© 2013 Molly Vollman Makris ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WHEN “OPPORTUNITY” MOVES TO YOU: HOW LIVING IN A GENTRIFIED COMMUNITY AFFECTS THE EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENT OF YOUTH IN PUBLIC HOUSING by MOLLY VOLLMAN MAKRIS A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Institute of Technology, and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Joint Graduate Program in Urban Systems written under the direction of Alan Sadovnik, Chair and approved by _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Newark, New Jersey May, 2013 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION When “Opportunity” Moves to You: How Living in a Gentrified Community Affects the Education and Environment of Youth in Public Housing By MOLLY VOLLMAN MAKRIS Dissertation Director: Alan Sadovnik The Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing program gave families with children in urban public housing projects the chance to move from high-poverty neighborhoods to low-poverty neighborhoods in the hope that the move would improve their quality of life, health, and education. In Hoboken, New Jersey, public housing residents did not have to move to opportunity; instead, opportunity moved to them. This dissertation tells of young people living in public housing in a gentrified community where they are part of a racial and socioeconomic minority. Through qualitative analysis, including ethnography, youth participatory research, interviews, a focus group, and analysis of archival sources, the researcher investigated educational and environmental experiences of these young people. Using these methods and applying theories of neoliberalism, social and cultural capital, and political economy of place, the study examines the following: demographic, environmental, and educational characteristics of Hoboken; ii demographics of the Hoboken district-run public schools and whether or not they reflect those of the community; who attends which district-run public schools, and why; who applies to charter schools, who does not, and why; how school choice has influenced the education of youth in public housing; what environmental advantages and disadvantages are offered to youth who live in public housing in gentrified Hoboken; how youth in public housing relate to their gentrified community; and the implications of these findings for housing policy and education policy. The findings show that, while these young people experience environmental advantages related to living in a gentrified community, they still predominantly attend segregated schools. In an era when public housing is being demolished to be replaced by mixed-income development and school choice policies are proliferating, these findings have implications for both education and public housing policy. No previous study has analyzed how gentrification may influence youth in low- income public housing, who can remain in their community to reap possible advantages. This is also the only study of the education of youth in public housing in a gentrified community. iii Dedication I dedicate this to my adorable and amusing research assistant, Eileen Penelope Makris; I love you from here to the moon and back. iv Acknowledgments First and foremost, I thank all of the participants who willingly gave their time, even opened their homes to me, and shared their experiences and opinions on what can be a very personal subject. It is my hope that in some way the children, even the entire community, of Hoboken will benefit from this research. None of this would have been possible without the loving support of my husband, Jeff Makris, who works tirelessly every day to ensure that the children with whom he works in New York City have the same college opportunities that middle-class children have. He never questioned my desire to attend graduate school full time, the evenings I spent in class and doing fieldwork, or the weekends and nights I spent writing. I know he, more than anyone else, will be overjoyed to see this completed work. Thanks also go to my parents, Jack and Ellen Vollman, who, along with their unconditional love and friendship, instilled in me the drive to work hard at everything I do. Throughout my life they have been examples of hard work for the good of others. They also provided me with the kinds of educational opportunities to which I wish all children had access. My dad has been an uncomplaining editor for me for years (if at times he was appalled by my spelling—a result of that great progressive education). My mom has been excited about this research since the day I told her about it and delighted to talk to me endlessly about my findings and my theories. I offer thanks to my brother, Sean, and my sister, Tara, who I have always, and will always, admire. My nephews and nieces have made my life more joyful and full. I also owe thanks to my brother-in-law, the late Greg Makris; having completed his own dissertation in clinical psychology, he v always gave me words of support and encouragement and took a genuine interest in the work that I do. We miss you. I am thankful to my entire committee, who have always treated me with respect and kindness and never questioned my desire to take on such a large topic (while 9 months pregnant). My advisor, Alan Sadovnik, supported me and encouraged me from the first day that he met me. It is my hope that this work makes him proud. I am thankful for the time that Karen Franck spent with me in clarifying my research ideas and improving my organization—her passion for student empirical research rubbed off on me and became my passion. Carolyne White has been a role model, professor, and travel companion. She pushed me to question my beliefs and biases, thereby greatly improving this work; her fervor is an inspiration. Jeff Backstrand’s courses introduced me to the topics that became my dissertation subject matter, and his good-natured and helpful thoughts on this process kept me going. I have learned so much from my colleagues in the Urban Systems Department; they made these years a great deal of fun and they deserve my gratitude. In particular, the friendship, intellect, and humor of Te-Sheng Huang, Dorothy Knauer, Sandy Lizaire- Duff, Fathia Elmenghawi, and Cara Kronen sustained me. Thanks to all of my friends outside of the university who never questioned that I would and could complete this work. A special thank you goes to Darby Vinciguerra, who maintained my wardrobe and my spirit throughout graduate school. Also, my Hoboken “mom friends” have supported me as I found my footing in a job far more challenging than completing a dissertation. vi At the Center where I conducted observations and research, one young boy always asked me, “How’s the book?” It is my sincere hope that he and his peers will be afforded the educational background, resources, and opportunities to write dissertations or books someday, or to do whatever it is that they dream of doing. vii Table of Contents Title ...................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments................................................................................................................v List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xiv List of Photographs .......................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Problem Statement .........................................................................................................1 Research Questions ........................................................................................................5 Significance of the Research ..........................................................................................5 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ...............................................10 Public Housing Background ........................................................................................10 Gentrification ...............................................................................................................23 Neoliberalism ...............................................................................................................31 Neoliberal School Choice ............................................................................................34 Capital ..........................................................................................................................38 Social Capital .........................................................................................................38 Cultural Capital ......................................................................................................41 Political Economy of Place ..........................................................................................43