its lingering "after-sound," considered an introduction to the next sound. In order to make the next sound vivid, the ma must create tension.” In Japanese culture, the silence, or the space between the music is also a part of the music. Therefore, sounds that are often considered “non- musical” that exist in the silence are in-fact a part of the music and thusly, all sounds are music.219

When Rachel Caron speaks of silence in Silent Spring, she of the natural world, the silence only heard when all the birds have died. 220 She beings her persuasive narrative by discussing the remnants that remain, an eerie silence reigns, a strange stillness, as dead birds are found amidst confused and sick townspeople. In the end of the book, she discusses that the things that cause what we are afraid of were created and released into the world by man things like radiation and pesticides and that they have the power to reduce the world to “silent and birdless” uninhabitable state. Birds and their song then rendered silent, function as a symbol for loss of and to extension human life, leaving the public nostalgic for an idyllic past they might feel united in defending. When Westerner’s speak of silence, they speak of humans being silent. When the Japanese speak of silence, they speak of themselves being silent.

The idea of silence was used after the Hiroshima bombing by the Americans during

World War II as a way for coping or processing the tragedy, in part also due to not knowing what to say. Language had no words to express the sentiments that did not exist before, so the

219 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, s.v. “Philosophy and Aesthetics by Shimosako Mari, 553. 220 Rachel Carson, 1962, Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 78 alternative was silence. The philosopher Susanne K. Langer expresses the idea that no matter how specific language becomes it cannot express everything; there will always exist things it cannot express.221 The idea of silence after tragedy is not a solely a Japanese idea; many cultures take this stance. After the Holocaust, Germany required many years of cultural silence on the topic, taking two generations following to begin to discuss the topic fully and openly.222

Mimesis, Noise, and Music

The shakuhachi tradition makes use of mimesis or “imitations and evocations of natural sounds and phenomena,” noise, and silence (ma).223 Shimosako Mari, author of “Philosophy and Aesthetics” in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music’s section on Japan says, “The

Japanese consider music beautiful when it has been created from nature and can return to nature, as if a part of nature has been inserted into the music.”224

Honkyoku pieces belonging to the tradition of Zen Buddhism often sonically evoke or imitate natural landscapes, wind, water, or animal sounds. For example, ‘Tsuru no Sugomori’, evokes nesting cranes; ‘Shika no Tōne’ evokes a valley with deer;‘Daha’ evokes waves crashing into the shore.225 Much of the mimesis done with the shakuhachi occurs through ornamentation, such as trills, koro koro, glissandi, tremolos, and flutter-tonguing.226 Koro koro is a specific type of trill native to the shakuhachi created by uncovering and recovering a middle

221 Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a new key: A study in the symbolism of reason, rite, and art. Harvard University Press, 2009. 222 Danieli, Yael. "Psychotherapists' participation in the conspiracy of silence about the Holocaust." Psychoanalytic psychology 1, no. 1 (1984): 23-42. 223 Taussig, Michael, Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses. (New York: Routledge, 1993). Joseph Browning, “Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017), 171-192. 224 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, s.v. “Philosophy and Aesthetics by Shimosako Mari, 553. 225 Ibid. 226 For further discussion, examples, and notation of mimesis see Chapter 4, as well as Joseph Browning’s article, Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi.” 79 hole, resulting in a jump of a third. It is used primarily as a technique to imitate nesting cranes.

Not only does the shakuhachi make use of mimesis for various nature sounds, including birds, but the breathing technique used to play the shakuhachi has similarities to avian respiration, as both make use of a deep slow breathing pattern, where one mentally or physically bypasses the lungs to fill the abdomen with air, exhaling actively retaining breath purposefully extending air flow.227

During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, global distribution of the Japanese shakuhachi flute grew, thus did a proliferation of new compositions for the instrument inside and outside of Japan.228 While this new music is more diverse in origin, the ideals of the original classical tradition of shakuhachi playing, honkyoku, often remain intact.

Connections between the shakuhachi and nature are enacted through discourse, performance, instrument making, and the creation of recordings and new compositions. They highlight the diverse ways in which the naturalness of the instrument is heard, felt and understood: in discourses that root the shakuhachi in landscapes both inside and outside Japan; in recordings that incorporate environmental sounds alongside the shakuhachi in new compositions that evoke particular landscapes and animals; and in changes to the materials, sounds and forms of the instrument itself.229

Sawari is an aesthetic term in which the Japanese value noise rather than "purposefully musical sound.” There is more of an emphasis on the sound itself rather than the melodic phrasing. Japanese composer and writer on aesthetics, Toru Takemitsu, says, “Many types of

East Asian music incorporate noise-like elements with great care, but I think it is only in Japan that we developed an aesthetic term, sawari, in reference to such effects.”230 To Western

227 Lauren Rubin, The Shakuhachi and the Didjeridu: Two Case Studies of Historical Iconology, Performance Practice and Their Relation to Avian Respiration and Song (Melbourne: Monash University Press, 2009). 228 Steve Casano, “From Fuke Shuu to Uduboo: The Transnational Flow of the Shakuhachi to the West” The World of Music 47, no. 3 (2005) 17–33. ; Jay Keister,“The Shakuhachi as Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,” Asian Music 35, no.2 (2004): 99–131. 229 Joseph Browning, “Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017), 171-192. 230 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 200. 80 listeners, the sound created by material objects striking other objects, creating impure tones, has the same effect as the unpitched noise sounds found in our daily lives. From a Western perspective, this type of impure/unpitched sounds is relatively unpleasant but aesthetically pleasing to Japanese listeners.231

“The ideal of sound in Japanese music is that of sounds in nature, containing elements of

‘noise,’ as in sawari... We approach musical sound with the understanding that its component sonic elements may be completely different in quality, but should be valued equally.”232 To illustrate his point Toru Takemitsu, recounts a story about a mentor playing the shakuhachi for him over dinner while a pot is clamoring on the stove, and at the end the mentor asks him if he heard the pot sound and saying that it was a part of the performance.233

In shamisen playing, a performer often adds a non-pitched sustained noise referred to as the “mountain and valley of sawari.”234 The ultimate achievement the shakuhachi master strives for in his performance is the recreation of the sound of wind blowing through an old bamboo grove.”235 The breath is considered the wind.

The instrument sawari should sound like a cicada singing, that is, it should be equal to a sound in nature. This equality is the ideal we strive for. There is not such ideal for sound in the West, this is something in extreme opposition to Western ways of thinking. Consciousness of one’s ego constitutes a fundamental premise in contemporary society; as the saying goes, ‘I think, therefore, I am,’ In Western music, the ego of an individual communicates and asserts itself through musical sounds, and no matter how clumsily, composers clearly state what they wish to communicate to others… Japanese music, however, is inclined in the direction of self-denial.236

231 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 200. 232 Ibid. 233 Idem, p. 201. 234 Idem, p. 200. 235 Ibid. 236 Idem, p. 201. 81

Meaning that Westerners often do not find beauty in these types of sounds; they are often too egocentric, thusly anthropocentric to appreciate them. In Japan, one sees the beauty in a single note; one can notice small nuances within a single sound. Every sound has sawari, and thus is worthy, important and aesthetically pleasing. For Japanese, the goal is not progress and communication, but a holistic understanding of sound.237

In the West, a single note or sound is not enough to be considered music; it must be moving somewhere. In On the Musically Beautiful, German Bohemian music critic, Eduard

Hanslick, calls the metal and wood rhythmic clanging sounds of work “a natural kind of music: yet it just is not music,” while peasant singing “no trace of art penetrates, is artistic music through and through.”238 Western music is often not considered significant or complex unless it contains harmony, layers upon layers of musical material stacked upon each other. Western methods of listening and interpretation spend copious amounts of time and effort analyzing the functions of pitch, rhythm, and harmony. Rhythm and pitch function as the proverbial building blocks of music. This over-used expression of “building blocks” elucidates the vital concept of musical material in modern Western musical aesthetics.239 Hanslick delineates a binary distinction between “mere sounds” and musical material from his Western perspective:

If one inquires into the extent to which nature provides materials for music, it turns out that nature does this only in the most inferior sense of supplying the raw materials which mankind makes into tones. Mute ore from the mountains, wood from the forests, the skin and entrails of animals, these are all we find in nature with which to make the proper building materials of music, namely, pure tones. Thus initially we receive from mother nature only material for material.240

237 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 202. 238 Hanslick, Eduard, On the Musically Beautiful, trans. Geoffrey Payzant (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1986), 70. 239 James Edwards, “‘Silence By My Noise’: An Ecocritical Aesthetic Of Noise In Japanese Traditional Sound Culture. 2011. And The Of Akita Masami,” Green Letters: Studies in Ecocriticism 15, no.1 (2011), 89-102 240 Hanslick, Eduard, On the Musically Beautiful, trans. Geoffrey Payzant (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1986), 70. 82

“Nature acts as a material resource (e.g., providing bamboo for instrument making); a dynamic source of sounds and other phenomena (e.g., in the calls of Japanese Red-crowned Cranes); and a powerful imagery that provides ways of engaging with a distant musical tradition.”241 This idea applies to actual architecture as well. In the West, walls are built to keep the natural world walled off and outside - separate from the interior. In Japan, architecture is made with natural elements. For example, sliding paper doors will open to a garden or landscape paintings will be the focal point of a room. “[Architecture] tries not to cut off mankind from nature, but rather to become part of it at all times.”242 The notion is about inside versus outside, whether we are part of nature or are we trying to separate ourselves from it. John Cage equates the “silences” in music to open architecture, allowing for the outside to be seen.

Japanese music incorporates the five elements in Chinese philosophy, wood, metal, fire, water, and earth. Musical sounds directly correlate to natural materials. Each element and material correspond with a note. G= Spring, east, the sound of wood, and blue. E= Autumn, west, the sound of metal, and white. A=Summer, south, the sound of fire, and red. B natural=

Winter, North, the sound of water, and black. Finally, D= The center, earth, yellow and light purple.243 Japanese traditional music is closely related to nature.

Simplicity in Zen Buddhism is a healthy ideal for the environment. Eliminating desires is the ultimate goal. For Thoreau, anything more than what is useful is not just an extravagance, but a real impediment and disadvantage. This is akin to Japan’s ideals of minimalism, which is reflected in their living spaces-often simply for practical space-saving reasons. These ideas are

241 Joseph Browning,“Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017), 171-192. 242 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 203. 243 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, s.v. “Philosophy and Aesthetics by Shimosako Mari, 547. 83 in stark contrast to the mass consumer culture of the West as portrayed by the media, where most people seem to feel they need the newest gadgets and the most furnished houses to feel successful and a sense of belonging to the greater society.

Cultural Ideas of Listening

Though Japan has adopted many aspects of a Western lifestyle, their sensitivity toward sound and the environment remains. “Today we Japanese are immersed in a completely

Westernized lifestyle, yet we hear the sound of a wind chime from time to time and appreciate the beauty of a single sound.”244 Wind chimes in Japan generally only make one tone and are more like a bell, whereas most windchimes in the U.S. have many pieces of metal that clang together in the wind, a simple change that is representational in the preference for Westerner’s and moving melodic tones. There are many examples in literature that suggest the Japanese do not distinguish the natural sounds from musical sounds when listening. An excerpt from The

Tale of Genji illustrates this idea:

Taking out the seven-stringed Chinese koto which Genzi had left with her, she played a brief strain as fancy took her. It was the season for sadness, and she need not fear that she was being heard; and the wind in the pines struck up an accompaniment.245

The natural world here is a collaborator, providing accompaniment to the koto- much like how visual artist Andy Goldsworthy views his art as collaboration.246

American composer John Cage compares the respect for the natural world within

Western and Japanese thought, as he understands it:

What is so special- at least in my experience- to the Japanese people: a high regard for things in the world, for plants, for wood, for metal, for the things of nature. This special

244 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 202. 245 Sikibu Murasaki, The Tale of Genji, trans. Edward G. Seidensticker. (Middlesex, England: Penguin), 323. 246 See Chapter 1, Figure 1, pg. 6. 84

regard is perhaps given to them by the Buddhist doctrine that there are two types of being in the world, sentient and non-sentient, and they both share in Buddhahood. This high regard is quite rare in the U.S. and Europe, but it quite noticeable in Japan. 247

Many differences in values between Japan and the West can be explained by each cultures’ collectivism and . Japan and most other Eastern cultures are collectivist cultures, while the United States and most other Western cultures are individualist. Individualist cultures place a high value on competition, being an individual, and standing out from the group. There is an underlying idea that helping others to succeed only hurts your chances of success by creating more competition. In individualistic cultures, it is very common for everyone to be working for their own goals and wanting to do things on their own schedule.

For example, individual cars, as opposed to public transportation, are often highly valued.

People are generally rewarded for positive actions or punished for misdoings on an individual basis, exemplified by awards such as employee of the month.

Collectivist cultures are often less competitive than individualist cultures, and when they are competitive, it is not for individual success, but success for the whole unit, be it family, country, or workplace. In collectivist cultures, individuals often would not be signaled out directly or individually for good or bad deeds. The focal point is not on the needs of the individual but the needs of the whole. Collectivist cultures highly value relationships among the group, because groups with better rapport work better together, and identity is based highly upon group belonging. Confucian ideals permeate Eastern cultural values. The collectivist idea being a part of something bigger and working toward common good and goals likely influences

Japanese attitudes of being a part of nature, an idea not found in the individualistic cultures of

247 Toru Takemitsu, “Toru Take Mitsu on sawari” in Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. (CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004), 195. 85 the West. “Togetherness is the key in shaping environmental ethics in Japan.”248 As stated in the

Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, “The Japanese tend to think that nature and its sounds do not come into conflict with human beings and artificial sounds—specifically music—but that these sounds respond to and blend with each other,” thus there is not a strict dichotomy between oneself and the larger community of surrounding nature, but more a sense of belonging within the natural landscape and soundscape. 249

Additionally, a stark difference in culture between Japan and other Eastern cultures, and the United States and other Western cultures is the way they communicate. Communication differs from high context to low context communication. In low context cultures, such as the

USA, people often speak explicitly and directly state exactly what they mean. This is done even if it may be considered rude, because in individualistic countries, this is not as important to avoid. This is not as important to avoid because in low context cultures there is less of a focus on group cohesion and “saving face” than on individualism. In this framework, the speaker must put forth effort to carefully construct a clear message. Japan, however, is a high context culture, which means the way in which someone communicates the same message can vary greatly across contexts.250 Communication is not done as directly in order to keep cohesion within the group. For example, one would not directly state that someone’s idea will not work, but instead just suggest an alternative solution. Consequently, the listener must employ more effort to discern the underlying meaning of speech, compared to low context cultures with the speaker puts forth more effort to be direct.

248 Midori Kagawa-Fox, “Environmental Ethics from the Japanese Perspective,” Ethics, Place & Environment: A Journal of Philosophy & Geography, 13, no. 1 (2010), 57-73. 249 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea “Philosophy and Aesthetics, by Shimosako Mari, p.550. 250 Shoki Nishimura, Anne Nevgi, and Seppo Tella. "Communication Style and Cultural Features in High/Low Context Communication Cultures: A Case Study of Finland, Japan and ." Teoksessa A. Kallioniemi (toim.), Uudistuva ja kehittyvä ainedidaktiikka. Ainedidaktinen symposiumi 8, (2008): 783-796. 86

The emphasis on listening and cohesion found in Japan affects the way they listen to nature and view nature as a part of their collective society. The Garland Encyclopedia of World

Music describes the aesthetics of natural sounds in music and language in Japan most eloquently:

In Japan, there are four seasons, and the Japanese take great interest in the changing seasons as part of their sensitivity to nature. The language is rich in words that describe, for example, the sounds of wind and ; people's ears are open to these natural sounds; and the love of such nonmusical sounds seems to be reflected in Japanese music. Listeners prefer the windlike tone of a syakuhati to a purely musical tone; similarly, they prefer a voice with nonmusical qualities— thickness and huskiness. 251 They appreciate the echoes of a single sound, perhaps more than a logical construction of sounds. They enjoy the passage of sound: lingering tones and ma. They also enjoy irregularity, versatility, and a relationship between elements that is neither too close nor too distant. They are fascinated by subtle changes in dynamics and timbre rather than exaggeration. They enjoy music that suggests changes in natural things, such as a transition from slow to fast to faster. Also, most musical instruments are made of natural materials such as wood, animal skins, and silk thread.252

Gender & The Shakuhachi

The shakuhachi was historically played by men and still is a male dominated field due to historical and social determinants. The Komuso monks were male and the shakuhachi player in the sankyoku ensemble was male. Some of this association of use by male players was due to the thought that the shakuhachi was a phallic-like instrument and thus would be unsightly to be played by women. I, myself, once told a Japanese person that I played the shakuhachi and her response was “but you’re a girl.” However, many of these cultural determinants do not necessarily transfer outside of Japan to other countries and cultures, due to ignorance of the historical role of the flute and varying gender roles.

251 Syakuhati is the second most common English spelling of shakuhachi. 252 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea “Philosophy and Aesthetics, by Shimosako Mari, p.554. 87

Japan’s gender roles are stricter than those of Western cultures, particularly the United

States. The government funneled idea of “good wife, wise mother” (ryosai kenbo), a slogan to influence and reflect the opinion of women in Japan, is still held today. This dominant ideology extended to working women, whose home duties of wife and mother, came before that of worker. Some women in Japan resist this ideology. They still deem themselves useful after they are past their child-raising time period, by working. They are increasingly playing the shakuhachi. “Japanese women shakuhachi players are negotiating a new musical identity, which reinforces their more independent role in Japanese society.”253

Throughout Japanese traditional music’s history, women were discouraged to varying degrees from playing different instruments. The Japanese traditional instrument that women have been encouraged to play and teach the most is the koto, a 13-stringed zither. While some women play the shamisen, the male aesthetic of strong forceful playing is standard for all persons, discouraging all femininity. Additionally, females are not allowed to play certain types of repertoire on the shamisen.254 The most segregated practice of all the Japanese traditional instruments is that of the shakuhachi tradition. In Japan recently, women with aspirations to be amateur players of the shakuhachi have a hard time finding a professional teacher willing to accept them as a student, as of 2007.255 This seems to be getting easier as time passes but is still not standard. It is interesting to note that the Japanese instrument potentially most capable of playing natural evocative sounds has the most gender restrictions.

253 Martha Fabrique, “Women and the Shakuhachi,” EJCJS: New Horizons 12, no.2 (2012). 254 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Vol 7: East Asia: China, Japan and Korea, “Gender Roles in the Performing Arts in Japan” by Satomi Oshio, 763-766. 255 A. Tokita, and D. Hughes,“Context and Change in Japanese Music,” Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music (London: Ashgate Publications, 2008), 1-34. 88

Martha Fabrique interviewed multiple women shakuhachi players, both from Japan and outside Japan in her case study, “New Horizons: Women and the Shakuhachi.”256 She documents many obstacles to learning, playing, performing in public and negative attitudes encountered from mostly Japanese participants.257 Now, there is a growing global counter- culture of shakuhachi women, who define their own aesthetics in their own terms. Their aesthetic is in-line with traditional female attributes in the greater society, making them both conforming to gender roles, yet simultaneously rejecting them by playing this male dominated instrument. The female style of performance was articulated by ideas of gentleness, intimate, and sensitive playing and less focused on pure power of the breath and ego bolstering with long strong tones.258 The sound is often quieter and has differing tempos than the original or new pieces altogether.

Fabrique asked male shakuhachi players both from Japan and outside of Japan their opinions of female shakuhachi players and those interviewed were mildly receptive to female players, despite saying that they could not play “the real way,” meaning forcefully like males259.

Their reception draws comparisons of elderly female shamisen players who may play quietly, but with perhaps more presence and power in their quiet intensity, despite not being physically powerful. While these thoughts were intended as positive, the implications were that women do not have the physical strength to play this flute in the appropriate musical style.260

According to ethnomusicologist and master shakuhachi player, Christopher Yohmei Blasdel, the shakuhachi is becoming more acceptable for women to play in Japan. Yet, the sexual associations and connotations of the flute remain. The public is receptive toward women

256 Martha Fabrique, “Women and the Shakuhachi,” EJCJS: New Horizons 12, no.2 (2012). 257 Ibid. 258 Ibid. 259 Ibid. 260 Ibid. 89 playing the flute, but often see it as provocative. Among most shakuhachi players, however, women are respected players, and valued for their skills rather than their gender.261 Many of the women I spoke to at the World Shakuhachi Festival in London of 2018 held differing opinions.

They felt their gender prevents them from being taken seriously, by both Japanese and Western performers and audience members. Many agreed that when they were younger, the shakuhachi did put them in the spotlight for sensational reasons, rather than their abilities.

As ecofeminism becomes more prominent in Japan, women could use the shakuhachi and its abilities to evoke natural sounds as a tool to protest their position in regard to the instrument and in regard to their safety and the safety of the environment. The shakuhachi has the potential, as a culturally important and gender stereotyped instrument, to be a powerful instrument for change. When women play the shakuhachi, it goes against the norm and sparks attention.

261 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel, Personal Interview with Lydia Snyder, August 15, 2017. 90

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

Overview

The term 'ecomusicology' first emerged in the early 2000s, and is defined by Aaron

Allen as, “the study of music, culture, and nature in all the complexities of those terms.

Ecomusicology considers musical and sonic issues, both textual and performative, related to ecology and the natural environment.”262 He explains, ecomusicology is a combination of ecocriticism and musicology.263 Jeff Todd Titon further defines the field as, “the study of music, culture, sound and nature in a period of environmental crisis.”264 Thus, it is our awareness of our “environmental crisis,” as evidenced by global warming, depletion of our natural resources, extinction of species, and projected death of our planet, that gave birth to this new field. The question remains, what can musicologists do about the environmental crisis? How can we use music to advocate for our environment?

My thesis addresses how societies value sounds in the context of ‘what is music,’ how this affects their views of nature, and the ways in which gender and philosophy play an important role in shaping these values. I suggest that there is already a hierarchy of musical sounds in place and offer a new way to view music as a spectrum in order to give nature a greater value and a greater voice. Finally, I posit that the Japanese shakuhachi is an ideal advocate for the environment and for women due to its philosophical and gendered history, playing technique, repertoire, and physicality as a root instrument.265

262 Aaron Allen, “Ecomusicology,” in The Grove Dictionary of American Music. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. 263 Ibid. 264 Jeff Todd Titon, “The Nature of Ecomusicology,” Música e Cultura vol. 8 (2014): 8-18. 265 Made from the root of a bamboo stalk 91

A New Ecomusicological Conception of Music

Murray Schafer places sounds into musical categories, rather than arguing the difference between music and noise, as Blacking, Clifton, Nattiez, and Nettl had done previously. To see how many people agreed with Murray Schafer’s categories of sound, which include Natural

Sounds, Human Sounds, Sounds and Society, Mechanical Sounds, Quiet and Silence, and

Sounds as Indicators, (see chapter 2), I created a survey for undergraduate students at Kent State

University to analyze their understandings of music and how they draw conclusions on what is human and non-human music.266 Students listened to multiple sound clips drawn from Schafer’s categories and subcategories of sounds. For each clip, they rated whether they agreed or disagreed with the statement "This is music," on a scale from 1-10, with 10 being music. Sound clips included organized and unorganized sounds of both human and non-human origin, including orchestral music, birdsong, overlapping church bells, howling wind, a jackhammer, atonal piano, Native American flute, a cityscape, a waterfall, and whale song. Each clip was also rated on a scale for preference from “Strongly Like” to “Strongly Dislike.” The results of the survey indicated that the students placed sounds into a hierarchy like the one below. In this model, organized sounds created by humans are the only category of sounds the students considered music. All other categories were less musical, and therefore less important. The implications of this model indicate that the students, and by extrapolation Americans, are anthropocentric and logic driven, placing the humanly above all else.

266 R. Murray Schafer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1994). 92

Figure 15. Hierarchy of sounds

I would like to offer a different model, one ecomusicologists and naturalists might aspire to uphold. In this model, each category falls on a spectrum. All categories are celebrated, not ranked for their differences, just as each culture’s music is recognized for its differences, but all are equally important. I put this spectrum in the form of a circle to emphasize how each are equal but different, and each is a component of the whole; this contrasts the pyramid format, which suggests a hierarchy. The spectrum model (see Figure 16) further supports the all- inclusive model of ‘what is ecomusicology’ that Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe outline in their book Current Directions in Ecomusicology.267 The philosophical and environmental of the US and Japan suggest that the understanding of what is considered musical in Japan may have a greater resemblance to this spectrum model. A large repeat study must be conducted in

Japan and the U.S. to make any conclusive assertions.

267 Aaron Allen and Kevin Dawe, Ed., Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature (New York: Routledge, 2016). 93

Figure 16. Spectrum of sounds

The shakuhachi as sensitization to the natural world

Japanese culture has a greater fascination with noise and silence, compared to much of the Western world.268 The shakuhachi embodies this culture of noise and silence, which can function as creating a voice for the environment, because in learning to value not only human sounds, but silence and other sounds as well, one can see the value in things outside themselves, such as the environment. The ambiguous distinction between noise and music in Japanese culture, suggests a more blurred concept of what is music, than much of Western thought.269

268 For more discussion on Japanese culture, noise and silence, see Chapter 3. 269 For more discussion on the ambiguity of noise and sound in Japanese culture see Chapter 3. 94

The shakuhachi can act as a pedagogical tool for both musicians and those wishing to appreciate nature. Patricia Campbell, renowned ethnomusicologist and pedagogue speaks to engaged and active listening, in which she says:

Listening is key, including the development of a sound awareness... in its multiple uses and meanings in people's lives… The essence of teaching musically is to center the instructional experience on the music itself and facilitate the involvement of students, aurally, kinesthetically and viscerally in the music.270

The emphasis is placed on creating an experience.271 The shakuhachi allows you to listen and engage with the surrounding environment (engaged listening). We can use the shakuhachi and its philosophies to sensitize people to their natural surroundings, because of its playing style consisting of long single tones. This has the possibility of creating a greater appreciation for the natural world. Others can experience the natural world more intimately, like the relationship the women composers in Denise Van Glahn’s study had with nature. They spoke often of their emotional, physical, and spiritual relationship with nature- a very intimate interaction that is delicate, detailed and familiar, akin to home-like interactions.272 Their relationship contained a desire for solitude with nature and quite meditations.273 Experience is the key element to driving this intimate relationship with nature. Keister argues that shakuhachi players exalt the flute because it is seen “a physical, acoustical manifestation of the privileging of the spirituality of

‘natural sound’ over music.”274

270 Patricia Shehan Campbell, Teaching Music Globally: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford UP, 2004), xvii. 271 See Jeff Todd Titon’s work on phenomenology. 272 Von Glahn, Denise, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013), 22. 273 Ibid. 274 Jay Keister,“The Shakuhachi as Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,” Asian Music 35, no.2 (2004): 99–131. 95

Being silent is a focal point of listening in all contexts. One cannot hear their surroundings if they are always speaking. A collaborative relationship requires one to listen.

The women in Von Glahn’s study listen, instead of speaking over others in the natural world.

“Listening carefully and deeply and always is the most obvious manifestation of this collaborative compact”.275 Musical instruments, particularly bells are considered to act as a collaboration with man and the natural world. “Music and nature are co-created in and by collections of heterogeneous entities.”276 But, the most intriguing aspect of the bell is in its echo. Thoreau’s passage on the bell is thorough in its explanation of the echo as nature’s collaboration:

Sometimes, on Sundays, I heard the bells, the Lincoln, Acton, Bedford, or Concord bell, when the wind was favorable, a faint, sweet, and, as it were, natural melody, worth importing into the wilderness. At a sufficient distance over the woods this sound acquires a certain vibratory hum, as if the pine needles in the horizon were the strings of a harp which it swept. All sound heard at the greatest possible distance produces one and the same effect, a vibration of the universal lyre, just as the intervening atmosphere makes a distant ridge of earth interesting to our eyes by the azure tint it imparts to it. There came to me in this case a melody which the air had strained, and which had conversed with every leaf and needle of the wood, that portion of the sound which the elements had taken up and modulated and echoed from vale to vale. The echo is, to some extent, an original sound, and therein is the magic and charm of it. It is not merely a repetition of what was worth repeating in the bell, but partly of the wood; the same trivial words and notes sung by a wood-nymph.277

The bell, in its echo, is part man and part of the voice of nature. This sentiment is shared in

Buddhism as well. “Kyorei”, the oldest shakuhachi piece in the Fuke Zen Buddhist tradition, is said to be the ideal expression of suizen, breathing meditation. “Kyorei” translates as "empty bell" and refers to the hand bell that Zen master Zenji would ring in the streets to attract

275 Von Glahn, Denise, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013), 322. 276 Joseph Browning,“Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017), 171-192. 277 Henry David Thoreau, Walden or Life in the Woods (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 94. 96 villagers to his teachings. The ideal sound of the shakuhachi is that of the wind blowing over the bamboo grove, yet the most idyllic piece of music is that of the temple bell. This emphasizes the way in which Zen Buddhism regards nature as a collaborative force. Musical instruments, particularly bells are considered to act as a collaboration with man and the natural world.

The sound of a bronze bell of a Japanese temple is neither melody nor harmony. Nor does the bell produce a rhythm, although it is occasionally rung several times in succession. The sound consists simply of the attack and the echo, which can be considered a unit. Japanese people enjoy such sounds. They also love to listen to the of insects and birds and the rustling of leaves, which (like the bell) have no melody, harmony, or rhythm: that is, they listen to the sound itself. This indicates a distinct taste: the Japanese first enjoy the unique timbre of a single sound and then enjoy ma, the "space" created after it.278

“Kyorei” is unusual in its structure, constructed by five short melodic patterns and repetitions of them, which also aids in the feel of an echoing bell. The most striking motif of this piece is the echo, as shown in Figure 17. The wave-like symbol illuminated in pink is called nayashi, which is a tone-bending ornamentation, in this case from a C to a D, which is created without moving the fingers, but by changing the air pressure through blowing angle or embouchure and by bending the head. The other ornamentation illuminated in yellow involves turning the head partially away from the flute, in this case five times, thus bending the pitch slightly and lowering the volume when the head moves away.

278 Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea “Philosophy and Aesthetics, by Shimosako Mari, p.551. 97

Figure 17. Kyorei in Japanese notation with echo ornamentation illuminated.

For example, one possible interpretation in staff notation of this nayashi (Figure 18) could be represented as Figure 19, depending on individual interpretation duration, as well as school of playing, which influences how the symbol is interpreted. 98

Figure 18. Nayashi in “Kyorei” Figure 19. Nayashi in “Kyorei” represented in staff notation

The shakuhachi is a tool in which one can interact with nature. Previously, the shakuhachi was viewed as greater than music in its classification as a spiritual tool, much like how the Call to Prayer is not considered music. This classification put the natural world, from which the shakuhachi is made, and its divine use above music. Yet, it draws a connection between the human and the divine; played and created by a human but made from natural material and used for divine purposes. Thus, it creates a connection between something greater than oneself (be it nature, the world in general, or the divine) and music. The shakuhachi can and should be viewed as a collaboration with the natural world, much like bells. This affects the shakuhachi’s role in ecomusicology- its previous classification as spiritual tool enunciates its inherent value in the past. Created from nature itself, made even in modern form from natural materials, the shakuhachi belongs to both the natural world and the anthropocentric human world. In this sense, the shakuhachi, in its mimicking and echoing of the natural, is a voice for nature, bringing people’s awareness to their surroundings.

Directions for Further Research

Further research would be to create similar surveys that includes participants of more diverse race, ethnicity, and home country to assess the value they place upon sounds. The goal would be to determine if their value system coincides with what I observed with undergraduate culture at Kent State University. The study leads to more questions about values. Who is instilling these values in the students? If this study was repeated among the surrounding community or on a larger scale, would it yield the same results? Is the students’ understanding 99 of music a result of American socialization or is it directly taught in school? Comments from the students regarding their decision-making process suggest that their definition of music is a result of socialization and cultural values. So, how can music educators and ecomusicologists influence this value system to lead to greater appreciation of our natural environment?

The placement of humans at the top of this hierarchy and the organization from cognitive to absence of cognition suggests just how anthropocentric and logic driven these students, and by extrapolation Americans, may be. I speculate that a society, like Japan, which places a greater value on nature and natural sounds, might have a different hierarchy or lack thereof. However, in order for a study like this to make any claims or comparative assertions, especially taking into account intersectional identities, it would need to be repeated on a much larger scale in both the U.S. and Japan.

Denise Von Glahn writes about how American women are viewed in relation to nature, what subjects women composers have written about and why.279 She found that most people connected their relationship with nature to something more spiritual or philosophical.280 Further directions could be to interview American male composers who value nature to counter her focus on the feminine perspective. An excellent place to start would be with the creators and the participants of the program Composers in the Wilderness, an American-based program that takes place every year in Alaska that exposes composers from all over the world to the natural landscape of wilderness as inspiration for compositions.

Now in its seventh year, this unusual field course is offered by the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival in collaboration with Alaska Geographic and the National Park Service. It is led by adventurer-composer Stephen Lias. Working with experienced guides, naturalists, and scientists, we take experienced composers into the backcountry of Alaska's wilderness and provide them with an intense and immersive adventure. With this as their inspiration, the composers then have the opportunity to compose original

279 Denise Von Glahn, Music and the Skillful Listener: American Women Compose the Natural World (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2013). 280 Ibid. 100

that is premiered by top-notch contemporary music performers on staff at the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival.281

For the purposes of cross-cultural research, it would be beneficial to interview composers from all genders and varying and cultures to help understand various perspectives of music and nature, and not just those who compose Western art music, but folk and popular as well.

As the shakuhachi tradition proliferates outside of its traditional context and culture with rising participation of females, more research could be done into their differences in playing style, to see if an accepted tradition of the femme shakuhachi arises, as has occurred with shamisen. Future examination could be done to understand how the instrument is being used for natural causes and awareness, be that in traditional or New Age contexts. Both contexts seem to aid, at the very least, in appreciation of the natural world through slowing the pace of the listeners with the breath and standard playing style of the instrument.

In my next project, I am planning a trip to Germany to research the shakuhachi diaspora and the ways in which the instrument brings players of all genders closer with the world around them. After attending The World Shakuhachi Festival, held August of 2018 in London by the

European Shakuhachi Society, I discovered a majority of shakuhachi students came from

Germany. Researchers at the festival agreed that within Europe, the shakuhachi is most popular in Germany. Germany is a popular intersection of many world musics, due to their changing boarders, introduction of guest workers in the 1950s, Syrian refugees in 2015, and the avoidance of their own folk music traditions as a result of WWII musical propaganda. It is possible that the shakuhachi functions as a means of social harmony, and perhaps ecomusical harmony, in Germany’s turbulent multicultural history. Publications on the topic of shakuhachi

281 "Composing in the Wilderness," Composinginthewilderness.com (Accessed December 10, 2018). 101 diaspora include Henry Johnson’s book The Shakuhachi: Roots and Routes, Robert A. Jonas’s work on the shakuhachi in Northern Ireland, and Robert Sallustio’s article in The European

Shakuhachi Society Journal on European ‘Identities.’282 Yet, more research should be done as the shakuhachi diaspora spreads and more women get involved.

Ideas about nature pervade understanding of this instrument’s construction, performance contexts and sound, and these take on new significance in the hands of shakuhachi players in Europe, North America and Australia…Musicians incorporate environmental sounds into recordings of traditional shakuhachi pieces, compose new music mimetic of American landscapes and animals, and redesign instruments for a more “natural” sound.283

As the world changes with time, there is constant need for on-going research into the ways in which music is shaping of views of the natural world, and the ways in which music is being used for environmental awareness and conservation efforts. Further research within individual cultures can be conducted into how music can shape public opinion of the natural world and how can this ever-evolving public opinion shapes the legislation of the future for the better.

Conclusion: The Shakuhachi as a Voice for ‘Mother Nature’

The shakuhachi is an ideal advocate for ‘Mother Nature’ - for both environment and feminism or ecofeminism, not only because it is a spiritual tool that we use to meditate, but because of its literal roots with the environment. The shakuhachi utilizes silence or “ma.” It utilizes the same silence that Rachel Carson speaks of in Silent Spring- the silence of death.

“Ma” is a feeling of tension in your gut between notes; it is the feeling of the unknown, the feeling of possible death. In this tension is where the shakuhachi grabs your attention- the

282 Robert A. Jonas, Blowing Zen in Belfast: The Way of Peace, Northern Ireland (2006). online reprint, http://www.emptybell.org/articles/blowing-zen-in-belfast.html (accessed December, 2018). 283 Joseph Browning,“Mimesis Stories: Composing New Nature Music for the Shakuhachi,” Ethnomusicology Forum 26, no.2 (2017), 171-192. 102 longer the silence, the greater the tension, the greater the chance of death. The silence of the shakuhachi, the silence of “ma” forces you to listen and connect with the natural world. It forces you to bring silence within your own body and mind. It forces you to contemplate death. The shakuhachi ‘s ability to mimic the natural world-creating pitched and unpitched sounds, bending pitches, subtle variations, ornamentative techniques such as koro koro, along with its absence of meter, allows us to listen to the natural world between silences. The melancholy solo shakuhachi- with its minor pentatonic scales, seems to say, “Look at me. LISTEN to me. I am the natural world. And I am dying.”

The shakuhachi draws public attention when women play because of its position and history as a male dominated, phallic instrument. It becomes a sensationalized performance, drawing attention for often sexual reasons due to its shape. Connections are made between feminism and the environment because of the idea of male domination- because women and the environment are viewed as the victim. But if women use the shakuhachi to refuse to be the victim and to advocate for themselves and for the environment, they can use the attention they draw from sensationalism and redirect it, forcing people to listen to their sound and to their silence, and change the image and connotations of “Mother Nature” to that of balanced strength.

Therefore, I, as a female shakuhachi player and a Westerner, drawing even greater attention as an outsider interested in the identity of Japan, am in an ideal position to advocate for feminism and for the environment in both Japan and the West. Holding the strong, raw, earthly, club-like instrument in my hand, I show my strength in my opposition. I control when I am silent. And I demand you to listen.

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APPENDIX A SURVEY AND CONSENT FORM

Musical Understandings : Undergraduate Perceptions of Human and Non-human Music.

Q1 Gender  Male (1)  Female (2)  Other (3)

Q3 Age

Q2 Class rank  Freshman (1)  Sophomore (2)  Junior (3)  Senior (4)

Q4 Home Country  United States (1)  Other (Please list) (2) ______

Q5 Ethnicity  European/white (1)  African/ Black (2)  Native American (3)  Hispanic (4)  Asian (5)  Other (please list) (6) ______

Q7 Please select one  Music Major/Minor (1)  Non-Music Major (2)

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Q8 Check each type of formal music training you have participated in and list the number of years. ❑ Lessons (1) ______❑ //Ensemble (2) ______❑ Scholastic (Theory/History) (3) ______❑ Other (please explain) (4) ______

Q9 Check each type of informal music experience you have and list the number of years. ❑ Church/Community Choir or Ensemble (1) ______❑ Self-taught instrument or voice (2) ______❑ Other (please explain) (3) ______

Q11 Please listen to each sound clip and rate whether you agree or disagree with the statement "This is music." Then rate your preference for each clip on a scale from "Strongly Like" to "Strongly Dislike."

This is Music Rate Your Preference Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly Strongly Like Like Dislike Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Neutral Dislike Disagree Disagree Agree 5 Agree 7 Like 1 2 Somewhat Somewhat Dislike 2 (2) 4 (4) 6 (6) 4 (4) 6 (6) 1 (1) 3 (3) (5) (7) (1) (2) 3 (3) 5 (5) 7 (7) Example               1 (1) Example               2 (2) Example               3 (3) Example               4 (4) Example               5 (5) Example               6 (6) Example               7 (7) Example               8 (8) Example               9 (9) Example               10 (10) Q13 Explain your reasons for your rating responses.

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Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Study

Study Title: Musical Understandings: Undergraduate Perceptions of Human and Non-Human Music

Principal Investigator: Craig Resta Co-Investigator: Lydia Snyder

You are being invited to participate in a research study. This consent form will provide you with information on the research project, what you will need to do, and the associated risks and benefits of the research. Your participation is voluntary and should take 15-20 minutes to complete. Please read this form carefully. It is important that you ask questions and fully understand the research in order to make an informed decision. You will receive a copy of this document to take with you.

Purpose: This research will address the question ‘How do undergraduate students at Kent State University draw conclusions on what is human and non-human music?’

Procedures You will be asked to fill out a survey. No identifying data will be collected. Questions include demographic information, such as gender, age, race, etc. and quantitative thematic information. You will be asked to listen to a sound recording and rate whether you agree or disagree with the statement "This is music." You will also be asked to rate your preference for each clip on a scale from "Strongly Like" to "Strongly Dislike."

Benefits This research will not benefit you directly. However, your participation in this study will help us to better understand how individuals differentiate sounds.

Risks and Discomforts There are no anticipated risks beyond those encountered in everyday life.

Privacy and Confidentiality No identifying information will be collected. Your signed consent form will be kept separate from your study data, and responses will not be linked to you.

Compensation No compensation

Voluntary Participation Taking part in this research study is entirely up to you. You may choose not to participate or you may discontinue your participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You will be informed of any new, relevant information that may 106 affect your health, welfare, or willingness to continue your study participation. Participation will not affect your course grade.

Contact Information If you have any questions or concerns about this research, you may contact Lydia Snyder at (814)-404-9211 or Craig Resta at (330) - 672 – 4803. This project has been approved by the Kent State University Institutional Review Board. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant or complaints about the research, you may call the IRB at 330.672.2704.

Consent Statement and Signature My completion and return of this survey will be indicative of my consent to participate in this research study. I understand that I may may print a copy of this consent statement for future reference.

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APPENDIX B

COMMENTS FROM SURVEY

(comments are unedited)

Explain your reasons for your rating responses. I rated sounds as music because that is what we use in music. We try to create different sounds all the time. Also I love nature and see it as God's music or composition of life. I think the rhythm of the sounds makes a difference on whether or not it is music & how pleasant or not it is to listen to I think that sounds made in nature aren't specifically music, but I like the way it sounds more. Some of the samples played aren't music but rather classified as noise to my understanding. Such as the drilling or the traffic. Even the whale mating calls aren't music to me. However, things such as birds chirping or natural calmer sounds appeal to me as music because I'm used to hearing those as a "nature category" of music. Looking back, it doesn't make sense that birds chirping would be considered music but whale mating call isn't to me. But that piano playing randomly, that was terrible, outright screeching and clanging to my ears that had no sort of rhythm, it just angered me because there was no pattern. The sounds were drastic and haphazard, like a you let a toddler smack some keys on the piano and then let it crawl on top of the keys. Sample 7 I enjoyed simply because it sounded so much better than the last two crazy and noisy samples, it gave me back some calmness, even though I'd never normally listen to it. I think on their own, the more ambient sounds that just occur on earth like the traffic or birds chirping aren't music, but if they were put in the context of a song they can be used to add value. Like the traffic kind of gives a sense of urgency. I rated them based on what I felt was most similar to organized sounds for the purpose of listening or sounds that are commonly defined as music. My own definition of music is something purposefully made to have a positive auditory significance to either the "musician" or the "audience". I don't believe that "music" is so cut and dry as books make it seem. "Music" really depends on the listener and their own dislikes, likes, and experiences. i don't consider most things that are just everyday noises in nature music Some of them were either just animals communicating or random noises from everyday life, which I don't think is music. Music is organized sound so I rated each one on that basis

Based on instrumentation for the most part. I also feel that nature can be musical

It's all about the intent of the maker of the sound.

That's how I feel

Music has rhythm and beat. Some were just sounds with no pattern. Some of them could be used for music but a couple of them are animals ways of communication or just a sound effect 108

Some of the examples sound like traditional music and some of them just sound like you hear everyday. I simply based it off what I considered music and if I liked the sound of it or not.

Although it may not be considered music to our ears, it is considered music to someone else's The Bird noises, the waterfall and the construction noise are not music in my opinion, just noise. Example 1 and 7 are definitely music because they both have a specific melody. Examples 3, 5 and 10 might be considered music. I ranked them based on if i thought it was music

If they sound like nature it is not music

Felt like the right thing to do at the time

The ones in which I disagreed sounded more like noise than music

There isca difference between sound and music. Music has intention, sound does not.

I think I put what music is to what sounded pleasing to my ears i personally feel that one person may think a sound is music while another person does not There are some that are obviously music while some are obviously not, however there are some that can be interpreted differently from person to person Most seemed more along the lines of "nature's music" which cannot be classified as music to us seeing as our definition of music does not include those sounds. Some were just annoying sounds. The ones that I did not like gave me a weird feeling whenever I first listened to them. Also the ones that I marked as not music either had no flow/pattern or they were sounds you hear normally on the street. For some of them they were not music but I enjoyed them. Some I was unsure of whether or not it was actually music so I stuck to the middle Most of examples were noises made by nature. Not particularly music.

The listenings that I did not consider music just seemed like noise

Based on my opinion a lot of these are everyday sounds but I believe that the nature sounds have a more musical side to them than the everyday sounds that humans make such as a jack hammer or random notes on a piano. I think music is what each person believes pleases them as an individual. Whether or not it was illustrated by a human because most of them were noises not music

All music is different unique and sounds different, who am I to say what is music versus what is not

Not my type of music so I don't either dislike or like how i felt 109

If the sound is appealing to me, I like it. If the sound is not appealing, I dislike it. I consider music anything that is written to be played, or natural nature sounds that serve a purpose to the community to which it is being performed. For the examples that I strongly agreed whether it was music or not, I felt that it had all the factors or what can be seen as a "song" or had the full ensemble or instruments that correspond with each other and create a melody. For the "somewhat agrees" I felt that although to me it is not a full on song, they are pleasing to the and can be used for relaxation purposes and can even be added with other sounds or even instruments in which all together can be seen as a song. The disagree categories I just felt were chaos and noise, but I find hardcore rock to have the same effect on me so I feel that even the examples I rated strongly disagree can too be added with other things that can maybe silence or die it out so it's not as harsh. In this class we learned that many cultures are influenced by nature and their surroundings when they make music, which is the way it's supposed to be. Music is in nature, not in traffic. all of the answers I gave 7s on for "This is Music" I did because they are done with traditional instrumentation and will mostly be read as music by any critic. 6s were given to examples that depend on the context they are heard in. If placed within a piece of art or context that the artist or consumer views as music then it is so; if the example is heard outside of that context it is not music. The ratings on personal preference were entirely subjective. The only dislike was the traffic because heavy traffic induces anxiety in me. The ones that sounded like just noise I did not consider music.

I believe music is intional language and mainly communicational. a lot of examples had musical sounds that were more musical than others, but some were not pleaseant so I didn't find them very musical Everything has its own rhythm and beat and could be added to any song or turned into any song so what I see is potential music and songs. Half of the sounds were not music, but rather noises. Although it was not music, the nature sounds were mostly pleasant and the manmade sounds were not very pleasant, N/A

I really like nature. The ones with instruments seemed more like music to me and sounded more pleasant than the other ones. if it was produced by a living thing to communicate in some way I agreed if i liked it or not was preference The ones with instruments i considered music bc the other ones were just nature, tools, or a car which yes they make noise but they are not making music. They are just everyday sounds and have no purpose I disagreed and disliked if it was more of a noise/chaos than organized sounds. I agreed and liked it if it was what is conventionally called music Rhythm and more structure makes me like it more and think it is more like music. Some sounds were not music, however I liked listening to some of them such as water and the animal noises at the end. Some of them were beautiful tones with real musical instruments and I strongly liked those! I can still enjoy sounds that I do not deem music. I can also dislike sounds that are deemed music

Some were sounds of nature which are natural sounds, not specifically human-made music.

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REFERENCES

Allen, Aaron S. “Ecomusicology.” In The Grove Dictionary of American Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.

_____. “Ecomusicology: Bridging the Sciences, Arts, and Humanities.” In Environmental Leadership: A Reference Handbook, edited by Deborah Rigling Gallagher, 373-381. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2012.

_____. “Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature…and Change in Environmental Studies?” Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 2, no. 2 (2012): 192-201.

_____. “Fatto Di Fiemme’: Stradivari’s and the Musical Trees of the Paneveggio.” In Invaluable Trees: Cultures of Nature, 1660-1830, edited by Laura Auricchio, Elizabeth Heckendorn Cook, and Giulia Pacini, 301-315. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2012.

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