Socio-Cultural Beliefs and Women Leadership A Case of Sanyati District By Mwale Christine (B1336973)
Bindura University of Science Education
A Research submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of Peace and Governance In partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Peace and Governance
Supervisor: Dr O. Dodo
2017 RELEASE FORM
RESEARCH TITLE: Socio-cultural Beliefs and Women Leadership. A case of Sanyati District.
DEGREE: Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Peace and Governance (HBSc PG)
YEAR DEGREE GRANTED: 2017
The author hereby grants permission to Bindura University library to produce copies of the research inorder to lend for scientific scholarly research only. The biographer also reserves other publication rights on extensive extracts. The author further agrees that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by her and the dean of social sciences and humanities. It is also understood by the author that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without the permission of the author.
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PERMANENT ADDRESS: Sanyati Baptist High School
P. Bag 2147
Sanyati
: +263 778 263 278
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APPROVAL FORM
The undersigned certify that they read and henceforth recommend to Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance, a Research entitled Socio- cultural Beliefs and Women Leadership, A case of Sanyati District, submitted by Mwale Christine in partial fulfilment of HBSc Peace and Governance degree.
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DECLARATION FORM
I, Mwale Christine declare that the research project herein is my own work that has not been copied or uplifted from any source without full acknowledgement of the source.
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ABSTRACT
Women have been under-represented in key leadership positions due to socio-cultural beliefs greatly embedded in the Zimbabwean society. This research focused on Sanyati District ward 10, 11 and 18 seeking to explore to what extent these socio-cultural beliefs influenced women leadership. Qualitative research paradigm was used with the aid of questionnaires and in- depth interviews to collect data from a sample size of twenty seven participants. Exploratory research design was used as well as latent content analysis as to understand to what extent socio-cultural beliefs influenced women leadership. The research applied the Role Congruity theory of Prejudice towards women leadership which state that stereotypic beliefs about members of a particular social group are viewed as being incongruent with a social role leading to negative attitudes towards female leaders and making it easier for men to become leaders and to be successful. The research revealed that socio-cultural beliefs greatly affected women leadership. These beliefs included resistance from traditional leaders and the community at large that women can lead due to their physical make-up and conservatism of the patriarchal culture in the society. The implication of low participation of women in decision-making bodies of this District leads to under-development as women’s needs and those of those underprivileged are not addressed.
KEY WORDS: Socio-cultural beliefs, Women, Leadership, Participation, Gender Roles
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DEDICATION
To my aunt Rosaria Mwale, you are an inspiring lady and always wanted me to be where I am today. I love you aunt.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All glory and honour goes to the Almighty for the successful compilation of this work. I owe my gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr Dodo for his patience and guidance throughout this research project.
I would also want to thank my parents Mr and Mrs Mwale for their financial, social and moral support throughout this research, my siblings Gabriel and Tendai you always checked on my progress and the entire Mwale family. I also want to extend my gratitude to my fiancée Alexander Guveya for having confidence in me even when I doubted myself and to my friends Ruerue, Berna, Doris and my roommate Angeline Gwaziwa and not forgetting my classmates, I love u guys.
My tribute also goes to traditional leaders and elders in Sanyati District for the information you provided and to Sanyati District Council for the approval to carry out this research and all those that contributed to the compilation of this research.
God bless you all!!
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ACRONYMS
B.P.F.A Beijing Platform for Action
C.E.D.A.W United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination.
C.E.O Chief Executive Officer
C.E.R.D Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination
N.D.I.I.A National Democratic Institute for International Affairs
S.A.D.C Southern Africa Development Committee
U.N.D.P United Nations Development Programme
WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene
S.R.D.C Sanyati Rural District Council
WARDCO Ward Development Committee
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
RELEASE FORM ...... i APPROVAL FORM ...... ii DECLARATION FORM ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv DEDICATION...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... vi ACRONYMS ...... vii CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...... 3 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ...... 3 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 3 1.5 STUDY ASSUMPTIONS ...... 3 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 4 1.6.1 RURAL DISTRICTS ...... 4 1.6.2 POLICY MAKERS ...... 4 1.6.3 SCHOLARS ...... 4 1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY ...... 4 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 4 1.9 DEFINATION OF TERMS ...... 5 1.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 5 1.11 CHAPTER OUTLINE ...... 5 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 7 2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 7 2.2 ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETY ...... 8 2.3 CULTURES IN SANYATI ...... 10 2.4 LEADERSHIP IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES...... 11 2.4.1 TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP IN SHONA SOCIETIES ...... 12
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2.5 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY MODERN SOCIETIES ...... 13 2.5.1 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY YOUTHS ...... 14 2.5.2 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY MEN ...... 15 2.6 WOMEN LEADERSHIP AND THEIR CHALLENGES ...... 15 2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 16 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 18 3.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 18 3.1 AREA UNDER STUDY ...... 18 3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM ...... 18 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 19 3.4 TARGET POPULATION ...... 19 3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES ...... 19 3.6 SAMPLE ...... 20 3.6.1 SAMPLE SIZE ...... 20 3.7 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ...... 21 3.7.1 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS ...... 21 3.7.2 QUESTIONNAIRES ...... 21 3.8 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ...... 22 3.9 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 22 3.10 ETHICAL ISSUES ...... 22 3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 23 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 24 4.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 24 4.1 DEMOGRAPHICS OF PARTICIPANTS ...... 24 4.2 PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ...... 25 4.2.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL BELIEFS OF PEOPLE IN SANYATI DISTRICT ...... 25 4.2.2 ROLES OF WOMEN IN SANYATI DISTRICT ...... 28 4.2.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIETY ON FEMALE LEADERS 30 4.2.4 CULTURAL BARRIERS FACED BY WOMEN LEADERS ...... 32 4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 35 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 36 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 36 5.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 36
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5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ...... 36 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 39 5.3 AREA FOR FURTHER STUDY ...... 40 5.4 CONCLUSION ...... 40 APPENDIX II ...... 48 APPENDIX III ...... 49 APPENDIX IV ...... 50 APPENDIX V ...... 51
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Women have been labelled as the weaker sex and this has affected all their spheres of life including leadership. The major reason behind this research is the assumption that socio- cultural beliefs are a major hindrance to women participation in key leadership positions. This chapter will start off by outlining the background to the study and will highlight the statement of the problem, these are reasons that triggered this research. Research objectives are also outlined in this research as well as research questions and significance of the study. The chapter will also look at the study assumptions, definition of terms and summary of the whole chapter as well as the chapter outline.
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Sanyati District is in Mashonaland West province in Zimbabwe and holds a population of 113 220, of this population 57 333(50.6%) are females and 55 887 (49, 4%) are males (S.R.D.C WASH Strategic Plan, 2014). This location is about 100km Northwest of Kadoma city were the District headquarters are located. Sanyati is also located on the East bank of Sanyati River, about 60km northwest of the town of Gokwe, the coordinates of Sanyati are: 17° 57' 0.00"S, 29° 18' 27.00"E (Latitude: 17.9500; Longitude: 29.3075) (Sanyati Rural District WASH Strategic Plan, 2014). The District’s area of jurisdiction is divided into 18 wards and each ward is represented by a councillor elected constitutionally at the ward level election (Chigwata, 2014). This area covers large and small scale farms, re-settlement and peri-urban land. This land according to the nature of title of ownership and the nature of operation proceeding on it is made liable to council levies and taxes which are financial instruments for the council’s operation (Chigwata, 2014).
Zimbabwean government since 1980 and civil societies are fighting for gender, despite all these efforts Sanyati District have not yet made significant progress in terms of gender equality and women’s advancement in leadership positions. Women are still under- represented in both management and administrative positions in Sanyati District. Socio- cultural beliefs have proved to be the major barrier of women to participate in leadership
1 positions. The stereotypical beliefs found within the Karanga speaking people within the District have proved to be an obstacle in women’s participation in leadership positions. According to Chabaya et al, (2010) the influence of gender was found to manifest in form of lack of confidence, low self –esteem women perception that their role in the family overrides all other roles outside the family such as work. This has proved to be an obstacle for women to participate in key leadership positions.
Sanyati District on the other hand has not yet made strides in trying to include women in leadership positions due to these socio-cultural beliefs embedded in this community. The research however tries to examine to what extent these socially constructed beliefs are influencing low participation of women in leadership positions. The research would also want to unpack other key drivers to low participation of women in leadership positions. This is due to the fact that participation of women through gender equality has become a prominent issue at the global, national as well as the District level. This is supported by N.D.I.I.A, (2010) which argues that the participation of women in politics has emerged to be a critical issue around the world as it has been observed that women are heavily marginalised and excluded from the political sphere of the world yet they constitute over 50% of the world population.
Zimbabwe and most African countries have signed and ratified conventions that have to do with participation of women but socio-cultural beliefs continue to act as a barrier to women in accessing leadership positions. These Conventions include the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Beijing Platform for Action of 1995 (B.P.F.A), the SADC Protocol on Gender Development, 2013-2017 National Gender Policy and the Zimbabwean Constitution of 2013. These conventions are also in line with the Sustainable Development Goal number 3 which aims to promote gender equality and empower women. The SADC Protocol on Gender and Development Article 12 also stipulates that state parties shall endeavour that by 2015 at least fifty percent of decision making positions in the public and private should be occupied by women (SADC Gender Monitor, 2013).
From the above angle the research will focus more on the leadership experiences of women leaders and how they are being affected by socio-cultural beliefs in Sanyati District. It will drop some light also on the roles of women within this District, the socio-cultural beliefs of the people in this District as well as the different perceptions of women leaders.
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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The major problem informing this research is the under-representation of women in key leadership positions in the society although they make up the majority of the population in the District. The research discovered that culture is one of the major barriers to women leadership. The stereo-types attached to women as child bearers and caregivers for the sick and the elderly is also a hindrance for women to participate as leaders. Men view women as incapable to be leaders and therefore women at the end feel inferior and lack the zeal to participate in leadership.
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. To establish socio-cultural beliefs of the people in Sanyati District.
2. To establish the roles of women in Sanyati District.
3. To explore socio-cultural perceptions of society on female leaders.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are socio-cultural beliefs of the people in Sanyati District?
2. What are the roles of women in Sanyati District?
3. How does society perceive women leaders culturally?
What are the cultural barriers faced by women in accessing leadership positions in Sanyati District?
1.5 STUDY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Socio-cultural beliefs have affected women in key leadership positions.
2. Rural Districts have not fully embraced gender equality and development.
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1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.6.1 RURAL DISTRICTS
This presentation would remind Rural Districts to be gender sensitive in leadership appointments. The study will assist women to be recognised in Rural District leadership. It will be used to benefit in policy formulation and help other Rural District to appoint women in leadership positions. The purpose of this study is to be used for learning purposes. The importance of this study is to try and establish the probability of Rural Districts to fight discrimination against women leadership.
1.6.2 POLICY MAKERS
It is hoped that the findings of this research will assist leaders and residents in making informed decisions to deal with discrimination of women. Usually women make up the majority in population but they are not considered when it comes to opportunities to occupation of key leadership positions.
1.6.3 SCHOLARS
It is hoped that the research would form a basis for further research by other scholars on socio-cultural beliefs on women leadership in Rural Districts. The study would also be used by the University to improve literature in the library.
1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The research focused on analysing socio-cultural beliefs on women leadership in Sanyati District. The District is located 100km from Kadoma and boarders with Gokwe on the northwest side and is in Mashonaland West. The three wards involved in this research include ward 10, 11 and 18 and they stretch from Nyimo Business Centre to Sanyati Growthpoint.
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
(i) Resource constrain was a major limitation in carrying out this research and had to look for donor funding to curb this limitation.
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(ii) Some participants did not provide enough information as they assumed that the research was politically connected.
1.9 DEFINATION OF TERMS
Socio-cultural beliefs - these are ideologies or opinions relating to customs, arts, lifestyles, backgrounds and habits that are shared across a group of people.
Women - a group of female adults
Leadership - is a procedure of shared inspiration which maximises the efforts of others towards the accomplishment of a goal.
Participation – the art of taking part or association with others with specified rights and obligations.
Gender roles - set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviours which are generally considered appropriate, desirable or acceptable based on people’s actual or perceived sex or sexuality.
1.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The chapter outlined the introduction and the background of the study including the statement of the problem. The chapter also detailed the research objectives and research questions which were used in this research. The chapter also outlined the importance of the study, definition of key terms, the delimitations, limitation and assumptions of the study were also highlighted. This chapter ends with a summary leading to chapter two which focused on literature review related to socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership.
1.11 CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter One outlines the introduction and the background of the study, the statement of the problem, significance of study, study assumptions, research objectives, research questions, delimitations of the study, limitations of the study and definition of key terms.
Chapter Two presents the literature review as well as the theoretical framework sustaining this research.
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Chapter Three outlines the research design and methodology that was used in the study. It also includes the sampling process, the data collection procedure, ethical considerations and data analysis process that was used in this research.
Chapter Four outline the data presentation and analysis of the findings on socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District.
Chapter Five presents the summary, recommendations, area for further research and ends with a conclusion of the whole research.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers some studies which were carried by other researchers in line with the Zimbabwean society’s culture, leadership in African societies and Shona societies, perceptions of women leadership by modern societies, youths, men and women leadership and their challenges. The literature review will help to identify gaps left by previous researches and new dimensions that have emerged within the study and bring out the culture of Sanyati District and how socio-cultural beliefs embedded there can be generalised to other Districts and to note differences and similarities to these previous studies.
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This research is informed by the Role Congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders propounded by Eagly and Karau, (2000). The theory posits that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to two forms of prejudices. These include perceiving women less favourably than men and assuming men to be better occupants of leadership roles. The other prejudice include assessing behaviour that fits the prescriptions of a leader role less favourably when it is undertaken by a woman (Eagly and Karau, 2000).
The theory postulates bias as emerging when stereotypic beliefs about members of a particular social group are perceived as unequal or mismatching with a social role (Eagly, 2000). The gender stereo-types attached to this is that women take care whilst men take charge. This supports why traditionally the society supports positions of power and influence to be occupied by men and women occupying positions of lower status within the society (Horyt and Burnette, 2013). One of the consequences attached to these stereotypical beliefs is that attitudes are negative towards females than their male counterparts. The other consequence of these gender stereotypes is that it is less difficult for men to become leaders and to be successful in leadership positions as compared to women.
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2.2 ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETY
Globally, in spite of positive gains made by a few individual women into influential leadership positions, the majority of women continue to face barriers to acquiring leadership roles both socially and economically with a special mention to Guinea, India, Tanzania, Pakistan and Zimbabwe. According to Mwandayi, (2011) the Zimbabwean society is made up of the Ndau, Ndebele, Manyika, Korekore and Zezuru people who all ascribe to patriarchal culture which believes in supremacy of men over women despite some difference in cultural norms and values.
The Karanga encompass nearly 30 percent of the total Shona population in contemporary Zimbabwe, residing in an area between Gweru in the North-west, Chiredzi in the South-east, Bikita in the North-east and West Nicholson in the South-west, North and Northwest of the modern day Mutare city lies the Manyika territory, North and North-west of the Plateau resides the Korekore people and around the head of the Mazoe Valley resides people who were referred to as Zezuru and the raiding Gaza Nguni of the mid-19th Century used Ndau as a derogatory nickname to the peoples of the Eastern frontier and the Ndebele occupy Matabeleland (Mwandayi, 2011). However, in present-day Zimbabwe all these different groups are referred to as ‘VaShona’. The term Shona is being used as a blanket term which infers that being Shona is tantamount to speaking the same language, experiencing a shared history and having similar cultural traditions (Mwandayi, 2011).
Zimbabwe is traditionally a patriarchal society and women have always been marginalized when it came to leadership and management. Mutambwa and Biri, (2013) argue that women have been bound or excluded by socio-cultural factors to development of the continent. This is supported by Kurebwa, (2016) as he attests that in Zimbabwe, rural women continue to be marginalised in socio-economic and political activities despite concerted efforts by the international community, central government and civil societies. Chitando, (2008) is in agreement with Kurebwa, (2016) as he alludes that throughout history, women have faced serious challenges, the history of women in Zimbabwe shows the several struggles that women have endured due to patriarchal ideologies and this has resulted in having women being left at the bottom of the heap.
Society should reflect critically on the silent and undeclared war between women and men and assess its negative attitude towards women. Women’s roles in society are more
8 traditional and they are found solely in submissive and supportive roles of family care-giving and household errands. This is supported by Vinkenburg, et al, (2011) as he says historically leadership has largely been construed in masculine terms. Ngcongo, (1993) in Zinyemba (2013) is in agreement with Vinkenburg as he says in African societies, it is believed that women follow whilst men lead. This is also demonstrated by Zinyemba, (2013) as he states that it is not uncommon in rural villages in Africa to find the man literally walking ahead of the woman, different reasons may be postulated for this but ultimately it shows the deeply held notion of leadership as masculine. This is also supported by Oxfam report, (2013) as it alludes that in the African context historical culture continue to play an important role, Zimbabwe is a patriarchal nation and henceforth men have always dominated in all spheres of life thereby excluding women. The myth that women need men by their side to excel is deeply embedded in many circles of life in Africa and is supported by cultural socialisation which encourages women to consult (Dube and Dziva, 2014).
The Shona people believe male members of the society to be stronger and women to be physically weaker and they have belief systems which protect these women (Tatira, 2013). Rutoro, (2012) takes on the debate arguing that women are socialised to be submissive, silent and confirmed to the domestic sphere. This is supported by Chirongooma, (2010) who attests that culturally a woman is expected to be self-hearted, well-mannered, enduring, fearful, hardworking, dependant, submissive and conservative.
Substantiating the same debate as above, Cheater (1986) in (Tatira 2013) argues that the major reason of elimination of women from direct control of the family and means of production lay in payment of lobola. This is also noted by Rutoro, (2012) as she argues in the same line but adds on to say that belief on male supremacy over females, polygamy as well as widowhood are the other factors that impede equal development of male and female into leadership in the Shona culture.
However, in-spite of these socially constructed norms and beliefs the Zimbabwean government is a part and has ratified several international gender convention and declarations. Among these Conventions and Declarations are the 1965 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) and the 1979 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (National Gender Policy, 2004). Nationally, there are many policies that are in place to advance gender equality and these include the 1999 Nziramasanga Commission, the National
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Gender Policy of 2004, the gender affirmative action policy of 1992 as well as the Constitution of Zimbabwe (Chirongooma, 2010).
2.3 CULTURES IN SANYATI
Sanyati is dominated by the Karanga speaking people and it is significant to note that the Karanga society is highly patriarchal. According to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, (2014) there are 2 chiefs in Sanyati which are all male, 1 male headman, 18 councillors of which 14 are male and 4 are female which is 77,8% to 22,2% respectively. Traditional leaders are important in their areas of jurisdiction. The boundaries of jurisdictions of chiefs are a contested area as the traditional leaders seek to expand their geographical area of influence (Chigwata, 2014). There are also 5 male prosecutors and 3 male magistrates. According to Dodo, (2013) it is also important to realise that there is still some resistance within the male traditional leadership on the appointment of females arguing it as uncultural.
Traditional leaders in their areas of jurisdiction have the following duties, to promote and uphold cultural values of their communities, to promote sound family values, to take measures to preserve the culture, traditions, history and heritage of their communities, including sacred shrines, to facilitate development in accordance with an Act of Parliament, to administer Communal Land and to protect the environment, to resolve disputes amongst people in their communities in accordance with customary law and to exercise any other functions conferred or imposed on them by Act of Parliament (Chigwata, 2014).
However, these male traditional leaders are being ineffective in conducting their duties. According to the Zimbabwe Peace Project (2015), there are a number of traditional leaders in Sanyati District who are being accused of individually selling grazing land to community members. The other village heads as well as the community are complaining about the loss of the grazing lands. This is supported by Dodo, (2013) when he alludes that traditional leaders are being ineffective due to the fact that they are abusing their own people, they are being politicised, were neutralised by colonialism, do not address gender based violence, are affected by globalisation and they are failing to adopt modernity.
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2.4 LEADERSHIP IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES
According to Biri and Mutambwa (2013), African women have the following roles which include being a woman, mother and a wife therefore nomatter how high a woman might climb on the education ladder, she is always reminded of her assigned place by traditional. Females are subordinated by beliefs in the society as well as religious and cultural practices. This is supported by Dupe, (2014) as he says that during the formative years in African society, female and male children are taught some societal practices and beliefs that emphasis maleness above femaleness. These beliefs and practises hinder females’ participation at all levels and in all spheres of development process and to perform leadership roles in the workplace could be a very huge task due to these socio-cultural practices and beliefs. Therefore socio-cultural beliefs affect the female gender negatively.
According to the Social role theory individuals develop evocative and narrow gender role expectations of others’ behaviour based on an evolutionary sex-based division of labour (Eagly & Wood, 2000). The two goes on to say that this division of labour has customarily related female with homemaker positions and men with breadwinner positions. Basing on social roles, women are usually labelled and expected to be more relations oriented, communal and nurturing than men, while men are believed and expected to be more independent and assertive than women. Women are involved in work roles that are built upon social role theory as they take into consideration the congruity between gender roles and leadership roles. This is supported by Dupe, (2014) as he also says that females are sandwiched and battered between cultural demands that restrict them to the kitchen and the bedroom and the patriarchal control of the males in the community.
This is supported by the Glass ceiling. The glass ceiling is defined as the unseen barrier of women to enter into top-level management positions based on organizational or on attitudinal bias, simply because they are women rather than because they do not have the ability to handle jobs at higher levels (Morrison, et al.,1987) in (Zinyemba, 2013). The glass ceiling is one of the most debated and sensitive aspects of employment in societies (Paul, 2010). Zinyemba (2013) is in agreement as he points out that a major part of the problem lies in the stereotyping of leadership with active leaders being seen as shrewd and hard while women are seen as soft and weak.
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However, the above is disputed by Gartzia, et al, (2012) as they point out that it is the inter- relationships between having dependent children, motherhood and full time working which greatly influence career outcomes. This is supported by Rapaciolli, (2012) who says another factor preventing women from getting into top positions are the struggle to be taken seriously in a male dominated business and balancing work life and being a committed wife. Women often find themselves in a double bind when it comes to leadership demands and gender role expectations. The bind occurs when acting womanly is associated with ineffectiveness, and being capable is associated with male traits that when adopted by women leads to the conclusion that one must be unfeminine to be capable (Zinyemba, 2013).
On the other hand some scholars attest that the African women played an important role in African traditional leadership. This is brought forward by (Taiwo, 2010) as he alludes that although the patriarchy system in Africa cannot be denied, the African woman holds the power that binds the society together. In traditional African society, the survival of the family and the future of marriage depended excessively on the African woman.
2.4.1 TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP IN SHONA SOCIETIES
The Shona culture is a conservative patriarchal society which values its culture, norms and beliefs and at the end shaping one’s behaviour. According to Dodo, (2013) these traditional leadership which has solely been dominated by men were to some extent responsible for the inferior state of women up to this day. In the Shona culture there are a lot of misunderstandings in line with the physical make up of different sexes. The culture mainly respects the physical makeup of men than of women. Tatira, (2013) argues that women are thought to be physically weaker than male counterparts. This is because men are naturally believed to be stronger than women and culturally they are allocated jobs that needed a lot of stamina. The Shona society holds the myth that women need men by their side to excel and encourages women to consult and this is greatly embedded in many circles in the Shona culture (Biri and Mutambwa, 2013).
Socialisation processes tend to emphasis work, independence and career orientation for men while for women sex orientation and dependency are emphasized (Maseko, 2013). He goes on to say that the key role concepts in the socialisation process are masculinity, femininity and management. Femininity and masculinity are seen to imply different values and behaviours relative to one another. This is supported by (Northcroft and Gutek, 2003) in
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(Maseko, 2013) as he says that stereotypes often outline roles and responsibilities and studies have shown that ridicule, ostracism and loss of position in society is often applied to those who choose not to ascribe to the defined gender roles.
Socialisation is attributed as the major cause of marginalisation of women. Rutoro, (2013) argues that socialisation is the reason why women’s positions in the job market and in the society continue to be reduced while men’s positions and roles are sustained in society. This socialisation process has hindered women in acquiring key leadership positions as the leadership arena is considered to be for men only. Maseko, (2013) says women who make it to key management/leadership positions outside the perceived feminine roles may be seen as unique extraordinary and unrepresentative of women in general. This is supported by Rutoro, (2013) as she says that the individual integrates knowledge of rules, requirements, customs, values, attitudes, roles and norms that are acceptable in that particular social environment. The consequence on men and women rests on the fact that different gender based socialisation result in different gendered expectations which creates a separating line between the sexes as they grow up in the community.
2.5 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY MODERN SOCIETIES.
There is a debate among scholars on female leaders as some view women as being incapable of being leaders as women need men by their side, however some are of the view that women can be good leaders over man themselves. Traditionally, in Zimbabwe participation of women in activities outside the home was discouraged and very little value was placed upon it (Zinyemba, 2013). He goes on to say that the situation of women in Zimbabwe before independence showed that culture influenced women participation in leadership and management positions.
However, other scholars argue that women are very important in decision making bodies. IPU, (2000) in Dube and Dziva, (2014) says that the presence of women in decision‐making are more likely to represent the needs and interests of other women and vulnerable groups such as children and people with disadvantages than men and thereby improving social welfare of these vulnerable groups. This is supported by Pew Research Centre, (2015) which says in accordance to their research the majority of Americans view women as capable of being good political leaders as men. Most of Americans are of the view that women are indistinguishable from men on key leadership traits such as capacity for innovation and
13 intelligence, as many say women are stronger than men in terms of being and organized and compassionate leaders.
Certainly, the above is proven by reality as people know from experience that women by nature are more emotional and more easily swayed by their feelings and compassion and therefore only men are fit for leadership. This is supported by Woodford-Berger, (1998) in Dube and Dziva, (2014) as he says that it is not surprising that even organisations composed of nearly all women are still controlled by men or men-women’s branches or other state or parastatal organisations, wings of political parties or have men in their top managerial and decision-making ranks.
2.5.1 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY YOUTHS
Opportunities for youth engagement in governance, participation in decision-making and political processes depend largely on the socio-economic, political and cultural contexts of a nation. However in most countries social norms result in multiple forms of discrimination against young women. Young women and men are traditionally active in politics when they are in universities but very often they are excluded by political party leadership and political institutions as well as from policy development (Pew Research Centre, 2015). People under the age of thirty five are hardly found in formal political leadership positions. In most countries, eligibility for the national parliament starts at the age of 25 years or higher but it is very common to refer to politicians as ‘young’ if they are below 35-40 years of age. Youths are not represented sufficiently in formal political institutions and processes such as political parties, parliaments, public administrations and elections. The situation is even more difficult for both young women as well as men at mid-level and decision-making/leadership positions (U.N.D.P, 2013).
The above is also supported by Okwiya, (2012) as he says that young women have for a long time been excluded from decision-making processes starting from even the basic to the highest levels of policy making. Additionally, even if they are opportunities for youths to engage in governance structures, it is young men who still take up opportunities that result from such lobbying and even dominate. He goes on to say that evidence indicates that young men usually holds the power to make decisions at local governance structures, compared to young there young women.
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The above argument is supported by Richard and Koredong, (2015) arguing that young women are under-represented even in those leadership roles that are meant for women. Young women are generally included either under the umbrella of youths or of women’s leadership, as if women confront their issues the same and even the fact that they have different issues in regards to age and life stage is not considered. In Richard and Koredong, (2015) in their research they found out that many opportunities for young women’s participation in leadership do exist, including sports, church and village-based organisations but the challenge is that women are sub-lined in these opportunities despite the fact that these opportunities provide a useful grounding for entry into organisations that are more directly focussed on developmental outcomes for women.
2.5.2 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN LEADERSHIP BY MEN
In most communities men view female leaders less favourably than men. According to Shakeshaft (1993) in Maseko (2013), andro-centrism which is male-centred privileges men and honours men and the male principle above women and the female. However, this creates an idea that males are superior and females are inferior. This male value system, jointly with the socialization process results in sex favouritism, which is often associated with negative attitudes towards female leaders. One of the consequences of such discrimination is the rejection of women as leaders. According to Phendla (2012), a great number of studies assert that men’s opposition to hiring women is a major blockage to female advancement in leadership positions.
This perception of male privilege also results from a patriarchal culture and the socialisation process creates internal barriers for women such as lack of motivation or aspiration and lack of confidence (Mitroussi & Mitroussi, 2011). Therefore women discrimination towards men perpetuates sex prejudice and thereby impeding on women’s progress. It is vital to bear in mind that patriarchy exists not merely in the indigenous culture but is present at the organisational level as well as national level.
2.6 WOMEN LEADERSHIP AND THEIR CHALLENGES
The manner in which traditional socio-cultural or religious ethics bind women in Zimbabwe, unavoidably affects development at national level (Biri and Mutambwa, 2013). According to Ngan, (2011), findings on her research indicated that both the indigenous and organisational
15 culture significantly influenced the female participation in key leadership positions and therefore contribute to the poor women representation in positions of influence. Women in this study were overwhelmed with domestic duties and huge workloads. This is in line with Social Role theory which ascribes women to household duties and considers leadership as a role meant for men. In Zimbabwe generally, research findings show that women are blocked by socio–cultural, economical factors from entering into top positions (Rutoro, 2013).
In support of the above, although it is hard to identify different cultural barriers that women face in accessing key leadership positions, it is not a reason to keep them un-researched or unrevealed (Rutherford, 2010). Findings in her two case studies of an airline and an investment bank in England revealed that organisational culture, through its different parts, consistently excludes and side-lines women. Research on women’s leadership has also found that women face barriers on their way to the top positions and while in those positions they usually experience unequal promotion opportunities due to patriarchal attitudes towards women (Coleman, et al 2009) in (Ngan,2011).
The above is supported by Shakeshaft (1987) in (Ngan, 2011) as he asserts that the major barrier to women is and remains a culture characterized by male superiority because all of the debated barriers reflect society that supports and enforces a male-dominant system. Research has confirmed that cultural context is a significant factor in women’s perceptions about family and work life balance (Tein, et al., 2010). For example a study comparing Chinese and American women revealed that sacrificing family was seen as failure to care for family for American women while for the Chinese women sacrificing time for work was regarded as self-sacrifice for the benefit of the family. This therefore implied that long working hours would not pose many problems for the Chinese women as it would to American women (Tein, et al, 2010). In Zimbabwe sacrificing family for work is regarded as unfeminine as women are considered to be caretakers and nurtures (Dube and Dziva, 2014).
2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The chapter looked into studies which were carried by other researchers in line with the Zimbabwean society’s culture, leadership in African societies and Shona societies, perceptions of women leadership by modern scholars, youths, men and women leadership and their challenges. The literature review tried to examine how socio-cultural beliefs are being a hindrance to women leadership. This research therefore tries to bring how these
16 socio-cultural beliefs can be changed for the betterment of women in key leadership positions. It also tries to assess the validity of the role congruity theory of prejudice towards women leadership in promoting socio-cultural beliefs to act as a barrier towards women leadership.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews the research methodology that was engaged in this study. It reviews the area under study, the research paradigm, research design, target population, sample and sample size as well as the sampling techniques which were used such as non-probability sampling and the research instruments which were employed in the research such as in-depth interviews and questionnaires. The chapter moves on to the data collection procedure, data analysis and ethical issues included such as informed consent, voluntary participation, withdrawal as well as confidentiality. It then ends with a summary on all that has been discussed in this chapter and this helped in exploring the socio-cultural beliefs women face in accessing key leadership positions in Sanyati District.
3.1 AREA UNDER STUDY
The area under study was Sanyati District in Mashonaland province which is 100km away from Kadoma city and boarders with Gokwe on the north side, and focused on three wards which are ward 10, 11 and 18. These three wards stretch from Nyimo business centre to Sanyati Growthpoint.
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM
The research employed qualitative methodology as it tries to understand human behaviour and experience influenced by socio-cultural norms. The study also used qualitative methodology due to the fact that it tends to better comprehend women experience due to socio-cultural beliefs within Sanyati District. The paradigm was also important in this research as it allowed socio-cultural beliefs and how it influenced women leadership in Sanyati to be explored in depth and in detail through the use of in-depth interviews and questionnaires. In-depth interviews are not limited to a particular question as they can be redirected. Data collected using qualitative methodology depends on human experience and this is more powerful and compelling in trying to know the experiences of women in Sanyati District concerning women leadership issues. It also allows data to be collected to a few
18 individuals and then it can be generalised to a similar population as in this case research findings on socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati can also be generalised to other districts such as Mhondoro and Makonde Districts.
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research design was used. Research designs are the specific actions involved in the research process, data collection, data analysis, and report inscription. The researcher used an exploratory research design since it tries to explore out socio-cultural beliefs affecting women leadership in Sanyati District through answering questions such as “who, what, when and how”. An exploratory research design was used because it discovers and analyses the interactions between different factors that can give an explanation to the challenges that women face in participating in leadership posts in Sanyati District. The strength an exploratory research design has its aptitude to discover a wide variety of social, cultural, and political factors possibly related to the phenomenon of interest that may not be known in advance.
3.4 TARGET POPULATION
In this case the target population was traditional leaders such as chiefs, headmen, elderly women and men of Sanyati District. The research targeted chiefs, village heads, councillors as well as elderly men and women because they understand better the culture of the District therefore there is reliability of the data needed for this research. A target population or the sampling frame is a collection of individuals or a group of organizations with some collective defining characteristic that the researcher can identify. A target population or the sampling frame is a group of personalities or a group of organizations with some common significant characteristic that the researcher can classify and study.
3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
The research used Non-Probability Sampling. This included the use of convenient sampling to ensure that strategic members of the district were selected for interviewing. Data collected through this method stands as a true reflection of the situation concerning socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District as they understand culture better than any other members in the District. The research focused on traditional leaders within the District
19 as well as elders and reflects a true picture of the other surrounding Districts as the culture is similar. The research also used non-probability sampling because the goal of the research was to have an in-depth or idiographic understanding of the culture in Sanyati District and explore how it is affecting the women in Sanyati District. It purposively selected traditional leaders and elders for interviewing because they greatly understand culture and they are the ones who foster upholding of the culture and gave their perceptions of women leadership in the District. Elderly women were also purposively selected as a sample because they are the ones who now understand culture and how it has affected them as women in leadership.
3.6 SAMPLE
The research sample was from Sanyati District’s 3 wards, ward 10 Nyimo, ward 11 Wozhele and ward 18 Sanyati growthpoint focusing on leadership in villages, wards and the district as a whole. The research only targeted three wards because they are central in the District and the research findings can be generalised to other Districts. A sample is a subsection of the target population that the investigator plans to study for simplifying about the target population. It is extremely important to choose a sample that is truly illustrative of the population so that the implications resulting from the sample can be generalized back to the population of interest.
3.6.1 SAMPLE SIZE
This sample size was made up of twenty seven people, nine people from each of the three wards in Sanyati district. This sample size gives authenticity of the research as the results can be generalised to other wards in Sanyati. A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target population. The proposal of the research had initially planned to include all the two chiefs in Sanyati District on the target population; however the other chief could not be reached during the data collection period as he had some responsibilities he had to attend however the research had an opportunistic research and rather gave the questionnaire to another villagehead that falls under that chieftainship.
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3.7 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Research instruments comprise the methods of data that was used in carrying out a research. This research used questionnaires as well as in-depth-interviews. The main aim of the use of these two methods was to improve quality and reliability of information as strengths and weaknesses in one method was remunerated in another method.
3.7.1 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS
In-depth interviews were the main method of data collection used in this qualitative research of socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District. In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individual’s personal histories, perceptions and experiences therefore they were much relevant in interviewing these elderly women who have endured marginalisation in Sanyati District and also to know the perceptions of men and community on female leadership through male traditional leaders and elderly men in the selected wards.
The major advantage of using in-depth interviews in this research was that it provided a vivid picture of information required. In-depth interviews gave room for the research to probe more questions on the research objectives in-order to give a clear analysis of the research problem under study. These interviews allowed the participants to speak themselves instead of answering to programmed hypothesis based questions. This gave the elders being interviews to explain themselves in detail thereby exploring the research in depth. The in-depth interviews were also carried out so as to cater for elders who cannot read and write. These in- depth interviews were also important as they helped respondents in explaining how socio- cultural beliefs influenced women leadership in Sanyati District ward 10, 11 and 18.
3.7.2 QUESTIONNAIRES
Data was also collected using questionnaires. A questionnaire is a document with questions designed to reflect information for appropriate analysis. Compensations of using questionnaires were that they were more impartial and quick to collect information. 12 questionnaires were distributed to traditional leaders in ward 10, 11 and 18. The questionnaires were also effective in collecting data since they are quick and easy to analyse. The questions were structured and unstructured giving room the participant the opportunity to answer to questions which directly links to the objectives of the research. The questions mainly focused on socio-cultural beliefs of people in Sanyati District, roles of women in the
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District, socio-cultural perceptions of society on female leaders and barriers that are faced by women in accessing leadership posts in the three wards of the District. However, the major challenge of using questionnaires is the fact that the participant only answers to the asked questions.
3.8 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
The researcher secured an introductory letter from the Peace and governance department. The purpose of the letter was to seek permission to carry out the research in the area of study. The letter informed the local authority in Sanyati District that the research was for academic purposes only and the research’s major objective was to explore socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District mainly focusing on ward 10, 11 and 18 of the District. The researcher then applied to the Chief Executive officer of Sanyati Rural District for permission to carry out the research. The C.E.O provided the researcher with a recommendation letter to the Superintendent for approval. The researcher was offered an approval letter by the Superintendent that she used to collect data from chiefs, village heads, councillors and elderly men from the three wards. The procedures taken to collect the data included the distribution of questionnaires to traditional leaders in the above mentioned wards of the District. In-depth interviews were conducted with elders in these wards. Appointments were made with the chiefs through the chiefs’ policemen. All interviews were physically carried out and responses were noted down.
3.9 DATA ANALYSIS
Latent content analysis was used to analyse data from research findings. The research managed to draw conclusions from the data that was collected. It also determined to what extent socio-cultural beliefs influenced women leadership and explored other factors which contributed to low levels of women in leadership positions in Sanyati District.
3.10 ETHICAL ISSUES
The research used the following ethical considerations, informed consent, voluntary participation and confidentiality.
(i) INFORMED CONSENT
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Informed consent was one of the ethical considerations which were used in carrying out this research. All participants were informed orally and in writing of the nature of the research before engaging in the study. It is the right of participants to be informed about the nature of the research, risks and benefits of their participation before they agree to participate in the research. This ethical consideration is one of the cornerstones of modern social research ethics.
(ii) VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
The researcher explained to participants that their participation was purely voluntary and there were free to opt out before and during the interview whenever they feel so. Subjects in a research project must be aware that their participation in the study is voluntary, that they have the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time without any unfavourable consequences and they are not harmed as a result of their participation or non-participation in the project.
(iii) CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality is another important ethical principle that was used in carrying out this research. Since the research contained some leadership elements the researcher ensured to keep safely information provided by participants and to protect them by use of not real names. The research ensured that participants’ names and contact details were not to be collected to assure the participants that the interviews will be meant for academic purposes only.
3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter reviewed the research methodology that was engaged in this study. It reviewed the area under study, the research paradigm, research design, target population, sample, sample size and sampling techniques employed such as non-probability sampling, research instruments which are interviews and questionnaires. It then moved on to the data collection procedure, data analysis and ethical issues included such as informed consent, voluntary participation and confidentiality. All this helped in exploration of the socio-cultural beliefs women face in accessing key leadership positions in Sanyati District.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter looks at data presentation and analysis. Data was collected through in depth interviews and questionnaires from twenty seven participants being four traditional leaders and five elders in ward 10, 11 and 18 of Sanyati District. The purpose of the research was to establish socio-cultural beliefs of the people in Sanyati District, establish the roles of women in Sanyati District, explore socio-cultural perceptions of society on female leaders and the cultural barriers faced by women in accessing leadership positions in the above mentioned three wards in the Sanyati District. The chapter is divided into two sections, the first one contains the demographics of the participants and the second section presents the data under research objectives and gives an analysis of the research findings relating to what other scholars argued in chapter two noting differences and similarities with findings from Sanyati District.
4.1 DEMOGRAPHICS OF PARTICIPANTS
The number of total participants was 27. Among these were 12 traditional leaders and 15 elders. Questionnaires were used to collect data from traditional leaders and in-depth interviews were used to collect data from elders. The response rate was 100% as questionnaires from traditional leaders were all filled in time of the research and in-depth interviews with elders were physically conducted and notes were taken down.
In terms of gender distribution, of the 12 traditional leaders, there was only 1 female leader. The reason for this shows how women are marginalized due to socio-cultural beliefs. Of the elders there were 10 females and 5 males, the research purposively selected more women than male elders inorder to get the information from those mostly affected by socio-cultural beliefs within the District.
Participants in this study comprised of people of different age. Of traditional leaders, the majority 8 participants (66.6%) were of the age range of 56-65; 3 participants (25%) were of the age of 46-55 years and lastly, only 1 participant (8.3) was of the age 31-45. Of the 15 elders were all more than 60 years of age.
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In terms of designations of traditional leaders there was only 1 chief, 3 councillors thus 1 councillor from each ward and 8 headmen. The other chief could not be reached due to other duties he had to attend to during the time the research was carried out. In terms of education only one headman confirmed that he had ended at primary level the rest said they had reached ordinary level and in terms of experience 3 had less than five years, 6 ranged from 6-10 years and 3 had more than 10years.
4.2 PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.2.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL BELIEFS OF PEOPLE IN SANYATI DISTRICT
Most of the traditional leaders responses from questionnaires and elders interviewed highlighted that socio-cultural belief found within Sanyati District include societal teachings, belief systems and conservatism of the Karanga culture which is patriarchal in nature. Traditional leaders act as ambassadors in upholding these societal teachings, cultural values and belief systems in Sanyati District. Sanyati is a highly patriarchal society with the Karanga being the major group in the society and most influential positions are occupied by men. The Karanga people believe that women are there as helpers not as leaders. Participants also believed that women’s place is in the kitchen, women are there to help their male counterparts not to lead men.
One traditional leader had this to say;
“Madzimai pasichigare vaizviisa pasi pane zvose vaisatora zvigaro zvehutungamiri zvepamusoro kubva muBhaibhiri vakasikwa sevabatsiri. Hazvibviri kuti ukatsvaka mubatsiri pamba pako angauya achizokutonga kwete, iwe muridzi wapamba ndiwe unomuudza zvokuita, zvimwechetezvo nomunhukadzi Mwari pachavo pavakasika Eva vakati kuna Adam ndava kukusikira mubatsiri vachireva munhukadzi.”
(Women even long back they did not occupy positions of influence from the Bible, imagine you hire a maid will he/she tell you what to do at your house, you as the house owner is the one who gives instructions to the maid, the same applies to women when God created Eve he said to Adam I have created for you a helper referring to females).
The research also discovered that marginalization of women in leadership positions originated from conservative practices and elements contained in the culture of the Sanyati District. This culture is organised by behaviours for long time now created a discriminatory
25 practice on the nomination of women into leadership positions. This is supported by Dodo, (2013) as he alludes that traditional leadership in Zimbabwe has been dominated by men and these leadership systems are responsible for the pathetic situation of women up to this day. Women are not given the opportunity to lead due to the culture that has been used to socialise them that men are the leaders and women follow. Tatira, (2013) argues that men are believed to be physically stronger than female members. This is creates a bias towards allocation of jobs as men are culturally allocated jobs that necessarily need a lot of strengths. Biri and Mutambwa, (2013) argues in the same line with Tatira as they are of the view that the Shona society holds the myth that women need men by their side to excel and encourages women to consult is embedded in many circles and the same applies to men in Sanyati District as they view themselves as superior to women.
One female participant had this to say;
“Vanhurume havadi kutungamirirwa nevanhukadzi vanowanikwa vachitidzikisira vanotendera kuti hutungamiri ndewevanhurume”
(Males do not want to be led by females they tend to under-estimate the value of women in leadership positions).
Three elderly participants interviewed attributed that society beliefs and culture influences leadership selection in Sanyati District. These participants stated that these beliefs systems and societal teachings barred women from being given key leadership responsibility in the community and men in Sanyati District continue to take advantage of the societal cultures at the expense of women leaders.
Research also showed that though some of the community members in Sanyati District accepted women as leaders but they are some resistance and misunderstanding on acceptance of women leaders from most traditional leaders. Patriarchal background portrays men as superiors and leaders of the society while women are viewed as minors. This is supported by Pew Research Centre, (2014) as it alludes that women still follow behind when it comes to holding key leadership positions and this is due to the fact that both men and women prefer male bosses and co-workers. This is also supported by the Role Congruity theory of Prejudice towards female leaders as it states that perceived incompatibility between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to two forms of bias, the first one being perceiving women less favourably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and secondly, appraising
26 behaviour that fulfils the prescriptions of a leader role less favourably when it is conducted by a woman than when it is conducted by a man (Eagly and Karau, 2002).
One female councillor said,
“The major challenge faced by women leaders is their men subjects in society. Most male subjects believe they cannot be led by women, they claim that men should be the leaders. Some of these male subjects try by all means to shame in public spheres when they are addressing people and in most cases women leaders are given plat foams on minor events so that people will not recognise them”.
The research also noted that societal teachings, values and beliefs, also contributed to women marginalization in leadership positions. It is believed that women and men are socialized differently. This is supported by Mapuranga, (2013) as he alludes that the status of women remains contested even though women constitute the majority of members in most if not all societies but top positions are dominated by men. A range of cultural, theological, historical and socio-economic reasons has been given to account for this incongruity. It is from this background were women are surpassed in leadership positions as they are given minor positions. Patriarchal societies believed that only males should be given key posts (Zinyemba, 2013). In addition, the research showed that culture is not uplifting women leaders to higher posts because it pictures a male figure having an authoritative position in the society. This is witnessed by beliefs in Sanyati District that the leadership arena is meant for men and women who want to join are believed to be uncultured.
One male participant had this to say;
“Patsika dzedu vanakomana nevanasikana vane tsika dzavanodzidziswa dzinoenderana namabasa avanofanira kuita pamagariro echivanhu, vanasikana vanodzidziswa mabasa akaita sokurera vana nokuita mabasa apamusha, vanakomanawo vanodzidziswa kuva vatungamiri vemhuri”.
(In our culture girls and boys are socialised differently, girls are how to take care of children and other household chores while boys are taught how to look after the family).
However Pfukwa, (2017) do not agree with the dominant patriarchal society as he attests that conflicting to Western beliefs that Africans abuse and oppress their women, women feature highly in Shona societies, playing and assuming important and significant roles in everyday
27 activities, even the great spiritual leader Mbuya Nehanda directed the First Chimurenga and continues to motivate the nation. Women in Shona Societies have made sacrifices and in contemporary Zimbabwe they occupy various seats in economic and political spheres, Zimbabwean women are not inferior. This is a different case in Sanyati District as it is a conservative society of its culture, Professor Pfukwa only focused on a few individuals but most of women they are looked down upon and they occupy inferior positions.
4.2.2 ROLES OF WOMEN IN SANYATI DISTRICT
Most of the participants highlighted that the roles of women in Sanyati District are domestic. These roles include being mothers, wives, cooking, going to the fields, looking after children, advisors on cultural values in the society, washing, herding cattle, supporting male counterparts with ideas, gardening, bearing children, poultry keeping and promoters of peace.
One traditional leader had this to say
“Nzvimbo yavanhukadzi iripamba, basa ravo kuchengeta varume vavo, kurera vana nokuita mabasa apamusha anosanganisira kuwacha, kusuka nekurima miriwo.
(The place of women is at home, their duty is to look after their husbands and rearing children and attending to other roles such as washing, doing dishes and gardening).
The above is supported by Biri and Mutambwa, (2013) as they allude that African women have the following roles such as being a woman, a mother and a wife. Despite the fact that a woman is educated, she is always reminded of the place tradition has created for her. This is supported by Dupe, (2014) as he also argues that women are buffeted and sandwiched between cultural and community demands that restrict them to the bedroom and the kitchen and patriarchal control of the males in the society. This is further supported by what an elderly participant had to say;
“Vanhukadzi kubva pasi chigare basa ravo raiva rapamusha, kudare kwaiva ndiko kunotongerwa dzimhosva yaiva nzvimbo yavanhurume bedzi.
(Women even long ago their roles where at the house, the court where crimes were judged was the place for men only).
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The research also established that culture in Sanyati District does not allow gender equality in terms of appointments to key leadership positions and therefore as long as the culture is not revised women might remain marginalized in district’s governance and remain in the periphery. This is in agreement with what Zvobgo, (2014) alludes that the limitations and challenges hindering the implementation of the gender equality is identified in stereotyping and male resistance, patriarchy and culture. This is noticed in what an elderly participant had to say;
“Vakadzi vanemabasa akawanda avanoita pamusha naizvozvo havakwanise kuzoita basa rokutungamira zvakanaka”.
(Women have many household chores therefore they cannot perform well in leadership).
However even though Sanyati District is patriarchal in nature, research showed that women play advisory roles in the District thereby uniting the society and promoting peace. This is supported by Taiwo, (2010) as he attests that even though the patriarchal system in Africa cannot be denied, the African woman holds the power that binds the society together. In traditional African society, the survival of the future marriage and family depended a largely on the African woman. This is supported by one elderly male participant who had this to say;
“Vanhu mudunhu vanotsigira hutungamiri hwevanhukadzi nokuti pasichigare taitova nemadzimambo echikadzi akaita sanambuya Nehanda vakatotungamira zvakanaka munguva yehondo”.
(People in this District support women leaders as we had great female leaders such Nehanda during the liberation struggle).
Research also noted that although most participants said the place for women was at the home, some had a different view as some participants alluded that women nowadays were being involved in leadership posts but only a smaller number.
One male councillor had this to say,
“People are now gender sensitive that women can be leaders at any level, for instance Sanyati Rural District Council is made up of eighteen councillors and three of them are women. This shows that people are now becoming gender sensitive as they can vote for women to be councillors as well”.
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This is supported by the (IPU, 2000) in (Dube and Dziva, 2014) as it says that the presence of women in decision‐making improves social welfare of the state as women in leadership positions are more likely to represent the needs and interests of other women and vulnerable groups such as children and people with disadvantages than men.
4.2.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIETY ON FEMALE LEADERS
Most male participants stated that most men do not have trust in women leadership. Participants believed that only men were supposed be given key leadership positions. Some of the participants explained that society is now appreciating women leaders but most men still have the perception that male leaders are the only capable leaders. Participants highlighted that women contribute a larger percentage of people in Sanyati District but in terms of electing leaders many women favours male candidates. Most participants perceived female leaders less favourably unlike male leaders. This is mainly due to the fact that people are socialised that women’s roles are based at home and this makes them less acceptable with the community to be leaders.
One female councillor said;
“Rimwe zuva ndakaenda kurufu rwanga rwaitika muwadhi mangu. Kwakasvika nguva yokuti nditaure sacouncillor, pandakasimuka vanhu vakabvunza kuti asi mudzimai wacouncillor. Umwe aindiziva wemuwadhi mangu ndiye akati kwete ndivo councillor zvikanzi nevakanga vabvunza ngaazive zvekutonga zvekumba kwake”
(One day I went to a funeral that had occurred in my ward when I was called to speak as the councillor some of the people that were there asked if I was the councillor’s wife. When one of the people who knew me said that I was the councillor, some said I should manage my family).
The research also reflected that some male traditional leaders are of the view that women cannot be given superior posts in the district because they lack confidence and most of them are not keen to take up superior positions in the District. Participants stated that there is need for women to disband themselves from the norm of nominating males as leaders. Participants also indicated that women are naturally weak as highlighted by the Role Congruity of Prejudice towards female leaders by Eagly and Karau, (2000) as it alludes that the gender stereotypes that are in a society contributes to perceptions about socially constructed roles as
30 women are viewed less favourably to enact leadership roles due to their physical makeup. This in the end contributes in maintaining beliefs that women take care and men take charge, implying that men are the leaders and women follow (Gilroy and Fenzel, 1995) in (Hoyt and Burnette, 2013). Therefore most women in Sanyati District believe that they cannot lead men hence they always nominate men to lead them. This is due to perceptions that women are incapable of being leaders in society. This is supported by Woodford-Berger, (1998) in Dube and Dziva, (2014) as he says that it is not rare that in organisations that are meant for women there are also men within those governments who are responsible for making key decisions. These perceptions about male privilege resulting from a patriarchal culture creates internal barriers as women feel inferior to men and therefore lacking the zeal to take influential positions (Mitroussi & Mitroussi, 2011).
One male councillor had this to say;
“Vanhukadzi havangagoni kupihwa mikana youtungamiri nokuti ivo pachavo havana kutenda mavari kuti vanogona kutungamira, naizvozvo vanofanirakutanga vagona kutenda kuti vanokwanisa kutungamirawo sevanhurume”
(Women cannot be given leadership posts due to the fact that they do not believe in themselves that they can be leaders, they should believe in themselves that they can lead as their male counterparts)
However, five elders in ward 10 and 11 agreed that female leaders have the potential to lead the community because of their motherly figure. Participants stated that women are more committed to their duties, they have patience to listen to community members and many people tend to listen to female voices. Participants said also highlighted that women as leaders have the potential uniting the community and thereby bringing about peace, therefore if the society uplift them in leadership, women leaders might assist in sustainable development of Sanyati District.
One participant had this to say,
“Vanhukadzi tinovada kuti vave vatungamiri nokuti havana huori, vakavimbika kudarika vanhurume uye zvose zvavanoita vanoita vaine vanhu pamoyo yavo nokuti ndivanaamai zvakare”.
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(We want women to be leaders because women leaders are less corrupt than their male counterparts and their decisions are made with people at heart because they are mothers).
Another elderly participant had this to say;
“Vakadzi tinovada kuti vave vatungamiri asi dambudziko ndoona seriri munevamwe vanhukadzi vanoona vanhurume kuti ndivo voga vanokwanisa kutungamira pamusoro pazvo vakadzi vakatowanda kukunda isu vanhurume”.
(We want women to be leaders but I think the problem lies in other women as they assume men to be better leaders, more so, there are more women than men).
The above also supports the fact that women are reluctant to take-up leadership positions in society. The problem of low presentation of women in these key leadership positions lies also within the women themselves. Although other male participants postulated that society appreciated women leaders, women should try also to be vocal and stand up for their rights in society in the society as they are more in the District as compared to men
4.2.4 CULTURAL BARRIERS FACED BY WOMEN LEADERS
Most participants highlighted that there are cultural barriers that affected women in leadership. Culture itself showed that it’s a major barrier to women leadership in Sanyati District. The proximity of power bases between men and women are different in the District. Women are socialised through culture to believe that men are there to lead and women acts as subordinates. The male counterparts in the District have an advantage since they are socialised to be leaders therefore they are actually nearer to power bases as compared to female counterparts who have to struggle to attain such authority. Even if women are given influential positions they need men on key decisions. Participants alluded that culturally women are inferior to men therefore not able to be leaders.
As the chief confirmed that;
“Hutongi hwamasadunhu nemasabhuku ndewedzidza naizvozvo haugone kugadzwa mwanasikana mumhuri nokuti anozororwa achienda nahwo kunerimwe dzidza zvisiri mutsika dzedu”
(Leadership of chiefs and headmen cannot be granted to a girl child due to the fact that she can be married and take the leadership post to another tribe which is not in our culture.)
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It was discovered that Sanyati District still holds to its culture which is patriarchal though there some policies that have been put in place with the government. Women are subjected to patriarchy which then relegates them to the lowest rungs on the ladder within and outside institutions (Mapuranga, 2014). Even some of them being given authoritative posts there are afraid of taking up the posts and mostly relying on men on crucial decision making.
The other barrier highlighted was that women did not support each other even if given the platform to choose between female and male contestants, women mostly favoured a male counterpart to a female one. Mostly women feel inferior due to how they are culturally socialised to believe that they are not competent enough and this makes it difficult to have faith in other women that they can lead as well.
This is supported by what one councillor had to say
“Vakadzi pachavo havatsigirane chero tikada kusarudza vanotungamirara WADCO vakadzi vanongodoma varume.
(Women do not support each other even if we want to select a WADCO women nominate men).
Moreso others highlighted the fact that culturally women do not own property therefore it’s a disadvantage when it comes to contesting for leadership positions. Most people preferred people they assumed have wealthy arguing that they will be less corrupt as they will not use public goods to enrich themselves.
One elderly woman said;
“Tinoshaya mikana yekutungamira nokuti hatina chatiinacho zvinhu zvose zviri muzita remurume naizvozvo haugone kupihwa chero chikwereti kubhanga kuti ushandise pakutsvaga rutsigiro”.
(We lack the opportunity to leadership due to the fact that every property we have is in the husband’s name and therefore you cannot be given loan at the bank to help you campaign).
The other cultural barrier highlighted was that women tend to be sexually abused in trying to attain leadership position. Sex is used as a weapon to instil fear into the other contestants and this leads to withdrawal of women when it comes to those posts which needs campaigning.
This is supported by what one elder woman former councillor contestant said;
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“Vanhurume varikumusoro vanoda kuti urare navo kuti uwane zvigaro zvapamusoro naizvozvo tinopedzisira tangosiyana nazvo”.
(Men who occupy high positions demand sex for you to attain leadership positions therefore we end up giving up).
Three female elderly participants postulated that the women leaders are affected by the issue of marriages. Female elderly participants highlighted that it is difficult for women leaders to give orders to try their husbands when he has committed a crime, the wife tend to leave the case in the hands of her subordinates for the sake of her marriage. One female traditional leader emphasized that women were socialized to be led by their husbands.
One male councillor stated that;
“As long as the issue of paying bride price in marriages is still practised the issue of women leader trying her husband raises some problems in their families because traditionally men cannot be controlled by women”.
The aspect of solidarity with the male counterpart in marriage with the original family and the inferiority role played by the women is also another barrier found within marriage. The daughter in law is expected to occupy the inferior role in the spouse’s family. Also, in most cases the family acts in solidarity with the male rather than the daughter-in-law and any problem the daughter-in-law encounters with the spouse is attributed to her leading to social exclusion and emotional isolation. This has psychological impacts which include depression leading to negative attitude resulting in low self-esteem and pessimistic attitude thereby affecting the leadership zeal.
One female councillor also stated that;
“Vanhukadzi mudunhu muno vanotadza kuva vatungamiriri nokuda kokuti kuroorwa kwavanoita kunoita kuti vave vanhu vanezvigaro zvepasi mumhuri dzavaroorwa uye vakasangana namatambudziko, ndivo vanongopomerwa mhosva nehama dzomurume. Izvi zvinoita kuti vave vanhu vanozvidzikisira kwazvo zvichiitawo kuti vasafarire kupinda muhutungamiriri.”
Women in this District cannot be leaders due to the fact of marriage as they occupy positions of lower status in families they are married and also when encountered with a marital issue
34 the blame is put on them leading to feelings of resentment thereby affecting their zeal to engage in leadership).
Marriage is a significant cultural barrier contributing to marginalization of married women although the community might want to give them key positions. It has also been discovered that women have great responsibilities at home therefore giving them higher task might also overburden and affect their families since they may spend a lot of time in the field. One of the male councillors stated that women are stationed as subordinate as a way of taking care and protecting them because some environments are not good for women, for instance most remote areas such as Mupfundahoko, Gadza, Chemaware are not safe for them. This will also affect their family unit as they have to spend most of their time away from the family. In Zimbabwe, sacrificing family for work is considered as being not morally upright as Dodo (2013) alludes that women who are involved in leadership are considered as uncultured.
4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter looked at the research findings on socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District. The research findings were mostly in agreement with scholars from chapter two that culture plays a major role in affecting women leadership. The roles played by women in the African context are the same in Sanyati District as it is a patriarchal society that promotes men leadership to women leadership. The society although it views women leadership less favourably they however at times support women leadership as they view women as less corrupt as compared to men leaders. The noted difference noted by the research was that even though culture plays a role in affecting women leadership, women themselves do not support each other they lack confidence in women leadership in Sanyati District and therefore fostering low women representation in key leadership posts in the District.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives the summary of findings on socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati District with a special focus on ward 10, 11 and 18. Summary of research findings are explained as per each objective and an analysis to the research is given. Recommendations are also outlined in this chapter which pertain to the Sanyati community, traditional leaders in the District, district administrators as well as rural districts. An area of further study is also highlighted in this chapter. The area of study was discovered during the process of summarising the research finding to this research. This chapter then ends with a conclusion which covers discussion on all the five chapters.
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The objectives of this research included establishing socio-cultural beliefs of people in Sanyati District, discovering roles of women in the District, exploring socio-cultural perceptions of society on female leaders as well as barriers that are faced by women in accessing key leadership positions in the District. On the first objective the research found out that socio-cultural beliefs of women in Sanyati District include patriarchy, the assumption that men lead and women follow, conservatism of the Karanga tradition, resistance from community leaders that women can be leaders as well, societal teachings, values and beliefs of the Karanga people on male dominance in the leadership arena and traditional leaders act as ambassadors to this culture which does not promote women leadership.
The research findings also showed that there are a lot of misconceptions surrounding the physical make-up of different sexes. The Karanga culture in the District respects the physical make-up of men than of women. This is due to the fact that men are physically stronger than women and culturally men are considered suitable for leadership than women. This division of labour among men and women in the District further these misconceptions therefore affecting women leadership in Sanyati.
The culture in Sanyati District also promotes male autonomy and female submission which leaves females at the mercy of their male counterparts. Due to this issue of women
36 submission to the male results in the pace of women’s advancement to leadership positions to be determined by the males in the District. This is emphasised in the marriage institution where the husband has total control of the wife and at the end deterring ambition of women to be involved in leadership.
The research also discovered that culture of Sanyati District also determined the proximity to power bases in the District. The nearness to power bases also affect psychological, social and emotional distance one has to move from the present status to the alleged status. It is believed that the nearer a person is to power bases the faster that person acquires authority. Psychologically this was proved to be caused by the emotional and psychological readiness of a person to the distance. It was seen that culture in Sanyati District has detached women from power bases and have completely removed them from the circle of power. On the other hand, males within the District have been within the circle of power from childhood. Hence women face more psychological and emotional barriers to leadership positions.
On the roles of women in Sanyati District the research found out that women play many roles which include being a mother, a wife, advisors, peace practitioners and other related household chores. On socio-cultural perceptions on female leaders the research discovered that women are looked down upon to be leaders as most community members prefer male leaders as compared to female leaders. There is resistance from the community on female leaders, women are assumed to lack confidence in them when it comes to leadership as they are socialised to believe that they are inferior to men. Only a few believe that women can be leaders due to their motherly figure.
The cultural barriers which were discovered in Sanyati District include culture, marriage, payment of lobola and also the fact that culturally women do not own property. This is a great barrier to women as they lack the resources to campaign as what their male counterparts do. The research findings shows that people in Sanyati are still embedded in the backward norms and values as well as well as belief such as patriarchy, the belief that men should only be leaders and not women. For instance one traditional leader argued that from the beginning God created Eve as Adam’s helper therefore they cannot lead but should be there for men. This depicts that in this society most people hold on to beliefs and traditions that are suppressive to women ignoring the modern nature of society where gender equality is appreciated. This also shows that men are the obstacles to the success and enhancement of women.
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In Sanyati the research also discovered that rights to property were seen to affect motivation of women within Sanyati District to advance into key leadership positions. Major assets are ascribing to the males in the family. Females have only the right to kitchen utensils. Major properties such as cattle, cars, houses are generally in the name of the father or the sons in the family. This was seen as affecting women’s motivation to advance and campaign for leadership positions as they lack the capital to do so as they would not have anything in their names. The ones who are not married or those who are widowed also lack value in the community as the value of a woman lies in her husband. This is also another challenge when it comes to campaigning as they assume being single as a sign of indecency. Therefore education is needed to challenge these belief systems.
The issue of solidarity of family members with the male partner in marriage rather than the daughter-in-law which is greatly embedded in the Karanga people in Sanyati District also influenced low-representation of women in leadership positions in this District. This issue in marriage affected women’s advancement into leadership positions. This is due to the inferior position of daughter-in-law in her marital family and the superior role of her husband within his family, in most cases families act in harmony with the male rather than with the daughter- in-law. It was discovered that any problem the daughter-in-law encounters with her husband in their marriage is attributed to her, this in-turn leads to social exclusion and emotional isolation. This was seen to have severe effects on females within the Sanyati District whose aspirations are affected due to psychological effects of isolation and exclusion which causes depression. Depression leads into a negative attitude and loss of interest in everything resulting in low self-esteem, pessimistic attitudes and poor self-image thereby affecting the leadership zeal.
The research designs used were very much relevant in bringing needed information as traditional leaders and elders were the target population who are well versed in culture and beliefs of the District. Also male traditional leaders and elderly men took part in responding to questionnaires and interviews and this gave the research on the perceptions as well as views of men towards female leadership. Elderly women who were also part of the target population provided the insight on how culture affected them in accessing leadership posts as they are the ones who are perceived to be well versed on cultural issues. Qualitative research design was used to gather data with the use of questionnaires as well as in-depth interviews to a population of twenty seven participants in ward 10, 11 and 18 of Sanyati District. Latent
38 content analysis was used to analyse the data as well as exploratory research design to further understand the effects of socio-cultural beliefs on women leadership.
The theoretical framework that was used was much relevant as it tried to analyse the culture in Zimbabwe, in Sanyati and the type of leadership that is found in African societies as well as the Shona societies. The theoretical framework tried to show how socially constructed roles between men and women helped in fostering low participation of women in the leadership arena. The research reviewed the literature which already exists and relevant assumptions which were applied to data gathering and findings in the field.
However despite the fact that socio-cultural beliefs are influencing low representation of women in leadership, notable efforts are being done in the District to empower women in accordance to the National Gender Policy so that they take part in leadership as there are also female councillors in Sanyati District Council. There is need for the community to unite and make efforts to disband from cultural beliefs and norms that do not support women leadership and support women to participate in leadership. Women empowerment is very much important as women constitute almost 52% of the total population in the District. Participation of women in leadership is important due to their motherly role as they know the needs of vulnerable groups in the society and therefore will enhance social, political and economic spheres of the District’s development. There is a core-relationship between development and peace henceforth the participation of women will bring about development which will result in peace.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
(i) There is need to increase the number of women in leadership positions so that women’s issues and concerns are given attention. The community should disband from patriarchal beliefs and norms that oppress women through sensitisation of the community. Community members should be made aware of the role women play in leadership so that women do not continue to be victims of stereotyping. (ii) Women should be empowered economically by giving them increasing access to community resources and allocating financial resources for women to campaign at par with male counterparts.
(iii) The institution of marriage should be redefined to promote equal decision making for both partners involved. Both men and women in Sanyati should be educated
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and re-oriented to view their marriage institution as an institution in which both have equal power of decision-making, this can help in restoring confidence in women so that they can also have a say in District decision-making bodies.
(iv) Gender roles that objectively discriminate women from leadership should be discarded. A new approach that promotes women leadership should be implemented through advocacy for neutral roles and equality for everyone.
(v) Women should be encouraged and supported to participate in leadership preparation and training programme so that they feel more self-confident and can function effectively once appointed. They should be aware of the difficulties and challenges of the wide socio-cultural context and be ready to meet them.
5.3 AREA FOR FURTHER STUDY
A further study should be carried on the impact of women in key leadership positions on development.
5.4 CONCLUSION
In summary, chapter one outlined the introduction and the background of the study, the statement of the problem, significance of the study, assumptions, research objectives, research questions, and delimitations of the study, limitations of the research, ethical considerations, and definition of key terms. Chapter two presented the literature review as well as the theoretical framework sustaining this study. Chapter three outlined the research design and methodology that will be used in the study. It outlined the sampling process, the data collection, and the data analysis processes that were used in this research. Chapter four presented the data presentation and analysis of the findings on social-cultural beliefs and women leadership in Sanyati Rural District. Chapter five outlined the summary, conclusions and recommendations.
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APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN SANYATI DISTRICT (WARD 10, 11 and 18)
BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF PEACE AND GOVERNANCE
My name is Christine Mwale, a student studying towards the attainment of the BSc. in Peace and Governance at Bindura University and Science Education. As a partial fulfillment of the requirements of the undergraduate program, I am conducting a research on Socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership. A case of Sanyati District. My request to you is to provide me with answers. The data you are going to provide shall be treated as confidential. You are free to ask me any questions related to this research.
Section A: Demographics
Q1: Designation …….………………………………………………..
Q2: Experience
Less than 5 years [ ] 5-10 years [ ] 10+ years [ ]
Q3. Please indicate your gender.
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FEMALE MALE
Q4. What is your age group?
18 – 30 31 – 45 46 – 60 60+
Q5. Highest Level of Education Attained?
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY NONE
Section B : Research questions
Q6: What are the socio-cultural beliefs of the people in Sanyati District? Ndedzipi tsika dzechivanhu dzinotenderwa nevanhu vemudunhu reSanyati?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………
Q7: What are the roles of women in Sanyati District?/ Ndeapi mabasa evanhukadzi mudunhu yeSanyati?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………
Q8: How does society perceive women leaders culturally? Pachivanhu nharaunda inoona sei vatungamiri vechidzimai?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………
Q9: What are the cultural barriers faced by women in accessing leadership posts in Sanyati District. Ndedzipi mhingaidzo dzechivanhu dzinosanganwa nevanhukadzi kuti vawane hugaro hwehutungamiri mudunhu reSanyati?.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………
Q10: Any other comments? (Zvimwewo zvamunofunga)
………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………
End of Questionnaire
Thank You
Tatenda
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APPENDIX II
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ELDERS IN SANYATI DISTRICT WARD 10, 11 AND 18
1. What are the cultures concerning women leadership in Sanyati District/ Ndedzipi tsika dzevanhu ve mudunhu reSanyati maererano nohutongi hwevanhukadzi?
2. What is the kind of leadership found in traditional African societies/Hutongi hwakadii hunowanikwa muAfrica?
3. What is the kind of leadership found within the Shona society/Hutongi hwakadii hunowanikwa muvanhu vechiShona?
4. What are the perceptions of women leadership by modern societies/Mazuvano vanhu vanoona sei hutongi hwamadzimai?
5. What are the perceptions of women leadership by men/ Vanhurume vanoona sei hutongi hwevanhukadzi?
6. What are the challenges faced by women as leaders/Ndedzipi mhingaidzo dzinowanikwa nemadzimai sevatungamiri?
7. What can be done to curb the challenges faced by women leaders? Ndezvipi zvingaitwa kupedza matambudziko anosangana nemadzimai pakutonga kwavo?
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APPENDIX III
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APPENDIX IV
Bindura University of Science Education P. Bag 2010 Bindura
23 February 2017
The Chief Executive Officer Sanyati Rural District Council P.O Box 240 Kadoma Dear Sir/ Madam
REF: REQUEST TO UNDERTAKE RESEARCH PROJECT IN YOUR AREA
I do hereby apply to undertake an academic research project in Sanyati Rural District, ward 10, 11 and 18. I am a fourth year student at Bindura University of Science Education studying towards attaining A Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Peace and Governance. My research topic is Socio-cultural beliefs and women leadership. A case of Sanyati District.
Your assistance and approval will be greatly appreciated and I hope to get a favourable reply.
Yours sincerely
Mwale Christine
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APPENDIX V
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