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RECENT WORKS FOR SOLO PERCUSSION

ESSE STEWART

A thesis subrnitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Graduate Programme in Music York University North York, Ontario

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by ESSE LORNE STEWART a thesis subrnitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of York University in partial futfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS .1999 Permission has been granted to the LIBRARY OF YORK UNI- VERSITY to lend or sell copies of this thesis, to the NATIONAL LIBRARY OF CANADA to microfilm this thesis and to tend or sell copies of the film, and to UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS to publish an abstract of this thesis. The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it rnay be printed or other- wise reproduced without the author's written permission. Abstract

This paper is intendeci as a written complement to a compositional project by the author. A body of music for solo percussion was developed that explores the connedon between the visual and mal senses in a variety of ways. The paper situates the work arnong broader trends in twentieth century music and culture in terms of its style orientation, conceptual wncerns and technical methods- The music is discussed in four categories: works for solo percussion, works for solo drum set, works involvïng electronics, and works for solo lithophone, an instrument of the author's design and construction. The thesis also inciudes scores for each of the works discussed and audio recordings of the majority of the pieces. Many people have supported me during the creation of my composition thesis. 1 would Ue to extend my sincerest of thanks to dlof rny teachers, especidy my parents and grandparents as well as my advisors David Lidov, David Mott, and James Te~ey.1 can only hope that 1 have learneci the lessons they have taught so well. Thanks also to Josh Thorpe, Mike Kane, and Paul Ruston for their fkiendship, advice and assistance with the recordhg process. Euaiiy, 1 would Wre to thank Michele McMïlian for her constant love and encouragement and for believing in me. Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...... v

Tableofcontents...... vi

Chapter One

Introduction ...... 1 ANewSenseRatio ...... 3 General Characteristics of my Recent Work ...... 9 Improvisation ...... 11 Notation ...... 14

Chapter Two

Works for Solo Percussion...... 18

Chapter Three

Works for Solo Dmm Set...... 3 1 A Bnef fistory of the Drum Set Solo...... 33 Towards a Typology of Drum Set Sounds...... 43

Chapter Four

Works Involving Electronics...... 7 1 Chapter Five

Works for Lithophone...... 78 Constnicting the Multi-Intonational Lithophone...... 80

Chapter Six

Appendix A

List of Recorded Examples...... 11 1

Appendix B

Scores...... 112 List of Tables

Table 1.

Factors Influencing the Relative Pitch of Drum Set Sounds ...... 55

Table 2a.

Factors Muencing the Timbre ofDmm Set Sounds: Vqhgthe Mode of Articulation...... 61

Factors Iduencing the Timbre of Drum Set Sounds: Aitering the Vibrahg Object...... 67

Table 3.

Frequency Values of the Eighth Tone Lithophone...... 87

Table 4.

Comparison ~f'~Columbine"Tuning with Closest Lithophone Approximation...... 90

Table 5.

Cornparison of 3,5,7 Hamonic Space to Lithophone Approximation...... 98 List of Figures

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Cornparison of Hard and Sofi Beater...... 59

Figure 3.

Block Diagram of Electronics Set-up Used in Conjunction With Amustic Dmm Set...... 75

Figure 4.

3,5,7 Harmonie Space...... 93

Figure 5.

Adaptation of 3,5,7 Space to Two-Dimensional Playing Surface...... 94 CHAPTER 1:

Introduction

For the past two and a halfyears, 1 have been studying both ethnomusicology and

composition in York University's graduate programme in music. Having come to York as

an MA candidate in ethnomusicology, 1entered the new graduate level composition

programme on a somewhat provisional basis. As an undergraduate student, 1 majored in

both visual arts and music; however, the music department 1 had attended did not offer

any courses in composition and as a resuit I had very little experience as a composer.

Most of my experiences in working with sound had in fact developed through my interest and involvement with the visual arts. 1 worked in the areas of sound sculpture, performance art, video, musical theatre and instrument design as 1 becarne increasingiy interesteci in the relations between visual and sonic information. As a perfonner, my main instrument had been the dmset. It seemed to me that the physical actions involved in playing most percussion instruments had a built-in visual component. 1 began worhg with this physicality in the work 1 was doing as both an artist and musician.

I mention all of this to provide a contes for the compositional work which forms the bask of my thesis in music composition. Using a variety of compositional techniques,

I have developed a body of work for mainIy solo percussion which explores the wnnection between the visual and aura1 senses in a variety of ways. Although these pieces vary considerably in terms of form and content, 1have come to consider this to be one body of work because of the interdisciplinary quality that aii of these works share- The present paper is intended as a complement to this compositional endeavour. Broadly speaking, its aims are to situate my work in the context of contemporary music with respect to its technical methods and style orientation. For the saice of clarity, 1will discuss the work under four categones: works for solo percussion (ï.ncIudmgpieces for found objects), works for solo dmset, works involving electronics, and works for solo lithophone, an instrument of my own design and construction.

The titles of the compositions which form the basis for my thesis in music composition are listed below dong with the page numbers where each is discussed in the text.

Compos~~tionfor Steel Bowl and Cylidr @p. 24, 1 1 1, 1 12, 14 1 -42) SIidng Music for one, two, or three performers @p. 13,24,25,1 1 1, 1 12, 14345) Hiding Places for resonant seashell @p. 13,24, 1 1 1, 1 12, 146-47) Jiinctwes for stone drill cores (pp. 24, 1 1 1, 1 12, 158-62) Bell Gme for marble tables, rnortars and rounded stones (pp. 24, 1 1 1, 112, 148-52) (71.5 x IS x 2) + 2 for rnarble slab and rounded stones (pp. 24, 1 1 1, 1 12, 153-57) SiinRisintg. WimiBlowingfor solo Inm @nt (pp. 13,24,25, 111, 112, 140) Cynibal Stuc@ #I (pp. 24,52, 11 1,112, 113) Three StucàFes for Inwrted Snme Dnn (pp. 24,25, 54, 63, 1 1 1, 1 12, 1 14-18) Jzm-Pop Hi-Haf @p. 9,24, 111, 112, 119) Shr@ for a Single Dnmr @p. 24.51, 11 1, 112, 120) Compositionfor Bars Dnmi and CymbuI @p. 24,54,69,1 1 1, 1 12, 121-24) Shimmer for solo drum set (pp. 24, 25, 32, 56, 69, 1 1 1, 112, 125-3 1) Life Support for solo dmet (pp. 24,30,32, 52, 54, 56, 1 11, 1 12, 132-3 5) GhostDnmsfor solo dmset @p. 13,24,32, 111, 112, 136) Iam a CCllUZdim for dmm set, record player, and electronics @p. 75-77, 109, 11 1, 112, 137-38) Echoes for dmset and electronics (pp. 69, 75, 11 1, 1 12, 139) Jacob 'sPiZZm (23574 for solo Lithophone (pp. 95-96,11 1,112, 163-69) Silktone in three movements (2357-b) for solo lithophone (pp. 95-96,11 1, 112, 170-73) Stone Chgesfor solo lithophone (pp. 10, 12, 99, 1 1 1, 1 12, 174-257) A New Stnse Ratio

Where do we go fiom here? Towards theatre. That art more than music resernbles nature. We have eyes as well as m. and it is our business while we are alive to use them. - John Cage (1957: 12)

Some recent studies in the field of cognitive psychology have suggested that studying music can actually improve childrens' cognitive abilities (Costa-Giomi 1997,

Rauscher et al. 1997, Hassler et al. 1985, Kalmar 1982, Hurwitz et al. 1975). Specincally, evidence suggests that training in music improves toddlers' spatial reasoning, that is, theû ability to understand the relations between objects in space. The implication here is that studying sounds in tirne helps to develop neural pathways in the brain that are also used in the perception of objects in space. 1 have ofien wondered about the extent to which this comection shapes our perceptions later in Me. Marshall McLuhan suggested that the comection between the visuai, aura1 and other sensory perceptions foms the very basis of human imagination (1962:3 14). He mites:

Imagination is that ratio arnong the perceptions and faculties which exists when they are not embedded or outered in material technologies. When so outered, each sense and ficulty becomes a closed system. Prior to such outering there is entire interplay among experiences (1962:3 14).

McLuhan cites the invention of the printed word and the p~tingpress as the primas> culprits in the fragmentation of human creativity (the "outering" of visual perception).

Joan Truckenbrod has sumrnarized: McLuhan] says that our ability to think and feei 'kinaesthetically'. in such a way as to bring hearing, seeing, tpsting and touching together. has diminished with the development of print .... Printed text channels human minds dong straight, linear ways of thinking, while preventing haesthetic thought and feeiing. As the printing press evolved, written text became a predominant means of communication. In print, words became divorced f?om related modes of expression, such as voice, gesture, dance, song, and from a-ated behaviours, such as ntuals and storytelling (1992:89).

The twentieth century has presented a number of technologies that fùndamentaly

challenge the hegemonic role that the printed word once held in Western society

Television, fiim, video and cornputer technologies invoke both the visual and the aura1

senses. There is ample evidence to suggest that this shiA in material technologies has

precipitated a change in what McLuhan referred to as the "sense ratio" (1962:3 14). In the

creative arts, there have been many attempts to create works in which there is an interplay

among the senses.' Early in this century, Alexander Scriabin's S'hony No. 3,

Prometheus - Be Poem of Fire ((1910) calleci for a special keyboard to project coloured

lights in conjunction with the music. A number of experhents by the Fuhirists and

Dadaists were sùnilarly interdiscipiinary in nature. Since World War KI, there has been a

proweration of these intersections between music and the visual arts: the graphic notations of John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian WoKand others, the instruments of Harry Partch, the sound sculptures of Hamy Bertoia, the "happenings" of the 196OYs7installation and

1 There were of course many such endeavours pnor to the twentieth œntqas well. The most notable of these is perhaps the operatic tradition in ali dits maniféstations. However, it would seem that the present situation is somewhat Werent gïven the sape and variety of interdiscip~modes of artistic production. It shouid be noted too that these endeavours have not been restricted to the reaim of so-caüed "hi& culture." One needs to look no fiirther tban to the modem rock video and MTV for examples of interdiscipiinary activity with popular appeal. perfonmance art, multi-media (or "intermedia") works by Nam June Paik and others, the

environrnents of LaMonte Young and Marian Zazeela, not to mention the

host of innovations in the realrns of musical theatre and opera. These are only a few

examples of the trend toward interdiscipharity. In each case, the conneaion between the

visual and aura1 goes far beyond mere analogy and metaphor, in these works, Our

expenences of time and space are inextricably linked.

Wtthin the field of music composition itse& electronic music has proven to be a

decisive fdor in the integration of the temporal and spatial. With the advent of magnetic

tape, composers were presented with a quantifiable and tangible spatial entity that had a

direct correlation to musical tirne. John Cage sumarized the impact of tape in a 1957

lecture:

Whether one uses tape or writes for conventional instruments, the present musical situation has changed fiom what it was before tape came into being .... Since so many inches of tape equal so many seconds of tirne, it has become more and more usual that notation is in space rather than in symbols of quarter, haand sixteenth notes and so on. Thus where on a page a note appears wiil correspond to when in tirne it is to occur (1957: 11).

Electronic music had several other effects as weil. It presented composers with a practîcal means of developing al1 pararneters of sound to a more or less comparable level.

Prior to the twentieth century, the pitch parameter received by far the greatest attention in

Western music. Twentieth centuly percussion music did much to elevate the status of other pararneters (duration in particular) but it was electronic music that afforded composers the opportunity to explore the nuances of pararneters such as dwation, timbre and loudness in quantifiable ways. It has since become customary to discuss "shape7' in each of these parameters. Tirne-space diagrams or "parametric pronies" (see Temey

198'6) have become an integral part of the compositional process for many composers

both withh the field of electronic music and without. The notion of shape in music has

many ramifications. For example, Tenney offers the foilowing definition of Yom" in the

Dictio~~~of Twentieth Centwy Music:

In the most general sense form consists of shape (contour, the variation of some attriiute of a thing in space or tirne) and structure (the disposition of the parts of a hg,relations of one part to another and to the whole). In music, shape is the result of changes in time of some attribute or parameter of sound, while stmcture has to do with various relations between sounds and sound configurations at the same or at difKerent moments in time (1 974:242).

Electronic music has prompted composers to explore the spatial dimension of sounds in yet another way- In a 1958 lecture, Karlheinz Stockhausen suggested that in addition to pitch, duration, timbre, and loudness, spatial location ought to be considered one of the primary pararneters of musical sound (1959:67-82). He viewed some of his own experiments with electronic music as a means of making "...the direction and movement of sound in space, ... accessible as a new dimension for musical experience"

(ibid. 68). He goes on to explah the historical development of this practice. In early electronic music, composers tended to give equal emphasis to ail musical parameters. This often led to the aeation of music in which all pararneters were constantly changing. 'W one wanted to articulate larger tirne-phases," he explains, "the only way of doing this was to let one sound-characteristic predominate over ail others for some tirne. However, under the circumstances then prevalent, this would have radically wntradicted the spirit which gave biito the idea of qua1 vduation for di sound characteristics" @id. 69).

Stockhausen and other composers of electronic music found a solution to this problem

through the exploration of the spatial dimension of musical experience:

And a solution was found to distribute in space, among dBerent groups of loudspeakers, or instruments, variously long tirnephases of this kuid of homogenous sound-structure. Up to then spatial wmposition of sounds had played no active part in music; it was therefore perceived as an 'entkely dBerent7 =und property which woutd hardly be in a position to dominate over the sound-characteristics associated with tirne. (In the meantime this has fbndamentaily changed, and we notice more and more how all musicc~li&a are becoming sporiai)" (ibid.69-70, emphasis added).

Stockhausen cites his own Gesmg der Jiinge and GmppenjZr &ei Orchesferas

exarnples of eIectronic and instrumental works (respectively) in which the spatial

dimension is so utilized. Varèse also used electro-acoustic materials in this way in the

1958 performance of Poème Électronique inside the Philips paviiion designed by Le

Corbusier for the 1958 Brussels World Fair. The piece was played through more than 400

loudspeakers distributed throughout the space. This practice has many descendants, perhaps the rnost notable being the architectural works of Tannis Xenakis.

The tools of eleztronic music composition have changed considerably in recent years. Many composers have discarded magnetic tape and splicing block and adopted the computer as their prirnary means of musical wmposition. The importance of visual information in the compositional process has never been greater. Composers can now see a visual representation of the sounds thqr are working with on theu computer screen.

With the point of a cursor and click of a mouse, composers can alter any waveform, changing its envelope or spectral content, or merging one wavefom with another,

Technological innovations such as these have fbndarnentaily altered the compositional

process and, 1 would suggest, the way in which we conceive of musical sound.

Cornputers also dow composers and vidartists to mate works which apped to a

variety of senses in the listener. Joan Truckenbrod suggests: "The next generation of

artists is being educated to express ideas in a multidimensional manner involving sound,

voice, visual images, te* gesture, touch and movement. The computer system thus

facilitates the development of integrated creativitf' (1992:90).~

There is much evidence to suggest that technological changes in the twentieth

century have precipitated a culturai shift in the West. Unlike printed text, media such as

television, film, video and computers appeal to both the aura1 and visual senses and have

therefore helped to reintegrate visual perception with Our other perceptual faculties

creating a new "sense ratio." 1 believe that the trend towards interdisciplinarïty in the

crdve arts since World War II can be explaineci in part by these developments. Withh

-thefield of music composition itselÇ developments in electronic music and computer

technology have strengthened the ties between the aurai and visual, the temporal and the

spatial-

It is somewhat paradoXical that the acnial sounds of elecbonic music, a medium which has donc ss much to integrate the spatial and temporal dimensions, are in and of themselves udywithout spatial Merence. Electronic sounds exist in independence hmany physical action or gesture used in their production. This is in direct contrast to most vocal and instnimental sound: the sounds of a violin, mare dnun or tnimpet generally embody the physical gestures used in their production, Even in listening to a recording of these sounds, we are generally able to intuit the physical gestures ùwolved. This is not usualty the case with electronidy producai souad altbough we do clearly perceive changes in energetic states which mrry or may not have some gestural associations. Gentrd Characteristics of my Recent Work

Although 1do not use magnetic tape or cornputers in any of my compositions, 1 believe my work to be very much in keeping with the trend toward interdisciplinatity. I see two fundamental ways in which visual information plays an important role in my recent works for percussion. The first relates to the compositional and performance processes involved in some of the work. In my pieces for lithophone, 1 use a form of graphic notation in which a given two-diensionai shape has a direct analogue on a particular instrument. 1also fiequently use pafametric profles in the pre-wmpositional stages of a work. These occasionaily persist in the finai score where they are meant to serve as memorative aids (almost ail of my scores are to be memorized pnor to their performance).

In both cases, the performer translates two-dimensional shapes into particular sonic gestures. Much of my work also has a visual component fiom the perspective of the audience.

Most of my pieces involve unconventionai sounding agents andlor extended playing techniques. For example, 1 make fiequent use of "found objects" in my percussion pieces. Using a steel pipe, mixing bowl or seasheil as a musical instrument is visually engaging precisely because these objects are familiar to us. Heming them in a musical composition causes us to see them in a new iight. In a number of pieces, 1 emphasize the sculptural qualities of the instruments involved. For example, in Jï&Pop Hi-Haf, the top cymbd of a hi-hat is wrapped in aluminum foil. As the piece unfolds in the, the aiuminum does so in space thereby altering not ody the timbre of the instrument, but its visual appearance as well. 1 believe that the physical nature of many of the performance techniques dedfor in my pieces also has visual interest. The physical gestures uivolved in playing most percussion instruments generally occur over larger spaces than those used to play wind and string instruments to begin with. The expanded sonic vocabulary of many of my works and the extended techniques used to create that vocabulary highlight the physicality of the instruments involved. This ernphasis on gesture lends a certain theatrical sense to much of the work which is highly visual.

The placement of instruments in space is also of interest to nre. This is evident in

Stone Chges, a a of 64 pieces for solo lithophone. The perfonner denves Ruiings ranghg from six to twelve tones by randomly sdecting certain stone pieces nom a larger set of tuned Stones. These Stone subsets are organized into the patterns associated with each hexagram of the 1C'ng. Seeing as there are only a limited number of stones available, the perfomer must constantly rearrange the stones throughout the performance space during the adperformance. 1 have corne to thllik cf this piece as a musical drawing of sorts for it involves both spatial constructions and sound. Improvisation

Almost aU of my work involves improvisation to some extent. Improvisation in

Western music has a lengthy history as rnost writers on the topic readily point out @dey

1992: 19-38, Dean 1989:xvi-xvii, Nachmanovitch 1990:7-8, Nunn l998:9J 2). Over the

past fifty years or so, improvisation has taken on renewed signincance in Western Art

music. Many composers have dedfor some fonn of improvisation in the performance of

their work including John Cage, Earle Brown, Karlhehz Stockhausen, Morton Feldman,

Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, and Pauline Oliveros to narne only a few. This trend can be

seen as part of a larger movement in twentieth century Western music toward

indeterminacy, that is "...musical material that is unpredictable before a performance"

(Childs 1974:33 6).

The concepts of improvisation, indeterminacy and chance in music overlap to some

extent. Bmey Childs regards chance and improvisation as examples of indeterminacy in

music (ibid.). Roger Dean, on the other hand, objects to the term indeterminacy

suggesting that it has becorne sufncientiy general to be rarely usefûl in relation to music

(1 989:xvüi). Roger Reynolds sees improvisation, indetenninacy, and chance as,

"...progressive degrees of a tendency to lave detail unspecined" and goes on to note:

The latter two are distinct nom improvisation in that the notion of a 'common practice' is excluded a priori. If one wants the stylized fieedom of improvisation, an appropriately fiamed set of conventions is necessary. If on the other hand, a composer wants an indeterminate situation, there can be no preferred solutions-and, ultimately, in the case of chance, virtually no 'mies' (1965: 136). Tom Nunn has cntiqued Reynolds' notion that improvisation necessafily involves some

sort of 'cornmon practice,' noting that in fiee improvisation no such set of conventions

exists, at least in the traditional sense (1998:22). Given the confitsion which has

developed surrounding the use of these terms, some deGnitions of my own might be in

order in the present context.

To my minci, the differences between improvisation, indeterminacy, and chance?

"of= as they apply to my own compositional practice, relate mainly to the stages at

which the unpredictable elements occur. Chance operations are essentie compositional

tools. Decisions are left to chance at the compositional or pre-compositional stages of a

work The ody piece of mine to employ chance operations thus defined is Stone Chges.

In this set of works, sixty-four different tunings were derived by randomiy selecting cards

fiom a weIi-shded deck3 In contrast to chance, 1 see improvisation as mainly a

performer's craft. Improvisation takes place when purposehl variations occur in different

performances of a particular work (for present purposes, 1am considering free

improvisation as a separate entity). The relationship between composition and

improvisation is wmplicated somewhat in my case as 1 am the most fiequent performer of

my own compositions. I consider my pieces to be compositions in that they are based on a

repeatable set of gestures (in both the physical and musical sense) which can be performed

and recognized nom performance to performance. However, variations in timing, rhythm,

1give perfonners the option of deriving theu own Ounings ushg chance operations if they so desire. T'us, it is possi'ble for performers to employ chance operations as weii, although in this case too, the chance elements must be determinaï prior to performance. timbre, pitch etc. are bound to ocwdue to the open-ended nature of the instructions 1

provide-

1 consider those variables which cannot be predicted based on a particular action

or set of actions to be the indeterminate aspects of my work4 For example, in Ghost

ms,the performer is ktmcteci to improvise on a dmset which is covered by a white

bed sheet. The pecfomer's actions are intended to cause the sheet to fd to the ground

thereby ailowing the drums and cymbals to ring fieely. However, the performer has no

real way of howing if or when the sheet is going to fidi. As a result, the fom of the work

is indeterminate in tenns of its overail duration, the relation of parts to the whole and in

certain timbral characteristics. Simiiarly, in SIicii'ngMusic, it is very diicuft to control the

rate at which the metal pole descends with any precision. This action detennines not only

the duration of the piece, but the rate of change with respect to pitch. Thus, these aspects

of the work are also largely indeterminate. These unpredictable elements are simiiar to

Cage's experiments with 'music of contingency,' that is music produced using instruments in whkh the sonic effect can not be predicted based on the techniques involved. Other works of mine in which this potential for discontinuity between cause and effi exists uiclude Sun Rising, Wind Blowing and Hidmg Places. In Sm Rising, the performer is inst~ctedto strike a tmn with the bot-end of a rope. Each part of the hot yields a different timbre when it strikes the iam hmbut the performer has no way of predicting which portion of the bot will strike. In Hiding Places, the pefiormer is instructed to tip a seasheli filied with wata, a technique employed by John Cage in his piece entitled InleB.

This sometimes results in a gurgiing sound but just as often it produces no sound at ail.

Notation

Given the improvisatory nature of most of my work and the fact that al1 of my pieces were denfor me to perform, my tendency has been to treat the notation of my compositions in a somewhat perfbnctory marner. For the most part, I consider the notation process to be a way of documenting the work rather than communicating it.

However, 1have endeavoured to notate the work in such a way as to preserve the compositional intent of each piece so that performers other than myselfmight be able to perforrn these pieces.

The twentieth century has presented a wide variety of notational strategies to choose fiom. In Nofafrfafronin NOY Music, Erhard Karkoschka suggests that developments in twentieth century notation can be classifiai into four main types: changes in traditional notation, partly new principles, completely new p~ciples,and the notation of electronic music (19725). Among the changes in traditional notation, composers of percussion music have greatly expandeci the number of symbols used to describe instrument and mallet types. At the 2974 IntenwtionaI Conference on New Musicul Notation, no fewer than ninety-five symbols were suggested for various percussion instruments and mdets

4 The scores for these works might be considered to be indeterminate when pedonistsother than myseif pecform them as a wide variety of interpretations are possible. In ruy own pecformance practice, however, these works have becorne fhirly stabilizsd. Stone et ai. 1975:68-78). Unfortunately, these symbols do not provide any indication

of the way(s) in which the instruments or mailets are to be used. This is a problern in my

case given the unconventional playing techniques involved in the work Moreover, it has

âlways seemed to me that it is just as easy (iiiinot easier) to write the name of a partiailar

instrument as it is to draw a pictorial representation of it.

Under "partly new principles," Karkoschka cites proportional notation, qualitative

notation and action notation as twentieth century innovations. In reference to action

notation, he writes:

By contrast with conventional notation of pitch and duration, it does not indicate the resultant sound but the action leading to it .... Action notations are absolutely necessary wherever our notation has no equivalent expression; most noises can onIy be notated as actions, for instance. On the other hancl, donnotation is superfiuous when the exact or approxhate result cm be written down. Here the action can be drrected by symbols with pre-arranged meanings, or by verbal instructions written in the score. In some works the latter are so prevalent or so completely predorninant that one can speak of a verbal score (1972:3).

Karkoschka refers to verbal scores dong with tempered notation and graphic scores as

"completely new principles" in twentieth century notation (ibid. 5). 1 have adopted verbal scores for the majority of my percussion pieces. This approach has a number of advantages. It uses a set of symbols with which most English speakers are already famiiiar and the possibitity for translation into other languages exists. Verbal scores also provide a convenient way to describe the extended playing techniques involved in much of the work.

A number of twentieth century composers have used verbal scores extensively including

Pauline Oliveros, Malcolm Goldstein, Phiiiip Corner, and Alvin Lucier. There is a certain poetic sense inherent in rnany of their works and this quality is weU served by this type of notation, In many cases, a more traditional form of notation would undennine this sensibility.

In developing sets of written ped?orrnance insfnictions, 1 have tried to convey those aspects ofthe work which 1feel are most integral to the intent of each piece. The results vaiy to some extent; however, in most of rny pieces for single percussion instruments, drum set and found objects, the physid gestures involved in the production of the work are ofprimary importance. Thus, 1 have tried to describe these gestures and areserve a sense of gestural continuity in each verbal score.

The physical gesture of performance has, until recently, received relatively little attention fiom Western composers and theorists. John Baily explains:

A wmrnon Western view regards music as primarily a sonic phenornenon; study of the motor control of musical performance may be interesthg but is ultimately irrelevant to the central issue, which is the perception of musical sounds-fiom single sine waves to extended musical structures. It is to ethnomusicology that the task of inquiry into the nature of music has Men, for only ethnomusicology has access to the necessuy cross-cultural data needed to distinguish between the culture specific and the universai (1985:238).

Baily goes on to discuss the role of physical gesture in various Afiican musics as well as the movement patterns used in playing the Herati &far and the M@an &ab (ibid.238-

256). In Wqs of the Hmd (1 W8), David Sudnow describes the role of bodily geshire in his approach to jazz piano performance. John BrowneU (1994) has discussed the role of physical gesture in dmset improvisation within the jazz wntext and provides an analytid heworkbased on the interpretation of a performer's physical interaction with the instrument. It is a tiiirly srnaIl step to suggest that such a fiamework could be used in the process of music transmission whether fiom tacher to student or nom composer to performer.

The spatial notations used in my pieces for lithophone are an extension of my preoccupation with physical gesture. Rather than describe each action, however, 1define a series of areas or 'shapes' withùi which physical actions are intended to take place.

These shapes are denved nom the instrument's physical configuration and as a result, each shape represents a particular set of harmonic relations. 1 have chosen to leave most details ofrhythm, duration etc. unspecined in these scores as 1 am mainly interested in exploring harmonic relationships in my pieces for lithophone. It should be noted, however, that this fom of notation aliows for the possibility of shiffing the main focus of the works from harmony to melody adorrhythm. As with aIl of my notated works, the scores for the lithophone pieces ought to be regardeci as templates which provide certain conditions within which musical activity can occur. CHAPTER 2:

Works For Solo Percussion

Percussion music is revolution.

- John Cage (1939:87)

Percussion has attained a new Ievel of prominence in Western music of -the

twentieth century. Accordmg ta David Cope, "The percussion section has beem the area

in which the maximum degree of eniargement and experimentation has taken place"

(1971 :65). Early in the century, a number of composers employed expanded percussive

resources in their works. Strawisky's Le Sucre du Printemps (1913) is ofken hailed as a

particularly important work in the development of twentieth century writing for

percussion. The percussive nature of Le &me ciu Printemps has led some writers to

suggest that Stravinsky conceived of the entire orchestra as a percussion instrument.

Robert Houston has summarized:

It is this work, perhaps more than any other Stravinsky composition thart one associates with percussion. But in actuality?the reason for this belkf is based on the fact that in Le &cre du Printemps, Stravinsky utilised the entire orchestra as a percussion sonority. Percussion instruments provideci rhythmic complexity and generated tremendous power while contributirmg exotic wlour to the orchestration (1978: 11).

Stravinsky's interest in percussion is evident in a number of other works, notabRy

L 'Histoire hu Som(1918). In L 'Histoire, Stravinsky gives one of the first examples in twentieth century concert music of a multiple percussion set-up for one perfomner. This was Uely innuenceci by Stravinsky's interest in jazz and popular musics ofthe day in which percussionists ofien perforrned on multiple instruments known collectively as a

'trap-set'. Other early twentieth cen- works to reference this tradition include Darius - Milhaud's La Creafi'on du Monde (1923) and William Waiton's Fa& (1923). It is worth noting that in L ' Histoire du Sol',Stravinsky paid particular attention to the visual attniutes of the percussion part, providing detailed instructions on how the instruments ought to be set up and where on the stage they should be placed.

Perhaps more than any other twentieth century composer, it was the work of

Edgard Varèse that was to elevate the status of percussion to that of soloist. Chou Wen-

Chung has summarized his impact:

In his use of percussion instruments, warese ] added to the composer's resources a profise variety of new timbres and modes of articulation and termination. He elevated the percussion instruments to a truly independent position (1 966:4).

In works such as Amérïques (1 9 18-2 1)' Hprprïsm (1922-3)' Intégrales (1924-5), and

Arumo (1925-7)' Varèse employed large percussive forces in conjunction with other groups of instniments. In loniwtzon (1929-3 1)' Varèse created one of the first modern works written exclusively for Scored for thirty-seven percussion instruments and thirteen perfonners, Ionisaiion is a landmark in twentieth century percussion music.

With the exception of the piano, celesta, chimes and siren, aiI of the instruments in

Ionisafion are of indefinite pitch. Where earlier work privileged pitch relations, Varèse used texture and sonority as the main structural features. Robert Cr& explains:

- -- The experiments of the Italian Futurist composer Luigi Russolo with noise-produchg instruments pre- date Ionisation by more than a decade. George Antheil's Ballet Méchanipe (1926) for pianos and assorteci percussion also predates Vadse's work. Each section ofIonisation is identifid by its own combination of uistniments, or range of sonority, and each important change in the substance of the sonoriîy is also a demarcation in the form, ...(Zn Ouellette 1968: 108-9).

Perhaps the most infiuential aspect of this and other works by Varèse has been the

composer's extensive use of complex sounds or noises in the music. In a 1959 lecture

Varése declared: "My ahhas always been the liberation of sound - to throw open the

whole world of sound to music" (ibid. 47). This ideal has had tremendous impact on the

development of music in the twentieth century. John Cage summarized:

-..more cleary and actively than anyone else of his generation, [Varèse] established the present nature of music. This nature does not arise fiom pitch relations (consonance-dissonance) nor from twelve tones nor seven plus five (Schoenberg-Stravinsiry), but arises fiom an acceptance of ail audible phenornena as material proper to music. While others were still discriminating "musical" tones fiom noises, Varèse moved into the field of sound itset: not splitting it in two by introducing into the perception of it a mental prejudice (1 958:83).

The most obvious descendant of this approach to sonic materials was Cage

belf Like Varèse, Cage was a major proponent of percussion music in the twentieth

century. His involvement with percussion began in the mid 1930's and continued throughout his career. in his Autobiogrqhicul Stutement of 1989, Cage recalled his move into the field of percussion:

1 became an assistant to Oskar Fischinger, the film maker, to prepare myseifto write the music for one of his films. He happened to say one day, "Everything in the world has its own spirit which can be released by setting it into vibration." 1 began hitting, rubbing everything, listening, and then writing percussion music, and playing it with fiends (1989:61). For Cage, percussion music represented a Mcwith the music of the future. In a 1937

lecture, he summarized his views:

Percussion music is a conternporary transition fiom keyboard-infiuenced music to the dl-sound music of the fûture. Any sound is acceptable to the composer of percussion music; he explores the acadernically forbidden "non-musical" field of sound insofu as is rnanuaiiy possible7' (1937:3).

In the late 1930s' Cage staged a series of dl-percussion concerts in San Francisco

dong with fellow percussion composer Lou Harrison. These concerts featured many

instruments made fkom found objects including automobile brake drums, tram-car sp~gs,

iron pipes, and metal sheets. This spirit of experimentation with sounding materials is

evident in a number of works f?om the period, notably Firsi Coltsfruction (ZnMetal)

(1939). This work, Wce many of Cage's early percussion pieces, used rhythmic structure

to impart formal logic to the work. Lou Harrison referred to this method as the 'square

root foxmula' (1 971 : 10- 1 1) for the macro-structure of the work was made to mirror its

micro-structure . At the heart of First CollSfrUction is a sixteen measure unit which is

divided into groups of 4-3-2-3-4 masures. Each of these sixteen measure units is

repeated sixteen times in the pattern of 4-3-2-3-4to yield large sections of 64,48, 32,48,

and 64 measpures. The piece also features a fiai coda which consists of a nine mure

phrase in the paneni 2-3-4. Merworks to employ the 'square root formula' or variations thereof include the Second and fiird Colt~frtrctiom(1 940 and 194 1, respectively), Qumfet: 12 Tom Toms (1 943) and Imagrgrnary~~s No. 2 - 5.

According to Lou Harrison, the musical result of using this process, "... suggests a Mandala - balancd and temporally symmetricn (ibid. 1 1). Cage extendeci bis percussive sensibiiities to other instruments as well. In î%e

Wotlc;lérfirZ Wi&w of Eighreen Spnhgs (1942), the performer is instructed to stdce

diierent parts of a closed piano with his or her fingers and knuckies. In the works for

prepared piano, notably the So~tasandInterludes fiom 1946-8, various objects such as

bolts, screws, and bits of plastic and rubber are inserted between the piano's strings at

specîfic locations. No longer able to vibrate fkely, the strings yieId percussive sononties

which have been likened on numerous occasions to the sounds of an Indonesian gamelan.

The piano is thus effectively transformed into a percussion ensemble under the control of

one performer.

PossibIy more than any other Cage innovation, it was his use of chance operations

that would have the most profound impact on Western music and cultural thought in the

twentieth century- Beginning with Muric of Chonges in 1951, Cage used chance

procedures to make compositional decisions. When asked later in life if his experiences in writing for percussion Muenced his use of chance procedures he remarked: "Variations in gongs, tom toms, etc. and particularty, variation in the effects on pianos of the use of preparations, prepared me for the renunciation of intention and the use of chance operations" (Smith 1983:3). He stressed the importance of percussion throughout his career, saying "I remain a percussion composer whether 1write for percussion instruments or not. That is, my work is never based, stnicturally or as an instance of process, on fiequency but rather on duration considerations" (ibid.). Remembering his 1939 dictum,

Cage summarized füs me-long attitude towards percussion: 1 stEU believe what 1 wrote in 1939 (Silence, p. 87). c'Percussion music is revolution." New music: new society- 1 don't think, as some seem to be thinking, that the percussion should become like the other sections of the orchestra, more expressive in their te- (overtone structure, fiequency). 1 believe that the rest of the orchestra shouid become as noisy, poverty- strieken, and unemployed as the percussion section (or at least gant its acceptability in musical Society). 1 do not mean anything hierarchical. 1 just mean accepting the fjict that noises are sounds and that music is made with sounds, not just musical sounds (ibid. 4).

Seven years after his death and alrnost a haE-century &er Music of Changes,

Cage's influence is still pervasive among composers and other members of the Western

culturai community. There have of course been many additionai contributions to the

percussionist's repertoire of great signiticance: Toccata by Chavez, Lou Hamison's Fugue for Perctlssz-on, Stockhausen's Zyklus, Feldman's The King of Denmark, Persephava by

Xenakis, Dnmrming by Steve Reich, the three dmm quartets of James Tenney - these are

only a few of the many important examples of twentieth century music for percussion. I

have chosen to limit my remarks on the history of percussion music as this is not the main

focus of the present paper. Moreover, many of the seeds for subsequent developments in

percussion music (my own experiments included) can be found within the Cageian oeuvre.

The notion that "eve-g in the world has its own spirit which can be released by setting it into vibration" which so Mpressed Cage in 1936 is implicit in much of my work as weli. This sentiment is perhaps most readiiy apparent in my pieces for found objects. The Random Houre Dictioltcay of Ar? und Atisfs defines "found object" as

".. . an object selected and displayed as art, without material alteration to the form in which it was found" (1988: 194). Although this term is generally used in reference to visual art, it seems an appropriate way to desaie several of my recent musical experiments for 1

have exploreci the vibration potential of a number offamiliar objects. Included in this

category of works are Compositionfor Steel Bowl ond Cylinkr; Sliding Music for One,

Two, or Three Performers; Shell Game for mahle tables, mortars and rounded stones;

Jtntctwes for stone cylinders; Hiding Places for resonant seashell; and (71.5 x 15 x 2) + 2

for marble slab and polished stones. In each of these works, the "instruments" involveci

are relatively cornmon objects.

In my pieces for single percussion instruments and drum set, 1 generally elicit

unusual timbres and sononties through the use of unconventional playing techniques.

Among the works for traditionai percussion instruments are Sun Rising Wind Blowing for

solo tam-tam, Am-Pop Hi-Hat for solo hi-hat, Compositionfor BmDm and Cpbul,

Stuc& for a SiNe Dm,ïïuee Srudesfor rlhverted Snme Drum, and Cymbal Shrdy # 1.

My prirnary relationship to each of these individual instniments (with the exception of the tatam) has been hou& the drum set. Moreover, the technical vocabulary of these works has much in cornmon with my pieces for dnun set, namely Shimmer, Ghost Drtrms, and Life Sqpporf. Thus, the majority of rny comments with regard to the technical methods called for in my pieces for single percussion instruments wiU be made in the chapter on dam set. 1 have devoted separate chapters to those works which involve electronics and the multi-intonational lithophone because of the unusual instruments and technoiogies required in those pieces.

Several of my pieces explore the repetition ofa single, constant action. In many cases, these actions yield complex and unexpected results. For exarnple, in Cymbal Stdy #I, the performer is directeci to rapidly bow the edge of a cymbal with a Molin or ce110

bow. GraduaDy increasïng the pressure of the bow against the cymbal's edge causes

different cymbal overtones to sound. Midway through the piece, the performer

manoeuvres his or her fiee hand above the bell of the cymbal, shaping its resonance even

fbrther. The sonic result is constantly changing although the physical gestures involved

remain essmtially the same throughout the piece. Other pieces based on a single repeated

action Uiclude Shimmer for solo drum set, SZidrngMtuc, SmRising, WindBlowing, and

the first of ïkee Sl~rilesfor Imerted Snare Drtntl.

In certain works, physical tasks establish the form of a piece. In SmRising Wid

Blowing, for exampie, the perforrner is instructed to spin a white rope with knots tied in

each end in a counter-clockwise direction. In his or her left hand, the performer is holding

a srnall tmn fam, 30 - 40 cm in diametre, at waist height. The spinning rope is allowed to

strike the upper portion of the tam at random tunepoints. As the performance

proceeds, the performer sIowly raises the fm tam,thereby dowing the rope to strike

different areas of the gong and elicit diEerent timbres. These two actions, the spinning of

the rope and the raising of the tmn tmn,determine many aspects of the form of the piece.

The action of the rising gong determines its duration; the piece is over once it has reached

its zenithe6 Similady, the rate at which the rope spins affects the dynamic level of the piece and its level of temporal density. In addition to their sonic efEects, these gestures have

6 This tends to be a rather short piece as the act of slowly raishg the tm tam is quite strenuous and diencult to maintain over longer the spans. clear visual appeal. In the score, 1 spec@ that the pesomer Wear black clothing and use a white rope to heighten the visual impact ofthe piece.

A number of composers have explored sirnilar processes in their work Much of

Alvin Lucier's work for example, explores a single action or process which 14sto cornplex sonic results. In Music for Pure Wows.Bass DnmLF mtd ACOU~CPerzlhrIms

(1980), the vibrations fiom a continuously rising sine wave pass through four bass drums and cause ping-pong balls positioned dose to each drum to move like pendulums, striking the drum membranes at difFerent times. In lmSitting in a Rmm (1970), a fiagrnent of hurnan speech is turned into music by recordiig spoken text over and over again as it is played in the room in which it was first spoken. This amplifies the natural resonance of the room while fùndarnentally altering the sound of the source matenal to the point of unrewgnizability. Other works in which an action or process is set in motion and sustained throughout the work hclude Steve Reich's Corne Out (1966), Gordon

Monahan's Piano Mechics (1 98 1-6). as well as James Temey's For Am (Rising)

(1969) and H'gNever Wma Note for Percussion (1970). It would seem as though this approach to music composition has become something of an aesthetic over the past thirty years or so?

1 like the simple elegance of pieces generated in this way. Exploring one gesture or process for the duration of a work gives rise to musical structures which are somewhat

'Minimalist music might be regarded as another manifestation of this compositional approach.

26 more neutral than those arrived at using rhetorical models or other more traditional fonns.

Despite the extensive use of improvisation in these works, there is vety little room for

personal choices once the process hss been set in motion. It seems to me that this

neutrality places pater emphasis on the wntext surroundmg the performance of the work

including not only the actions of the performer, but also the perceptions of the audience

and the space in which the music occurs. The visual and conceptuai aspects of the work

are also emphasized and the gestures involved often acquire a level of significance similar

to those in theatre and other forms of ritual pdormance.

There is a considerable arnount of baggage associated with the word 'ritual' and it

is not without some reservation that 1 use it in the present wntext. According to Richard

Schechner, 'aitual has been so variously defined - as concept, praxis, ideology, yeaming,

experience, f'unction - that it means very little because it means too much" (1993:228).

Nonetheless, it seems to me that in much of my work, there is a certain ritual awareness in

the physical gestures involved and 1 feel as though this aspect of the work bears

discussion. Rihral is generally thought of as an action or set of actions that reflect a particular conceptual orientation. In the case of religious rituals, this conceptual fiarnework usually takes the fom of beliefs, symbols, and myths. Other rituais reflect political or aesthetic orientations. Ritual itself always involves some form of action and in this regard, ritual and musical performance have much in cornmon. A number of wmposers have explored the ritualistic aspect of musical performance in their work.

Harry Partch's notion of "corporeality" is clearly related. He summarized: I use the words 'ritual' and 'corporeal' to descn'be music that is neither on the concert stage nor relegated to a pit. In ritual, the musicians are seen. Their meaninfil movements are part ofthe act. Collaboration is automatic with everything else that goes on -...The best 1 can say is that "corporeai" to me involves the whole body, the whole person, the whole rnind (1980:8).

Drawing on the work of cultural anthropologist Victor Tuner, Richard Schechner has suggested that "...the performative genres are living examples of ntual inlas don.

And not only when a performance is overly 'ritualistic'- as in a Mass, a healing cerernony, a shamanic joumey, or a Growtowskian poor theatre or pmtheatrid event: all performance has at its wre a ntud action, a 'restoration of behaviour' ..." (In Tumer

1986:7). Schechner defines 'restored behaviour' as any form of culhirai performance in which individuals ". ..assume that some behaviours - organized sequences of events, scripted actions, hown texts, scored movements - exkt separate fiom the petformers who "do" these behaviours" (1 985:36). He goes on to suggest:

Because the behaviour is separate fiom those who are behaving, the behaviour can be stored, transmitted, manipulated, transfomed. nie performers get in touch with, recover, remember, or even invent these strips of behaviour and then rebehave accordhg to these strips, either by being absorbeci into thern (playhg the role, going into trance) or exkting side by side with them (Brecht's Ve@emdUngsefle&)" (ibid.).

Exarnples of restored behaviour indude initiation rites, shamanic performances, "liminal actions" (see Turner, 1969) as well as theatricai performances, dance and psychoanalysis.

Schechner goes so far as to suggest that "... restored behaviour is the main characteristic of performance'' (l985:3 5). If we are to accept Schechner's notion of restored behaviour, the question necessarily becomes: What behaviour is being restored? According to Schechner, rehearsals figure praminently in the process of restoration. He explains: "The

work of restoration is camed on in rehearsais and/or in the transmission of behaviow Grom

master to novice- Understanding what happens during training, rehearsals, and workshops- invdgating the subjunctive mood that is the medium of these operations - is the surest way to link aesthetic and ritual performance? @id- 36). With this in mind,

Schechner's mode1 has much to offer when considering the ritualistic aspects of my own work.

All of my pieces have developed over thethrough a process of experimentation.

1 spend a considerable arnount of time exploring the surfaces of each insîrurnent, eliciting sounds using a wide variety of striking agents, techniques and alterations to the sounding objects. 1 then look for ways to extend each sound in difEerent musical parameters. Once the musical vocabulary of a piece has been thus selected, 1 generdy go through a lengthy process of distillation, stripping away superfluous musical details. This process ofien continues long fier1 have begun performing the work in public. Eventuaily 1 am le& with

-a set of gestures which can be stored in my memory and on paper and then rewnfigured in the context of live performance. These sets of gestures can also be transmiîted through scores, recordings etc. Scheçhner's summary of the rehearsal process relates very dosely to my own experïences as a composer and performer: 'Tt is the fbnction of rehearsals-..to narrow the choices or at least to make clear the desof improvisation. Rehearsds function to bdd a score, and this score is a 'ritual by contract': .-."(ibid. 37).

If certain behaviours are indeed restored in performances of my work, the question for me becomes: Do these gestures have prior cultural significance? 1believe that many do, but it is difficult to discuss this aspect ofmy work in a wncrete way. Certain gestures are more suggestive than others. For example, in Life Support, the use of a dnpping intravenous bag has fairly strong narrative associations which are reinforceci by the title of the piece. In other pieces which employ less referential gestures, however, there is stili a strong sense of ritual. Perhaps the very act of striking one object against another (not to mention scrapkg, bowing, rubbiig, shakhg, tapping etc.) has assumed a level of signification beyond that of the physical actions used in conjunction with other instrument types,

1have often wondered if there is something about the nature of percussive sound itselfwhich resonates more deeply within our consciousness than do the sounds of other types of instruments. There is some evidence to suggest that this is the case. Andrew

Neher found that dmmming provideci an "ideal stimulus" in affécting the rhythmic firing of neurons in the human brain (1980: 17). Reflecting on the physiological effects of percussion and its prominence in sharnanic rituals throughout the world, Rodney Needharn

(1 967) suggested that there exists a fiuidarnentd comection between percussion and transition, transition here dehed not only in terms of psychological states but also social passage etc. 1 would Wre to thllik that there is a magical, transportive quality in my pieces for percussion as well. In focusing on the processual aspects of the work the physical and musical processes through which the work is created and restored, I hope to convey a sense of discovery to the audience and explore the potential for wonder that 1 believe musical experience can offer. Chapter 3:

Works for Solo Drum Set

Given the prominent role of percussion in so much of this century's concert music,

it is somewhat surprishg that the dmset has been ali but ignored by most wmposers of

contemporary concert music. It would seem that few, Eany, other instruments offer the

range of sonic possibilities that the drum set afEords. Yet relatively few works have been

written which investigate those possibilities. The few orchestral works which do include a

part for the dmm set tend to use the instrument to achieve a particuiar extra-musical effect

(often as a reference to popular music styles, for example), not necessarily to explore the multiplicity of timbres that the instrument offers.

There are several possible rasons for this lacuna. The history of the drum set has been very closely linked with that of popular music in North Amerka, In its short history, the dmm set has becorne a standard instrument not ody within the jazz tradition, but in most rhythm and blues, country and western, and rock and roll derived styles as well. The ties between the dmset and popular music may explain in part the reluctance of many composers of "serious" music to write for the instrument. Furthemore, the drum set is a relatively young instrument when compared to most orchestral percussive devices.'

It is possible that in the, a body of orchestrai work wiu develop whïch utilizes the dmm set for its fUl sonic potential. To date, however, most of the work which explores that potential has been solo material composed by dnimmers themselves. Many drum set

techniques (particularly some of the Iess conventional ones) are unique to that instrument

and are not easiiy notated. As a rdt, writing for the drum set has historically been a

largely idiomatic process. Over the past two years, this is a process with whkh 1 have

become quite fdaras 1have wrïtten several pieces for solo dmset including

Shimmer, Ghost Drums, and Life support.

In discussing my pieces for solo dnim set, 1 feeI wmpelled to discuss

developments in the history of jazz dnimming for the jazz tradition has significantly shaped

my relation to the instrument and continues to inform rny musical sensibüities. Moreover,

it seerns to me that for the past thirty years or so, many compositional and performance

techniques have been cornmon to both the jazz and new music idioms. Improvisation is

but one example- The conflation of "new jazz" and "new music" is far too vast a subject

to be discussed in the present essay but the connection is an important one with regard to

my work in this area.

See Brown's entry in The Nrw Gmve Dictionury of Juzz (1988:308-15) for a concise but thorough discussion of the dmset's historiai development. Brown gives a thr more detailaï account in his dissertationA History and Analysis of Jazz Drirmming fo 1942 Vols. 1and 1' (1 976). A BriciHistory Of The Drum Set Solo

WMe the history of jazz dmmming is amply represented in the Literatwe @rown

1976, Porter 1982, Shultz 1979), relatively few attempts have been made ?O thoroughly

document the history of the dnun solo, a dk rigeur inclusion in many North Amencan jazz

and popdar music concert settings. The drum set, as it is generally known today,

developed over a period of almost fiffy years with its first incarnations beginning with the

"trap" sets of late nineteenth century vaudeville dnimmers (Brown: 1976:95-6). James

Blades has suggested that the trap-drummer was "...net only the rnetronome of the band:

his purpose was to colour it with every sound possible fiom the instruments at his

disposai, and to give the combination style with his ad lib syncopation" (1970:458).

Vaudeville drummers placed a heavy ernphasis on the theatncal and entertaining aspects of

dnun performance, a sensibility which informeci later drum styles to a considerable extent.

It was not uncommon for vaudeville drummers to perform in a solo fashion either as an açcompaniment to a theatrical show or as a novel form of entertainment- It has been suggested that the earliest jazz musicians to perform drum solos may have been influenced by this tradition (Brown 1976267). This notion is corroborated to some extent by jazz dmmmer Zutty Singleton's statements conceming early drum solos:

... we just kept the rhythm gohg and hardy ever took a solo. But when we did, the drummers had all Ends of different sound effects; a bucket gimmick that almost sounded like a lion's roar; skillets, ratchets, beils, everything. 1 remember when 1used to play in the Lyric Theatre in New Orleans with John Robichawq they'd wait until the end of the tune and then put the spotlight on the dnunmer and he'd start hitting everything (In Feaher 1965: 124). In addition to the vaudeville tradition, ragtime played an important role in the

development of the h set. Ragtime drummers employed a number of percussive

devices including the woodblock, bass drum, snare dmm, cowbell, cymbd and Chinese

tom-tom- Many ragtime pieces were written for solo instruments, including percussion.

Two ragtime compositions for solo percussion, both entitled The Drummer, were

recordeci in London, England in 1904 (Brown 2976:141). The better known of the two versions was composed and performed by James Lent, a theatre drummer who eventually

moved fiom England to the United States. The solo features the extensive use of two-

measure solo "breaks". These breaks, usualiy performed on woodblock and cowbelis, interrupt the regular flow of rhythm established by the snare drum. Although this piece is somewhat unique in its solo form, Brown suggests that Lent's playing is typical of

"...many of the characteristics common to the ragtime dmcntning style of the period before

1920" (1976:146). Furthemore, the use of drum breaks became an important feature of early jazz.

Early jazz recordiigs rarely featured the drummer as a soloist. Far more cornmonplace as in ragtime dmrnming was the practice of having a one or two-bar 'break' in the head arrangement of a pdcular piece in which the drummer would play a cfU'.9

The use of breaks and other stop-the techniques had several musical effects in edyjazz.

Breaks were often used as vehicles for vimiosic solo improvisations by various members

- -- - - . . .. .- - - nie extent to which dmsolos am prformed in live jazz peflonnances in the 1920s is unclear (see Bm1976:227). What seems to be clear, however, is that short dmbreaks were the norm both in and out of the recording studio, of the jazz ensemble. The dmbreak was no exception but it had the additional feature of emphasizing the peraissive and raucous nature of "hot" music as early jazz was often called. Dmbreaks were also often used to 'set up' a particular passage of music or soloist. Furthermore, by interrupting the regular flow of rhythm in a particular piece, its overall rhythmic character is more firmiy entrenched, highlighted in eEêby its temporary absence. Drum breaks can be heard in many 1920s recordings by both New Orleans and

Chicago jazz musicians. Brown cites Joh~yDodds' recordings of Afer You 've Gone

(Brunswick 3568) and Too Tighr (Bluebird B-10240) as particularly good examples

(1976:229). Both recordings feature Johnny's brother Baby Dodds on drums.

Gene Kmpa referred to Baby Dodds as the ktgreat dmsoloist (Brown l976:227); however, Dodds didn't record any extended drum solos until the 1940s.'O

Brown makes a stronger case for Zutty Singleton as the progenitor of the extended dm solo. Like Dodds, Singleton did not record any extended solos during the 1920s.

However, evidence suggests that Singleton's extended solo playing began in the mid-

-1920swhen he was called upon to play solos to relieve fatigued members of the Jiimmie

Noone trio (Brown 1976:266-7). Martin Williams remembers:

...[Z utty] played a chorus to the piece they were doing, hurnming it over to himself; and not only finishing at the end of a 12 or 16 or 32 bars [sic], but dso marking off the four- and eight-bar interval phrases of the piece as they came dong (ibid.).

'O Interestingly, Dodds' 1946 recordhg for Folkways Records entitled Baby Dodds: Taking md Drum Solos (FJ 2290) appears to be the nrst jazz reoording made in which a dmsolo exists independent of a band arrangement Lewis Porter has suggested tbat Dodds was the nrst to conœive of a drum solo in this way (1982: 70). It is signincant that, acwrding to this account at least, the first extended drum solos

reflected the harmonic structure of the piece in which they occurred. This was not always

the case in extended dmsolos of the 1930s.

Brown refers to the 1930s as 'Ihe era of the extended drum solo" (1976:266).

This had much to do with an increase in the technical abilities of many drummers and also

an increased interest in showrnanship. No other dnimmer did more to popularize drum

solos in the 1930s than Gene Krupa Bemy Goodman's 1935 trio record'mg of Who

(Victor 25 181) features Gene Krupa in what is believed to be the fist recorded thirty-two

measure dmsolo (Brown: 1976: 361). The stoptime solo11does not foiiow the phrase

structure or melody of the tune, as the early drum solos of Zutty Singleton were reporteci

to have done. Instead, the solo appears to be conceived of as a somewhat autonomous

entity occurring within this particula.piece. This view is supported by Knipa's remarks

about drum soloing in general which have been quoted in Brown and are worth reprinthg

in fùll here:

They must have substance and continuity. Before 1 begin a solo, 1 try to have a good idea of what I'm going to play. Then, while I'm playin& I'LI hum some sort of thing to myself; something maybe iike "boom-did-dee, boom-did-dee, boom-did-dee, boom" and foilow that with another phrase that relates to the one I've just played. At the same tirne 1keep humming to myseK so that each sflable becomes not only a separate bat, but also a separate sound. That's very important because drums, ifthey're to be musical, must produce sound, not just noise (1976: 362).

'l A stoptime solo is one in which some form of accompaniment amthe ensemble puncniates the solo, emphasipng structurally signincant points (the fhtbeat of every second measure in this case). Brown notes thaî cûum solos of this length in the tbirties were almost invariably performed with stoptime accompanimenî, one of the few exceptions being the famous 1938 recording of the Kmpa feature Sing, Sing, Sing. Knipa's drum solos often ernphasized technical precision and fiamboyance. This technical

precision generally involved the performance ofrnilitary drum rudiments in various

combinations. Technical proficiency became one of the defining features of drum solos in

the Swing Era and this greatly influenuxi subsequent generations of drumrners. One needs

to look no further than to the lengthy solos of Buddy Rich and Louis Beiison to see

descendants of this style. It could be argued that this tradition, which privileges technical

vimiosity and showmanship, fiourishes today in the dmsolos of modem rock concerts.

Krupa becarne one of the most farnous drumers in the history of jazz. Goodman

classics such as Sing, Sing. Sing featured the drums in a way that was previously

unknown. There were, of course, other great dmsoloists in the Swing Era, Chick Webb being perhaps the most notable (and one of my persona1 favourites). There were several

similarities between the approaches of the two men (Brown 1976:433). Unfortunately, the scupe of this paper does not permit a detaiied account of Webb's significance in the history of jazz drumrning. Moreover, it was Knipa's popularity which, more than anything else, elevated the status of the drurnmer to that of featured soloist during the

Swing Era.

The changes that took place in jazz during the second World War and the years precediig it have been weli documented. A new Srpe of jazz, eventudiy called "bebop" began to emerge. Brown suggests that bop drumrning dEered fiom previous styles in three ways: bop drummers used the ride cymbai to create a "wash of sound within the ensemble", the bass drum was liberated fiom its former roie of the-keeper, and "CO- ordinateci independence" of hbfùnctions greatly incnased (1976: 463). This account overlooks an important innovation of bebop dnmmers in the area of solo playing.

Ahhough the twenty-six standard drum rudiments wntinued to be an accepted part of hmpedagogy, bop drumrners became increasingly concemed with the melodic and harrnonic form of the piece in which îhey soloed and tned to reflect those structures in their solos. This was not an entirely new practice; recail that according to Martin

Wfiarns, Zutty Singleton would hum the melody of the piece as he soloed. However, bebop drummers and later musicians refined this melodic approach considerably. Max

Roach has offen been haüed as a particularly melodic drum soloist.

The relationship of most be-bop dmsolos to the hamionic form of a partidar piece can be viewed as one of figure and ground. This figure/ground relationship was fiequently made explicit by references in the solo playing of Roach and others to the melodic contour of the piece. The drum rudiments, which were the veritable life-blood of the swing drummer, were still used but in the hands of the bebop dnirnmer, these fùnctioned as part of the musical vocabulary of the drum solo, not its content. In the mid

1950s and 1960s, several jazz dnimmers explored the possibïlity of havhg a hmsolo exist as a composition in its own right in previously unknown ways. Max Roach, Art

Blakey and Philly Joe Jones ail recorded unaccompanied drum solos. Perhaps the most successfbl of these (and probably the most famous) was Max Roach's Conversation

(Riverside RS 3018) which exhibits many of the formai characteristics of bebop and provides a particularly clear example of Roach's melodic approach to the drums.

The melodic approach of Max Roach has been extremely influential on subsequent generations of drum soloists. In a 1979 video, Elvin Jones, a drummer known for his comple~polyrhythmic style, was asked to explain the process through which he developed a dmsolo in a particular piece. He first discusses the harmonic form of the piece and how bis solo would reflect that form. He then discusses the rhythMc character of the melodic line demonstrating it on his snare drum. He develops this basic pattern by adding his bass dmn, hi-hat and the occasional flourish on the snare. In the second chorus of the solo, the melodic heof the piece is barely discernible as Jones uses increasingly complex dmpatterns which are derived, we are told, fiom the initial rhythmic At several points, the listener briefly recognizes the theme only to quickly lose it ddstthe complex rhythms. Jones returns at the end of the solo to this theme, demonstrating that despite the solo's complexities, the "ground" remained constant.

This approach was adopted and extended by many fiee jazz drummers in the

1960s. Ekkehard Jost has eloquently described fiee jazz dmrimer Ed Blackwell's solo playing :

It is left to Ed Blackwell to give what is probably the most effective demonstration of this type of thematic improvisation. As we know, dmm solos in jazz (whatever the stylistic ara) very oflen detenorate into a show of vimiosity without recognizable thought or direction, and have little or nothing to do with the music. This is not the case with Blackwell. Building on the rhythmic patterns of the mes, he develops these patterns by playing around them, breaking them up, putting them back together, superimposing others, etc. (In this respect Blackwell's fie-jazz dmsolos are a good deal less '%ee" than the long-winded solo excursions of Buddy Rich, for exarnple. This is one of the ironies that arke in jazz when the concept of fieedom is used without denning it) (1974: 137).

l2 !ke Brawneii (1994: 142-44) for examples of Elvin Jones' "artfiù hiding" of various rhythms.

39 In fiee jazz contexts, drum solos do not generally have a harmonic form to foliow,

relyUig instead on thematic variation to provide structure. With the dissolution of metric

regularity in the music of Cecil Taylor, Omette Coleman and others, drummers also began

to explore the timbrai possiities of the instrument in ways that were previously

unknown. The use of so-caüed "extended techniques" became common on many

instruments. Piano players used hands, fists and forearms to create dense tone clusters;

reed players explored circular breathing and multiphonic techniques and percussionists investigated new and unorthodox ways of generating percussive sound. Of course, the use of extended dnun set techniques had a lengthy history. Trap dnimmers explored unconventional sound sources and techniques to achieve particular effects in vaudeville shows and theatre pits as weil in early jazz and ragtime groups. Unlike thek trap- drumrning predecessors, however, drummers of the past thirty years have rarely used these techniques to achieve extra-musical effects.. In the hands of dmrnmers such as Sunny

Murray, Rashied Aii, Ed Blackweli, Andrew Cyrïile and Milford Graves, extended playing techniques ofien became theprima mafena for percussive accompanïment and drum

Merpercussionists who have contributed to the ever-expanding vocabulary of dmset sounds over the pst thirty years hclude Americans Pheeroan AklafF, Barry

Aitschul, Gregg Bendian, John Bergamo, Jim Black Beaver Harris, Gerry Hemingway,

'%e relative youth of drum set technique as distinct hmmüitary dnimming dsthe whole notion of "extended technique" into question. It would perhaps be more correct to discuss developing technique. However, a number of techniques are considered more-or-les standard in dmset pedagogy and praxis and in comparison, the techniques under discussion in the present context are generaiiy viewed as king somewhat unorthodox 1suspect that perceptions such as this will change in time as has already taken place with techniques such as the use of wire brushes. Susie Ibarra, David Moss, Jay Rosai and Europeans Han BeFritz Hauser, Tony

Oxley, Eddie Prévost, and Edward Veda to name a few. Many of these musicians have performed or recorded drum solos which exist as independent compositions. Geny

Hemingway's solo work has been of particular importance in the development of my own approach to solo percussion.

It should be noted that the solo work of Benni& Hemingway, Hauser, Moss and others on the above List rarely fits snugly within the stylistic boundaries of jazz. Fritz

Hauser is routinely described as a performer of both "new jazz" and "new music." In addition to bis credits as a jazz perfonner, he has perforrned and recorded with Pauluie

Oiiveros among other non-jazz composer/perforrnerfmprovisers~ When asked in a 1988 interview if there was a guiding aesthetic phiiosophy that informeci his compositional style,

GeqHemingway responded:

1 have some problems with the word style, perhaps on the one hand because the word would suggest that I subscribe to an aesthetic that could fit comfortably in a genre. 1 can say that 1 have grown more acaistomed to accepting that my music for quintet, quartet and BassDrumBone is rooted in the jazz tradition, but it doesn't take a rocket scientist to realize that my notion of what jazz is quite [sic] a bit wider in its worldview than the coat and tie-ers who dominate the marketplace with accurate and Wess replications. But just where does my solo music go in the Tower bbs? Cubbyholing just doesn't swing with a good deal of what 1 do (1998: par. 20).

1too hesitate to refer to my solo drum set pieces as belonging to a particular stylistic category. I have included this bnef histond account of the drum solo within the jazz idiom because 1 can not help but have this tradition in mind when I compose for the instrument. It is quite possible for me to write a work which derives its technical vocabulary fkom the playing ofBaby Dodds, Chick Webb or Gerry Hemingway (or some combination thereof) and its forma1 structure and emphasis on process fkom the work of

Aivin Lucier. 1 see this as perhaps the best part ofwmposing in post-modemity.

Given the extensive use of unconventional techniques in my works for drum set and percussion, some discussion of the principles governing extended drum set sounds might be in order. Thus, the foilowing section provides a provisional heworkfor the interpretation of many of the actions called for in my pieces for dmset and percussion. Towards A TypoIogy Of DN~Set Sounds

Although there can be no fùlly standardized and immutable catalogue of drum set

extended techniques, a consideration of both the types of sounds available to the drum set

performer and the acoustic principals goveming those sounds may offer some clarity in the

present context- There have been several attempts to catalogue some of the less

conventional techniques avdable to the modem percussionist (Brincile 1970, Read 1976).

These sources have tended to lïst techniques which have aiready been employed by

Western composers and offer little in the way of a theoretical hework for the creation and interpretation of hmset sounds. Moreover, these sources focus on orchestrai percussion techniques and offer Little (ifany) information on extended techniques for the drurn set. l4 Although the following typology does not pretend to be exhaustive, it offers a first step towards a theoretical fiamework through which an extended vocabulary of drum set sounds can be interpreted. This fiamework will hopefully aid the reader in understanding the acoustic principles associated with various extended techniques for the drum set includiig those which are called for in some of my recent compositions. This provisional typology may have applications in the reaim of music analysis. Moreover, composers who wish to incorporate drum set extended techniques into their own

- - l4 Roger Dean gives a briddescnption of new trends in dmset improyisation in New Stnrcfrrres in Jmz and Impruvised Mitsic Since 1960 (1992:W-1). Màloolm Goldstein's 1983 article entitled "The Gesture of Improvisation" is one of the most insighifd writings on the matter of extendeci percussion techniques thaî 1am aware of. In a writing style closer to poetry than to prose, Goldstein suggests dinerent ways of thinlring about sound production on percussion instruments. Many of his insights are of direct relevance to the dnun set performer. compositional practice may also find the typology to be of some value.

Types of Drurn Set Sounds

As 1 see it, there are essentialiy two types of sounds available on the dmset:

those which are sustainable and those which are more or less discrete. By sustainable, 1

2 mean those sounds which can continue without interruption as Long as the performative

action is carxied out. Discrete sound events are those which can not be sustained

continuously but are instead the result of a single physical gesture.ls To borrow an

analogy fkom the visual realm, a dimete sound can be likened to a point while a

sustainable sound is iike a line. Each of these sound types, sustainable and discrete, can be

fûrther broken down into several types.

Sustainable Sounds

Sustainable sounds include those which depend on fiction for their production

such as bowed cyrnbals, and various types of rubs and scrapes (with brushes, hands, metai

etc.). Rous of various types can dso be sustaïneci. The press roll and cymbal roll are two

obvious examples. Each individual articulation is generdy subsumed by the wash of

sound which results. Single stroke and double stroke rolls may also be considered

sustainable although the individual strokes cm generally be perceived except at extremely high levels of temporal density. Nonetheless, the ear accepts these roUs as dedsound

" Discrete sounds may give the illusion of unintemipltedness if they ate played in rapid succession. In this light, sustainable sounds and discrete sounds represent the extremes of a continuum (Figure 1). events or geslnleen '' Other percussion instruments which yield sustainable sounds can

also be incorporateci by the drum set performer - various lcinds of shakers and rades, for

example.

Discrete Sounds

There are essentidy twu types of discrete sound events available on a drurn set:

those with a short attack and short decay (for convenience, I'll refer to these as "group A"

discrete sound events) and those with a short attack and a relatively long decay C'group

B discrete sound events). The diierence between the two depends on the nature of the

material being stmck. Group A discrete sounds (that is, those with a short attack and short

decay) are generdy elicited from one of three materials: dmm membranes, metal

hardware (cymbal and drum stands for example), and wood, fibreglass or metal dnim

shells. The hi-hat must be treated as a special case because it has some variability in terms

of its sound envelope. Bringing the upper and lower hi-hat cymbals firmly together with

the foot operated hi-hat mechanism yields a Group A discrete sound event as does the

practice of striking a pair of tightly closed hi-hat cymbds with a stick or mallet. The

practice of "choking" a ride or crash cymbal yields a sirnilar effect. However, cymbals which are left to vibrate fieely without dampening generally result in Group B sound events. The same is true for the hi-hat: striking an open hi-hat cymbal will result in a long

l6 To extend the analogy with visuai perception, a bowed or mbbed -bal might be compared to a continuous, unbroken iîne while a single or double stroke rolI can be compared with a broken or dotteci line. decay time derthe initial attack as will the practitx of b~gingthe hi-hat cymbals togiether and quickly releasing them.

Variations in Drum Set Sounds

It has already been noted that the differences between various dnun set sounds are not clearly definecl; Werent musical conte- can aiter one's perception of any sound and the complex sounds of the drum set are no exception. However, the foregoing system of classification offers some structure for understanding what may seem like a potentially unlirmited vocabulary. For convenience, the categories of drum set sounds outhed above have been sumrnarized in Figure 1. Almost all of these sounds, whether sustainable or discrete, can be varied in vimially any musical parameter. Although rhythm has historically been the musical parameter most closely associated with percussion and the one which receives by far the greatest amount of attention in drum set literature and pedagogy, percussive sounds can aiso be varied in terms of intensity (loudness), temporal density, tempo, physical timbre and pit~h.l8

" Sze Brownell1994 for a thorough imrestigation of the applicabiiity of physid gesture to the dmset. Aithough Bniwneii's thesis focuses mainly on physical gesture as an analytical tooi, it rnakes clex the impaxtance of tbis parameter in shaping dmset praxis. Elsewhere, 1 have investigated this parameter as a me=ans ofapplying South Indian or Kaniatak rhythmic principles to the dmset (1998)- '*Geny Hemingway bas suggested that harmony cm also be applied to the drum set, noting that hanmonic considerations have played an important role in his solo compasitioas. He explains: ? found tbat as a composer, music that had harxnonic integrity to it tended to be more compelling and had a way of reacbhg more bplyiato our interests as listeners. So I worked on sounds that were co~ünuousrubs, dinement kinds of scrapes against the cymbals, bowing techniques, aii kinds of different ways of eliciting SuStailned matenal hmmy instrument. 1 wouId try to combine the SuStaiaed materials in Merent ways to formuiate something resembling chords or harmonie massesn (1996a: par. 12).

Given the multiplicity of variable parameters, it would once again seem as though the extended drum set vocabulary is iimitless and therefore incapable of study- This is not the case. Although any sound cmbe nuanced in countless ways, all dmset sounds can be understood as being shaped by a few underlying acoustic principles. Variation in parameters such as intensity, temporal density and tempo are more or less self-explanatoy and understood intuitively by most percussionists. Increased temporal density is the result of an increase in the number of sound events per unit of tirne. SimilarIy, an increase in loudness or dynamic level is generally the result of an increase in the amount of force exerted by the performer although other fâctors such as the weight of the saiking agent must also be taken into account.Ig Somewhat less evident, perhaps, are those factors which contribute to variations in pitch and timbre.

Pitch Variation on the Dnun Set

Pitch doesn't really apply to the drum set in a simple sense in that drums and cymbals yield complex sounds - they have inharrnonic spectra which are diicult to hear as stable pitches.20 However, the drum set does contain relative pitch relationships between

'' It should be noted tbat some techniques elicit sounds which have a more iimited dynamic range tban othets. The dynamic range of bowed cymbais, for instance, is considerably more iïmited than that of other sounds. In generai sustainabte sounds of the fiiction variety do not exhiiit the same amount of variability in temof intensity level as do dmand cymhal rolls as weU as their discrete counterparts. 20 There are of course some notable exceptions to this statement, BrowneU has noted tbat single headed drums are ofkn capable ofproduchg relatively clear pitches as are tabla and mrdanga (1994: 134). In addition to the Wonndnrmmers mentioned by Browneii, severai experimentaljazz dnimmers have also advocated singleheaded toms, notabiy MiIforci Graves and John Heward. 1consider it to be an important specincation in my pieces for solo drum set that both heads be on ail drums and that the heads be of the Coated AmWtvariety or an equident thereof. 1have no interest in supporthg one drum head manufacturer over another, but the efEect that mereut dnrm heads can have on sound quality is drastic. Momer, certain techniques, such as brush work, are only possible on coateü heads. drums and cymbals of dinerent &es. The range of pitch possibilities depends to a

considerable extent on the size of the drum se$. Kn a srnall set-up such as mine (snare

drum, rack tom, floor tom, bass drum, two cyrnbals, hi-hat), there are fewer possibilities in

tenns of '

wntext are the acoustic principles govemhg the relative pitch of drums and cymbals.

Drum shells and metal stands show little variability in terms of pitch and wiU therefore not be considered in the foliowuig discu~sion.~'

The pitch of dnim membranes and cymbals can be varied in a nurnber of ways. In

Table 1,1have summariEed pitch-infiuencing factors under the headings of C'Fixed"and

'Variable." By fixed, 1 mean those factors which are determineci at the tirne the object is manufactureci and which can therefore not be altered during performance. These inciude the sue and the area density or thickness of the vibrating surface (and of course the size of the resonator in the case of drums). In generai, an increase in the radius of a circular vibrating object will result in a lower pitch, aii other factors behg equal. The thickness of

-thevibrating surface also affects the relative pitch although this is different for membranes than it is for cyrnbals. A thicker membrane will tend to irnpede short vibrations and therefore result in a lower pitch. Increased thicimess or area density in a cymbai tends to impede longer vibrations and therefore resuits in a higher pitch.

'' This is not to minimize the important part that the sheii or resonator plays in shaping the tone of a dm. Not oaiy does the sheu amplify the viiration of the membrane, it also strengthens certain partials (Brinde 1970: 22). Furthemore, sbriking sheiis of Werent &YS does yield Merent relative pitches. As one would expect, the larger the sheil, the lower tbe tone. However, these pitches are ~elativelyfmed and will thenSiore not be included in the foiiowing discussion, In addition to these '%xed" pitch-inffuencing fkctors, there are several vaciables

that the performer can maniputate during a performance to create pitch variation on the

dnun set. In the case of cimm membranes, the two main ways of affecthg pitch are to

alter:

1) the point at which the striking agent cornes into contact with the drum 2) the amount of tension applied to the head

In discussing factors iduencuig timbre in Contemprury Percussion, Reghald

Smith Brindle suggests that "In general, ifidiophones and membranophones are stnick at

or near the edge, hi& overtones wül be eiicited, ifat or near the centre, deeper tones will

predominate" (1970: 23). This is actualiy not true of cymbals (nor of many other

idiophones for that matter); as we shall see, striking a cymbal near its edge has quite the

opposite effèct. However, Brindle's remarks hold tme for drum membranes and although

he was speaking specifically of timbrul variation in percussion instruments, his observation

is of direct relevance to a discussion of pitch variabiïty on the drum set. When a

membrane is struck at its edge, higher overtones are indeed emphasized. However, lower

partials are still present in varying degrees. By placing one's hand near the membrane's

centre and striking the dmclose to the edge, the lower partials are minimizeda MoWig

* Like a sttetched hg,a dmmembrane vibraies in ail of it.modes simultaneously when mck. In the lowest mode of vibration, ail parts of the head viirate in phase with the exception of the perimetre of the membrane where the head is supported In every othet mode ofvibration, the head vibrates in sections, creating nodal hes between the parts of the head which viirate out of phase with one another. Tbese nodal lines take one of two forms: aiametres and circles, Diametric nodal lines predominwte, particuiarly in the lower modes, so there is a fhirly peatconcentration of nodal lines at the membrane's centre. If something cornes into contact 4th a nodal line when the membrane is stm* the corresponding mode of vi'bration is omitted hmthe sounrl By placing one's hand or other object near the centre of the dnim, lower partials are Sedively minimilPA and pitch changes are more apparent when the placement of drum strdres is variai the point of contact dong the drum's radius towards its centre results in a lowering of the

perceiveci pitch. This technique has been used to great effect by Fritz Hauser in the

opening of his solo composition for drum set entitled Tic Tac (hat Art 6023). In my Shrcj, for a Single Drum, 1create a continuous sound on a single floor tom by nibbing a

moistened piece of very thin rattan with my fingers. By moving the point of contact

between the rattan and membrane to ciiffirent parts of the drum, I am able to achieve a variety of pitches.

Varying the arnount of tension being exated on a drum head also Skcts its relative pitch. This practice has a lengthy history. In West eca, "talking" drums exploit this phenornenon to create a drum language that is both rhythmic and pitched (Chemoff

1979: 75). Strips of leather or string attach two heads which are stretched over an hourglass-shaped dmsheli. The perfonner uses his or her amto alter the amount of tension that the strings exert on the two heads, thereby altering the pitch of the dmwhen it is struck. On the drum set, a similar effect can be achieved in a variety of ways. An external force can be applied to a drum membrane to change its pitch. In the 19407s,Baby

Dodds worked out a novet technique whereby he wouId use his foot to exert pressure on the drum skin to manipulate its pitch. He would then play a melodic solo on his tom-tom

(Brown 1976: 226). More common is the practice of using one's elbow, hand or the butt end of a dmstick to obtain a similar result. These techniques have been used by many performers including Max Roach, Art Blakey and Sheliy Manne. Foot-operated devices which alter the pitch of toms (not dkethose found in timpani) have been marketed at various times. A more recent example of this type of ides can be found in roto-toms - rotating the firame of these drums changes the head tension and in tum alters the pitch-

Pitch variation in membranes can also be achieved by varying the amount of intemal air

pressure in the hm. This can be accomplished through the use of a plastic tube fed into

the air-hole, unless there is a great deal of air lealcage nom fiame holes used for mounting

purposes or for interna1 dampenhg mechanisms. Blowing into the tube will result in a nse

in pitch. This technique, which I use extensively in Life Support, has the advantage of

freeing both hands and feet.

Like dmmembranes, the pitch of cymbals can be varied in several ways. The

point at which the miking agent cornes into contact with the cymbal is once again an

important factor in determining pitch. In a study of the acoustics of several cymbals, John

Baldwin determinecf that striking a cymbai at the same level of intensity near to the cup or

bell of the cymbal yielded findamental fiequencies ranghg nom 50 to 185 Hi higher than

a comsponding stroke near the cyrnbal's edge (1 970: 85- 104). Most percussionists wiu

know fiom experience that striking the beil of the cymbal diiectly yields an even higher frequency. Pitch variation also occurs when using certain techniques. For example, increased pressure while bowing the edge of a cymbal generally results in the sounding of higher harmonies as in CymbaZ Shrdy #I. Sirnilarly, ifa drum stick or length of rattan is placed perpendicular to a cymbai such that only the tip touches the cymbal and is then dragged dong the cymbal's grooves, various overtones will sound. However, both of these techniques yield fairly unpredictable and unstable sounds. Somewhat more predictable results can be obtained when one point on the facp of a cymbal is stopped with a pend eraser or other object and the edge of the cymbal is then bowed. Specific points can be marked which yield particular pitches. The pend method has the added advantage

of holding the cyrnbai in place when it is bowed upwards. This technique is dedfor in a

piece by Roger Reynolds entitled Ping

It has been suggested that the shape of the arc or bow of a cymbal is "...the rnost

detennining fktor of high or low... cymbal sound" (Baldwin 15). This rnight be overstating

matters somewhat but the observation that "[a] flat and relatively straight bow produces a lower more bodied sound as a rule" and that "the noticeably rounded arc suppresses to an extent the lower vibrations, and therefore aiiows a higher sound" is usefùl in the present context (ibid.). It would at first seem as though the shape of a cymbal is a '%ce&' property, one which the perfonner has no control over in actual performance. However, some variability in this regard is possible. Ifa performer uses his or her body as a buttress and then exerts force on the edge of the cymbal fùrthest fiom his or her body, the pitch will generally rise when the cymbal is stmck A gli- effect is possible ifthe performer uses two maUets in the fiee hand, one on top and one below the cymbd, to perform a cymbal roll while this distortion of the cymbal's shape is taking place." This technique is descriid in a 1974 article on extended techniques for cymbd and gong by

Dennis Kahle (1974:34). Kahle notes that a cymbal glissando can also be achieved by placing an inverted cymbaI on the membrane of a timpani. By changing the amount of

Th same principle is evident in the insirument known as the flexatone. A small pime of metal is clamped at one end. The performer can bend the metal into an arc while causing small beaters to strike its sides. The result is a shrill glissando. tension on the timpani membrane wMe pla*g the cymbal, the pitch of the cymbal

appears to change (ibid.). This can be accomplished on a floor tom using the

aforementioned air tube method. I use a similar technique in Composition for Bass Drum

und C'hl. However, techniques such as this involve a re-ordering of the dmm set's

constituent elements and are therefore wnsidered in greater depth below.

Pitch variation on the dmset is possible in several other ways as well. The

p~cipleof the water gong, used in John Cage's First Conrfruction (in Met@ and other

20th cenhiry works, applies to cyrnbals as well? When a vibrating cymbd is lowered into

a tub ofwater, the pitch of the -bal lowers. When it is brought out of the water, the

pitch nses again Pitch variation is also possible when the metal strands of a snare dm

are plucked or bowed Wce strings. This technique is called for in the second of my mree

Pieces for I~edS~ae Dm. A drum stick or other object is placed between the

snare wires and the drum head to act like a bridge. Applying force to the wire strands

while they are played results in pitch variation which is amplified by the naturd resonance

of the drum.

24 This principle applies to dnims bo. In Life Support, water dripping hman intravenous bag onto the fioor tom membrane progressively lowers the pitch of the dmthroughout the piece. Table 1

Factors Influencing the Relative Pitch of Dnim Set Sounds

DRUMS CYMBALS

1 Membrane radius Cymbal radius Fued Factors 1 Size of Resonator Area density or thickness 4rea density or thickness (? thickness = ? pitch) (? thickness = & pitch) - Point of contact Point of contact Variable Factors Amount of tension on Arc or bow of cymbal membrane Citerna1 or exted Elicitation of different pressure) hmnonics using bowing Water techniques and nrbs Water

Timbra1 Variation on the Dmm Set

Tibre is perhaps the richest area for scnic exploration that the dmset aEords.

As 1see it, there are really only three ways in which the timbre of dmset sounds, whether discrete or sustainable, can be varid:

1) The mode of articulation can be varied, that is the way in which the dmor cymbaI is stnick or the irnplement with which it is struck. 2) The vibrating object can be altered in some way. This involves the preparation of the *d.m membranes, shells, hardware or cymbals in a way that affects the timbre of the sounding object. 3) The constituent elements of the drum set (cymbais, drums etc.) can be reamnged such that one physical gesture causes more than one element to vibrate at once thereby creathg a multiple resonance. Varying the Mode of Articulation

There is a virtuaily unlimiteci number of implements which can be used as scriking

agents on the dmset, not to mention an extraordinary number of ways in wbich each of

these implements can bc used. 21 In addition to dmsticks, mallets, wire brushes, a bass

bow and hands, 1 have used striking agents which include lengths of rope, knitting needles,

feather dusters, smail mops, lengths of rattan and bamboo, chop sticks, coins, bundIes of

twigs, tree branches, driffarood, cloth strips, droplets of water, corn brome as weii as various rattles and shakers. These impiements can be grouped in any number of ways. 1 tend to organize mdet-iike implements in one group ranging from soft to hard. Sticks of varying weights and sizes are organized from heaviest to lightest. Brushes of various kinds are dso grouped according to the amount of sound which they generate upon contact. Other percussive devices which can be used as striking agents are also grouped together (shakers, rattles etc.). The use of hands and bowing techniques

- represent two additional striking possibilities.26 AU of the aforementioned striking agents affect the timbre of the resonating object in slightly different ways. Broadly speaking, however, there are three timbrai variations caused by changes in the mode of articulation:

zs Dmset performers are a bit restricted in terms of the beater usvd to play the bas dnrm. Although a variety of beatem are avaiIablc for most bass dnim pedals (Le. those maâe of made hard felt, wood etc.), it can be difncult to alter this during a pedormance. However, it is possible to prepare the beater in a variety of ways- A wire bnish or other implement cm be attachai to the beater with tape or nibber bands (as in my composition entiîied Simer),thereby altering the sound of the bass dnun upon contact. Hand and finger techniques can atS0 be usai 26 A percussionijd's han& and egers are among the most versatile striking agents at his or ber disposal. 1 use my hands extensively in Life Support. In my experience, many of the techniques used in various hand dnunming ttaditions can be applied to the dnun set with some modincation. variations in spectral content, variations in the amount of irnplement noise generated upon

contact, and variations in the envelope characteristics of each sound.

For virtually any percussive sound, there are a few underlying factors which influence the timbre (and often the intensity) of the tone. An awareness of these factors is helpfùl in understanding timbra1 variation on the dnun set. Donald W. Sderhas identifieci six factors related to the mode of articulation wbich affect the spectral content of a percussion tone (1964: 293). These factors are:

1) The weight of the striking agent. 2) The sped with which the striking agent cornes in contact with the vibrator. 3) The point of contact of the saüang agent with the vibrator. 4) The angle at which the striking agent wmes in contact with the vi'brator. 5) The flerrib'ity or elasticity of the striking agent. 6) The total area of the striking agent that cornes in contact with the vibrator during the stroke.

The importance of the point of contact between striking agent and vibrator has already been disaissed under the section on the relative pitch of drum set sounds. Ifa striking agent wmes into contact with a nodal lhe, the corresponding mode of vibration is left out of the harmonic structure. Recall that in membranes there is an intersection of nodal lines at the drum centre. Thus, a stroke to a dm's centre generally results in a sound which is

Less bright than a correspondiig stroke rnid-way between centre and Mi.

A related variable is the amount of contact between striking agent and vibrator, the sixth timbre-influencing factor mentioned by Stauffer. Increased contact area results in the suppression of a greater number of partiais and the sound wili, in general, favour lower fiepuencies. I suspect that changhg the angle at which the striking agent comes into contact with a vibrating object affects timbre for this reason. At certain striking angles, contact will be made over a larger area and a greater number of partids will be suppressed. The shape of the striking agent must also be considered. For example, a dmstick with an oblong tip will make contact over a larger area than wodd a stick with a small bead-iike point and the sound d tend to be darker as a result.

The lengh of tirne the striking agent remains in contact with the drum or cymbal is another important timbre-influencing factor which underlies several others mentioned by

Staiiffer. When a striking agent remains in contact with a wirator for a relatively long tirne, high vibrations wiii be impeded and the resultant sound will tend to favour lower phals. The opposite is tme when a striking agent cornes into contact with an object for a shorter penod of tirne? Variations in weight, elasricity, point of contact and speeda aii affect the length of tirne that the striking agent cornes into contact with the vibrator and in turn &êct the timbre of the sound.

Related to both contact area and duration is the relative hardness or softness of the beater, a factor not mentioned by Stauffer. Amrding to B~dle,'men a enfi beater strikes an instrument, its head 'gives', spreading momentarily, but just long enough to impede vibrations of short wavelengk-This gives meliow, deep timbres." (1970:22). The fact that a soft beater ''gives" also means that contact is made over a larger area (Figure 2)

57 The fhmüiar '%ead stickn technique maLes the importance ofc6ntact time readily apparent when considering timbre. If a stick or mailet is not allowed to &und hma resonating surfâce but instead reniiiins in amtact with it, the resulting sound is severely muffleâ. 28 The precise &kt of speeü or force on contact time is diflicult to determine. One might expect that an increase in force wiIl result in a quicker rebound time; however, increased force also results in a greater distortion of the w'braîkg surface which may resuit in an increase in contact tirne. There likeIy exists an oQtimal level of force which mhhksboth contact time and distortion, thereby yielding the richest spectnun. and Iower fiequencies are emphasized. Soft beaters tend to be larger in the first place so

these factors generally reinforce one another.

Figure 2

Cornparison of Hard and Soft Buter

Most striking agents vibrate to some extent upon contact with a vibrator and the sound of the implement itseifbecomes a part of the overd percussive sound event. The degree to which implement noise can be heard depends on several factors including the nature of the implement and that of the surface which is made to vibrate. In generd, implement noise is more audible when the sufiace being stmck exhibits a hi& degree of stiffness (e-g. meîal hardware, wood drum sheifs). In the case of maiiets, this vibration is generally inaudible. Similarly, when a drum stick cornes into contact with a membrane, it is the sound of the membrane we hem. However, when a stick strikes a rnetal rim or stand

we hear the sound of both the metal and the stick. Wire brushes generate some audiile

noise as the individual wire strands corne into contact with one another. Rattles, shakers

and other idiophones generate a considerable amount of sound upon contact with a

vibrator and this contributes sigdicantly to the overall timbre of the sound event.

Related to variations in the arnount of implement noise are variations in the

envelope shape of percussive sounds which resuit fkom the use of difZerent agents of

attack Bride notes that Werent stnking agents yield different "contact sounds." He

&tes: 'If for instance, a vibraphone is played with very soit beaters, there is almost no

contact sound, and the bars respond with their normal fûll tones. Iç however, the

instrument were to be played ... with the cane ends of vibraphone maiiets, there would be a

fXr rattle of contact sounds, but the bars would respond with only very feeble tones" (ibid.

24). Contact sounds can be manipulated on the dmset as well. In general, beaters with

a relatively high degree of hardness will yield fairly strong contact sounds. The decay of

dnun set sounds can also be manipulated. Drums can be muflied and cymbals can be

dampened shortly after sounding. However, these techniques involve the manipulation of the vibrating surface, the second way in which timbra1 variation can be achieved on the drwn set. Factors Influencing the Timbre of Dmm Set Sounds: Varying the Mode of Articulation

Variations in Spectrai Morphology Implement Noisd Variations in Sound Envelope Point of Contact Timt Contact Area Conîact some striking agents generate sound them- ifa strikïng increased contact hcreased contact selves upon contact agent cornes time results in area between with a viirating object into contact emphasis on lower striking agent and degree of implement with a nodal partials vibrator results in noise depends on line, the weight of striking fewer partials nature of irnplement correspondhg implement angle at which and the relative mode of speed of implement striking agent stiffRess of the vibration is left elasticity of contacts vibrator vibrating surface out of the implement relative hardness some ùnplemd SP- point of contact or softness of surface combinations in membranes, relative hardness yield strong contact greatest or softness of sounds :. variation in concentration of the attack portion of nodal lines sound envelope occurs at centre Altering the Vibrating Object

Most percussionists have at one time or another used something to mdethe

sounds of the dmset: a towel pUow or cushion inside a bas drum, tape on dm

membranes or on the underside of a cymbal, intemal dampening mechanisms in toms and

mare drums etc. These cornmon practices are aii methods through which timbra1 variation

can be achieved on the drurn set and there are many more possibiüties (Table 2b). Ln

general, preparations to the drum set fàli into one of three categories: objects or materials

can be added to the hmset which mufne or deaden the sound, materials can be added

which vibrate against the vibrating surface thereby creating a buzzïng timbre, or the

envelope of drum set sounds can be manipulated.w In considering the nature and effeds

of such preparations to the dnun set, the earlier classZcation of dmm set materials (skk, metai, wood) will be usefùl once again. As before, the hi-hat will be treated as a somewhat separate entity because of the multitude of possibilities that the instrument aEords.

Objects can be placed on top of drum membranes or afked to membranes in a variety of ways." The force that the added object exerts on the membrane and the total contact area between object and skin are crucial factors in determining the timbre of the vibrating membrane. The total area of contact between object and membrane is important

29 Alîhough it iS clearly relaîed to the pdœof prepering the dnun sec rearranging the dmset's constituent elements such that one physical gesture cames more than one device to pduœsound is considered below under the heading ofAmrmghg the Elementx Multiple Resonances- Internai dampening devices can also be used; however, 1Id these to be of Limited USefulness. 1 geaerally remove intemai dampening devices from drums and fïii any holes thaî may have been drilled in the sheli to accommodate the= for the same reasons that were mentioned with regard to the mode of articulation:

increased contact area results in the suppression of a greater number of partials and

therefore a more deadened tone. The force that an object exerts on the membrane is also

important for it not ody affects the relative pitch of the membrane, it also determines the

degree to which object and membrane remah in contact during viiration. Darnpening

mechanisms (whether internai or extenial) make this apparent. Increased tension in the

mechanism results in the application ofgreater for& to the membrane which in tum causes

dampener and membrane to remain in contact to a greater extent during vibration. As a

result, the sound is more mufileci. When placing objects on top of a membrane, it is the

force of gravity acting upon the mass of the object which determines the degree to which

object and vibrator remain in contact with one another. Thus, the weight of the object is

an important factor. Compare, for example, the effect of adding a piece of paper to the drum skin with that of addiig a piece of lead with the sarne dimensions. Without question, the addition of the lead will result in a more muffled tone.

Many objects will vibrate against a membrane when it is struck This generally resuks in a raspy timbre. For example, a smaU handfùi of uncooked nce on a floor tom membrane yieids a beautifùl butting sound when the membrane is stmck. However, the nce will quickly vibrate to the perimeter of the drum and cease vibration. The degree to which an object will vibrate in this manner is determineci by its weight and the arnount of contact between object and vibrating surface. The third of my Three Piecesfor Inwrted

Snme Dnrm calls for the addition of four rounded Stones to the membrane. Tapping the side of the drum, the drum membrane or the stones themselves causes the stones to vie

agaïnst the snare membrane thereby creating a burting sound.

Redthat the attack portion or contact sound of a percussive sound envelope can be afFected by aitering the mode of articulation. The decay portion of a viirating membrane's sound envelope can also be manipulated by darnpening the membrane once it has been set in motion. This can be accomplished by placing one's hand (or other object) onto the vibrating membrane. This dampening technique applies to cymbals as well.

Grabbing the edge of a vibrating cymbal results in an abrupt cessation of sound. In the case of cymbals, the steady state portion of the envelope can also be manipulated to mate a cymbal tremolo. If the bell of the cymbal is struck and then the penormer moves a cupped hand towards and away fiom the bell in a rapid fashion, minor variations in the volume of the sound will occur thereby creating a tremolo type effect. This technique is describeci in Kahle (1 974:34).

Cymbals can of course be prepared in several other ways. The comrnon practice of drilling holes in a ride cymbal and adding rivets to create more of a washy sound is one such example. A similar but less permanent effect can be obtained by placing a beaded chah (of the type commonly attached to sink or bathtub stops) onto the body of the cymbal. The timbre can also be varied by a8nwig tape ta the cymbal. The ske and placement of tape pieces seems to affect the cymbd's timbre. Other mu-g materials can be used as well: draping a cloth or towel over a cymbal will eliminate most partiais and result in a rather dull clang. Once again, the amount of force which the matenal exerts on the cymbal and the arnount of contact between the two determines the degree to

which the cymbal sound is mded.

Many of these types of preparations can be applied to the hi-hat; however, the

mechanical nature of the hi-hat apparatus allows for a variety of other possibiIities as well.

In addition to those objects and materials which dampen and rattle, a wide variety of

objects can be placed between the two hi-hat cymbals yielding an almost limitless number

of sonic possibilities. The hi-hat also has many possibiiities in tems of envelope shape.

The hi-hat is capable of producïng sustainable sounds (a mallet roll on on open hi-hat, for

example), "Group A" dimete sound events (short attack and short decay) and "Group B"

sound events (short attack and long decay). Depending on the striking technique, the hi-

hat cari aiso produce sustainable sounds. These sounds can of course be comb'med in

many dif5erent ways to create a wide variety of sounds. Gerry Hemingway has descn'bed

his use of extended hi-hat techniques in his solo composition for drum set entitled

Tyrolienne @andom Acoustics RA 0 16):

The hi-hat cymbals are separated by a metal retainer. ..It allows me to bow both the boîtom and the top cymbals in addition to simultaneously rubbing the top cymbal with the tip of the mallet rattan. This is how 1 achieve the rich multiple hamonics and glissando all at the same the(1996: par. 14).

Wood or fibreglass drum shells can also be prepared in a number of ways.

Although a drum sheii does not vibrate to the sarne extent that a membrane or cymbal does, it wiü vibrate in its capacity as a resonating charnber for the membrane which it supports. Thus the resonance of a drum can be altered if the interior surface of the resonating charnber is dtered in some way. For example, lining the interior of a drum sheii with aluminum foil results in a sonority that is quite difFerent than that of an unprepared drurn. 1suspect that this relates to the way in which the sound is reflected inside the hm and the degree to which sound is radiated away fkom the vibrator. An investigation of other shell-lining materials would probably reveal considerable timbra1 variation-

However, preparations to the interior of drum shelis can be somewhat limiting as this does not aiiow for other lrinds of playing. Ofgreater interest to me are preparations to the extenor surface of the dmshell, This tends to involve the attachent of some sort of rattling agent to the exterior of the drum sheii. When the dmm (membrane, rim or sheli) is stmck some of the vibration is generally radiated to the exterior of the drum sheil. This vibration may cause the rattling agent to vibrate. Bells of various kinds can also be added to a drum sheU or membrane creating a multiple resonance. Table 2b

Factors Ianuencing the Timbre of DN~Set Sounds: Altering the Vibrating Object

Drum Sheiis Adding contact area contact area interior of objects/materirils (T contact area = fordweight dnun shells can which dampen (or +rd-pening) placement be lined with otberwise afftct fordweight dinerent spectral morphology) (? force = materials to ? darnpening) aiter resonance placement of of drum dambeners -- Adding a degree of viiration rivets, beaded rattling agents objects/materiaïs depends on weight chahs etc. can be attached which vibrate of object and to drum shell contact area extenor between object and vibrating surface

- Variations in sound vi'brating 'choked' cymbals envelopc membranes can be cymbal tremolo dampened to alter decay

Arranging the Elements: Multiple Resonances

The drum set's constituent elements can be arranged in a Wtually unlimited

number of ways and re-orderings of this sort often lead to sonic variation (timbra1 and

othenvise). The dmm set evolved as it did to accommodate changes in the style of music

it was used to accompany. In tum, changes in dmset technology often precipitated

changes in the music (Brown: 1976:95-126,401-12). With the expanded sonic vocabulary of much music since the 1960s, percussionists have explored a wide variety of spatial set ups, oAen incorporating additional percussive devices to achieve varied sonic resdts. One needs to look no Merthan to the percussion set-ups of dmmmers such as

Tony Oxley and David Moss for examples of this trend. Han Bmnink and Geny

Hemingway have also show remarkable resourcefidness in this regard. Given the

Iirnitless possibities of dmset re-organization, 1 cannot presently see any clear ait way to discuss the ways in which a drum set's constituent elements can be ordered. However, one aspect of drum set re-organization bears discussion, narnely the practice of establishing multiple resonances between the various elements of the drum set.

1 define a multiple resonance as a situation in which one physicd gesture causes more than one object to vibrate. In this light, the familiar "rim shot" technique Mght be considered a type of multiple resonance. As the drum stick contacts the membrane and rim of a snare drum simultaneously, we hear the sound of the skin, stick and shell. It has already been noted that certain striking agents generate sound upon contact with a vibrator. In a sense, this too is a multiple resonance. In using a rattle as a striking agent, we will hear both the sound of the object which is made to vibrate and that of the rattle.

The two are combined into a single sound event

Cowbells, woodblocks, cymbals and other instruments can be placed ont0 drum membranes or cymbals such that when the objects are struck, the supporting surface also vibrates." David Moss has summarwd the expanded sonic vocabulary that resulted fiom his use of multiple resonances beginning in the early 1970s:

'' h preparatiom of& sort, the timbre of the suppar

Gerry Hemingway explores an interesthg multiple resonance between drums and the bars

of a glockenspiel in his solo composition entitled hceof the Sphygmoi& (Ibndom

Acoustics RA 016). He has described the techniques used in this piece in the liner notes

to the recording:

The piece features a rearranged hi-hat that has a smaU metal retainer placed between the two cymbais; a device 1 also use in "Tyrolienne". It also features about six bars fkom a glockenspiel that are held on a rack and also rest partidy on the skins of the snare and floor tom. This makes it possible to combine the vibration of the bars with the resonance of the drum creating a vowel lilce sound, somethîng Uce a distorted gdan(1996b: par. 12).

The union of drurn and cymbal resonances can also yield interesthg results. The natural resonance of a drum amplifies the sound of the cymbal, often relliforcing certain portions ofthe cyrnbal's spectnirn. 1 combine the sound of a bowed hi-hat cymbal with the resonance of a snare drum in Echoes, a piece for drum set and electronics. In Shimmer and Composition for Bass Drum and CymbaI, an inverted cymbal is placed ont0 a drum membrane. By varying the amount of tension on the drum head, different parts of the cyrnbal's spectrum are emphaskd and the perceived pitch of the cymbal changes. Conclusion

Drum set sounds may be thought of as belonging to one of two broadly conceived types: those which are sustainable and those which are discrete. Each of these types of sounds can be broken down into subcategories: sustainable sounds on the bais of their means of production (fiction, rolls etc.) and discrete sounds on the basis of their sound envelope (Group A: quick attack, quick decay. Group B: quick attack, long decay). Most sounds can be vmied in any musid parameter. Rhythm, temporal density and dynarnic level are the parameters normaliy associated with drum set pedagogy and practice; however, changes in timbre and pitch can be accomplished through a variety of extended techniques. In addition to severai fixed pitch-influence factors, the drum set performer can manipulate the relative pitch of drums and cymbals in a variety of ways. Similarly, timbral variation is possible through several means: the mode of articulation can be altered; vibrating sdaces can be prepared in a variety of ways; the drum set's constituent parts can be rearranged, thereby dowing for the possibility of new sound configurations andlor

-multipleresonances. It is hoped that this provisional typology will offer interested performers andor listeners some insight into the expandeci percussive vocabulary used in some of my recent compositions for solo drum set and percussion. In an attempt to further expand the drum set's sonic possibilities, 1 have recently

explored the use of electronics in conjunction with acoustic drum signals. My main

interest in using elestronics has been the manipulation of dmset sounds in real tirne.

Specifidy, 1 Iveendeavoured to create a system whereby 1 can record and play back multiple dnun tracks during a performance and integrate those tracks with the acoustic

sounds of the dmm set. There have been a number of precedents for this type of system. in me Baih fiom 1966, Pauline Oliveros used multiple tape recorders to collect the sounds made by dancers duruig a live performance and then played the sounds back adding feedback fiom the tape machines (Oliveros 1995). Oliveros fkther explored the timbra1 effects of multiple tape delays in Bye Bye Butter& (1965) and I of N(l966). In the late 1970s, Paul Dresher developed an elaborate tape loop system which allowed for live muiti-track record'ig, processing and immediate playback of instrumental sounds. In

MBheCircuntstcmce (1982-87), Dresher used this system to create a nch tapestry of interwoven guitar parts played by a single performer in real tirne. In recent performances of this work Dresher has recreated the delay system using digital controls. One of the most elaborate sound-processing systems of this sort is the "Expanded instrument

System" developed during the 1980s by Pauline OIiveros and her colleagues Panaiotis and

David Gamper. Garnper and Oliveros have descriied this system in a recent article:

The Expanded Instrument System (EIS) is a perîomer-controlled delay- based network of digital sound-processing devices designed to provide an improvisational environment for amustic musicians. With the current configuration of the EIS, each performer has appropriate microphones, a wmputer and a collection of sound-processing electronic devices. Signals nom foot switches and ordinary expression-type foot pedals manipdated by the perfomer are interpreted by the cornputer, which then control the signal routing fkom the performer's microphones to the sound processors, as well as certain fiuictions of the processors themselves... Sound outputs fkom each station are distributeci to speakers encirciing the performance and audience spaces (1998).

My own experiments with electronics have been somewhat simpler than those

describeci by Oliveros and Gamper. Eariy on, 1 found that many signal processing devices

were oflimitecl interest in conjunction with the drum set. The dmset affords an

enormous range of sonorities on its own; many of the effects of adding reverberation,

modulation or filtration can be approxhated using extended playing techniques on the

acoustic instrument. Of far greater interest to me was the possibility of creating "loops"

of sound in real time using a digital delay device. Mer some investigating, 1 purchased a

Lexicon Jamman, a delay unit which offers a 32 second delay time once the unit's rnemory

has been upgraded. The fm that the dmset has multiple elements, each with its own

spectral and envelope characteristics, necessitateci the use of a mixer in conjunction with tie Lexicon delay unit. 1 experimented with a wide variety of microphone types and placements in order to record the drum signals. My usud practice of p1acing two microphones above the drum set (and sometimes one in Çont of the bass drum) proved to be inadequate. In this arrangement, the microphones would not only pick up the drum signals, but the recordeci sound nom the speakers positioned behind the drums. This caused feedback after only two layers of looped sound. This could have been avoided by plachg the speakers in fkont of the drums; however, it made more sense to me to be able to hear what the audience would hear and 1 didn't like the idea of wearing headphones during a live performance. Moreover, 1 wanted the acoustic sounds of the dnim set to blend with the recorded material, creaîing a unified field of sound. The other way to circumvent the feedback problem was to close-mic each part of the drum set. This meant that 1 would need a minimum of seven microphones, the cost of which would have been prohibitive had 1 not made a fortunate discovery. My solution was to use seven piem elements attached diilyto each part of the drum set. These elements were onginally designed ta detect pressure changes of various kinds; when subjected to some pressure, the shape of the element is distorted and an electrical current is generated as a result.

Luckily for me, they are sensitive enough to detect the vibrations from the drums and cymbais but not the recarded sound emanating from the speakers (at least not at feedback levels). The piezos have the added advantage ofbeing extremely cost enective; the elements generaliy cost about 30 cents a piece; 1 was therefore able to ampli@ my entire drum set for under three dollars.

1 experimented with a variety of placements of the piezo elements. Attaching them direaly to the cymbal or membrane surfaces resulted in a strong signal but this altered the acoustic sound of the instrument and occasionally resulted in signal distortion. 1 eventualiy found that by attaching the elements to the sheUs of each drum and to the cymbal stands, I was able to get an acceptable sound. A small bit of padding between each piezo and the vibrahg surfàce eliminated distortion and yielded more baianced sound levels between dmmembranes, rïms and shells. The hi-hat posed a slight problem because of its mechanical nature. When attached to any part of the hi-hat stand, the piem

microphone picked up the noise of the hi-hat apparatus in addition to that of the hi-hat

cymbals. I now attach a piezo to a small table positioned beside the hi-hat that 1 use to

hold mallets during a penomance. The sound quality of drums and cymbals recordecl in

this way is surpnsingly good given the low cost involveci.

Figure 3 shows the set-up of the delay systern as 1 currently use it. 1 ancontrol d

of the delay unit's bctions with foot switches positioned beside rny hi-hat and bass drum

pedais. One switch starts and stops the looping process. Other switches ailow me to

store loops in the unit's memory. 1 have added a foot operated volume pedal between the amp and mixer. This ailows me to control the volume of the recorded sound while playing with my hands. 1generaiiy keep a very small arnount of unprocessed sound in the mix but for the most part, the "live sodthat the audience hears is unamplified. If 1 were to use this systern in a large performance space, I would no doubt have to alter the ratio of processed and unprocessed sound. Figure 3

Block Diagram of Electmnics Set-up Udin Conjunction with Acoustic Dmm Set

output w input' 1' iI âehy unit foot - switches I

To my knowledge, this is the first system of its kind to be used in conjunction with acoustic drum set. A nurnber of percussionists have combineci dmset sounds with electro-awustic materials. Gerry Hemingway uses a midi-triggered sampler to combine the sounds of acoustic drum set with processed percussion and sampled materials.

However, aii of bis work involves material recorded prior to performance. 1am mainly interested in rd-thne manipulations of percussive sounds. I do use recorded sound in 1 am a Canadian; however, this too is manipulateci in rdtime using the delay system.

The first piece I wrote using this system is entitled Echoes. The premise of the piece is quite simple: a series of bowed cymbal sounds are Iayered on top of one another using the delay system This creates a dense texture resembhg the sound of rnassed

75 agents which yield different timbres and sound envefopes. The relationship between the

amustic materials and the recorded sound is one of figure and ground, a relationship

which is reflected in the physical layout of the drum set and speakers.

In Imn a C@m7 1explore the potential for timbra1 transformation that this

system offers when multiple delays are created. The source material in this piece comes

eom a vinyl recording of former Canadian Prime Minister. John G. Diefenbaker @CA

CC-1027). The recordmg begins with the sound of a train whistle in the distance.

Before long, we hear Diefenbaker's voice saying: 'My creed as a Canadian can be

surnmed up in these words: 1 am a Canadian...". 1 have placeci a smd circular sticker at

the exact spot on the face of the record where Diefenbaker's proclamation has been

recorded. When the record needle hits this sticker, it jumps back exactly one revolution

and the phrase 'Iam a Canadian" gets repeated od injnihmr. The signal nom the record

player is routed through the mixer and delay unit. Once the loop fiom the skipping record

has been established, 1use the delay system to add repetitions of the loop which are out of

phase with the source recording. After several layers of sound have been added, the

timbre of the recorded sound changes and the speech becomes somewhat difficult to

decipher. At this point in the piece, 1 stop the record player and allow the sound nom the

delay unit to exist on its own but 1continue to add layers of looped sound. Without the

source recordhg in the mïq the sound which gets picked up by the piezo microphones tends to be mediated by the resonant object to which each microphone is attached. The

sound fiom the speakers causes the membranes and cymbals to vibrate and it this vibration which is mainly picked up by the piezos. In effect, the dnuns act as tramducers of the recorded sound. Mer severai more delays are added, the resonant fiequency of each drum can be discemed in the recorded sound dong with the remnant characteristics of the room in which this process is taking place. Once the resonant fkequencies of the drum set have been thus incorporateci, 1improvise on the acoustic instrument.

There is a strong sense of identity, both national and personal, in Ianr a C-m.

With the transformation of Diefenbaker's voice into pure sound cornes the dissolution of bis identity and the assertion of my own, mediated at fkst by the sound of the drums. This transfer of identity is completed in the final stages of the work with the introduction of improvised acoustic material. Space undergoes a similar transfo,rmation in this piece. The sound of a train whistle has nostaîgic associations for many. In tthis recording, it seems to have been intended to evoke a sense of the Canadian landscape. This irnagined space is reinforceci by Diefenbaker's patriotic sentiment. By adding multiple repetitions of the phrase '1 am a Canadian", a different space is created. Thronigh electronic processin& the recorded sound is transformed and a Wtual space is created which exists somewhere between the imagineci space ofthe recording and the physical space of the penorrning environment. With the introduction of live acoustic sound, the audience is reminded of the physical acoustic space in which the music is being created amd their own place therein. Works For Solo Lithophone

The final aspect of my compositional work to be discussed in the present context

relates to an instrument which 1 recently made out of stone. "Rock? music, as I have

becorne fond of describing it, has a fu more lenghy history than many realize- Long

before the Beatles or the Rolling Stones before Elvis or Chuck Berxy, musically minded

individuals around the world were creating rock music in the literal sense. Perhaps ow

Neolithic ancestors were the nrst to discover the resonant quality of certain rocks while

chipping stone tools. Stone instruments, including several believed to be of ancient origin,

have been discovered in parts of Asia, Europe, Atnca and South America (Blades

1970:91). 'Xock gongs'' ranging in size f?om hand-held pieces to large boulders have

been used throughout Ecato accompany a variety of religious ceremonies and initiation

rites (Fagg 1956:7). In China, musical instruments are classified acdigto the natural

philosophy of Fuh shi in which eight symbols @a-ha)are believed to be expressions of

all the changes in the universe. Stone is the firstpa-ha of Fuh shi and therefore the nrst

class of instruments in the traditional system of Chese organology (Blades lWO:89)-

The Western Classical tradition has witnessed lithophonic endeavours of its own. In the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuriesysonorous Stones were gathered in Great Bntain's

English Lake District and were used to create instruments hown as 'rock harmonicas'

(Blades 82-4). Built f?om 1827-1840, the largest ofthese had a five octave chromatic range and meesured twelve feet in length. Advertid as "Richardsons' Original Monstre Rock Band", the instrument's inventors toured throughout Bntain and mainland Europe perforrning works by Handel, Mozart, Donizetti and Rossini on their stone creation @id.).

A number of twentieth century composers have called for stone sounds in their work. Pauline Oliveros, Malcolm Goldstein, Philip Corner, Daniel Goode and Christian

Woln are among this disthguished group. In 1995, Frog Peak Music published a coliection of works by these and other composers in which rocks, stones and pebbles are the featured instruments. In his introduction to this volume, Daniel Goode suggests:

Stones as instruments mock industrial civilization and the precisionism of industrïally produced orchestral and dectronic instruments. Stones in - those pieces are not tempered into the twelve-equal chromatic tones, or into any 0thsystematic hining. They are often cornplex noise-bands or rnixtures of pitches within one stone (Goode, ed. 5).

My recent experiments with stone music have, in some ways, been at odds with Goode's position as 1 am expressly interested in systematic tunùigs. 1 have tried to use the cornplex spectral qualitiu of stone to achieve a degree of fiexibility with respect to pitch, thereby creating a lithophone with multi-intonational capabilities. Truth be told, 1 did not set out to constma a Lithophone, multi-intonational or otherwise. The instrument was actually the redt of a series of serendipitous events which may be worth re-telling in the present Consbiictïng the Multi-Intonationai Lithophone

In the spring of 1998,I came across a generous supply of marble slabs in a used hardware store. The pieces were cream in col0u8~and were of more-or-less uniforrn dimensions: three feet long, two and a half inches wide and three eighths of an inch thick-

One nice ofeach piece was highly polished and there was a siight bevel dong one edge. I presumed that these were intended to be used for decorative purposes. Had 1not found them, they would have phaps ended up as baseboards in the lobby of a swadq home or office building. Although 1 could thUik of no immediate use for a stack of marble tiles, 1 figured they would corne in handy someday so 1 purchased the lot for fifteen dollars. This habit of buying bits of junk and industrial refuse developed during my days as an undergraduate art student. Garbage, it seemed to me, was generaily more interesting (not to mention less expensive) to work with than canvas, clay and plaster.

In transporthg this stack of marble home, I inadvertently broke one piece. 1 notid that the two Stone fragments 1was left with yielded dirent pitches when struck.

32 1leanied later that the commercial name for this type of &le is "Pedato Royale. " Although I have no reason to assume that the acoustic pmperties of this type of marble are any dif5erent fiorn those of other types, it is perhaps worth noting uiat the process thrr,ugh which this type of marble foms is different thaa for more brightly coloured varieties. Geologist Frederick FI. Pough explains: Thecmstai squeePng and heat af regional metamorphism are not aIways necessary for the rec~ystaüjzationof a limeStone inta csarse grains that will take a poli&. Occasionaüy, theand burial with ample circdating groundwater solutions will do the same thing, but in those cases the fossiI sheIls pteserved in the onginai lime sdiments persist in the decarative maxble-S. Such marbles are c&n buffalored and their fossiis may show as lighter~~loredsections of purer calcite" (1976:22). My marbIe pieces show the fossil inciusions discussed by Pough. It is perhaps worthy of note that the mention of "cirdating groundwater solutions" provides a link with previous Lithophones: the nrst stom chimes in China are said to have been discovered in a pool of water, in England, the nrst set of musical Stones were discovered in the bed of the river Greta (BIades 1970:82-3). This made me wonder if1 couid cut these strips of rnarble and tune the pieces to mirent

pitches* 1 had no idea how to cut and tune marble but I assumeci that I would need some

sort of rotating, carbidecoated wheel. 1 ended up at the local Canadian Tire store where 1

purchased a "Multi-Disk" set of the "as seen on TV" vaxiety. These disks proved to be

adequate for the task at hand. Over the next three months, 1cut and tuned ninety-seven

marble bars using only these disks and an electric hand-drill.

1 began by detemiining the range of pitches that could be produced using this materiai. The width and thickness of the bars seemed just about perfect fiom a structural point of view so 1 only needed to adjust the lengths of the pieces. 1 found that the marble would resonate at lengths ranging fiom about 40 cm to 20 cm. This roughly corresponded to fiequenq values ranging fiom about 300 Hz to 1200 Hz. Beyond this range, the bars tended to yield little more than a dull thud when stnick I chose 293 -7Hz (a 'D' by

Western standards) as the lowest note and 1174.8 Hz (a 'D' two octaves above) as the upper limit. The low 'Dymeasured 42.5 cm in length while the high 'D' was 21.5 m. At fis< 1 decided (somewhat arbitrarily) to tune the pieces of stone to the Western chromatic de,mostly just to see if it could be done.

Cutting the bars was fairly easy. 1 guessed at the approximate length 1needed and then scored the back of the marble with the rotating disk. 33 1wodd then snap each piece

It wouîd be possible to &termine the appropriate Iengtbs for particuiar fhquencies by matbernatical means (the fiequency of a vibrating bar is inversely proportional to the square of its tength). However, irreguiarities in the thickness of the material mack it derto use trial-and-error. at the edge of a table or other flat surface. In al1 but a few cases, the marble broke dong the scored iine. Tuning the marble was a somewhat more arduous Holding each piece of stone in my lef€ hand, 1 used my right hand to grind the ends of each bar with the multi-disc wheel. Every thirty seconds or so, 1would stop and dip the bar into some wld water and then check its fiequency with a smaU electronic tuner, the Seiko ST-747. 1 coatinueci this process of gradually inmeasing the frequency of each bar by shortenhg its le@ until the desued fiequency was obtained. This was not, by any means, an exact science. However, it seemed to me that the non-linear spectral qualities of stone would make slight deviations of pitch more tolerable to the ear than they might otherwise be.

This was coniirmed when 1 wmpleted two chromatic octaves. To my ears, they sounded perfectly in tune with other equal-tempered instruments. The sound of the bars (which at that tirne 1 played set on my outstretched legs) was siMlar to that of a marimba. .* .*

Having completed two octaves, 1found that 1had a substanttial amount of marble left over. Not able to extend the range of the instrument, 1 decided to move into the realm of microtones. Given the equdy tempered hework1 had already established, quarter tones seemed like an obvious choice. Using the process described above, I subdivided each chromatic interval into quarter tones, thereby yieldhg a total of forty-nine bars. 1 still had some marble left over but it was not nearly enough to subdivide the intervals again. However, 1 began to wonder about the possibility of approximating other intervais which were not necessarily equaliy ternpered. What, 1wondered, was the maximum deviation fiom any pitch that would be perceived as "in tune"? The quarter tone interval was obviously too large to approximate other tunings effectively so 1 decided to

purchase some more made (at a wnsiderably greater wst than the first tirne amund) in

order to cornpiete the Lithophone in eighth tones. With this eighth tone grid, I would be

able to approximate any pitch within the range of the instrument to a maximum deviation

of twelve and a baIf cents.

Without doubt, the range of tolerance with respect to "tunedness" depends on

several factors includhg the musical and cultural context in which the rnistunings ounir. 1

suspect that the tolerance range is considerably greater when listening to a Bahese

grnefan ensemble than it wouid be for most string quartets as gamelans often contain

pairs of instruments which are deliberately tuned slightly apart. This sound ideal must

necessdy affect one's perception of what constitutes "huiedness"." The acoustic

properties of the instruments involved must also play a signincant role in our perception of

tuning. It seerns quite possibie that our ability to discem pitch-related information is

diredy related to the duration of a =und event and inversely proportional to its degree of

spectral complexity. According to this theory, the pitch of instruments with relatively

quick decay times (most idiophones for example) wiIi be more difncult to pinpoint exactly

than instruments in which pitches can be sustained for longer durations. The cornplex

Y Judith Becker has suggestcd that the "out4tunen qualiây of older Javanese gamelan ensembles des& a paradigm in which the very concept of "out-of-tunen is inappropriaîe: The challenge is to imagine a world view in which an 'out4-tum' ensemble is preferable to a 'tuned' one. One possible exphnation is that viirations with wide sound spectnuns are much beüer metaphors for certain natural sounds than are weii-tuned, narrow spectnun wirations..,What we might cail a poorly tuned gong is a belter iam for nature than a weil-tuned one," (1998:388-9). Such a worldview would necessarily affect one's perception of tuning. Moreover, it seems quite likely that in such a context, the standards for "out~huiedness"may be wery bit as exacting as Western standards for "in-auiedness." spectrai morphology of many percussion instruments Lürely increases the range of

tolerance to an even greater extent. These awustic variables held a great deal of interest

for me as 1 constructed the lithophone.

The stone bars 1 had been bining did give a relatively clear sense of pitch. Wthout

remnators, the bars had decay times ranghg fkom about six seconds in the low register to

three seconds two octaves above. Spectral analysis of several bars showed that the upper

partials of each bar died out very quickly, particularly in the upper register. Several of the

bars had partials which were in a harmonic relationship with the fundamental. More

cornmon though were inharmonic partials at roughly 2.75 and 5.4 tirnes the fundamental

fiequency. 1 leamed later that these ratios, 2-75:1 and 5.4: 1 represent the first and second

partials of a theoreticai bar of uniform cross section (Moore 1970:10). In this respect, the

acoustics of the lithophone are rernarkably consistent with those of other tuned idiophones

with bars of uniform thiclcness (the glockenspiel for example). In the construction of xylophones, vibraphones and marimbas, material is removed nom the underside of each bar in order to bring these inhamonic partials into a harmonic relationship with the hdamentai fiequency (Moore 1971:68). This was a possibitity with the Lithophone; however, to remove material fkom the underside of the bars would be to undennine the structural integrity of the instrument Moreover, I hoped that the complexity of the sound would give me greater leeway in approxhating other tunings.

The presence of inharmonic partials in the Iithophone bars rnay have some effect on the range of tolerance with respect to tunedness. Although the upper partials die out very quickly, it stands to reason that the attack portion of the sound would make the greatest impression on one's perceptuaf apparatus 9mply because it is the most audible.

Merthe initial attack, the hdarnental Erequency is rather quiet. Perhaps more

importantly, spectrographie anaiysis showed that the fùndamental fiequency of each of the

bars was not entirely discrete. In each of the bars 1analyzed, the fiindamentais had

symmetrical sidebands four or five Hz above and below the fùndamental itsekf These

sidebands were in evidence in several upper partials as weii. This suggests that the

fùndamental exists within a range of fiequency values and it stands to reason that this

would hcrease our tolerance range accordingly.

Havhg tuned two octaves in eighth tones, 1was lefi with a total of ninety-seven

pieces of marble. On the back of each bar, 1 wrote its fiequency and its position with

respect to the Western chromatic sale 0.e. D + 25 cents, F + 50 cents, G# + 75 cents

etc.). 1 also numbered each bar fkom one to ninety-seven beginning with the lowest note,

D 293.7 Hz. This has allowed me to treat musical intends as numbers ranging fiom one to forty-eight? An addition or subtraction of twenty-eight always results in the interval ofa penect fifth; an addition of fourteen always results in a minor third plus a quarter tone etc. The fiequency of each bar dong with its numenc identifier is given in Table 3.

Nmety-seven pieces of marble proved to be far too cumbersome fiom a transportation and performance perspective to be used at once. With the bars arrangeci in a linear fashion, the instrument would masure upwards of twenty feet in length and weigh over 200 pounds. Given the proportions of the lithophone and my intention of

35 This is not unlike the practice af many pitch class set theorists and senal composers who number the pitch classes of the chromatic sale fiom 1 to 12 or, more ammonly, O to 11. aPPr0xhahg different tunllig systems by seldgcertain bars nom the ninety-seven, it was evident that any sort of fixed mounting device would be most impracticai. This also

meant that 1would have to do without resonators: 1experimented with a variety of flexiile support systems including rope supports and felt-covered pieces of wood. The mounting system which sounded best proved to be the cheapest, the most versatile and the lightest. Using discardecl packing matenal gathered fiom a department store dumpster, 1 fishioned smd styrofoarn supports to hold each bar of the lithophone. Table 3

Frequency Values of the Eighth abne Lithophone

-- - Chromatic + 25 cents + 50 cents + 75 cents reference pitch I When placed at the nodal points of each bar,= these supports dowthe bars to vibrate relatively wiimpeded. This system has aliowed me to set up the instrument quickly on virtuaily any flat daceand dows for a variety of spatial configurations. 1 generally use a black table cloth and underpadding beneath the lithophone to cut down on the impact sound of styrofoam against the supporthg surface when the bars are stnick. 1 painted the styrofoam supports black to match the cloth; the dark background highIïghts the natural colour of the marble. A small bit of double-sided tape on the underside of each support prevents the bars ftom moving du~ga performance.

In performing solo on this instrument, 1 have no real way of knowing the degree to which the lithophone is wnvincing in its approximation of non-tempered tunings. In order to test this, 1 decided to compare the sound of the lithophone with that of a justly-tuned instrument, Gayle Young's multi-intonational metailophone known as the "wlumbine".

The theory and design of the columbine are descllied in two articles devoted to the subject (Young 1987, 1992). The instrument is based on a pitch set of thirteen notes per octave which is denved fiom a five-Mt sde. This set of pitches is transposed up a just major third (94) and down a just major third (4/5) to yield a total of twenty-three diEerent pitches per octave.

In Febmary of 1999, Gayle and I compared the sounds of the wlumbine with the lithoph&neYs closest approximation. We tried to hear any differences in pitch which exist

36 The nodal points of the fiindamental mode of a viiraîing bar can be &termined by multiptying the length of the bar by 0.224 (h4oore 1970:67). The remit represents the distance hmboth ends of the bar at which the nodes occuf. I have marked these points on each bar of the lithophone in pencil. between the correspondmg bars of the two instruments. The lithophone was first

compared to the sound of the columbine being played with mallets and then against the

sustain of a bowed pitch. AU of the cornparisons were recorded so that our initial

perceptions wuld be checked at a later date. Our fïndings are sumrnarized in Table 4. Of

the forty-six columbine pitches within the range of the lithophone, only six mistunings

were perceptible to our ears and of those, ail but one was deemed to be ver-slight.

Several of the widest mistunings went undetected. For example, the sixteen cent deviation

between the columbine's 10/9 and the lithophone equivalent was imperceptible. 1 must

assume that this was due to increased spectral complexity resulting fiom irregularities in

certain pieces of marble.

Surprisingly, mistunings were not as noticeable when the columbine pitches were

sustained. This can be explained in part by the fact that each pitch was considerably

louder when the columbine was bowed and the sound tended to mask that of the

lithophone. Gayle also noticed (for the first tirne, 1 believe) that the pitch of the columbine fluctuated somewhat in the initial stages of bowing. This Wrely increased our tolerance of misturings to an even greater extent. Although we were able to detect these mistunings when pitches were compared in isolation, this was no longer possible when we played the instruments together in an improvisatory manner. Table 4

Cornparison of "Columbinc" Tuning with Closest Lithophone Approximation

1 Cohmbine 1 Lithophone Approximation 1 Auditory Acccptance (

Ratio Hz Bar # Cents Stnrck Bowed Deviation (c) Columbine Columbine d 415 261 11 64175 279 819 291 9110 294 293.7 1 2 4 4 15/16 305 306.8 4 10 lithophone iithophone sharp sharp 24/25 314 3 15.7 6 9 lithophone not as slightly sharp noticeable 111 327 325 8 11 4 4 25/24 340 339.4 11 3 4 4 16/15 350 349.2 13 4 d 4 1O19 363 359.6 15 16 d 4 918 366 364.8 16 6 4 4 75/64 383 381 19 9 4 4 b 6/5 393 392 21 4 d d 514 408 409.5 24 6 4 4 32/25 420 421.5 26 6 4 4 4/3 434 433.8 28 1 4 d 25/18 454 453.1 3 1 3 4 4 45/32 459 459.7 32 2 d 4 64/45 466 466.2 33 1 4 4 3 6/25 471 473.1 34 8 lithophone not as 1 slightiy sharp noticeable 312 490 487 36 11 lithophone not as slightly flat noticeable 25/16 510 508.6 39 5 4 4 8/5 524 523 -3 41 2 4 4 5/3 546 546.6 44 2 4 4 128175 558 554.4 45 11 d 4 1619 580 579.1 . 48 3 4 4 . - Columbine Lithophone Approximation Auditory Acceptance Tuning L Ratio Hz Hz Bar # Cents Struck Bowed Deviation Cc) Columbine Columbine 9/5 587 587-3 49 1 4 4 15/8 612 613.6 52 4 4 4 48/25 627 63 1-4 54 13 iithophone not as siïghtly sharp noticeable 2/l 654 650 56 10 4 d 25/12 683 678-8 59 10 4 d 32/15 697 698.4 61 4 4 4 20/9 728 729.6 64 4 4 4 9/4 736 740 65 9 I/ 4 75/32 765 762 67 7 4 4 12/5 784 784 69 O 4 d 5/2 816 819 72 6 4 4 , 64/25 838 843 74 10 lithophone lithophone siightly sharp siightly sharp 8/3 871 867.6 76 7 4 4 25/9 909 906.2 79 r 5 4 4 45/16 918 919-4 80 2 4 4 -128/45 930 932.4 81 4 4 4 72/25 942- 82 8 '74. 3/1 983 987.8 85 8 4 4 25/8 1020 1017.2 87 5 d 4 16/5 1045 1046.6 89 2 4 4 In writing solo works for the lithophone, the fht altered tuning system 1

experimented with was a just scale based on ratios involving prime numbers of seven or

less - what Partch would have called a seven-limit scale. Rather than arrange the bars in

a hear fashion, I experïmented with a pitch rnatrix modeiled after James 'ïemey's

concept of "harmonic space" (198256-83). Although it would be beyond the scope of the

present essay to delve into this concept in detail, it bears some discussion. The hamonic

space concept is a mode1 of harmonic perception in which pitches are defined in relational

terms ushg frequency ratios.37 Implicit in the concept is the premise that the hamonic

series shapes our perception of the relations between tones. Thus, the position of each

ratio with respect to a nominal reference pitch (111) is, to some extent, a reflection of its position in the overtone senes: small integer ratios are closer to 1/1 in harmonic space than are more complex ratios which occur higher in the harmonic series. The number of

"dimensions" or axes in harmonic space depends on the number of prime numbers involved in the tuning system A 7-limit saleinvolves the prime numbers 2,3,5, and 7 so there are four dimensions in the implied space. The comrnon practice of folding ail pitch ratios into one octave3*effectively eliminates one dimension (the "two" axis) but we are

37 Temey bas noted that there exists a degree of fluibiiity within each fiequency ratio. He writes: "...these fiequency ratios must be understood to represent pitches within a certain tolerance range-Le. a range of frequencies within which some slight mistuuing is possl'ble without altering the harmonie identity of an interval. The actual magnitude ofthis tolerance range would depend on several factors, and it is not yet possible to specifL it precisely, but it seems IikeSy that it would vary inversely with the ratio- complexity of the interval. That is, the srnalier the integers needed to designate the muency ratio for a aven interval, the larger its toIerance range wodd be" (ibib 70). In his own compositiooal practice, Tenney has adoptecl a tolerance range offive cents when incorporating instruments with fixed pitches (e-g. vibraphone) into works in which instruments are re-tuned to just tuniugs @ers. comm., ad). In cornparison, a tolerance range of 12.5 cents may seem a bit large. It is my hopthat the acoustical - properties of stone discussed above will maice this deviation more acceptable than it might otherwise be. This is ac~ompiishdby dividing or multiplying the ratio by two until it bas a value ôe~n1 and 2. still left with a three dimensional model. Figure 4 represents an attempt to depict a 3,5,7 space on the twdiensional sucface on which it is p~ted.Diagonal hes are meant to give the illusion of three-dimensionality; they should be thought of as receding into and corning out ofthe page. It should be noted that once the space has been thus estabfished, the position of 111 is somewhat arbitrary as the relations between pitch ratios are replicated throughout the space.

Figure 4

3,5,7 Harmonic Space

In trying to apply this concept to the lithophone, 1 was faced with the dilemma of adapting a three-dimensional model to a two-dimensional playing surface. It would be possible to create some sort of three dimensional structure on which the lithophone bars

wuld be arranged but this would be impractical nom a performance perspective.

My solution to this problem was a simple one: 1 onented bars belonging to diïerent planes

in different directions. The result is shown in figure 5.

Figure 5

Adaptation of 3,547 Space to 2-Dimensionai Playing Sudace

Beginning on any pitch in this space, a lateral move to the right will always result in an interval ratio of 312 relative to the beginning pitch (or an octave transposition thereot). A move to the left will yield the inverse: a fiequency which is 2/3 that of the beginning pitch or 4/3 when kept within one octave. Similady, a rnove away fbmthe performer (up in fig. 2) to the first bar which is paralie1 to the beginning pitch will aiways

result in the interval ratio of 514. A correspondhg move in the opposite direction results

in an interval ratio of 415 or an octave equivalent. The ratio between bars which are

vertidy adjacent but of different orientations is always 714 or its inverse 8/7,depending

on whether the move is away fiom or toward the perfomer. Thus, a given "shape" on

the instrument wili have the same intervallic content no matter where it ocairs in the

space. This has ailowed me to adopt a compositional process in which I can define a series of shapes on paper which have a direct analogue on the instrument. 1 use this systern of notation in Jacob 's PiZZw (23574 and SiZkstone in thee movemenfs (2357-b).

Both pieces use a harmonic fiamework based on a 7-bit scde.

The harmonic content of Silhtone revolves around the juxtaposition of the intervd ratios 7f6 and 8/7 and 3/2 transpositions thereof In the iithophone approximation of these intervals, they are a quarter tone apart (ii a truly just system, these ratios would be only

35.7 cents apart). Timbraf variation is achieved in SiZWone through the use of a sheet of raw silk placeci over the bars of the lithophone. When prepared in this way, the instrument yields a deadened tone. In the first movement of this piece, aii of the bars are covered. In the second movement, ody haif of the bars are covered and the pefiormer explores the juxtaposition of deadened tones with tones that sustain. Further timbra1 variation is achieved in the second movement through the use of the cane ends of vibraphone rnallets to strike the instrument. In the third movement, the silk sheet is removed from the instrument entirely and the bars of the iithophone are aliowed to ring fieely. The fiequency values for a seven-Iunit sale based on 1/1= 440 Ibare given in

Table 5 dong with the lithophone's closest approximations. 1 have made some octave substitutions, thereby re-introducing elements of the '%NO axis" into the hannonic space.

These fiequencies are used in Jacob 's PiIIau and SiIbtone. Several dif€iculties arise when using the eighth tone approximation. In choosing the lithophone bars which most closely approxhate the 7-limit scale, several interna1 inconsistencies are created witk the tuning.

For example, in a just system where 1/1= 440 Eh, a just major thkd (5/4) is 550 Hz. The closest lithophone approximation is 546.6, a deviation of 11 cents. A 1518 above 1/1 is

825 Ht. The closest lithophone approximation to this pitch is 830.6 Hi, a deviation of 12 cents. In a just system, the relationship between 5/4 and 15/8 is exactly 3/2. However, with the Ethophone approximations, this interval is alrnost an eighth ofa tone smaller.

This is characteristic of any tuning in which equal intervals are used to approximate a just scale. As 1 see it, there are two options in this situation: the tuning cm adhere to the just scale as closely as possible and any internai inmnsistencies that arise can be ignored or substitutions can be made such that the approximate tuning is intemally consistent. This has becorne a question of aesthetics for me. 1 have tned both approaches and 1 have found the diifference to be a subtle one.)g Ifthe option exists, I generaily dow pitches in the upper register to go slightly sharp as this is in keeping with the acoustic properties of

'' The subtlety of this differenœ most likely relates to the material being owd to produce the intervals. The ditference would be less subtle, 1 suspect, for instruments in which the intervals could be sustainai for longer duratiom. several other instruments. For example, pedomers of wind instruments oh"blow sharpn in high registers.

1 discovered another limitation of the lithophone when 1 tned to go beyond a seven-limit scale. 1 reamned that additional dimensions wuld be introduced into the space and onented in other directions, possibly perpendicular to the 'Wiree axisy'. However, with the addition of pitches derived fiom an eleven-limit scale, several pitches already in the space are very nearly duplicated. This is a problern in that the same bar is then needed to approximate diierent pitches which aren't necessatily in close prownity to one another in the harmonic space rnodel. Luckily, this problem can be avoided to some extent with judicious octave substitutions. Cornparison of 3,5,7 Harmonic Space to Lithophone Approximation

Just Frcquency (Hz) Cents Interval (Some octave Lithophone Approximation Devia tion Ratios substitutions) ( cents ) Frequency (Hz) 1 Bar # r I 1 Arranging the bars of a tuned percussion instrument in a ma& fâshion is certainly not a new idea. One needs to look no fùrther than to Hamy Partch's "Diamond Marimba" for a wonderfbl example of this type of instrument desip." Using the spatial configuration of an instrument to provide a basis for musical notation is simüarly not new

(see Udow 198 1: 1 5-29). However, to my knowledge, the multi-intonational Lithophone represents the &st application of the harmonic space concept ber se) to an instnunentys codiguration. 1 have found this to be most usefiil fiom a compositional standpoint and as a means of understanding harmonic relations which Lie outside Western equal-tempered huiing. The acoustic properties of stone seem to make deviations fkom non-tempered t-gs more acceptable than they might othexwise be.

There are, of course, many other possibilities in terms of the spatial arrangement of the lithophone's bars and many other tuning systems to approximate. In Stone Chges, a set of sixty-four pieces for solo Lithophone, tunings ranging fiom six to twelve tones were derived f3om the two-octave set of eighth tones using chance operations. The selected bars are arrangeci into the patterns of the sixty-four hexagrarns associated with the I

Ching. The perfiormer is instnicted to improvise within these spatial co~rationsusing the component digrams of each hexagram to determine various musical details. The upper digram is associated with dynamks the middle with temporal density andior tempo, and the bottom digram with the duration of the piece. The forms of each digram are correIated with pararneîric States according to the foliowing: low (= =),medium

" See Partch's Genesis of a Music (1949) for a detailed account of the construction of and tbeoxy behind the "Diamond Marimban and other microtonal instnunents of the composer's invention. (=) ( =) ).This ensures that a wide variety of parametric states and combinations ofthese states will occur in the work as a whole. In using the component digrarns in this way, 1was innuend by James Temey's set of sixty-four studies for six harps entitIed Changes (see Tmey 1987). In contrast to 'ïemey's piece, however, 1 use the digrams to indicate improvisationai restraints, not specinc musical outcornes, CHAPTER 6:

Summary

In my works for solo percussion, I have sought a unifieci compositional approach within a diverse field of form and content. Implicit in the majority of my pieces is an awareness of not ody the sonic aspects of music creation, but the visual content of musical performance as weU. This awareness is manifested in several ways. 1 have used a variety of spatial strategies in the creation of these works. In most cases, these strategies are transmïtted to the performer through verbal scores and spatial notations. Much of the work has visual appeal f?om the perspective of the audience member as weli. In a number of pieces, 1explore the sculphual qualities of the instruments involved. This sensibility is evident in my use of found objects and in the works for solo Lithophone, an instrument which 1 designed and constructed out of stone. In some pieces, the physical space in which the music ocairs is investigated for its expressive potential. Physical gesture also figures prominently in much of this work. For exarnple, 1 make fiequent use of extended playing techniques in my pieces for solo percussion and dmset. These techniques highlight the physical nature of the instnunents involved and often lend a ntualistic sense to the work.

We iive in a world that is becoming increasingly hi&-tech. We are constantly bombarded with information, much of which is of little direct relevance to Our lives. 1 have corne to see my music as a refbge for the senses, a place where visual and sonic information can intemïngie without the added pressure of a sales pitch or product advertïsernent. This is the way in which these pieces for solo percussion fùnction in my own Me; it is my sincere hope that they might do the same for others. Bibliography

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Becker, Judith. 1988. Thth, Fue, Sakti, and the Javanese Gamelan." Efhnonu~cology 32/3: 385-91,

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Diefenbaker, John G. Date not iisted. lma Cdm.RCA Victor CC-1027.

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I have included audio record'mgs of most of the works which form the basis for my

thesis in music composition. The only piece to have not been recorded is Stone Chges.

Presumably, the recordings of the pieces listecl below d be left on file in York

University's Music Department so that interesteci parties wiii be able to heu what these

works sound like as 1perform them. Although video recordings of these pieces would

have perhaps been more appropriate given the interdisciplinary nature of the work, the

compact dix: format has several advantages from an archival perspective. 1 hope the

audio recordhgs will suffice in giWig the listener some idea about the nature of my work.

DISC ONE DISC 'IWO

C'bal Sndy #I SmRïsing WmdBlowing Th7ee Shrdesfor lmerfed Snme DNm Compositionfor Steel Bowl& Cylinder JIfl-Pop Hi-Hkt Slirang MuFic Shr& for a Single Dnmr Hiding Places Compositionfor Bass Drum mtd CymbaZ Shell Game Shimmer (7l.5~15~2)+2 Life Support Junctures Ghosr Drums Jacob 5 Pillm (23.574 1am a Candan SiIhone in three movements (2357-b) Echoes On the pages that follow, 1Ive included copies of the scores for all of the works

discussed in the above text. Along with the recorded examples, these scons are intended

primarily as documents of my recent compositional activity. Scores are provided for the

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