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ENVI.RONMENTAL SECRETARlAT f ': -,~ ?" '

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ENViRONMENTAL CAUSE/EFFECT. ... PHENOMENA RELAT~NG TO I. TECHNOLOGiCAL DEVELOPMENT ~N I CANAD~AN A,R'CT~C A: THE 'R 11- 9;/399 C T' , ~. BY

WILSON EEDY c i·

. ,

NRCC No. 13688 . "

ASSOCijATE COMM~TTEEON SC1ENT~F~C CR~TER;A' FOR o ENV!RONMENTAL QUAL~TY

. ./ a

PUBLICATIONS

of the

Environmental Secretariat

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Inventory of Pollution-Relevant Research in Canada. Interim Report, 1972 (NRCC 12678, $6.50) Status Report, January 1974 Report No.1, Detection and Inactivation of Enteroviruses in Water (NRCC 13079, $1.25)

Report No.2, Problems and Selection of Topics for Compilation of Cause/Effect Data (Biological Subcommittee) (NRCC 13080, $1.25) Report No.3, The Effects of Pulp and Paper Wastes on Aquatic Life with Particular Attention to Fish and Bioassay Procedures for Assessment of Harmful Effects (NRCC 13501, $2.50) Report No.4, Lead in the Canadian Environment (NRCC 13682, $2.00)

Report No.5, A Criteria Digest on Radioactivity in the Environment (NRCC 13566, $1.50) Report No.6, Picloram: the Effects of its Use as a Herbicide on Environmental Quality (NRCC 13684, $1.00) Special Report, Environmental Fluoride (NRCC 12226) [NOTE: Prepared prior to the formation of the NRC Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environmental Quality]

Available from Publications, NRC, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIA OR6 ------

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

NRC ASSOCIATE COMMITTEE ON SCIENTIFIC CRITERIA

FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSE/EFFECT PHENOMENA RELATING TO TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC.

By

Wilson Eedy*

Environmental Secretariat Division of Biological Sciences crt .~ National Research Council of Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

April, 1974

* (Present address: BeaK Consultants Ltd. Rexdale, Ontario M9W lR6) Publication No. NRCC 13688

of the

Environmental Secretariat

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Available from:

Publications, NRCC!CNRC,

Ottawa, Canada K1A OR6

Price: $2.00

April, 1974 The Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environmental Quality was established by the National Research Council of Canada in response to a Federal Government mandate to develop scientific guidelines for defining the quality of the environment. The concern of the NRC Associate Committee is strictly with scientific criteria. Pollution standards and objectives are the responsibility of the regulatory authorities and are set for the purposes of pollution control. These may be based on scientific criteria as a starting point but they also take into account the optimal socio-economic impact of proposed measures as well as the state of existing technology.

The Associate Committee's program includes the quantitative assessment of risks to receptors from pollutants in the Canadian environment, together with the related fundamental principles and scientific knowledge. Members of the Associate Committee, its Subcommittees and Expert Panels, serve voluntarily and are selected for their individual competence and relevant experience with due consideration for a balance among all sectors in Canada.

Responsibility for the quality of study documents rests with the Associate Committee. Each report is carefully reviewed according to a four-stage procedure established and monitored by the National Research Council of Canada in order to preserve objectivity in presentation of the scientific knowledge. Publication and distribution of the report are undertaken only after completion of this review process.

Comments on Associate Committee documents are welcome and will be carefully reviewed by the Expert Panels. It is foreseen that these scientific criteria may be revised from time to time, as new knowledge becomes available. -i-

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

FOREWORD 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2

SUMMARY OF CAUSE/EFFECT INTERRELATIONS 5

a) Temperature effects on Toxicity 6 b) Effects of chemicals 6

b-l) Petroleum 13 b-2) Metals in water 14 b-3) Pesticides 14 b-4) Radioactive isotopes 16

c) Air pollution 17

c-l) Ice fogs 17 c-2) Sulfur dioxide 18

d) Sewage and Wastes 18

d-l) Oxygenation 18 d-2 ) Eutrophication 20 d-3 ) Solid Wastes 21 d-4 ) Pathogenic agents 21

e) Terrain damage 21

e-l) Off-road damage 21 e-2 ) Winter roads 24 e-3) Stream siltation 24

TECHNICAL REPORT RELATING TO THE VARIOUS ARCTIC SUB-AREAS 25

INTRODUCTION 26

AREA 1: WESTERN ARCTIC ISLANDS 29

1-1) Cornwallis Island 29

a) Char Lake 29 b) Terrain 29 c) Petroleum 30

1-2) Bathurst Island 30 -ii-

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'dl PAGE

1-3) King Christian Island 30

a) Terrain 30 b) Petroleum 30

1-4) Ellef Ringnes Island 30

1-5) Mackenzie King Island 30

1-6) Melville Island 30

a) Terrain 30 b) Petroleum 31

1-7) Banks Island 31

a) Terrain 31 b) Petroleum 31 c) Miscellaneous 32

AREA 2: EASTERN ARCTIC ISLANDS 35

2-1) Baffin Island 35

2-2) Devon Island 35

2-3) Ellesmere Island 35

2-4) Thule, Greenland 36

AREA 3: YUKON TERRITORY AND ALASKA 39

3-1) Watson Lake 39

3-2) Ashihik 39

3-3) Haines-Fairbanks Military Pipeline 40

3-4) Mount Logan 40

3-5) Keno Hill 40

3-6) Shingle Point 41

3-7) Beaufort Sea 41 -iii- TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'dl PAGE

ALASKA 42

3-8) Alaska North Slope 42

a) Terrain 42 b) Waste: 42 c) Pesticides 43

3-9) Trans-Alaska Pipeline 43

3-10) Livengood 43

3-11) Rampart 44

3-12) Fairbanks 44

a) Waste Disposal 44 b) Air Pollution 44 c) Terrain 45

3-13) Anchorage 45

3-14) Cook Inlet 45

a) Petroleum 45 b) Miscellaneous 46

3-15) Earthquakes (re pipelines) 46

OTHER REASEARCH IN ALASKA 47

Kodiak 47 a) Petroleum 47 b) Wastes 47 Barrow and the Chukchee Sea 47

a) Petroleum 47 b) Wastes 47 c) Terrain 47

Alaskan Peninsula 48

Bering Sea 48 ------

-iv- TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd} PAGE

AREA 4: MACKENZIE RIVER REGION 51

4-1) Yellowknife 51

4-2) Hay River 56

4-3) Fort Norman - Norman Wells 56

a) Oil 56 b) Terrain 57 c) Canol Project 57

4-4) Mackenzie Valley 58

a) Gas-Oil Pipeline 58 b) Terrain 59 c) Highways 59 d) Pesticides 60

4-5) Fort McPherson 60

4-6) Mackenzie Delta 60

a) Petroleum 60 b) Terrain 61 c) Pesticides 62 d) Miscellaneous 62

4-7) Inuvik 62

a) Petroleum 62 b) Pipeline 62 c) Sewage 63 d) Terrain 63

4-8) Richards Island 63

4-9) Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula 64

AREA 5: EASTERN NORTHWEST TERRITORIES 67

5-1) Baker Lake 67

5-2) Rankin Inlet 67

5-3) Kaminak Lake 67 -v- TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd} PAGE

5-4) Churchill 67

a) Wastes 67 b) Terrain 67 c) Pesticides 67

5-5) Nelson and Churchill Rivers 68

5-6) Ft. Chipewyan 68

AREA 6 : NORTH QUEBEC 71

6-1) Deception Bay 71

6-2) Lake Minto 71

6-3) James Bay Project 71

GENERAL AND THEORETICAL REVIEWS 73

7-1) Petroleum 73

a) Pipelines 73 b) oil Spills 73 c) Oil Burning 74

7-2) Terrain Disturbance 74

7-3) Waste Disposal 76

7-4) Mining 77

7-5) Miscellaneous 78

a) General Reviews 78 b) Legalities 78 c) Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 79 d) Air Pollution 80 e) Fires 80 f) Radioactivity 81 g) Thermal Pollution 81

OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF IMPACT REASEARCH 83

8-1) Eutrophication 83

8-2) Impoundment Projects 83

8-3) Wastes 83

8-4) Mining 83 8-5) Terrain 83 -vi-

TABLE OF CONTENTS Ccont'dl PAGE

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION 85

Subject Index 87

Bibliographic Sources 88

References 89 -1-

FOREWORD

This report was written for the Water Subcommittee of the NRC Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environ­ mental Quality at the suggestion of Dr. H.B.N. Hynes.

This review emphasizes environmental cause/effect interrelations observed as a consequence of man-mediated disrup­ tions in Arctic regions. Wherever possible, quantifiable data will be presented; also, an attempt will be made to identify areas of research where knowledge is lacking or seems to be insufficient. What might be called "basic ecological interrela­ tions" will only be discussed in relation to the document's emphasis on environmental alterations induced by man's technolo­ gical intervention. Accordingly, this report should not be read as an all-encompassing treatise on the fundamental ecology of Arctic regions.

with the above guidelines in mind, an attempt has been made to make the document as comprehensive a cause/effect compilation as possible. The report includes coverage of the available scientific literature that came to the author's atten­ tion prior to Feb. 8, 1974.

The writing of this document involved a choice of whether to describe the various phenomena on a topic-by-topic or region-by-region basis. It was decided to proceed on a region­ by-region basis, primarily because this is how past Arctic development has proceeded and may well proceed for some time to come. In comparison, a topic-by-topic approach would have made it more difficult to locate the cause/effect information relating to a specific region. Thus, either approach has dis­ advantages, but it is felt that the regional approach might have more to offer to the greatest number of readers. However, for the reader's convenience, a subject index is also included.

The report begins with a summary of cause/effect inter­ relations, and this is followed by the detailed technical document. -2-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his deep appreciation to J.R. Marier, of the Environmental Secretariat of the National Research Council of Canada, who assigned this project to him and who supplied help and guidance throughout.

Copies of the manuscript were sent to the individuals listed below, all of whom replied and offered helpful suggestions, and to whom the author wishes to express his sincere appreciation.

Ayles, H.: Basin Studies Project, Environment Canada, Winnipeg. Barber, F.G.: Oceanography Branch, Environment Canada, Vancouver. Bliss, L.C.: Botany Dept., University of Alberta, Edmonton. Chambers, J.S.: Director of Research Policy and Programs, Communications Canada, Ottawa. Cook, W.H.: Director General, International Biological Program, Ottawa. Dickson, R.: Environmental Secretariat, National Research Council, Ottawa. Dillon, P.J.: Water Management Branch, Environment Canada, Burlington. Doyle, D.V.: Inter-Disciplinary System Ltd., Consultants, Winnipeg. Dunbar, M.J.: Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Environment Canada, Dartmouth, N.S. Freeman, N.G.: Asst.-Head, Water Management Branch, Environment Canada, Burlington. Gold, L.W.: Head, Geotechnical Section, Div. of Building Research, N.R.C., Ottawa. Hage, K.D.: Meteorology Dept., University of Alberta, Edmonton. Hrudey, S.E.: Water Pollution Engineering, Environment Canada, Edmonton. Hunter, J.S.: Arctic Biology Station, Environment Canada, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, P.Q. Hynes, H.B.N.: Biology Dept., University of Waterloo. Kerr, A.J.: Chief, Social Research Div., Dept. of Indian and Nor t.ner n Affairs, Ottawa. Kurfurst, P.J.: Geological Survey, Dept. of Energy, Mines & Resources, Ottawa. Mackay, D.: Inst. of Environmental Science & Engineering, University of Toronto. Macpherson, A.H.: Regional Director, Land~Forests-Wildlife, Environment Canada, Edmonton. Manning, T.H.: Arctic Consultant, Merrickville, Ontario. McTaggart-Cowan, I.: Dean of Graduate Studies, University of British Columbia. McTaggart-Cowan, P.D.: Executive Director, Science Council of Canada. Muir, R.D.: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa. -3-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ccont'd)

Neil, J.H.: Director, Water Quality Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto. Oliver, D.R.: Biosystematics Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa. Pa'mer, h.E.: Environmental Studies, Arctic Gas, Calgary. Peterson, E.B.: Project Manager, Northern Pipeline Study, Lands-Forests-Wildlife, Environment Canada, Edmonton. Phillips, M.: Atmospheric Environment Service, Environment Canada Toronto. Pruitt, W.O.: Dept. of Zoology, University of Manitoba. Reeve, A.J.: Director, Northern Pipelines Section, Environment Canada, Ottawa. Riddick, J.: Project Manager, ALUR, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa. Roberts, R.: Environmental Secretariat, National Research Council, Ottawa. Rosemarin, A.S.: Fisheries Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa. Rosenberg, D.M.: Fisheries Research Board, Environment Canada Winnipeg. Shouwenburg, W.G.: Chief, Environmental Quality Unit, Northern Operations, Environment Canada, Vancouver. Sprague, J.B.: Dept. of Zoology, University of Guelph. Strang, R.M.: Arctic Research and Environmental Branch, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa. Templeton, C.H.: Chairman, Environment Protection Board, Arctic Gas, Winnipeg. Wallace, W.L.: Canadian Forestry Service, Ottawa. Wein, R.W.: Dept. of Biology, University of New Brunswick. Welch, H.E.: Fisheries and Marine Service, Environment Canada, St. Andrews, N.B. -5-

ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSE/EFFECT PHENOMENA RELATING TO TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC .

SUMMARY OF CAUSE/EFFECT INTERRELATIONS -6-

SUMMARY OF CAUSE/EFFECT INTERRELATIONS

This summary is based on the information presented In the subsequent region-by-region sections of this document. An assessment of cause/effect relations for the Arctic is rather difficult. Little of this type of research has actually been done in the Arctic. Most reports about this region have been either of the "preliminary survey" type, or purely speculative. When they do attempt to relate effects to causes, it is often through reference to knowledge derived in a laboratory or from studies conducted in southern regions, rather than from Arctic field studies. Nevertheless, the available cause/effect information on Arctic problems is herein assessed, and an attempt is made to identify critical gaps in knowledge.

(a) TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON TOXICITY

Ambient temperature is the main factor that distin­ guishes the Arctic from more southern regions. Table A summarizes a number of experiments where the effects of temperature on the acute toxicities of various chemicals were tested. It must be noted that when Sprague (1970a) reviewed the effects of temperature on toxicity, he observed that although "higher temperatures are usually assumed to make a pollutant more toxic ... such assumptions often exemplify the confusion which may arise from using survival­ times or short-term LCso's as a measure of response, instead of incipient LCso's." Since low temperatures may slow down biodegradation and/or detoxification as much as (or more than) any other process, Sprague felt that "slower mortality in short tests may be mistaken for an overall decrease in toxicity at low temperature." He illustrated this with an example from his own work where zinc toxicity to salmon was lower at low temperatures in short-term acute tests, but actually higher in long-term incipient lethal tests.

In a similar vein, Anderson (1971) reported that sublethal doses of DDT as low as 40 ppb resulted in a signifi­ cant raising of the lower lethal temperature of salmonids. He also noted that KCN caused a lowered thermal preference by these fish in almost exactly the same manner as DDT.

(b) EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS

Since the toxicities of most chemicals found or potentially present in the Arctic have not been determined with specific relevance to the Arctic (i.e., either with Arctic species or under simulated Arctic conditions), this section will refer mostly to reviews and other sources of criteria-relevant data from the more southerly regions. In Table A: Effects of temperature on acu~e toxicity chemical test species toxicir.y criteria effect on toxicity reference of lowering temp­ erature

Ammonia quotes British more toxic at Lloyd and Orr

(non-ionized) IVlinistry lower temperature increased (1969)

Technology

(1968)

Cadmium fiddler crab 96 h TLm = O'Hara (1973) 37 ppm (20°C), decreased 23.3 ppm (300C) , I -....I 24 h TLm = I 47 ppm (10°C), 1 7 . 8 ppm ( 20° C) , 5.7 ppm (30°C)

Chlorine carp quotes Ebeling increased Boney (1970) (1931): at 0.15- 0.2 ppm 2/8 died at at 4-50C while none died at over 10°C in 12 days

Cyanide 1:'lluegill 96 h TLm (ppm) in soft decreased Cairns and sunfish water = 0.45 (18°C) - Schei~r (potassium) 0.33 (300C); in hard (1963) water = 0.42 (18°C) - 0.35 (30oC) (Table A, cont'd) chemical test species toxicity criteria effect on toxicity reference of lowering temp­ erature

Mercury rainbow trout a) 96 h decreased MacLeod and Pessah (chloride) TLm = (1973) 4 ppm (5°C), 0.28 ppm (10°C), 0.22 ppm (20°C), b) with 0.1 mg/l in water, the biological con­ centration is 4x (SoC), lax (10°C) and 22x (20°C) I 00 I Metals banded killifish, 96 h TLm did not (in S experiments Rehwoldt et a l , striped bass, change significantly no significant (1972) (copper, zinc, pumpkin seed, between lsoC-28°C difference, but nickel, mercury white perch, with exception of one instance of chromium) American eel mercury which was decrease noted and carp less toxic at lSoC

Metals review acute toxicity is decreased Doudoroff and usually reduced by Katz (1953) 50% per 10°C drop in temperature, but long-term results are less apparent (Table A, cont'd) chemical test species toxicity criteria effect on toxicity reference of lowering temp­ erature

Napthenic acid bluegill and in hard water, decreased Cairns and Scheier pond snail there is a slight (1962) increase in toxicity with rising tempera- ture; in soft water the 96 h TLm (ppm) for snails = 6.6 (lSoC) , 15.6· (30 oC)

Oil freshwater growth is less decreased Graham et al. algae inhibited at lower (1973) temperatures

I Oil dispersant algae with high concen- decreased Boney (1970) \.0 I (BP 1002) trations, cell damage is less at 4°C than at 15°C

Pentachloro- fathead minnow At 1 ppm, time (minutes) Crandall and phenate (sodium) attain LCso decreased Goodnight (1959) = 260.4 (10°C), SO.7 (ISOC) and 46 (26°C)

Pesticides review (fish) toxicity with fish increased Johnson (196S) (DDT) higher at lower temperatures, although opposite usually assumed with invertebrates

Pesticides bluegill and usually more toxic decreased Macek et a l . (mixture) rainbow trout at higher tempera~ures (1969) (Table A, cont'd) chemical test species toxicity criteria effect on toxicity reference of lowering temp- erature

Phenol rainbow trout 48 h LCso (mg/l) = increased Brown et al. (undefined 5.4 (6.30C), (1967) residues) 8 (11.8°C), 9.8 (18.1 0C)

Radioactive fathead minnow the concentration in decreased Lipke (1971) isotopes the body varies with (Cesium-137 and water temperature Zinc-6S)

Zinc (sulfate) rainbow trout survival time at 12°C Lloyd (1960) I ...... is 2.35 times longer o than at 22°C decreased I

Zinc bluegill in hard water the decreased Cairns and Scheier toxicity varied little (l957) (various) with temperature but in soft water, the 96 h TLm (ppm) = 2.86-3.78 (l8°C), 1. 93-3.63 (30°C)

Zinc fathead 96 h TLm (mg/l) (1) decreased Pickering and minnow (1) and 25°C = 0.77, Henderson (1966b) bluegill sunfish (1) 15°C = 2.44; ( 2) (2) 25°C = 5.46, (2) 15°C = 6.44 (Table A, cont'd) chemi.cal test species toxicity criteria effect on toxicity reference of lowering temp­ erature

Zinc and review zinc toxicity did Lloyd and Herbert Ammonia (fish) not vary signifi­ (1962) cantly, but ammonia was less toxic at lower temperatures

Various review mos~ references decreased Roberts (1972) (cyanides, indicate that short- phenols, term toxicity is chromium, decreased at lower nickel, zinc temperatures and cadmium)

I I-' Monohydric review Most literature increased EIFAC (1973) I-' Phenols {fish) reviewed suggests I higher toxicity at lower temperatures. Suggested standards by EIFAC were thus to be halved if temp- erature was lower than SoC. SUMMARY OF TABLE A

Chemicals reported as more Non-ionized ammonia, chlorine, napthenic toxic in colder waters. acid, pesticides, phenols

Chemicals reported as less Cadmium, mercury, metals, zinc, napthenic toxic in colder waters. acid, oil, oil dispersant, pentachloro­ phenate, pesticides, ammonia, cyanide, phenols, chromium, nickel

Chemicals for which toxicity Copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium, chromium. reported as not dependent on I ~ temperature. ~ I

NOTE: There are discrepancies in the results of different authors testing the same chemical on different species or under different conditions. Sprague's discussion of acute versus long-term results quoted earlier should also be noted. -13- most cases, acute toxicities appear to be lower in the cold Arctic waters, but it must be emphasized that very few long­ term experiments have been conducted under Arctic conditions (as was pointed out in the foregoing section). It must also be noted that many Arctic species grow more slowly and live longer, thus allowing a greater accumulation of persistent types of chemicals. Moreover, a slower biodegradation in this region means that toxic chemicals can accumulate to a greater extent in the Arctic environment.

(b-l) PETROLEUM Nelson-Smith (1972) has written an extensive review on oil pollution in the marine environment, listing the criteria for a wide variety of species. Gantcheff (1971) reviewed much of the data on known effects of oil pollution and related this to the Arctic environment.

The most adverse effects appear to concern birds. Any surface "slick" can be fatal to swimming or diving species. Thus, any oil spill involving migratory waterfowl or their summer nesting grounds can be considered "high risk'<. Little is known of the toxicity of crude oils to Arctic fish or mammals. Crude oils generally have relatively low toxicities to fish with LCs o values quoted as 1700-2417 ppm (U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1972). Tagatz (1961) found 48 h TIm values of gasoline and diesel fuel for American shad to be 91 ppm and 167 ppm respectively, i.e., much more toxic than crude oil. Pickering and Henderson (1966a) reported that the 96 h TLm values of a number of petrochemicals for fish ranged from 12 to 368 mg/l. with freshwater algae, Hellebust et al~ (1973) found that spilt Norman Wells crude caused little damage, even stimulating growth in some cases. Submerged mosses also escaped damage, but semi-submerged plants were killed completely when above the water level.

In relating such observations to Arctic waters, it must be noted that oils degrade 10-20 times more slowly at SoC than at 2Soc (Gantcheff, 1971). Therefore, the "active exposure-time" of fish is likely to be greater in the Arctic than anything experienced in more temperate climates. Theorizing on the possible effects of oil spilled on the Arctic Ocean, Campbell and Martin (1973) estimated that a spill of two million barrels (the current super-tanker capacity) would cover up to 12,000 km2 of Arctic ice. If this were to cause a 20% reduction in albedo, they felt that pack-ice would melt in the summer and maybe never refreeze. The consequences of this would be far-reaching. Possible criticism of this theory is outlined in section 3.6. -14-

The effects of oil on plants is direct and immediate. Most of the plant parts being contacted die (McCown et aZ. , 1971), especially the sensitive and abundant mosses and lichens (Hutchinson, 1973). Rickard and Deneke (1972) found that vegetation destroyed by northern oil spills may require an extensive recovery period. However, Riddick (1973) felt clean-up operations may cause even more severe damage. Gossen and Parkinson (1973) and Westlake and Cook (1973) reported that oil-degrading microbes are abundant in the Arctic and react quickly to spills especially in the summer and when fertilizers are added.

{h-2) METALS IN WATER

Since mining has been the major operative industry in the Arctic, many toxic metal ions might be expected in streams close to mines (or refineries). Sprague (1970b) felt that the extremely soft waters of the Yukon Territory would result in metal ions being of higher-than-normal toxicity to fish. The reports by Berube et a l , (1972, 1973) and Falk et a l . (1973) provide data on metal ions expected to reach streams from mine tailings. Criteria are listed for a number of these in Table B. It can be seen that the levels of many of these exceed the established limits for aquatic species; also, the additive effects can be expected to increase the toxicity. Falk et al. (1973) provided bioassay data on mine effluent toxicity as well as on bioconcentration of metal ions in Arctic fish and on destruction of local benthos.

Falk and Lawrence (1973a) reported on the toxicities to fish of drilling muds used in the Mackenzie Delta. They found that the 96 hr LCso ranges from 0.83% to 12.0% whereas the range of the lagoon-stored mixture was 22.5 to 81.0%. Leduc et al. (1973) tested various mine flotation reagents used in the Arctic on rainbow trout and Gammarus and reported 96 hr LCso ranges from 18 to 217 mg/l for xanthates on trout, less than 10 mg/l for xanthates on Gammarus and from 5.6 to 1000 mg/l for collectors on trout.

Section 5-3 (later in this report) notes the presence of natural mercury concentrations of up to 0.5 ppb in an Arctic lake. This is well above the recommended maxima quoted in Table XII-2. This could also result in concentrations in fish of up to 5-7 ppm and further 50-fold concentration factor for human or other predators of these fish (see discussion in section 5-3).

(;:-3) PESTICIDES

There is only limited mention of pesticide residues present in the Arctic, and scant information on the types used. Among the numerous reviews of the subject, the reader is referred Table B Recommended limits for various metal ions ln surface waters

Values reported as safe for aquatic species in southern surface waters

Range of concentrations * Thomas et al., Neil, 1973 U.S. National Great Slave Lake 1970: pers. comm. Academy Science Metal (Berube et a l , , (Canadian Ontario Fresh 1972 Ion 1972, 1973) Criteria) Water standards (mg/l ) (mg/l ) (mg/l ) (mg/l )

hard water soft Arsenic 0.9-8.4 0.05 Cadmium 0.001 0.01 0.0004 Chromium <0.006-<0.01 0.05 0.5 0.5 0.05 Cobalt <0.06 0.5 0.5 .....I Copper 0.032-1.3 1.0 0.07 0.03 0.001-0.003 U1 I Iron 0.17-0.31 0.3 0.3 0.3 Lead >0.006-0.06 0.05 0.1 0.05 Manganese 0.066-0.077 0.05 4.0 4.0 Mercury 0.00014-0.00058 0.0002 Molybdenum <0.06 37.0 7.0 Nickel 0.008-0.23 2.4 0.4 0.1-0.8 Selenium <2 0.01 Zinc 0.007-0.09 5 0.2 0.02 0.0044-0.165

*In addition, Falk et ale (1973) and Roy and Vezina (1973) have reported effluents into Great Bear Lake of up to 12.8 ppm arsenic, 9.9 ppm copper, 0.21 ppm lead, 1.95 ppm manganese, 9.4 ppm mercury and 1.9 ppm zinc. -16- to Johnson (1968), u.s. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968), McKee and Wolf (1963), Metcalf (1972), and u.s. National Academy of Sciences (1972).

It must be emphasized that Johnson (1968) reported DDT to be more toxic to fish at low temperatures, and several reports have indicated that pesticides are more apt to accumulate in Arctic ecosystems than in the south (cf. section 7-5-c). Therefore, once again, the "slow biodegradability" factor is important in Arctic regions as is the "lock-up effect" where toxicants can be present but temporarily out of the ecosystem cycles.

Cade et a l . (1971) reported that the DDT metabolite DDE has begun to cause serious problems to northern Alaskan populations of tundra-inhabiting peregrine falcons in which reduced eggshell thickness has been found to be directly related to the DDE concentration of eggs. They reported an average of 889 ppm DDE (lipid basis) in eggs of the Alaskan tundra population. Their report of fewer young surviving is in contrast to that of Enderson and Berger (1968) who observed a high value of 34.6 ppm total chlorinated hydrocarbons (wet weight basis) in their egg samples. Cade et a l . (1971) felt that the critical threshold for DDE residues in this species had been reached by northern Alaskan populations by about 1966, and observed slow declines in the population of peregrines subsequently. However, since these birds migrate as far as South America, this is not just an Arctic problem.

Hartung and Klinger (1970) reported that DDT is one to two million times as soluble in oil as in water. This might cause problems in the Arctic where oil and pesticides are both potential pollutants.

(b-4 ) RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Cesium-137 has been a serious source of concern in the Arctic. It is concentrated many times by the "lichen-caribou­ human" food chain. Values in Eskimos have been reported to a mean of 1145 pCi/l human milk (510 pCi/g milk ash) by Baker et a l . (1968) (cf. section 5-1). Palmer and Perkins (1963) reported whole-body counts in Alaskan Eskimos of up to 790 ~Ci of cesium-137. In a second report, Beasley and Palmer (1965) found whole-body counts of 0.3 to 1.0 ~Ci in Alaskan Eskimos.

There are 0.55 g potassium in a litre of human milk (Spector, 1956-p.50), and 1 pCi of cesium-137 per gram of body potassium is equivalent to a dose of 18.1 ~rad/year. Thus, assuming an equal whole-body distribution of this isotope, the yearly dose for Eskimo women studied by Baker et a l , (1968) can be calculated as (18.1) x (1154/0.55) or about 38,000 ~rad/ year = 38 mrem/year. The International Commission for Radiological -17-

Protection (1962) has recommended a maximum permissible genetic dose of 170 mrem/year from all man-made sources. If one considers a safety factor of 1% or of 0.1% to account for other possible exposure to man-made radioactive isotopes (and/or variable suscep­ tibility within species), it can be appreciated that the body­ burden of radioactivity in Eskimos is considerable.

To show that cesium-137 is not the only problem, Beasley and Palmer (1966) reported Arctic human concentrations of lead-210 as having a mean of 2.3 pCi/g of bone ash (15 times the concentrations found in the south) and polonium-210 con­ centrations of 3.2 pCi per 1.4 litres of urine (230 times more than the southern norm). They stated that the latter concen­ tration is 10% of the maximum permissible dose set by the I.C.R.P. Thus, although these are naturally-occurring isotopes, they would combine in effects with the high concentration of man- made isotopes also found in Arctic biota.

Pruitt (1962a, 1963a) discussed strontium-90 con­ centration through lichens to caribou. He stated that levels of 100 to 200 "strontium-units" were found in caribou bones while, in the U.S.A., the safe limit is considered to be 17 for human bone.

(c) AIR POLLUTION

(c-l) ICE FOGS

This problem has been studied extensively by Benson (1969) in Fairbanks, and his criteria are used here. Ice fogs may occur between November and the end of March, but are most serious during the December 1 - January 12 period when sun- light is at a minimum and there are few thermal air currents to disrupt the fog stability. Ice fog can occur whenever the air is calm and humid at temperatures below -35°C, particularly in valleys, the most likely sites for such stagnant air masses. Benson (1969) has calculated that 83% of the atmospheric water vapor was attributable to power-plant operation (64% from cooling ponds and 19% from burning fuel), with 13% resulting from the heating of buildings and vehicle operation, and 4% from miscel­ laneous sources. Temperature can have a pronounced influence on fog formation because 255 times less vapor is required at -45°C (saturation = 0.1 g/m 3 ) than at 20°C. Low temperature fogs can also cause problems at relatively higher (-35°C t9 -18°C) temperatures. Hage (1972) has commented on fog thickness in Edmonton:

"Computed fog-layer thickness ... showed (a) a square-root depen­ dence on heat-source strength, and (b) an inverse square-root dependence on mean wind-speed and on vertical temperature­ gradient differences between city and country." The effects of ice fogs can be quite drastic. In a city such as Fairbanks (section 3-11-b) multi-source pollutants -18- become increasingly concentrated in the stagnant air mass and can remain in the general vicinity for long intervals, e.g., lead may be found in concentrations as high as 18 ~g/m3. In Yellowknife (section 4-1) arsenic concentrations have been reported as "especially high" following thermal inversions and ice fog. The extreme low visibility can result in problems such as industrial or airport shut-downs and road accidents (see also Munn et al. 1970, in the Supplementary reference). (c-2) SULFUR DIOXIDE

Pollution of the air by sulfur dioxide has been associated with the destruction of vegetation in several southern Canadian regions (LeBlanc, 1969; LeBlanc and DeSloover, 1970; LeBlanc et al., 1972; Pellissier, 1972). LeBlanc (1969) has published cause-and-effect data (Table C). Lichens are especially susceptible to sulfur dioxide and other gaseous pollutants. Although epiphytic mosses are also more susceptible than higher forms of vegetation, the lichens are particularly vulnerable because they are evergreen, perennial, slow-growing and have no apparent defense mechanism against pollutants. Their suscep~ tibility is especially important in the Arctic where they are a major vegetation form and are extremely important as caribou food.

(d) SEWAGE AND WASTES

Sewage treatment has become a major problem in the Arctic (cf. section 7-3) and is apt to become a much greater problem as populations increase. Dickens (1959) has warned about future problems in Arctic Canada, stating: "The effective­ ness and safety of most methods of sewage disposal are greatly impaired by low temperature and the presence of permafrost."

(d-l) OXYGENATION

Although the solubility of oxygen is higher in cold water than in warm (14.5 ppm at OoC compared to 8.5 ppm at 24°C according to Alter (1969», the dissolved oxygen values usually fall drastically when waters are ice-covered. In Alaska, Schallock et ale (1970) found that the slow dissolving rate of oxygen at cold temperatures, plus the lack of re-aeration in ice-covered rivers, could often cause the dissolved oxygen concentrations to drop to values as low as 1.1 ppm (i.e., 7% of the OoC saturation).

The process of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) develops slowly in cold waters. Moore (1941) found that the attainment of highest oxygen demand required 9 to 17 times longer at 1°C than at 20°C. Even though this allows an initial period of re­ latively low oxygen demand, a sustained input of sewage or other wastes can eventually result in BOD values much higher than in warm~weather regions. Although Dickens (1959) reported on Table c: (Data from LeBlanc 1969) Prevalence of epiphytic (lichen and moss) species in relation to S02 atmospheric pollution

(a) Wawa iron sintering plant distance (km) N.E. of plant 10 20 30 40 50 60 number epiphytic species 0 5 18 32 40 47 on transect air sulfur dioxide (ppm) >0.5 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.07

(b) Sudbury nickel smeltering I I-' ~ I area affected (sq. miles) 135 403 1026 806 number epiphytic species 2 3 12 27 in area l2-year average air S02 >0.03 0.02 0.01 0.005 (ppm) -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 -20- the possibility of removing up to 65% of the BODs under Arctic winter conditions, Fisher (1967) has since reported that sewage treatment only reduced BODs by 54% under Saskatchewan winter conditions; he also associated bad odors with springtime thawing of northern waste stabilization ponds. Clark e t: at. (1970) found that the removal of 80% of the BODs in the Arctic required about 15 days. One must also remember that many Arctic communities lack any sewage treatment facilities.

Most of the recommendations for BOD standards are related to the residual concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO). Cold water fish require much higher DO values to survive and reproduce than do coarser warm water fish. After reviewing the criteria for DO, the following minimal standards have been recommended: 7 ppm for spawning and 6 ppm otherwise (U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968); 7 ppm in cold waters (Ontario Water Resources Commission, 1970)! and 6 mg!l in salt water or 7 mg/l in fresh water (Alaska standards quoted by Alter, 1969). However, Katz (1971) has recommended a minimum DO of 7 to 8 ppm for salmonids, and the NRC Pulp and Paper Water Quality Criteria Panel has recommended a minimum of 9 ppm (Marier, 1973).

(d-2 ) EUTROPHICATION

Although the response to nutrient enrichment has been found to be lower in the Canadian Arctic than in temperate regions (cf. sections l-l-a and 8-1), Rodhe (1964) and Dunbar (1972b) have reported eutrophication as a problem in Sweden's North (shallow lakes). Small changes in productivity of Arctic lakes could easily lead to undesirable results. It may be simply the lack of population which has kept nutrient levels so low in Canada's north.

The U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administra­ tion (1968) has reviewed criteria reports on eutrophication and has concluded that phosphorus is the only major cause of this problem which man can expect to control. The report noted that concentrations as low as 0.01 to 0.05 mg/l of phosphorus (P) favor algal blooms; nevertheless, they recommended that phosphorus concentrations should not exceed 0.1 mg/l in flowing streams and 0.5 mg/l at lake entrances. However, it must be emphasized that Arctic waters have not been well studied in this respect, and other factors could modify the situation. There could even be a different pattern for nutrient interrelations in the North although the observations reported in section 1- l-a indicate that high additions of phosphate to Arctic lakes may not cause eutrophication, even when present at concentrations that induce algal blooms in southerly climates. -21-

(d-3 ) SOLID WASTES

Straughn (1972) has reported that buried garbage undergoes virtually no degradation in the Arctic. Many other authors describe the debris that has accumulated for years in the Arctic (cf. section 7-3). Due to the cost of reclamation and transportation, practically all equipment, wastes and containers have been discarded on the Arctic sites. In addition to being unsightly, some of these wastes have attracted scavenging foxes, wolves and bears. The Environmental Protection Service has been preparing regulations relating to this problem (Environmental­ Social Committee Northern Pipelines, 1972, (p. 83-86».

(d-4 ) PATHOGENIC AGENTS

Alter (1972) has emphasized that: "Arctic environment is favorable for the long term survival of disease-producing organisms." Similar comments have been made by other authors (Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, 1973; LeGros and Drobny, (1966). Lotspeich (1969) has reported a large increase (i.e., up to SOO,OOO-fold) in bacterial levels of the Tanana River below Fairbanks. Gordon (1972) found that, under winter conditions in this river (210 miles or 7 days flow downstream from Fairbanks) , there was an extremely high survival of bacteria (e.g., coliforms, 3.2-6.5%; fecal coliforms, 2.1-4.2% and enterococci, 18.1-37.3%). Recommendations have been made by several authors concerning these three pathogen indicators, and some of these are given in Table D.

(e) TERRAIN DAMAGE

Although a large amount of Arctic research has been concerned with terrain damage and the associated permafrost degradation, relatively little quantifiable cause/effect data has been published. Much of this research has emphasized the "development" aspect instead of cause/effect relations. Another problem has been to define which changes are adverse and which are not (Strang, 1973; Peterson, 1973a).

(e-l) OFF-ROAD DAMAGE

Almost any vehicle movement, fire, oil spill or building construction can, especially under summer-thaw conditions, cause permafrost degradation. Even under the best winter conditions, damage can result if proper precautions are not taken. Radforth (1972) investigated a number of factors involved in the variable damage that can be caused. He recommended limiting the turn­ radius of off-road vehicles to a minimum of 60 feet. He also noted that damage was most severe with heavier vehicles, along with more frequent passage and greater degree of ground thaw. Radforth (1973) reported that soft nubber tired vehicles cause less damage than those with" tracks. Many authors have noted Table D: Suggested limits for pathogen indicators in water given by various sources after reviewing appropriate criteria data

AUTHORS TYPE TOTAL FECAL ENTEROCOCCI STANDARD COLIFORMS COLIFORMS (STREPTOCOCCI) (ml) (ml) (ml)

Alter, Alaska 1000/100 1969 allowable

Ontario Water allowable 5000/100 500/100 50/100 Resources Commission, desired 100/100 10/100 1/100 1970 limit

I l'V U.S. Federal allowable 10,000/100 2000/100 l'V Water I Pollution desired 100/100 20/100 Control limit Administration 1968 -23- that damage is greatest where the ice content of soils is highest (cf. section 7-2). Zoltai and Pettapiece (1973) produced maps of the Mackenzie Valley, showing the location of susceptible terrain. Criteria for these zones were also discussed.

Hardy et aZ. (1971) have attempted to formulate a model for permafrost degradation caused after vehicle damage. They concluded that:

1) diversion of an existing water course or incidental creation of ponds is the most serious hazard involved;

2) provided that ponding or other complicating factors do not occur, the depth of thaw (D) can be predicted by the proportion of peat removed (R) according to the formula: D = 2 + 0.045 R;

3) the ice content of the soil is an important variable (more ice means greater possible damage);

4) even if the vegetation cover eventually renews itself, there is no guarantee that the permafrost table will be restored to normal.

Kurfurst et aZ. (1973) constructed a computer model to predict permafrost thawing depth, but they found that pre­ dictions underestimated the actual thaw measurements. Hurwitz (1970) stated that mathematical modelling is necessary, since the length of time necessary for permafrost regression to occur makes field observations useless in predicting the effects of factors such as pipeline construction and/or operation over extended periods of time; however, he found that no precise mathematical simulation of permafrost regression was as yet possible due to the complexity of the factors involved. Crory (1973) presented a mathematical model by which the amount of settlement after thawing can be predicted from the ratio of the weight of the dry thawed soil to that of the frozen ice­ rich soil. In a concept originally proposed in 1958, Porkhaev and Tsvetkova (1972) predicted the subsidence of thawing permafrost according to soil and moisture classifications. They found that silty loarns with 30-50% moisture content would settle 20- 50%, while sandy soils with less than 30% moisture would only settle 1-12%.

Murray et a l , (1973) described the various types of landforms in the Watson Lake area, and related the hydrology­ ecology of each to its susceptibility towards erosion follow­ ing clear-cutting or road building activities. -24-

(e-2) WINTER ROADS Winter roads have been cited in many reports as the solution to the problem of Arctic land travel. However, Lambert (1972) reported that a single year's use of snow-packed road destroyed 99% of the underlying lichens, 83% of the mosses and 73% of the vascular plants, while 2 years usage of a similar road destroyed all lichens, 94% of the mosses and 92% of the vascular plants. He further noted that an ice road used for two years caused almost as much damage to the vegetation, but much less to the microtopography. Kerfoot (1972a) reported that, after two years' use of a winter road, the underlying thaw-depths increased up to 20% and soil temperature rose by an average of 1.6°C over those of un-disturbed areas. Kerfoot (1972c) studied the ecological impact of a winter road and reported as much as 300% increase in thaw-depth, with pools of water up to 30 cm deep along the adjacent land-areas from which material had been pushed during road maintenance. Hok (1969) found that the vegetation under some former snow-packed roads had not yet grown back to normal, even after 16-20 years. Thus, the need for quantifiable data on the long-term effects of Arctic road construction continues to be of primary concern.

(e-3 ) STREAM SILTATION

Stream siltation has been cited as one of the main adverse impacts of construction, permafrost degradation or other causes of erosion during activities near running waters (Shotton, 1971; Sprague, 1973; Stein et al , ~ 1973). A European summary (EIFAC, 1965) reported that up to 25 mg/l of suspended solids showed no evidence of long-term harm to fisheries while 25-80 mg/l caused a lower yield and over 80 mg/l was unlikely to allow the support of a good freshwater fisheries. The report of the u.S. National Academy of Sciences (1972) noted that suspended matter can reduce light penetration and thus growth of algae and other aquatic plants; it can also cause a decrease in oxygen transfer to lower water strata, and can adsorb or absorb toxic substances resulting in local concentrations which may at times be suddenly released. The U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968) reported: "The sediment fills interstices between gravel and stones, thereby eliminating the spawning grounds of fish and the habitat of many aquatic insects and other invertebrate animals." This report quotes data indicating that increases from 0 to 91 mg/l in suspended solids have resulted in an 85% decline in aquatic insect productivity; and that long-term exposure of trout to 100-200 mg/l could be harmful; it also emphasizes that although over 5000 mg/l is not directly harmful to adult fish, it can lower benthic productivity in a stream, resulting in lower fish populations. ------

-25-

ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSE/EFFECT PHENOMENA RELATING TO TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC

TECHNICAL REPORT RELATING TO THE VARIOUS ARCTIC SUB-AREAS -26-

INTRODUCTION

The term "Arctic" lends itself to various definitions, and this becomes more complicated when authors use such words as "High Arctic", "Sub-Arctic", and "North" either interchangeably or to designate sub-areas within the whole Arctic. Hare (1972) stated that when applied to land, the term "Arctic" generally refers to the tundra or glacial lands beyond the northern limits of the tree-line, while the marine Arctic definition given by Dunbar (1951) is generally accepted: those waters of entirely polar origin. Johnson (1970) defined the Arctic, from an aquatic point of view, as the Arctic drainage basin including any waters flowing to the Bering Sea, Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay or Labrador Sea. He further subdivided this using the 50°F July isotherm to separate sub-Arctic and low Arctic, and the 40°F July isotherm to distinguish between high and low Arctic. It is also noted in his article that the Arctic:sub-Arctic boundary is closely associated with the treeline. Another possible boundary for the Arctic could be the southern limit of continuous permafrost (cf. Brown, 1960). In addition, there is the political definition of the Arctic used in most of the current Canadian research: that area north of 60 degrees latitude (cf. Canada Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development 1971). Lotz (1965) departed slightly from this by defining the "North" as all the area north of 55 0N.

This review is being compiled essentially from a Canadian point of view, and will therefore emphasize research done in Canadian territories. However, to broaden the scope of the document, references will also be made to some of the relevant problems and research in Alaska and other northern regions of the world.

The method followed in this review will be to outline geographic areas in which environmental cause/effect research has been done, as well as areas where the presence of existing or potential development necessitates cause/effect assessment. Mention will also be made of some of the numerous speculative assessments of Arctic problems and--wherever possible--hypothetical methods of anticipating, correcting or preventing them. This overview utilizes six arbitrarily subdivided geographic areas of northern Canada supplemented by a section treating general review articles and another dealing with important contributions made from regions outside the Canadian Arctic. I I\) -..J I -28- /// I \ AREA Ca, / / / p / / / './ I'

FilZ§

---+I' -29- AREA 1: WESTERN ARCTIC ISLANDS

This area has been the focus of much of the high Arctic oil exploration. In 1971 there were sixteen wells completed or abandoned on these islands (Canada Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1972a). According to McCaslin (1972), there have been five major gas or oil discoveries in this area. He further stated that thirteen drill rigs were expected to work in the area over the 1972-1973 winter season. Consequently, this area has become of major concern to those investigating the possible impact of Arctic exploration and development.

(1-1) CORNWALLIS ISLAND

(a) Char Lake

The Canadian Committee for the International Biological Program (1972) began a project in 1970 to investigate Arctic lake productivity. The presence of nearby Meretta Lake, which receives sewage input, prompted several scientists to compare the two lakes (Kalff et al. 1972; Morgan and Kalff 1972; Rigler 1970). The results have indicated that the biological productivity of unpolluted Char Lake is among the lowest ever recorded. However, sewage input into Meretta Lake has raised the productivity to where it is almost comparable to that of a temperate, unpolluted lake, even though the phosphate levels are high enough to have caused eutrophication further south. The IBP research team concluded that Arctic lakes may be unable to respond as dramatically as temperate lakes to nutrient enrichment. The major change caused by sewage pollution was a conversion from predominantly benthic to predominantly planktonic production. However, it was also noted that some species, including young classes of char, were missing from the polluted lake.

(b) TERRAIN

Several studies of the impact of vehicles on the terrain of Cornwallis Island have been carried out. Bliss and Wein (1972c) reported on a number of these carried out for the D.I.A.N.D.--ALUR program both here and at other Arctic sites of activity. From these various research projects, they and their colleagues concluded that winter seismic operations and the use of "mushroom shoes" on bulldozer blades should restrict terrain damage to a minimum. It was also found that summer work in the past has caused the worst damage, especially in low, wet areas, and that revegetation was rapid in lowland areas but slow in upland areas damaged by vehicles. Fertilization and artificial revegetation studies were also discussed. A further finding was that areas of low vegetation naturally showed a much smaller increase in thaw after damage than those which were normally covered by ample vegetation. They summed -30- up their research by stating: "One cannot generalize for the Arctic as a whole regarding the summer impact of seismic activity, winter roads, natural and artificial reseeding success and impact of surface disturbance... "

Other work on Cornwallis Island included a survey of a five-year-old power-line access road which was 31% revegeta­ ted by 1970. Kuc (1972) stated: "In 1971 no plant invaders were found on greatly disturbed ground around the airport at Resolute or at the nearby Eskimo village." Although a large number of the 1972 ALUR reports arrived at essentially the same conclusions with regard to general terrain damage, the present review will only emphasize those which contain information relevant to cause/effect criteria or which indicate areas for additional research. The entire series of ALUR reports is available from the Canada Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.

(c) PETROLEUM

Barber (1971a.~b) reported on a study of an August 1970 spill of about 3000 gal of light fuel oil in the harbor at Resolute. Ice conditions at the time contained the oil for about 6 days, but by September the average penetration of oil into beach materials was 7.6 cm.

(1- 2) BATHURST ISLAND AND (1-3) KING CHRISTIAN ISLAND

(a) TERRAIN

These areas were studied by Bliss and Wein (1972c) and their colleagues in the ALUR studies, (cf. section I-lb) .

(b) PETROLEUM

In October, 1970, a gas blowout and fire on King Christian Island lasted for 91 days and wasted over 9 billion cu ft of gas. Wallis (1972) and Woodford (1972) have discussed the ecological implications of such accidents. (1-4) ELLEF RINGNES ISLAND AND (1-5) MACKENZIE KING ISLAND These regions were also included in the Bliss and Wein (1972c) ALUR study (cf. section I-lh). (1-6) MELVILLE ISLAND (a) TERRAIN This is another region investigated by the ALUR group studying terrain disturbance (Bliss and Wein 1972c). Kuc (1972) reported that, by 1971, plants had failed to reinvade areas -31-

"where extensive operation of heavy transport vehicles had taken place since 1968." Barnett and Kuc (1972) further reported that winter seismic runs in the area have caused only "occasional discontinuous imprints" while those attempted during the spring runoff have "churned the surface material as deep as the frozen layer" resulting in thermokarst trenches up to 50 cm deep. They noted that the lower amount of ground ice in this area allows exploration-vehicle movements with less terrain disturbance than that caused by similar activities in the Mackenzie Delta region. The Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources (1972b) flew aerophoto transects at 6000 ft over the Sabine Peninsula, site of extensive activity during the 1969-70 Drake Point gas blowout. Damage in August, 1972, appeared quite extensive in some of the photographs available from the E.M.R. National Air Photo Library (Roll 23091 and adjacent transects) .

(b) PETROLEUM

Two reports have discussed the Drake Point gas blowout beginning in July, 1969, and lasting for more than a year (Anonymous 1969; Woodford 1972).

(1-7) BANKS ISLAND

Usher (1970) has written a series of extensive reports which review the effects of technological development in this trapping community.

(a) TERRAIN

Lambert (1972) reported: "Seismic activity on Bankf;) Island resulted in minimal damage to vegetation. However, shot holes were left unfilled and garbage was evident on several lines." Kerfoot (1972a) reached the same conclusions. Both of these reports were part of the ALUR project. French (1971) found several areas on the island where bulldozers had stripped the surface materials during construction of seismic lines. Such observations suggest the possibility of long-term thermokarst damage, especially where the permafrost is ice-rich.

(b) PETROLEUM

Usher (1973) reported on a 4000 gal spill of diesel oil near Burnett Bay in the fall of 1971. He stated: "It appears that most of the oil could have been recovered at the time ... but this was not done" and "the oil sank into the tundra and could have been removed only by burning, a cure perhaps worse than the disease." -32-

(c) MISCELLANEOUS

Usher (1972) noted that although snowmobiles are becoming very popular in the area, they have had little noticeable effect on the local environment. -34- ~A

\ -35-

AREA 2: EASTERN ARCTIC ISLANDS

(2-1) BAFFIN ISLAND

Pimlott (1972) reported visiting a former army camp at Nadluardjuk Lake in 1966, two years after it had been abandoned. He told of examining the piles of equipment, vehicles and oil drums (many leaking oil) left strewn across the area.

Baxter and Ling (1972) surveyed the Eskimo population of Baffin Island for hearing disabilities and found that 83% of the males had suffered "significant hearing loss." Their conclusion was that: "Most Eskimos who have used both snowmobiles and rifles extensively are permanently and profoundly deaf to most high-frequency sounds."

At Frobisher Bay, Heinke and Deans (1973) found that although all municipal wastes have to date been dumped untreated into the Bay, only local shore pollution and aesthetic problems have occurred. They do, however, recommend development of better waste-disposal techniques in the immediate future.

(2-2 ) DEVON ISLAND This area was also studied by the Bliss and Wein (1972c) ALUR group on terrain disturbance (cf. section I-lb).

Smith (1972) studied the potential thermal pollution of Geraldine Lake, Frobisher Bay. He reported that a water treatment plant addi~g 63,000 gal of water at 55°C per day and a proposed diesel generator cooling system adding 350,000 gal/day at 24°C would only cause a 0.014% increase in the ice­ free surface. Plankton productivity was noted to be highest in the region of the lake receiving the thermal influents.

Mulkins-Phillips and Stewart (1973) studied Atlantic waters from Frobisher Bay and further south. They found ample numbers of petroleum-degrading bacteria in control areas, but fewer in locations of recent spills; this led to the hypothesis that, in cold waters, biogenic components of petroleums may not volatize, thus preventing bacteria from multiplying to degrade them. (2-3) ELLESMERE ISLAND

This area was included in the Bliss and Wein (1972c) study on terrain disturbance. Kevan (1971b) studied the effects of eleven years of operation of two tracked vehicles (one, 1.5 tons and the other, 8 tons) near the Lake Hazen armed forces camp. He found no evidence of serious thermokarst or chronic erosion, even though some areas of heaviest traffic had tracks entirely devoid of vegetation. Part of the explanation for -36- the limited amount of damage was apparently the low water content of the local permafrost. The worst damage reported for the area was caused by vehicle tracks blocking the normal drainage routes. Hodgson (1972) reported that although serious distur­ bances by vehicles in this area were only caused during summer operations, the plant species associated with less-disturbed roads and airstrips had definitely changed from those in adjacent undisturbed areas. Such changes are not necessarily deleterious. (2-4) THULE, GREENLAND

Murozumi et aZ. (1969) studied lead concentrations in local glaciers. They found a 200-£old increase between prehistoric and present times which they attributed mainly to the worldwide atmospheric transport of automobile exhaust fumes from distant regions. Hanson (1971) studied the concentra­ tions of a number of radioactive fallout particles and their distribution in this area. Cesium-137 levels of between 22 to 50 picocuries per gm (dry weight) were reported in lichen communities. These levels are similar to those reported by Hanson (1967) for lichen in Alaska and northern Sweden. -38-

~.;, ">. '0., ./d

0 6- ¥ 0 c ~ -c ~ "¥ U> + "¥ -39-

AREA 3: YUKON TERRITORY AND ALASKA

The main industrial concern in this area is mining. To quote Beauchamp (1972): "As a clear example of just what interests are considered, in the Yukon Territory the (land use) regulations do not even apply to the mining industry ••. " Theberge (1973b) emphasized the lack of consideration given to environmental factors when discussing the formation of Kluane National Park in the southwest Yukon. Of the 8500 square miles of parkland, 7500 are located on "ice and precipitous rocky massives, unusable by miners and all but rock and piton park users;" but he also emphasized that more than 2000 square miles of the original game-sanctuary valley land were set aside for mining interests, even though there has been a long history of unsuccessful mining and mine closures in this region. Theberge (1973b) further stated: "no case can be made for special mining values on the land adjacent to Kluane Park." This is also an area of extensive highway developments and the site of the only long-range, operating oil pipeline "north of 60." (3-1) WATSON LAKE

As part of the ALUR program, Verschuren et aZ. (1972) investigated logging practices in this area. They concluded that indiscriminate logging and stripping of the vegetation from stream banks would lead to excessive erosion. (3-2) ASHIHIK The Ashihik Power Development Project, eighty miles northwest of Whitehorse, has been recently approved (Nature Canada 1973). The Northern Canada Power Commission has had an environmental impact assessment prepared (Pearse Bowden Economic Consultants Ltd. 1972) which stated that the overall impact of the project would be slight with some moderate damage incurred by specific individual components of the environment. However, the authors further stated that the possible impact on local fisheries is "largely unknown, as there are few basic data on the fisheries of the Ashihik area and none on the specific spawning grounds and behaviour of the various species in the area." They considered that the possible impact on local residents, wildlife, waterfowl and tourist attractions would be negligible. Nevertheless, they recommended that the final decision should be preceded by extensive field studies. Wolford (1973) also characterized this assessment as being of a preliminary nature only, and quoted Dr. Nelson of the Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists: "An adequate impact on a hydro-electric project ... must involve the entire flora and fauna ... all four seasons .•. quantified data." Wolford (1973) concluded that, by failing to provide such data, this "first test of the recent Northern Inland Waters Act" has failed to satisfy him and the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee "that the spirit of this Act has been upheld." -40-

(3-3) HAINES-FAIRBANKS MILITARY PIPELINE The only extensive North American petroleum pipeline operating north of latitude 60 is an eight-inch-diameter pipeline, 626 miles long, of which 148 miles are buried. It crosses 25 major rivers along with 82 streams and 11 swamps, and yet this pipeline has received remarkably little attention. It has been used to carry military fuels from the port at Haines to bases near Fairbanks.

The U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (Hunt et al.~ 1972, 1973; Murrman and Reed 1972; Rickard and Deneke 1972) reported 40 spills since 1956, attributable to such causes as bullet holes, corrosion, vehicle collisions and numerous repair cuts (necessitated by ice blockages soon after the construction). As much as 4000 barrels of oil were lost per spill. These reports give extensive documentation of the consequences of these spills which, however, included some cases with no visible effects at all. Nevertheless, there was one occasion of fuel oil getting into the drinking water one-quarter mile from the spill, another of fish kills and damage to their spawning grounds, one area where fish tasted oily five to six years after the spill, and a number of places where vegetation was still depressed or totally absent and there was an oily odor in the ground fifteen years after the occurrence of the spill. Soil microbial activity was found to be much increased in many of these areas, indicating that biodegradation of the oil was still occurring.

Murrman and Reed (1972) noted that there had been extensive use of herbicides along this pipeline right-of-way to facilitate aerial surveillance and maintenance programs. They speculated as to the problems that these unspecified chemicals might cause. (3-4) MT. LOGAN Stengle et ale (1971) reported low levels of DDT as well as a large variety of trace metals in the glacier snow at the 17,500 ft level. However, the DDT analyses were considered to be unreliable because of PCB contamination of equipment and samples.

(3-5) KENO HILL

Gleeson (1966) has published a map showing that bottom sediments in streams could contain up to 10,000 ppm of lead in areas of active mines, but seldom over 50 ppm in closely adjacent but unworked areas. Sprague (1970b) pointed to the lack of pollution-relevant research on mine tailings in this area and noted that the extremely soft waters in the southwest Yukon would tend to enhance the toxic effects of metal pollutants. He also elaborated on other potential problems -41- caused by mining in the Arctic. This is discussed more extensively in Section 7-4.

(3-6) SHINGLE POINT

The potential of terrain disturbances by seismic exploration teams was studied in this area by three of the ALUR groups. Lambert (1972) and Kerfoot (1972a) reported vege­ tation to be two to three times more quickly regrown under snow-packed roads used for only one winter than under those used for two successive winters. Ice roads were noted to cause even less damage while summer-used roads caused the most damage. Radforth (1972), in reporting on summer experiments in this area, noted that: "Even one pass with the lightest vehicle used in the tests was sufficient to result in about one inch of subsidence of the frost table" and he further observed that the amount of ground recession varied directly with the total weight and number of vehicle passes. Moreover, the vegetation in vehicle ruts appeared darker green and of a larger size than that in control areas. Hok (1969) reported a similar occurrence in Alaska, but emphasized that the greener vegetation could at least partly be explained by different species in areas made wetter by ground subsidence.

Bryan (1973) discussed the potential impact of a gas pipeline proposed for the northern Yukon. Most of the spawning areas for fish would be upstream from a coastal pipeline, but much basic environmental information is still missing. Also, the possible effects of winter construction on the over­ wintering areas of fish must be researched. (3-7) BEAUFORT SEA

The Canada Department of Public Works (1972) has investigated the feasibility of an off-shore marine oil terminal in the Hershel Island-Babbage Bight area. While the project could be considered feasible, they felt that many problems would arise from melting the sea-bottom permafrost near undersea pipelines containing hot oil, or from ice islands which can result in "scour trenches as much as sixty feet deep and several hundreds of feet wide" in the region. King (1973) reported that the rich potential oil deposits in this sea-bottom are as yet unexploitable on a wide-scale basis since techniques are not yet available for extensive, long-term drilling in an area that is only partly ice-free for a few summer months.

Campbell and Martin (1973) theorized about the possible effects of spilt oil in the Arctic Ocean: "The diffusion and transport mechanisms generated by the pack-ice dynamics of the Beaufort Sea, combined with the slow rate of biodegradation of oil under Arctic conditions, would combine to diffuse an oil spillover the sea and eventually deposit the oil on the -42- ice surface, where it could lower the natural albedo over a large area." They further stated that this could result in polar pack-ice melting in the summer with no refreezing, if an albedo reduction of 20% or more occurred. It must be noted that the assumptions underlying this conclusion were not borne out by research of the Task Force - Operation Oil (1970-1973) in Chedabucto Bay where spilt Bunker C was deposited either in thick layers or lumps, and not in the thin diffused layers assumed in the above hypothesis. Gantcheff (1971), reviewing the possible problems of an Arctic oil spill, noted: "Ice acts like a shelter and a barrier, curtailing spreading ... " and "oils with high chill points could ... be chilled below the pour point, giving a semi-solid mass that will not spread."

Percy (1973) commented on the great variability of oil toxicity to marine invertebrates. Although there are few intertidal forms in the Arctic due to ice abrasion, more research is necessary to discover the sensitivity of local species in northern areas where oil could possibly be spilt. ALASKA A number of Alaskan environmental impact studies are discussed below, because of the relevance to Canadian condi­ tions. The sites of many of these research projects are shown in the map for Area 3.

(3-8 ) ALASKA NORTH SLOPE

Scott (1970) reported that erosion caused by the single passage of an oil exploration vehicle (presumably a heavy one) has resulted in a ditch 10 ft deep, 30 ft wide and 300 yd long. Deleonardis (1970) stated: "In some areas, trails cut by a single passage of a tracked vehicle are still visible after 20 or more years." Hok (1969) observed and photographed the terrain disturbances caused by 20 years of vehicle activity in the north slope naval reserve. He concluded that small, light vehicles caused little or no permanent terrain damage. Where damage occurred, bladed or wet areas were the most seriously affected. Winter roads caused the least damage although some of the underlying areas had not returned to normal 16 to 20 years later. Hok (1969) further observed that vehicle traffic on winter roads built on sloping terrain could result in as much damage as summer traffic; he concluded that the rehabilitation of the worst-damaged areas in this region would be unlikely. Klein (1970) has also presented a large collection of photographs of terrain disturbances on the Alaskan north slope.

(b) WASTE

Deleonardis (1970) and Scott (1970) have remarked on the presence of rubbish, oil drums, oil, sewage and other chemicals scattered around by exploration teams in the area. -43-

Hok (1969) and Klein (1970) provided excellent photographic evidence for this. They both emphasized that this waste material will be present for an extended period due to exceptionally slow rates of decomposition in the Arctic.

(c) PESTICIDES McTaggart-Cowan (1969) referred to data indicating that aquatic insects have been found with high DDT levels in this area.

(3-9) TRANS-ALASKA PIPELINE

The extensive multivolumed report by the u.S. Department of the Interior (1972a,b,c), has reviewed environmental impact problems associated with the building and operation of this pipeline. These include spills both from the pipeline and from ship transportation from Valdez; construction and operational damages of the pipe and support roads; waste problems and the intensive exploitation of renewable resources by construction workers. In an editorial (1972) reviewing this project in Nature, the worst environmental problem was seen to be the potential spillage from tankers at the port. It was reported that proper construction methods were available to limit the chances of most pipeline leaks, although the Department of the Interior document took extreme care to be non-committal on any prediction of amounts of such potential spillage. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1969) released a report on the possible effects of pipeline construction on the fishery resources of the area. Their main conclusion was that a much greater inventory of local fishes would be necessary in order to predict the degree of probable damage. The aforementioned Department of the Interior document gave no indication that this had been done.

The portion of the haul road which has already been completed along the proposed pipeline route was cited by Jackman (1973) as a good example of how a road can be built over permafrost terrain with no significant adverse impact on the surrounding ecosystem. Nevertheless, Lotspeich (1971b) remarked that construction and maintenance of this road have been I! to 2 times more expensive than necessary, due to insufficient preconstruction reconnaissance of the route. (3-10) LIVENGOOD

Kitze and Simoni (1972) studied a small earthfill dam constructed for an early hydraulic placer mining operation. The dam itself apparently caused few if any permafrost problems, but some instances of erosion and slumping were reported in connection with the accompanying ditch. The site has been abandoned for some time. Morrow (1971 a,b) has reported the lack of adverse -44- effects from both a small placer mine and a dam constructed in this area. His work was, however, very preliminary and was hampered by problems with bears, floods, vehicles and finances; nevertheless, this is advised reading for anyone who thinks he knows all about the problems involved in an Arctic research program. (3-11 ) RAMPART A dam proposal on the Yukon River with the "largest man-made reservoir in the world" (Spurr, 1966) seems at present to have been abandoned. The reservoir would have flooded the 100-mile-wide Yukon Flats, "one of the continent's greatest wildfowl nesting grounds." Henry (1965) predicted changes in precipitation in the region if the dam was built. Leopold and Leonard (1966) enumerated 1.5 million ducks, 12,500 geese, 5,000 moose and migratory fish populations which they said would be adversely affected by the dam and its 10,500 square mile reservoir. This project was quite similar to those Canadian reservoir projects discussed in sections 3-2, 5-5, 5-6 and 6-3. With the current "energy crisis" it is not inconceivable that this project could be reconsidered.

(3-12) FAIRBANKS

(a) WASTE DISPOSAL

Sewage disposal has become a major area of study. Lotspeich (1969) reported bacterial levels in the river below Fairbanks to be 300,000 to 500,000 times greater than control levels taken from an unpolluted part of the river. Gordon (1972) studied the Tanana River 210 miles (7 days flow) downstream from Fairbanks. He reported relatively high survival of coliforms (3.2-0.5%), fecal coliforms (2.1-4.2%) and enterococci (18.1­ 37.3%). Reed (1970) noted that the low temperatures in this area retard the rate of settling of particles from sewage. Straughn (1972) found that the decomposition rate of solid wastes buried deeper than six inches was negligible.

(b) AIR POLLUTION:

This has become a major problem in the Fairbanks area. Air inversions here are among the strongest and most persistent in the world due to the topography and low temperatures. Ice fogs and stagnant air collect very high concentrations of pollutants, with the worst conditions arising from fossil fuel combustion (for heat or thermoelectric power generation) and from vehicle exhausts (Benson 1969, 1970). Murrman and Reed (1972) reported that 60% of the water vapor in the Fairbanks area results directly from evaporation from cooling ponds for thermoelectric power generation, while another 25% is from the burning of fuel. They added that running vehicle motors 24 h?urs a day to av?id winter starting problems contributes signi­ flcantly to the alr pollution. -45-

(c) TERRAIN Agricultural clearing of the land in the Tanana Valley near Fairbanks has resulted in a rapid recession of the permafrost table i.e., from a normal 1 m depth to about 5 m depth after one year, with much slower increases thereafter (Kallio and Reiger, 1969). P€w€ (1954) stated: "If care is not exercised ... thawing may necessitate abandonment of fields." Many of these soils have to be artificially drained and maintained to permit successful agriculture. Although farming in this region appears quite successful, attempts in less fertile areas (induced by the growing population) could quite easily result in extensive areas of abandoned, disturbed terrain, especially if the customary lack of foresight is practiced. The u.s. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (1966a,b) issued two reports on the terrestrial effects of the construction of buildings at Ladd Airforce Base. Although complete thawing of the underlying permafrost apparently occurred, there was no significant subsidence of buildings or ground.

(3-13) ANCHORAGE

As this is the largest city in Alaska (48,081 -- 1970 Census), sewage disposal is a major problem. Most of the sewage is dumped untreated into the Knik Arms bay of Cook Inlet. Murphy et al. (1968) have done various chemical analyses of these waters. Their determinations of decomposition rates, biochemical oxygen demand and settleable solids under different temperature regimes have shown that biodegradation is much slower in these cold waters than in warmer regions.

(3-14) COOK INLET

(a) PETROLEUM This is the only area in the American far North to have a large commercial petroleum production (200 wells, both onshore and offshore) along with associated transportation problems. Evans (1969) has summarized the problems created by the presence of this development: overuse of resources by the increased population; a network of trails made by the oil explorers with the accompanying erosion and terrain settling; pools of waste drilling-wud constituents and oil from equipment at the drilling rig sites; accidental spills or ballast dumping. With reference to the period between 1966-1968, he stated that there have been 12 pipeline breaks, 6 tankers reported for dumping oily ballast, and several tanker accidents. Feldman (1970) estimated that a major spill in Mayor September would affect at least 100,000 area birds. He felt that Arctic birds face a much greater possibility of extinction than those living in southern regions. He also -46- emphasized the lack of data on effects of crude oil and/or other chemicals on Arctic life.

Woodford (1972) and Wallis (1972) both referred to an average of two to four spills per month in the area, while Glaeser (1971) stated that 0.03% of all the oil produced or handled in the area is spilled. He extrapolated that 8,400 gallons/day (about 268 bbl/day or 108,600 bbl/year) would be spilled during operation of the proposed Alaskan Pipeline if only 0.01% were lost in this manner.

Kinney et a l . (1970) examined the biodegradation of oils spilled in the inlet. They estimated that about 7,500 barrels were spilled in an average year. However, they also noted that the high number of oil-degrading microbes present in the water could be expected to dispose of most of this oil within a few months of the spillage. The authors theorized that the flushing rate of the bay is high enough to remove 90% of the oiled water within ten months. This, however, would only remove local problems as the oil would still be in the north Pacific Ocean.

(b) MISCELLANEOUS:

Evans (1969) reported that an oil-related chemical refinery in the area dumped 7000 Ib/day of ammonia into the inlet, and that this practice was subject to voluntary controls only. (3-15) EARTHQUAKES (RE PIPELINES)

These have been noted as one of the major potential hazards to the safe operation of a pipeline system across Alaska. A number of reports on the 1964 earthquake, with its epicentre almost directly under the southern end of the TAPS proposed route, emphasized the destructive potential (Eckel 1970; Ferrians 1966; Foster and Karlstrom 1967; Lemke 1967; Logan 1967). -47-

OTHER RESEARCH IN ALASKA (NOT ON MAP OF AREA 3)

KODIAK

(a) PETROLEUM

A report in the Marine Pollution Bulletin (1970a) estimated that over 10,000 oil-killed birds were found in the area between February and March, 1970. The National Fisherman (1970) reported a spill in March, 1970, of 90,000 gallons of jet fuel which was "much more lethal than what had been supposed" i.e. in relation to experience in temperate climates. It was also reported that the spilled oil evaporated very slowly, and that the spill caused the death of thousands of marine animals.

(b) WASTES:.

Lotspeich (1969) stated that the water in "Kodiak Harbor has become so polluted from seafood cannery wastes that harbor waters can no longer be used in the live holding tanks", i.e., for crabs prior to processing. BARROW AND CHUKCHEE SEA

(a) PETROLEUM

McCowan et a l . (1971) reported that spilled oil killed all of the native plants that it contacted, reduced the plant biomass and productivity, and increased soil bacteria. In areas of natural seepage, these authors recorded abrupt shifts in the species of plant communities. Glaeser and Vance (1971) and Vance (1971) experimented with the treatment of oil spills on Arctic water or ice. They noted that ice can act as an efficient barrier or absorbent which can limit the spread of spilt oil; however, for eradication of the problem, burning was the most efficient clean-up method.

(b) WASTES,

Boyd (1959) tested many of the small "oriented" lakes in this region, reporting that contamination by human wastes was a common but relatively short-lived phenomenon.

(c) TERRAIN

Lachenbruch and Brewer (1959) developed hypothetical models for the evaluation of heating and cooling caused by the drilling of wells in the area. Damage to the permafrost was small because of the quick recooling to sub-freezing temperatures. However, it must be remembered that the actively producing wells pump the oil on a continuing basis at a temperature of about 80°C. -48-

ALASKAN PENINSULA

A report in the Marine Pollution Bulletin (1970) recorded 86,000 dead birds (mostly murres), 400 affected (but not dead) hair seals, and beaches "lined with dead starfish, scallops and finfish. " This disaster was reportedly caused by a diesel oil slick sighted in the area. BERING SEA

McMinn (1972) reported tests conducted in January, during which hot oil was spilled on ice or snow. He noted that the snow refroze quickly, becoming an efficient barrier to oil penetration. Burning was again reported as the best clean-up procedure. Early treatment was necessary, since blowing or falling snow can make spills very hard to locate and/or contain. -50- -51- AREA 4: MACKENZIE RIVER REGION

( 4 - 1 ) YELLOWKNIFE

This is the second largest Canadian Arctic city (6,122 1971 census), and is a well-established gold-mining .a.r e a., It is one of the few places in the Arctic where the effects of mining on the adjacent environment have been studied. The ALUR project (Berube et aZ. 1972 and 1973) made an extensive study of two of the largest mines and their effects on Great Slave Lake. Since these reports present unique and quite comprehensive data, plus the fact that mining pollution could be a topic of increasing concern in the Arctic, data for two years are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. (In the second table a list of recommended standards is included for comparison). In particular, it can be seen that the waterborne arsenic levels were high, ranging from 0.9 to 15.0 ppm.

Falk et a l . (1973) studied the biological effects of effluents from these mines as well as from two mines at Great Bear Lake. Effluents from the Giant mine at Great Slave Lake had up to 12.8 ppm arsenic, 9.9 ppm copper and 1.9 ppm zinc. In the Great Bear Lake vicinity, the Echo mine effluent resulted in up to 4.4 ppm arsenic and 8840 JTU turbidity while the Terra mine caused arsenic concentrations of up to 4.2 ppm in Ho-Hum Lake. All these values are above the recommended maxima included in Table 2. In each case the mine-tailing pond effluents were toxic to fish in the laboratory; also local fish had metal concen­ trations indicative of bioconcentration, and the benthos in receiving waters were either absent or very limited. Roy et aZ. (1973) reported a high leakage through tailing pond dykes at both of the Yellowknife mines which results in inefficient settling of toxic components. Roy and Vezina (1973) found metal concen­ tra'cions in tailings of the two Great Bear Lake mines (dumped directly into area lakes) to be 0.28 to 1.95 ppm manganese, 0.011 to 0.21 ppm lead, 0.025 to 0.21 ppm copper, 0.14 to 0.19 ppm arsenic and 4.25 to 9.4 ppb mercury, all above the usual suggested standards.

A number of reviews have also mentioned the Yellow­ knife mine pollution problem. Woodford (1972) stated that mine effluents at Baker Creek had destroyed the grayling population. Benson (1969) remarked that thermal inversions cause high local deposition of arsenic arising from smelter fumes. Hare (1972) mentioned the same problem, reporting waterborne arsenic levels well over those permissible during 15% of the sampling period, with concentrations as high as 3 ppm on some occasions. Kay (1968a,b) reported "Two years after commencement of operations, arsenic trioxide produced by ore-roasters in the recovery of gold had contaminated the surrounding townsite to the extent that poisoning cases involving domestic animals and humans occurred." Table l. Results of analysis performed in the field (concentrations expressed in ppm (mg/l )) for Con .Hines, Yellowknife N.W.~.

Analysis Outflow Four miles Outflow At Great from downstream from Slave tailings from pond tailings Lake pond (at lake) pond

Date 08/04/71 08/04/71 07/27/72 07/27/72

pH 7.0 7.4 7.0 7.8

Turbidity 2.0 8.0 T.O.C. * 6.0 21. 0 T.l.C. ** 9.0 11.0 B.O.D. 3.1 3.3 C.O.D. 80.5 152.0 31.0 21.6 Alkal. (Total) 27.1 66.1

Hardness 1975.0 1180.0 I Ca 715.0 383.0 716 40 U1 tv Cr <.01 <.01 0.03 <.006 I Co <.06 < .G6 Cu .33 .032 0.06 .004 Pb <.008 .06 0.01 .003 Mn .18 .07 0.025 <.005 Hg .0008 .00014 <.00008 Mo .06 <.06 Ni .1 .1 0.07 .008 Se <2.0 <2.0 Zn .12 .07 0.08 .007 Fe (Total) .03 .17

*T.O.C. = Total organic carbon (compiled from B~rub€ et at. 1972, 1973) **T.l.C. = Total inorganic carbon (Table 1, cont'd)

Analysis Outflow Four miles Outflow At Great from downstream from Slave tailings from pond tailings Lake pond (at lake) pond

Cd <.001 <.001 Sb < .5 < .5 Si 5.8 14.6 Cl 1900.0 1100.0 1900 48.8 F .06 .06 As 8.4 2.2 0.9 S04 360.0 305 26.4 P04 (Total) 1.0 . 3

I l.J1 W I Table 2 : Resul-ts of analysis performed (concentrations expressed in ppm) for Giant Mines, Yellowknife N.W.T.

Analysis Outlet from 2,000 ft. Pond At Recommended 2nd tailing downstream discharge Great Maximum pond (at lake) Slave Standards Lake

Date 07/26/71 07/26/71 08/02/72 08/02/72

pH 8.6 7.9 8.7 7.4 6.0-8.5

Turbidity 13.0 30.0 0 T.O.C. * 28.0 18.0 .05 T.l.C. ** 14.0 9.0 B.O.D. 1.6 1.4 , C.O.D. 180.0 112.0 76.2 37 lJl Alkal. (Total) 125.0 45.8 .l:>o I Alkal. (phenol) 1.8

Hardness 411. 0 248.0 12C

Ca 158.0 85.2 162 15.2 75 Cr <.01 <.01 <.006 <.006 .05 Co .12 <.05 Cu 14.0 1.3 15.5 0.7 .01 Pb .011 .022 <.006 0.02 .05 Hn <.01 .066 0.015 0.077 .01 Hg .007 .00058 Mo .07 <.06 Ni 1.6 .23 1.18 0.18 Se <2.0 <2.0 .01

*T.O.C. = Total organic carbon **T.l.C.= Total inorganic carbon Analysis Outlet from 2,000 ft. Pond At Recommended 2nd tailing downstream discharge Great Maximum pond (at lake) Slave Standards Lake

Zn 0.13 .078 0.14 0.09 1.0 Fe++ 0.5 0.9 Fe Total .61 .31 0.08 0.15 .05 Cd <.001 .001 .01 Si 13.9 3.2 Cl 53.0 106.0 50.5 9.9 250 F .11 .10 1.2 As 14.0 2.6 15 4.1 .01 S04 400.0 146.0 396 127 250 P04 Total 14.0 1.8 0.2

I VI VI Tables compiled from Berube et a l . (1972, 1973). Recommended standards taken from I Thomas et al. (1970) or from the u.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968) in cases where the former (Canadian) group made no recommendations. -56-

He also reported seasonal water levels of arsenic as high as 0.25 ppm (during the spring runoff) and ground deposition levels (in winter) as high as 2,500 ppm. The need for research in other areas concerning effluents from Arctic mines is discussed further in section 7-4.

The extent o£ fishing in Great Slave Lake has led to significant changes in the species composition and maturation rate (Bond and TurnbulL 1973) and an Environment Canada report (1973) noted that lake trout populations cannot tolerate present levels of fisheries exploitation in Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes.

(4-2) HAY RIVER

At Hay River, primary-~reated sewage effluent is dumped into a stream-swamp complex draining towards Great Slave Lake. Hartland~Rowe (1973) investigated this and concluded that, within strict limits, a northern stream-swampland has an innate capacity to perform (by natural means) the equivalent of secondary and tertiary treatment of domestic sewage. He recommended this as a possible means of treating construction camp sewage, but only under the follow~ng conditions: the stream is slow and flat; Carex spp. grow along the banks; the watershed flows at least 6 miles prior to approaching other human habitations or a major aquatic system; at least 100 square miles of swamp per man-year of effluent is available; the system is not used £or more than 4 years.

(4-3 ) FORT NORMAN - NORMAN WELLS

(a) OIL:

This is the only producing field in Canada "north of 60", and it has been the site of several minor spills. Barry (1970) reported that a 1957 spill in the river killed 450 migra­ ting ducks and geese. He also remarked that although there have been numerous subsequent spills, they have been handled much better and w~th little resulting damage.

During a discussion of ALUR land oil-spill research, Riddick (1973) emphasized that clean-up techniques often cause more damage than the oil itself. He felt that more research on microb~ological degradation is needed. Hutchinson (1973) studied control spills of Norman Wells crude oil and discovered that most contacted plants die immediately. Mosses and lichens, the most abundant plants in the far north, were found most suscep­ tible. Hellebust e t: a L: (1973) experimented with aquatic spills of Norman Wells crude oil. Although phytoplankton did not appear to be significantly damaged and the growth of some blue-green algae was even stimulated by the spills, there was severe damage to the shallow water semi-submerged species. -57-

(b) TERRAIN-

The Arctic Institute of North America (1972) reported that after 50 years of oil-related activity at Norman Wells, there is little sign of permanent damage. Much of the following section (c) relates to investigations of terrain damage.

(c) CANOL PROJECT-

Norman Wells became the major prospective source of oil for the defense of Alaska during World War II. Of the 67 wells drilled between 1942-45, 60 were productive. The Canadian Oil (or "Canol") road and pipeline were built to connect Norman Wells with a refinery at Whitehorse, from which point the Alaska­ Canada or "Alcan" Highway and several additional pipelines could carry refined products to Fairbanks, Watson Lake and Skagway. The pipeline was shut down in 1945, eleven months after its completion. The Alaska Highway and the southern end of the Canol Road are still in use, as well as the Whitehorse-Skagway section of the pipeline. The latter, however, now carries fuels­ from the all-weather port at Skagway to Whitehorse instead of the reverse-flow for which it was originally constructed.

Background information on the construction and later removal of the (northern) Canol Pipeline can be found in reports by Finnie (1943), Kupsch (1971), Richardson (1944), Thomson (1970) and Anonymous (1943). After a historical review of the project, Liss (1959) stated: "Even today, along the scar that remains of the Canol Project, abandoned machinery bears mute testimony of the extreme effort and waste .•. " He further noted that, now, "the right-of-way is jammed by slides." Harrington (1972) commented t~at 25 years later, military refuse dumps "the size of city blocks" can be found almost perfectly intact along the Canol route.

Hardy et a l , (1971, 1972) have made a recent study of the northern end of the Canol Road and have shown that perma» frost has completely disappeared under sections of the road and at the construction camp, although they noted that remarkably little subsidence has occurred. In contrast, Hurwitz (1970), after studying the Canol Road and several more recent disturbances in the area, observed that permafrost thawing is a function of time, i.e., deepening each year after the disturbance until it reaches the underlying unfrozen zone. More recently Kurfurst et al. (1973) drilled holes up to 33 m deep without any evidence of permafrost on this road. They also reported that seismic tests could be used to verify the absence of underlying permafrost. They speculated that the road in some places may be supported merely by the arching of soil across the liquified melted zone, and that any heavy traffic could result in a catastrophic collapse. If this is true, extensive problems can be predicted after con­ struction in this area, even if melting proceeds initially at -58- a very slow rate. This conclusion is also quite different from that of the two reports mentioned earlier in which lack of obvious subsidence was interpreted to mean that further construction of roads or pipelines would encounter few problems. This is an interesting example of how similar research done in the same area can produce similar data but can lead to quite different interpretations and conclusions.

(4-4) MACKENZIE VALLEY

(a) GAS-OIL PIPELINE

The Mackenzie Valley is the Canadian route most seriously considered for the transport of Canadian (or American) gas and oil from the Arctic. In the words of the Minister of Canada's Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (c.f. North 1972): "It is no longer a question of whether pipelines will be built. The question has become, when?" Various reports have recorded the possible impact on streams, aquatic plants and animals, birds and mammals, vegetation and terrain arising from causes such as construction, siltation, oil spills, chemicals, sewage, pesticides and increased human population. The reports include those of the Environment Protection Board (1971, 1972a, (1973a), Hatfield et aZ. (1972), Hurd (1972), Macpherson e~ al. (1972), Oi1week (1973), Passmore (1970) and Stein et aZ. (1973).

The third interim report of the Environment Protection Board (1913a) emphasized that the most detrimental long-term effects of a properly supervised pipeline construction would be caused by the opening-up of wilderness areas to human activities. The report also cites problems caused by restrictions imposed on distribution of data collected by many scientific groups in the Arctic: this results in unnecessary repetition of many experiments. The report and its appendices have reviewed the background ecology and possible impacts of the projected pipeline on caribou (Calef and Lortie 1973; Kucera 1973), raptorials {Campbell and Davies 1973), waterfowl (Campbell 1973a,b; Campbell and Shepard 1973; Campbell and Weber 1973) and fish (Shotton, 1973). The report also refers to studies on revegetation (Hernandez 1973), and the impact of projected or existing Arctic road con~ struction (Adam 1973a,b). Aircraft operation, especially at low altitudes, was noted in several of the above-mentioned reports to have a major disturbing influence on many of the birds and mammals of this area. The effects were summarized in a newsletter (Environment Protection Board 1973b) which stated: "Caribou flee in panic from low-~lying aircraft," a phenomenon that can result in injury to calves and pregnant cows, in addition to subjecting entire herds to physiological stresses. Nesting birds, grizzly bears, mountain sheep and wolves are also expected to be adversely affected by low-flying aircraft. Scott (1973) reported that airplanes do not cause caribou to panic unless they fly quite low. Helicopters, however, can cause extreme -59- panic. The Environment Protection Board (1973d) emphasized the difficulty of predicting the possible impact of pipeline construction and operation on caribou which migrate at different times and by different routes each year. The Canadian Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (1972c) published revised guidelines for northern pipeline construction aimed at limiting this type of environmental impact.

(b) TERRAIN

Several of the aforementioned reports have discussed the permafrost-terrain damage problems that could be caused by pipes carrying hot oil (about 80°C), or by improperly­ supervised pipeline construction and maintenance. Hardy et al. (1971), Hurwitz (1970) and Reinart et a L, (1971) have made extensive studies of past disturbances along the proposed Mackenzie Valley pipeline corridor. They have concluded that in general regression of the permafrost table depends on ambient temperature, water (or ice) content of the soil, other physical properties of the soil, and the time elapsed since the original disturbance. However, they all agreed that, with the proper precautions, regulations and construction practices, the pipeline and support­ structures will result in only minor environmental damage. They emphasized the great importance of not disturbing the insulative vegetation layers on the ground surface. Zoltai and Pettapiece (1973) have reviewed the vegetation-permafrost interaction in the Mackenzie Valley, and presented maps with surface-susceptibility zones. They also discussed potential causes of surface disturbance, ranking anything which results in ponding as causing the worst damage.

(c) HIGHWAYS:_

A number of authors have questioned the wisdom of building the Mackenzie and Dempster Highways before considering environmental impact studies (Adam 1972; Banfield 1972; Environ­ mental Protection Board 1972b; Legget 1972). In particular, Jackman (1973) has cited the Dempster Highway as a good example of how not to go about this type of construction in the Arctic, while Legget (1972) described the northern leg of this highway as an economical and ecological disaster.

An impact report was recently written on the Dempster Highway, but only after construction had been either finished or in progress on all but 80 miles (cf. Theberge 1973a). This impact report has not yet been released to the public. The Environment Protection Board (1973a) report stated that the seemingly "arbitrary" selection of a route for the Mackenzie Highway places extreme limitations on the selection of pipeline routes. -60-

Roberts (1973) has emphasized the importance of the pipeline and Mackenzie Highway to people in the area. He termed the research and construction carried out by the government adequate, and felt that the benefits far outnumbered the adverse effects. Strang (1972) has also reviewed the government-funded environmental-oriented research concerning the Mackenzie Valley corridor system. The Environment Canada (1973) annual report for this region stated that the high flow-rate through Mackenzie Highway culverts prevents anadromous fish from reaching spawning grounds.

(d) PESTICIDES:

Enderson and Berger (1968) analyzed chlorinated hydro­ carbon pesticide residues in the adipose tissue of peregrines from this region. The mean total residues of adults (368.2 ppm) were about 23 times those of juveniles which had never migrated (15.8 ppm), 15 times greater than was found in viable eggs (24.0 ppm), and about 400 times the mean residue of potential prey species (0.96 ppm). The authors remarked that these birds appear to be experiencing no reproductive difficulty and concluded that most of the pesticide residues were accumulated during wintering in the south.

(4-5) FORT MCPHERSON

Watmore (1969) noted that four years after a seismic line had been bulldozed through this area, a gully 23 feet wide and 8 feet deep had developed at one point. This was still in the process of widening at the time of his report. (4-6) MACKENZIE DELTA

(a) PETROLEUM

Gossen and Parkinson (1973) found that spilt Norman Wells crude oil caused marked increases in soil microbial respira­ tion, although addition of fertilizers (Na3P04 and NH4N03) appeared necessary to allow all of the oil residues to undergo complete biodegradation. Wein (1971) reported that spilt oil would likely displace soil air, causing the death of vegetation roots. He also stated that microbial activity could release manganese and iron ions (which can be toxic to vegetation), and that the oil residues would raise the organic content of the soil. However, in one field experiment (Gossen and Parkinson 1973), application of oil and fertilizer did not result in significant increases in soil respiration. Westlake and Cook (1973) found that micro­ organisms capable of digesting Prudhoe Bay crude were cornmon in soils of the Northwest Territories. They noted, however, that fertilization speeds this up greatly and that biodegradation relied on adequate concentrations of n-alkanes and the absence of excessive asphaltenes or NSO fractions. -61-

Wein and Bliss (1973b) studied spills of Norman Wells crude oil under various conditions in the delta. In the winter, applications up to 1 cm thick at 90°C did not penetrate more than 10 cm depth of snow; therefore, the authors felt that most of the phytotoxic components of the oil would evaporate by spring. with summer spills of up to 1.5 cm thickness, 45 to 62% of the oil had evaporated within a month and 5% of the vegetation in the spring-treated area had regrown by autumn.

Falk and Lawrence (1973a) reported on the toxicities of the drilling muds used by several drilling operations in the delta. The acute toxicity of drilling fluids to rainbow trout and lake chub ranged from 96-~our LC50 values of 0.83% to 12%, while drilling fluids and rig water collected in sumps exhibited acute toxicities ranging from 96-hour LC50 values of 22.5% to 81%. The authors felt that current practices for containment of these slurries were adequate, except during occasional flood periods; nevertheless, they noted that treatment will be necessary if these materials are to be used during offshore drilling in areas where land for lagoon storage is unavailable.

(b) TERRAIN

The Mackenzie Delta Task Force (1970) reported on vehicle movements in the area, stating: "Seismic operations conducted during summer, which involved removal of vegetation and humus horizons, have caused the greatest damage to the tundra surface. The revegetation and eventual disappearance of these lines will require time intervals of one or more centuries." In contrast, their appended "communique" (No. 1-70110) stated: "Seismic operations in the North have caused only minimal damage to the environment" and the Task Force concluded: "The effects of seismic lines on the vegetation and surface features of the modern delta are insignificant to warrant concern." This may be a fair overall assessment of the year-round situation. However, the fact that there is concern is indicated by the number of subsequent investigations in this and other nearby Arctic regions.

Kevan (197la) and Bellamy et a l , (1971) have discussed problems associated with past vehicle operation and the con­ sequent thermokarst problems in the delta region. Strang (1973) has produced a comprehensive review of vegetation disturbance studies in the Mackenzie Valley. He noted that one problem with current research is that all changes are assumed to be adverse. He felt this definition must be more clearly researched. Peterson (1973a) has also emphasized this point. Strang (1973) discussed disturbances at Fort Simpson, Wringley, Fort Norman, Sans Sault Rapids, Fort Good Hope, Fort McPherson, Old Crow and Inuvik. Heginbottom and Kurfurst (1972) reported an average 50% increase in thaw depth around abandoned oil wells; they stated that the disturbance was obvious even in cases where gravel and wood chips had been spread on the ground as insulation. -62-

Kerfoot (1972b) edited a series of articles on the geology, botany and meteorology of the delta region. Included were an article by Heginbottom (1972) reporting on permafrost problems resulting after the August 1968 fire near Inuvik (Section 4-7) and a report by Kerfoot (1972c) on terrain disturbances in the Tuktoyaktuk region (Section 4-9).

(c) PESTICIDES:

Tests by Addison and Brodie (1973) revealed 2-4 ppm of DDT and its derivatives in the blubber (fresh weight basis) of Mackenzie Delta beluga whales. Muscle and liver .levels were 0.01 ppm and 0.02 ppm respectively. Since these animals do not migrate south, the levels may represent the background accumulation-potential of the Beaufort Sea area.

(d) MISCELLANEOUS:

McTaggart-Cowan (1948) reported that, by 1947, there already were apparent reductions in the bird population of the Mackenzie Delta region.

Gill (1973) has discussed how local clear-cut logging in the delta has caused degradation of the denuded terrain, with the result that tundra lichen, moss and heath communities have permanently replaced the former extensions of boreal forest.

Falk and Lawrence (1973b) investigated the effects of seismic explosions on fish. They found that the pressure changes caused by explosions can be lethal to many fish, especially those with air bladders. (4-7 ) INUVIK

(a) PETROLEUM

Dickman (1971) found that spills of Norman Wells crude oil can reduce the primary productivity of local algae. He also noted that the volatile toxic elements of spilt oil do not evaporate significantly in the Arctic. Dickman and Lunardini (1973) reported that although oil can kill the tundra vegetation, it does not always destroy the insulating properties of the dead vegetation, as reflected by thaw-depth measurements in hummock areas.

(b) PIPELINE

Watmore (1969) reported that during construction of the Inuvik test pipeline, considerable thermokarst settlement occurred. He stated, however, that proper insulative techniques prevented any further damage from occurring. Hill (1971) stated that natural vegetation has grown well on the gravel berm of -63- this test pipeline. Emphasizing the technical feasibility of Arctic pipelines, Wilson (1973) discussed the Inuvik construc­ tion. He provided models to predict permafrost susceptibility and discussed techniques to prevent terrain damage using para­ meters based on soil, climatological and other factors.

(c) SEWAGE

Boyd and Boyd (1967) discussed the Inuvik "utilidor" system, noting that the heating of water supplies can cause favorable conditions for the multiplication of any bacteria that leak out of the adjacent sewage pipes~ They also remarked that sewage lagoons are not as effective in the Arctic as they have been found to be in more temperate climates. Biological decomposition does not occur at all in the winter, whereas summer­ time enhances the likelihood of problems with algal blooms.

(d) TERRAIN~

Hill (1971) asserted that Inuvik, constructed on permafrost with a high ice content, has had no subsidence or thermokarst problems in its 15 years of existence. Nevertheless, he emphasized that: "No amount of care and technology will insure protection of the Arctic environment unless there are tough regulations which are strictly enforced." Heginbottom (1972) reported on the effect of an August 1968 fire near Inuvik. The impact of burning alone was not significant for at least two years after, by which time the thaw depth had increased by 9 cm. However, the situation was more serious in a bulldozed fire-guard strip where the surface had settled about 22 cm, with a 28 cm increase in thaw depth observed during the summer following the fire; by the second summer, the thaw depth had increased to 35 cm, which was 83% greater than in control areas. In 1973, Heginbottom (1973) reported on a number of fresh slope failures in this area, as well as reviewing the general concept of permafrost melting resulting from vegetation damage or destruc­ tion. Wein and Bliss (1973a) studied several fires of varying vintage in the Inuvik area and in Alaska. They reported a 35 to 50% increase in depth of the active layer immediately after a fire, but observed that annual production could recover within two years, although in a "rejuvenated" condition. (4-8 ) RICHARDS ISLAND

This area was investigated by the Bliss and Wein (1972c) ALUR team studying terrain disturbance. Radforth (1973) found that vehicles with large, soft inflated tires caused much less damage to terrain during summer manoeuvers than similar- sized tracked vehicles. It is also near here that an artificial island (for oil-drilling) was built in the summer of 1972 (Anonymous 1972a). During construction, seven feet of silt was removed from the sea bottom in order to reach the gravel which was used to build the island. -64-

(4-9) TUKTOYAKTUK PENINSULA

The ALUR team (examining tundra-permafrost damage caused by seismic exploration vehicles) studied this area exten­ sively (Kerfoot 1972a; Lambert 1972; Radforth 1972; Bliss and Wein 1972c) and issued a number of recommendations which included limitations on vehicle activity, vehicle turning radii, weights of vehicles and repeated passage over the same location. The reports also discussed methods for the assessment and classifi­ cation of terrain damage. Watmore (1969) and Kerfoot (1972c) reported that a seismic line, 4! m wide and about 25 cm deep (bulldozed in 1965), has since shown signs of extreme erosion and slumping, with depressions of up to 3 m and some areas now twice the original width. Kerfoot also described a winter road where construction methods resulted in no increased thaw under the road itself, but a 300% increase on the margins from which material had been pushed to protect the road. Thus, although known construction techniques can be used to avoid adverse effects, it seems that they are not always utilized. -66-

I Ott&YlI

\Sl&"! I I -67-

AREA 5: EASTERN NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

( 5- 1) BAKER LA KE; and ( 5- 2) RAN KIN INLET

Baker et a l , (1968) reported that the cesium-137 levels in the milk of Eskimos from these two communities averaged 510 and 195 pCi/g-ash respectively. These were relatively high when compared to a Montreal human mean of 2.7. Among the other mammalian species surveyed, strontium-90 levels were only abnormally high in caribou milk (89.9 pCi/g-ash).

(5-3) KAMINAK LAKE':

Total waterborne mercury concentrations of the order of 0.5 ppb and soil levels of 300 ppb have been reported (Hornbrook 1971). The author further mentioned that commercial fishing was the only industry in the area. In a review of the literature, Peakal and Lovett (1972) referred to the fact that mercury can be concentrated up to 10,000-fold from water to fish, with a further 50-fold concentration in fish-eating birds. In the proximity of a major source of mercury pollution, Underdal and Hastein (1971) found waterborne mercury concentrations of 0.5 ng/g (ppb); also, salmonids in this region contained a mean 1.26 mg/kg (ppm) with an extreme of 7.38 mg/kg mercury recorded. Thus, a similar scale of values might be predicted for Lake Kaminak.

(5-4) CHURCHILL

(a) WASTES-

Walker (1970) reported that garbage has been indis­ criminately dumped within a 25-mile radius of Churchill. Woodford (1972) also reported the dumping of raw sewage into Hudson Bay.

(b) TERRAIN

Charles (1959) discussed the long-term effects on terrain caused by the railway to Churchill, a project completed in 1929. He reported that very little subsidence had occurred over the years. He also suggested improvements in construction methods for permafrost regions.

(c) PESTICIDES:

Brown and Brown (1970) determined the residual DDT, DDE and DDD levels in soils, pond sediments, vegetation and a wide variety of animals in areas around Churchill which had either been sprayed repeatedly or had never been sprayed. In the sprayed areas, residues of "DDT plus metabolites" in the -68- fat of birds ranged from 3 ppm in the willow ptarmigan to 64 ppm in the arctic tern; this compares with a range of 0.2-12 ppm in birds from unsprayed areas. Readers are directed to the original report for additional details.

(5-5) NELSON AND CHURCHILL RIVERS

The Churchill River diversion scheme, with the purpose of providing a greater water flow through power dams on the Nelson River, has been criticized in reviews by Newbury and Malaher (1972) and Gillespie et aZ. (1972). They predicted that the closing-off of all but a spring trickle of water for the last 250 miles of this river will cause a serious disruption of the ecology in this region. Added to this would be the damage to lands flooded by the several dam reservoirs included in the project. (5-6) FT. CHIPEWYAN

Reports by Dirschl (1972) and the Peace-Athabasca Delta Project Group (1972) have described the effects of the W.A.C. Bennett Dam on the ecology of the flood-plains of the Peace-Athabasca Delta. The effects include accelerated aging of delta deposits, simplification of the local ecosystem and the replacement of shallow lakes, marshes and wet meadows by mesic shrub and forest communities with consequent hardship for bison, fur bearers, waterfowl, fish, and the native people who rely on these resources. -70- -71-

AREA 6: NORTH QUEBEC

(6-1) DECEPTION BAY

400,000 gallons of diesel oil were spilled from shore tanks in June, 1970. Most of it was contained by ice until it could be pumped to the surface and burned (Barber 1971b). Ramseier (1971) investigated the aftermath and treatment of this spill, and arrived at several conclusions: ice acts as a barrier and absorbant and also reduces evaporation of the oil; spreading is only 1/3 as fast on ice as on sea water; 17% of the subtidal biota was destroyed during the weeks following the spill; oil under ice is harder to clean up; biodegradation does not occur significantly at OoC; also, burning is the only really effective clean-up method. Grainger and Wacasey (1970) studied the area a month and a half after the spill. They found evidence of the spill along 900 m of the beach area, and as far as 150 m offshore from the lowtide level. Fucus and Mytilus were the most notably damaged flora and fauna, although damage to these species was largely due to burning of the oil during clean-up operations. (6-2 ) LAKE MINTO

The data of Risebrough and Berger's (1971) study of PCB, DDE, DDD, and DDT levels in this lake have not been released by the Canadian wildlife Service, but Risebrough and de Lappe (1972) refer to lake trout as having 0~04 to 0.6 ppm of PCB per fresh weight, which is "higher than expected," but relatively low compared to other areas of the world. (6-3 ) JAMES BAY PROJECT

Many articles have been written on this subject, mostly emphasizing the possible adverse effects of the project on environment and native life. Extensive reviews of the back­ ground and potential impact have been written by Ie Comite pour la Defense de la Baie James (1972 a,b), Dunbar (1972a, 1973a), Glooschenko (1972a,b), Richardson (1972), Spence and Spence (1972a) and Taylor (1973). These reviews have emphasized the detrimental effects which could be caused by a project comprising 5 to 10 of the largest dams in the world, flooding about 1700 square miles and affecting the drainage basins of 1/4 of the area of Quebec. The various reviews note that this project would flood the homeland of an indigenous Indian population largely dependent on fishing, hunting and trapping. The site of the James Bay Project is also referred to as the staging area for practically all the blue geese in Canada, a major denning site for polar bears, the feeding area for 90% of the world's eastern brant geese, and a major habitat for fish, beaver, moose and caribou. -72-

Spence (1972) has written a review of the consequences of the several co-existing dams comprised in this project. His predicted effects of the James Bay Project included: flooding; lower tourist potential; decline in breeding success of salmonids; cessation of traditional harvesting of furbearing animals on a sustained yield basis; resettlement of native people, often associated with cultural disorientation and increased mortality; tree kill in low-lying areas above the waterline; swamp formation; local climatic effects extending up to 25 km from the shoreline; increase in winter snow cover; decrease in productivity of estuaries and coastal regions of E. James Bay; decreases in population of shallow-water spawning fish; high mortality of young fry; decreases in standing crop of benthos; disruption in nesting sites of geese, ducks and waders; delays of spring ice break-up in estuary and bay regions at the mouth of the river; decline and eventual elimination of game fish and other species; blockage of upstream migration of fish. Dunbar (1972a) summed up his thoughts on the project with the statement: "appalling to anyone with the least idea of what the environmental effects might be."

The main conclusion of the report of the Joint Federal­ Provincial Task Force (1971), which studied the potential impact of the project by conducting a literature search, can be summarized by a general statement that more research is necessary. Although the report did review the background information relating to the possible detrimental consequences, the authors had emphasized at the outset that they had no intention of commenting on the ecology-economy controversy central to the whole project. Environ­ ment Canada (1972a) outlined an extensive research program to commence "immediately" in this area. -73-

GENERAL AND THEORETICAL REVIEWS

U-1 ) PETROLEUM

(a) PIPELINES

The U.S. Department of the Interior (1972a,b,c) delved into all the foreseeable consequences of pipeline construction and operation. Their reports also evaluated all the proposed pipeline routes, including those through Canada, and the alterna­ tive methods of transporting oil or gas from the Arctic. Other reports have dealt with the possible adverse impact of pipeline construction, maintenance, and methods for avoiding various problems, i.e., permafrost damage by vehicles; construction or hot-oil transportation systems; removal of gravel from streams; general air and water pollution from chemicals or wastes during construction; oil spills; the effects of structures or human activity on animals living in the region (Belous 1972; Bliss 1970; Carter 1969, 1973; Gold et at. 1972; Hawryszko 1969; Miller et at. 1972; Sinclair 1972; Sage 1972; Sprague 1973; Weeden and Klein 1971; Anonymous 1972b).

(b) OIL SPILLS

The Environment Canada (1973) annual report listed 13 known spills in the Northwest Territories in 1972 amounting to 10,000 gal of turbo-A-l, 92,000 gal of fuel oil, 5,000 gal of bunker-C and an undetermined amount of diesel oil. The report assumes that many spills may not have been reported.

Gantcheff (1971) coordinated the compilation of an extensive review of possible effects of oil spills on the Canadian Arctic environment. The article reviews major spills of the past, both in the Arctic and elsewhere. Among the general conclusions are that oil will be much more persistent in the Arctic than elsewhere due to slowness of degradation, spreading and evaporation; also, surface oil could absorb solar energy and cause thermokarst problems; birds are affected most by oil (and, because 60 to 70 bird species rely on the Arctic as a breeding ground, they may face extinction by a spill at the wrong time); molluscs and crustaceans are also likely to be seriously affected; mammals appear to be in little danger, with the possible exception of species such as walruses (which eat molluscs), polar bears and hair seals.

Other reports on the impact of Arctic oil spills include Canadian Arctic Resources Committee (1973), Chia (1970), Dunbar (1973a), Hunt (1972), McCowan et aZ. (1970), Theberge (1972), Butler and Berkes (1972) and Anonymous (1970). Several reports on research related to oil-spill problems done in 1972 -74- by the ALUR group are expected in the near future (Environmental Social Committee Northern Pipelines 19721.

Adams et al. (1973) reported that controlled spills of Norman Wells crude oil under winter conditions (simulated in Ottawa) caused extensive melting of ice or snow-covered ponds, as well as ice break-up about eight days prior to that of a control pond.

Raisbeck and Mohtadi (1973) discussed oil spills in Alberta during 1972. Two spills from northern pipeline ruptures allowed 50,000 bbl. and 10,000 bbl. to contaminate 35 acres and 5 acres of land respectively. The greatest percentage of spills (60%) occurred during the production phase and this illustrates the need for great care at the well-head.

(c) OIL BURNING

Schofield and Hamilton (1970) and Weeden (1971) have emphasized that the burning of spilled oil or of fuel used for heating and thermoelectric power generation, could create serious problems in the north. Lichens are extremely sensitive to sulfur dioxide fumes generated by burning fossil fuels. Since lichens are the major primary biological producers in many parts of the Arctic, their destruction could have serious ecological effects. Most of the groups investigating the clean­ up of oil spills have recommended burning as the best, if not the only, efficient method for the Arctic. (e.g., Glaeser and Vance 1971; McMinn 1972; Ramseier 1971; Vance 1971). (7-2) TERRAIN DISTURBANCE

various authors have emphasized the thermokarst problem, or liquification of permafrost with high ice content as the most important problem in the Arctic today. If the insulating active layer is destroyed and the permafrost melts, the presence of up to 10:1 water:soil (by volume) can cause extreme settling and erosion of the resulting muskeg (Bliss and Wein 1972a; Brown 1966; Ives 1970; Mackay 1970; Naysmith 1971). This appears to be a greater problem in the Mackenzie Delta area than on the high-Arctic islands, largely due to the higher percentage of ground ice in the delta and the colder climate on the islands. It must be noted that there has been much less extensive research on the islands than in the delta. Hardy et al. (1971) reported that soils north of 66°N along the Mackenzie Valley almost always contain over 40% by volume ice, usually over 60%, and at times almost 100%.

Other reports have related the thermokarst problem to the operation of off-road vehicles during Arctic exploration, especially during a thaw period and on wet or sloping terrain. -75-

Bliss and Wein (1972b) remarked that winter movements of vehicles destroy the brittle, partly frozen, dormant upper vegetation, while in summer the active layer consisting of soil, mosses, roots, etc. is most susceptible. Weeden (1970) reported that with proper care, reseeding could cure much of the disturbance of permafrost terrain. However, Hok (1971) noted that some of the southern plants used for reseeding may not reproduce successfully in the Arctic climate. He also remarked that dead vegetation on the surface will not insulate permafrost adequately. This latter statement is in contradiction to the findings of Dickman and Lunardini (1973).

Wein and Bliss (1973c) reported that the preponderance of winter operations has resulted in much less terrain damage since 1965. Breakage of frozen sedge and shrubs is repaired by the next season's growth. However, Macpherson (l971) reported that "instances still occur of delayed schedules with drilling rigs being moved too late in the spring and thus nullifying the effect of careful housekeeping."

Regarding the construction of permanent transportation routes in the Arctic, Larminie (1971) felt that a roadbed of gravel at least 5 ft thick is necessary for summer roads in permafrost areas. Greene et al. (1960) reported that thaw depth under the Richardson Highway in Alaska was greater than that in the surrounding terrain. This was most apparent at the centre of the road. After the road was paved in 1956, the summer thaw was greatly accentuated and this increase in active layer has persisted. They noted that this increased thawing has resulted in some subsidence and necessary repairs. Lotspeich (1971a) elaborated on a number of engineering rules for the successful construction of Arctic roads. In another article (1971b), he reviewed the environmental impact of poor road construction in the Arctic. He emphasized the necessity for comprehensive surveys before the choice of routes, noting that the roundabout way is often cheaper and causes less adverse environmental impact. The importance of providing environmental education for construction workers was also emphasized. Many other authors have stressed that human nature tends to ignore (or circumvent) rules and regulations, especially if their importance is not realized and in circumstances where time is short and enforcement lax. Ferrians et al. (1969) discussed the problems of building railways, highways, airports and other construction projects on permafrost soils, as did a number of authors in conferences conducted by the National Research Council of Canada (Brown 1969; Legget and MacFarlane 1972) and various project reports from the N.R.C.'s Division of Building Research (1971).

A recent development has been styrofoam insulated highways (cf. Mantell, 1973). Tested near Inuvik, a 3! inch layer reduced settlement of a roadway from control values of -76-

1.3 ft to less than 1/5 ft after one summer's thaw. Esch (1973) noted that styrofoam utilization as a road-bed insulating material in Alaska during three-year tests has resulted in up to an Il-folo. decrease in soil settlement in permafrost regions.

Adams (1973a) has compiled a 32 page bibliography on the construction of winter roads in the Arctic with an addi­ tional 16 sections of abstracts. Gold and Lachenbruch (1973) have reviewed the literature on permafrost research in North America. Reports are also available on the effects of drilling for, and transportation of, hot oil on permafrost terrain (Couch et al. 1970; Kljucec and Telford 1972; Lachenbruch 1970) . Pruitt (1969) has discussed the interrelationships of permafrost, vegetation and the distribution of mammals in the north. Roberts­ Pichette (1972) has produced an extensive annotated bibliography on the relationship of permafrost to other components of the Arctic environment.

(7- 3) WASTE DISPOSAL

The evidence that temperate-climate waste-disposal methods are not adequate for the Arctic was well documented by Alter et a l . (1970). As an example, Alter (1972) and Cohen (1973) have noted that more than 1/4 million oil barrels full of wastes are strewn around and abandoned in northern Alaska. Alter (1972) also remarked that: "the Arctic environment is favorable for the long survival of disease producing organisms," and he emphasized that chlorination of sewage or infected water supplies is unreliable under low-temperature conditions. Similar reports of slow biodegradation are given by Dickens (1959) and Fisher (1967) . In other reports Legros and Drobny (1966) and the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee (1973) have commented on the length of survival of pathogens at low temperatures.

Sewage treatment problems, involving the much longer times required for the subsidence of biochemical oxygen demand (i.e., BOD) in the Arctic, were mentioned by Alter (1969), Clark et al. (1970) and Moore (1941); moreover Snodgrass (1971) has compiled a bibliography on Arctic sewage problems and treatment techniques. Schallock et al. (1970) found that dissolved oxygen levels in Arctic rivers fall drastically during the winter due to natural causes, and wondered about the added stress of BOD from chemicals and sewage. Some potential solutions to the problem of sewage treatment have been discussed in Environ:= mental Science and Technology (~973): activated carbon can remove 36-40% of organic carbon in 2 hours at 2.50C, chlorination can be effective under controlled conditions at temperatures as low as laC; also, a vacuum collection system is described which allows for low-volume reduced-dilution waste disposal in the Arctic, where water is often in low abundance. -77-

Johnson (1969) has emphasized that waste disposal will be the greatest problem of the Arctic in the future. Lotspeich (1970) discussed the problems created by a growing human population and the typical open-surface waste disposal techniques commonly used in the north. McTaggart-Cowan (1969) remarked: "The beaches of some of our most remote Arctic Islands are littered with plastic bags of human excrement grounded ashore after drifting from some northern outpost of our culture." Harrington (1972) stated that the debris of 25-75 years ago still litters the Yukon landscape; moreover he documented several cases of more recent garbage masses left by oil exploration teams in the Yukon.

Some recent a.tt.empt.s to solve the Arctic sewa_ge and waste problem have included an activated sludge "package" plant adapted for cold climates (Reed and Buzzel 1973), incinerators to reduce the solid waste volume by 86% (Cohen 1973) and the short-term utilization of the natural biodegradation powers of northern swampland (Hartland-Rowe 1973).

(7-4 ) MINING

This is an industrial activity for which few Arctic impact studies have been published. Speculated problems include poor flushing rates caused by low rainfall, which would allow heavy metals to concentrate in localized areas (Canadian Arctic Resources Committee 1973); also, problems with construction of dykes to hold tailings in permafrost terrain (Sprague, 1973). In a study of these problems, Sprague (1970b) has made projections based on experiments conducted in New Brunswick; when extrapolated to Yukon conditions, these indicate that acids from pyrites would dissolve heavy metals into the waters; also metals would be more toxic in the soft waters of this region; salmon would avoid mining streams due to the metallic ions; low pH (high acid) problems would occur; underground leakage from mines or the freezing of pipes and tailings ponds would result in metals getting into local streams. In northern Ontario, German (1972) listed major problems of mine effluents, resulting largely from high dissolved solids inhibiting the spring turnover in the stratified lake. Problems included low pH, no dissolved oxygen below 20 feet in depth, toxic concentrations of ammonia, zinc and copper contamination, nitrogen enrichment, and total elimina­ tion of benthos. Given the fact that the mining industry has been plagued with pollution problems in the south (Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, 1973c; Galbraith et al. 1972; LeBlanc et al. 1972; Schmidt and Conn, 1971; Stander et al. 1970) and in the one area for which data are available in the north (cf. section 4-1), this is definitely a topic for future research. -78-

( 7-5) MISCELLANEOUS

(a) GENERAL REVIEWS The Canadian Wildlife Service (1972) has produced a comprehensive report which shows the important and critical habitats or migration routes of Arctic fish, birds and mammals, and discusses the possible detrimental effects of developments in the region. This has been produced in an even more elaborate style by Environment Canada (1972b) as "Arctic Land Use Maps." Murrman and Reed (1972) have reviewed publications concerning the environmental consequences of military operations in Alaska, and a relevant bibliography was prepared by the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (1972). Macpherson (1971) and Pruitt (1962b, 1963b, 1964) have produced a number of reviews emphasizing Arctic mammalian problems, ecology, and the necessity for more basic research. For a complete well­ indexed review of publications concerning the Arctic, the Arctic Institute of North America's Arctic Bibliography (1972) is unsur­ passed. Also, a bibliography by Hemstock and Cooke (1973) contains 420 pages of references to articles written on virtually every aspect of life in the Yukon Territory. Another bibliography (Alternatives 1973) reviews Arctic impact research.

Reviews by the Arctic Institute of North America (1972), Bliss and Peterson (1973), Dunbar (1972a, 1973b), Johnson (1970), Kay (1968a,b), Pollution Probe (1973), Sprague (1973)1 and Stevens (1971) have discussed many of the problems of the Arctic, including its much emphasized "fragility". The general conclusion of most of these papers is that far too little is known about Arctic ecology to make any broad general statements about the possible effects of pollution. They all, however, seemed to feel that man's activities could have a much worse impact on the Arctic ecosystem, and in much less time than it has taken in any of the other regions of the world. In the current haste to exploit Arctic resources, what seems most imperative is an overall desire to utilize existing knowledge so as to prevent repetition of past mistakes, along with the full realization that the present state of knowledge may be quite inadequate.

(b) LEGALITIES

The laws and enforcement methods recently adopted by Canada to deal with Arctic environmental impact have been the subject of many discussions. General descriptions of the laws (Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act 1970; Northern Inland Waters Act 1970; Oil and Gas Production and Conservation Act 1970; Territorial Land Use Regulations 1971; also, the more general Canada Water Act and Canada Shipping Act) describing their history, virtues and limitations, can be found in Beauchamp (1972), Brandon (1972), MacNeill (1971) and Petrie (1972). Attention should also be directed to the Canada Fisheries Act when discussing the "legalities" of the environmental topic. -79-

Naysmith (1972) has discussed the policy of Canada's Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development which emphasizes "managed-use" or "utilization but under conditions which minimize alteration of the resource-base while accepting the fact that if the land is to be used some degree of disturbance is unavoidable." Usher (1973) has stated: "Current research priorities in the North are geared to the protection of terrain rather than wildlife." He further noted that there are too few inspectors with too little training to enforce Arctic pollution laws. He felt that current policy emphasizes development, and that this restricts the freedom of regional inspectors. Usher further remarked that even when regulations are enforced, the administrative delays and climate-induced inaction often mean that two years go by before a problem (or infraction) is dealt with. The environmental impact assessment required by legislation was discussed by Templeton (1973) who remarked that the secrecy and slow publication of much of the relevant data has had unfortunate consequences. He felt that public hearings with published results would ensure a much more adequate review of Arctic assessments. He also emphasized that a regulatory agency powerful enough to ensure that recommendations are implemented is so far lacking.

(c) CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS

Numerous reports have stated that the severe insect problems in the north have necessitated the use of high amounts of pesticides around human encampments. It has been reported that chlorinated hydrocarbon residues accumulate to a greater extent in the North due to the slower growth and subsequent longer lifetime of almost all living organisms (Canadian Arctic Resources Committee 1973) combined with the slow biodegradation of insecticide residues (Jensen cited in Dunbar 1972b). Enderson et ale (1968) reported that the concentration of total chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide residues in adipose tissue of peregrines in Alaska and the Yukon ranged from 130 to 2435 ppm, averaging 1009 ppm. This did not seem to impair reproductivity, and data seemed to indicate that most of the residues were accumulated while the birds wintered in the south. However, a later report by Cade et aZ. (1971) reported mean values of 889 ppm of DDE in the eggs of northern populations of peregrine falcons. They found the levels to be extreme in the populations further north; these typically migrate further south in the winter and prey upon other migratory birds. Likewise these populations suffered the greatest degree of eggshell thinning (up to 21.7%) and fewest young surviving. Non-migratory Aleutian peregrines contained 167 ppm DDE (lipid basis) in their eggs which caused only a 7.5% reduction in shell thickness and the problem with rough­ legged hawks and gyrfalcons was reported as much less. Lincer et aZ. (1970) found dry-weight DDE residues of 131 ppm in peregrine eggs from Alaska compared to about 7 ppm in rough-legged hawks. They attributed the difference to diet. peregrines eat ducks -80- which contain 10 to 20 times the tissue concentration of DDE in comparison to the small mammals eaten by rough-legged hawks. Brown (1973) has published several tabular compilations of DDT, DDD, and DDE concentrations found in 2,107 samples comprising human, animal, fish, bird, vegetation and soil specimens, with the suggestion that the data can serve as "a base line from which future deviations can be measured."

The only known compilations of PCB levels in the Arctic (outside of the background levels mentioned at Lake Minto, section 6-2) have not as yet been released (Clarke 1973; Risebrough and de Lappe, 1972). However, Bourne (1972) reported finding a glaucous gull on Bear Island, Barents Sea (about 75 0N, 35 0E), which was "showing the characteristic convulsions ... followed by generalised tremors, associated with PCB poisoning. Its liver contained 311 parts per million PCB's and 93 ppm DDE."

(d) AIR POLLUTION

The ice/fog air-inversion problem already mentioned as present at Fairbanks and Yellowknife is apt to become more important as the Arctic's human population rises, and whenever the cold air (-35°C or below) is calm and accompanied by a continu­ ing source of water vapour (Benson 1969; Hare 1970). However, Hage (1972) reported that fogs at relatively higher temperatures (-35°C to -18°C) have already caused great problems in the Edmonton area. Peterson and Drury (1967) have commented on the extremely stable smoke clouds drifting north from a southern forest fire, which caused reductions of up to 25% in the solar radiation on tundra. Similar problems could occur with the plumes of industrial or thermoelectric stacks (or the disposal of spilt oil by burning) .

(e) FIRES

Hunt (1973) reported that fires are a major problem associated with man's activities in the Arctic. He remarked that it takes tundra 40-160 years to recover completely after a fire. Wein and Bliss (1973a) have reported that complete and revigorated recovery in heath-sedge communities requires only 2 years after a .fire whereas total vegetation replacement may take from 7 to 17 years (Wein and Bliss 1973c). strang (1973) stated that fire induced no lasting change in the tundra regions he investigated, even though it often caused reversion to an earlier succession stage with more vigorous and more pro­ ductive vegetation.

Hall (1973) reported that moose range is being extended in many areas of Alaska, largely because fire burns off the lichen tundra that caribou prefer to graze oni this is compounded by the fact that new growth of willow is preferred by moose. Scotter (1964) concluded that fires in northern Saskatchewan -81-

can destroy the lichens of a caribou range for a century or more. He reported evidence that fires are three times as common in the North as they were prior to extensive human activity. Slaughter et al , (1971) edited the proceedings of a symposium on fire in the northern environment. Although the necessity of natural fires to the growth of the northern taiga forest was emphasized (Komarek 1971; Bolstad 1971; DeLeonardis 1971; Lotspeich and Mueller 1971), all found that fireline construction by bulldozers could result in serious thermokarst and stream siltation for a much longer period than the fire itself. Lotspeich and Mueller (1971) also commented that fire-retardants containing ammonium phosphate could ultimately induce eutrophication of many small Arctic lakes if used in excess.

(f) RADIOACTIVITY

Lichens concentrate cesium-137 from the atmospheric fallout. This is then concentrated further (about twofold per trophic level) as it passes up the food chain through caribou to the native peoples of the Arctic (Arctic Institute of North America 1972; Eberhardt 1964; Eberhardt and Hanson 1969; Hanson 1967). A study by Baker et a l , (1968) has revealed a 78- to 204-fold increase of cesium~137 in the milk of humans from the Northwest Territories compared with those from Montreal (see sections 5-1 and 5-2), although Bird (1968) considered the average radiation levels in Arctic-dwelling humans to be well within the recommended maxima of the International Commission for Radio­ logical Protection (ICRP). Beasley and Palmer (1966) reported that the accumulation of the natural radioactive isotopes, lead­ 210 and polonium-210, through the lichen-caribou-Eskimo food chain, has resulted in concentrations in Canadian Eskimos of up to 2.3 pCi/g of bone ash [data quoted from Hill (1964)J, which is 15 times greater than mean values reported from Illinois. Also the mean concentration of polonium-210 in urine of Anaktuvuk Pass (Alaska) residents was 3.2 pCi/l.4 1, or 230 times the normal average reported for the southern United States. Beasley and Palmer (1965) and Palmer and Perkins (1963) also presented data on whole body counts of cesium-137 among Alaskan Eskimos, in which values ranged from 300 to 1000 nCi. Several aspects of radionuclide dis­ tribution in Arctic regions are discussed in Aberg and Hungate (1967 - Supplementary References).

( g) THERMAL POLLUTION

Thermal power plants are currently the chief source of electricity in the Canadian north. The largest diesel plant of the Northern Canada Power Commission (1972) produces 14,200 kw of electricity. The cooling process of this activity means an input of about 6,800 kcal/sec of heat into local waters (assuming 33% efficiency). Murrman and Reed (1972) reviewed the problems associated with military power generation in Alaska. They noted that although many authors felt that hot effluents may be benefi­ cial to Arctic aquatic life, a number of adverse impacts could arise. Among these effects are: the melting of permafrost under -82- stream beds; the effects of longer periods of warmer open w~ter on the local ecosystem balance; increased short-term toxicity of some chemicals; increased production of disease or parasitic organisms; death from thermal shock among unacclimatized animals passing through the effluent mixing zone; and--possibly the worst problem--increased ice-fog and its associated air pollution problems. It should be noted that 60% of the water vapor in the Fairbanks area results from power-plant cooling ponds, while an additional 25% is from combustion of fuels (cf. section 3-11­ b). Melting of marine ice could destroy the highly productive intra-ice diatom communities (cf. Appolonio, 1961).

It must also be noted that the U.S.S.R. has just completed its first nuclear power generator in the Arctic and is planning another for 1975. These plants are somewhat less efficient (29-30%) than diesel generators (37-38%), and this can result in greater losses of heat to the surrounding environ­ ment (McConnell 1972). -83-

OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF IMPACT RESEARC~

A few areas of research that have been explored in other cold regions of the world could have great relevance to problems in the Canadian Arctic.

(8-1) EUTROPHICATION This problem has been studied at several locations in Sweden (Uppsala University Limnology Institute, 1973). It was found that fertilization with phosphates had relatively little effect on arctic freshwater lakes (see also Char Lake: section I-I-a). However, Rodhe (1964) has reported signs of eutrophication in impoundment lakes in the Swedish Arctic, and Nylander (cited in Dunbar 1972b) reported that eutrophication was a problem in the Swedish North. (8-2 ) IMPOUNDMENT PROJECTS

Two U.S.S.R. reports have dealt with the then-proposed ObI River Darn which would have included a large reservoir stretching partly above the Arctic Circle. On this topic, Vendrov (1965) emphasized the probability of climatic changes while Kipper et al. (1967) described the potentially severe impact on the area's fishing industry. In Swedish Lapland, Grimas (1965) found that faunal losses of 60-86% occurred in an impounded lake, with a seasonal fluctuation of 30% in the lake's surface area. Nilsson (1961) reported a similar impact after investigating another northern Swedish darn site. (8-3 ) WASTES

Arctic sewage problems have been reported in Sweden (Balmer 1970). Problems relating to wintertime sewage assimilation and BOD have also been reported in the Baltic Sea (Fonselius 1970) .

(8-4) MINING

Arctic coal mining in the Yun-Yaga district of the U.S.S.R was observed to cause hydrological and permafrost-related problems over a large surrounding area (Konzhin et al. 1967). (8-5 ) TERRAIN

Biyanov (1969) and Dement'ev (1966) reviewed the engineering aspects of problems involving the degradation of permafrost during construction projects in the Soviet Arctic. Porkhaev and Sadovskii (1965) commented that in the U.S.S.R., failure to recognize the specific conditions of construction in a permafrost area "may lead to catastrophic deformation of structures." They -84- discussed the building of roads, railways and airports in the Arctic and stated: "At the present time, there is no completely developed theory to ensure the stability of roadbeds under permafrost conditions." Kriuchkov (1968) described a northern coastal region in the Soviet Union (with 50-60% ground ice) in which "even a jeep passing a few times over the same spot will destroy tundra cover" and where thawing has caused cave- in pits and gulleys. He noted that one 1000-1100 km stretch of shoreline could easily sink below sea-level if too much activity on it leads to extensive thawing. It is interesting to note that the ice-content of this Russian region is similar to that of Canada's Mackenzie Delta coastal region. -85-

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

This report was written to compile the available cause/effect observations relating to technological development in the Canadian Arctic environment. Since this area comprises over 1.5 million square miles of land surface alone, and consider­ ing that the Arctic regions are not a homogeneous entity, a large amount of cause/effect information is needed if development of the Arctic is to be foreseen on a large scale. To date, Arctic environmental studies have almost always followed the ecological harm; as such, usual practice has meant that the cause of a phenomenon has only been researched after the fact.

While terrain disturbance and associated permafrost problems have received considerable attention, undersea areas which would be affected by future offshore drilling platforms, pipelines or subsurface transportation and exploration vehicles, have not been studied. Similarly, studies are lacking on problems associated with liquid-gas pipelines (-200°C) which could per­ manently freeze the adjacent active layer, stopping all plant growth. Relatively little research has been reported on the environmental impact of construction (cf. Legget 1972), or the building of dams, or on the waste problems arising from Arctic mining.

While there are some reports of the effects of oil on tundra vegetation or algae, studies of biological toxicity in the Arctic are largely lacking. Information is needed on Arctic species which are subjected to different environmental stresses, especially as these species are often slower to mature and reproduce. Northern ecosystems can be expected to react quite differently to chemicals resulting from oil spills, oil refinery wastes, mine effluents, other industrial wastes, domestic wastes, pesticides and other pollutants potentially present in the Arctic, than do more southern ecosystems. Although colder temperatures often result in lower acute toxicities, this is not always the case, and the chronic effects need to be assessed.

Waste disposal has been predicted as the most vexing problem of the future in Arctic regions, because methods proven in the south do not seem applicable (Johnson 1969). The expense of effective waste treatment and the remoteness of human population centres in the Arctic have generally discouraged the utilization of efficient disposal or collection methods. The practice of burying wastes or discarding them in open pits becomes less and less efficient and desirable with time and with increasing population. Burning of wastes is complicated by the prolonged and frequent air inversions. In addition, enforcement of existing regulations is difficult in the wide areas of wilderness; also, the haste required by short seasons and high operating expenses often results in much damage even when (according to the industries -86- concerned) in most cases the techniques for avoiding adverse impact are available and well known.

Peterson (1973a) is of the opinion that ecological impact assessment has little chance to affect the decision to go ahead with a project. He did however feel that early assessment could make s.ignificant, envi ronment.e-s avi.nq changes in methods of exploration and construction. The Environment Protection Board (1973c) has emphasized the near impossibility of determining secondary and tertiary effects of Arctic development. Peterson (1973b) noted that the ten or more years necessary to discuss this aspect is too costly for industry to adopt. Some long-term research is definitely needed as an environmental priority in the Arctic.

In summation, it appears that much research is still necessary in the Arctic. However, perhaps the greatest require­ ment is a willingness to utilize the already accumulated knowledge so as to anticipate and do something about future problems before undesirable environmental consequences occur. -87-

SUBJECT INDEX (with reference to sections in the report)

Air Pollution Ice fog: 3-11 (b); 7-5 (d) ; Sulfur dioxide, etc.: 2-4; 4-1; 7-1(c); Radionuclides: 2-4; 5-1; 5-2; 7-5(f).

Chemic~ls Mining (metals, etc.): 3-4; 3-9; 4-1; 5-3; 7-4; 8-4; Pesticides: 3-2; 3-3; 3-7 (c); 4-4 (d); 5-4 (c); 6-2; 7-5(c); 8-6; Reviews: 7-5(a).

Petroleum Drilling: 3-13 (a); 3-13 (b); 4-6 (a) ; Gas: 1-3 (b); 1-6 (b) ; Oil spills, etc.: l-l(c); 1-7(b); 1-8; 3-2; 3-6; 3-8; 3-13 (a); 4-3 (a); 4-6 (a); 4-7 (a); 6-1; 7-1 (a); 7-1 (b) •

Terrain Construction: 1-7 (a); 3-8; 3-11 (c); 4-4 (a); 4-7 (d) ; 4-8; 5-4(b); 7-1(a); 7-2; 8-5; Dams: 3-1 (a); 3-9; 3-10; 5-5; 5-6; 6-3; 8-2; Fires: 4-7(d); 7-1(c); 7-5(e); Logging: 3-1; 4-6(c); Pipelines: 3-6; 3-8; 3-14; 4-3 (c); 4-4 (a); 4-4 (b) ; 4-7 (b); 7-1 (a); 7-2; Roads: l-l(b); 3-7(a); 3-8; 4-3(c); 4-9; 7-2; 8-5; Snowmobiles: 1-7(c); 2-1; Vehicles: l-l(b); 1-2; 1-3 (a); 1-4; 1-5; 1-6 (a); 1-7 (a); 2-2; 2-3; 3-5; 3-7 (a); 4-3 (b); 4-4 (b); 4-5; 4-6 (b); 4-8; 4-9; 7-2; 8-5.

Waste Disposal

Heated effluents: 7-5(g); Pathogenic agents: 3-11(a); 7-3; Sewage: l-l(a); 2-1; 3-7(b); 3-11(a); 3-12; 7-3; 8-3; Solid wastes: 2-1; 3-7(b); 5-4(a); 7-3.

Water Pollution

Eutrophication: 1-1 (a) ; 8-1; Fish (effects on): 3-3; 3-9; 4-6 (a) i 4-6 (d); 5-3 i 8-2; General: 3-13; 8-2; Metals: 3-5; 4-1; 7-4; Sewage: 3-12 (a); 7-3; 8-3; Thermal: 7-5(g). -88-

BIBLIOGRAPHIC SOURCES (for extra maps etc ... consult references)

Dams etc.: Canada Dept. Indian Affairs & Northern Devel. (1971); Henry (1965); Kitze and Simoni (1972); Northern Canada Power Commission (1972); Sewell (1967).

Mining: Barnes (1967); Canada Dept. Energy, Mines & Resources (1972a,b); Canada Dept. Indian Affairs & Northern Devel. (1971); Cooley (1966); Ellwood (1973); Mayer (1966); Nelson (1969); Noel (1966).

Petroleum: Canada Dept. Energy, Mines & Resources (1972a,b; 1973a,b,c); Canada Dept. Indian Affairs & Northern Devel. (1971); Collins (1966); Ellwood (1973); Erickson (1967); Gibson (1966); MCCaslin (1972); McCown et a l . (1971).

Pipelines: Environment Protection Board (1971); Canada Dept. Energy, Mines & Resources (1972a,b); Hall (1971); Rickard and Deneke (1972) i u.S. Dept. Interior (1972a,b,c).

Other: Benson (1970); Evans (1969); Lantz and Iredale (1972). -89-

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Ontario Water Resources Commission, 1970. Guidelines and criteria for water quality management in Ontario. Toronto. 26 pp.

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Pruitt, w.o. Jr., 1962b. Reply to the commentary by Dr. John C. Reed. Arctic 15(3): 238-239.

Pruitt, w.o. Jr., 1963a. Radioactive contamination. The effects of fallout in northern latitudes. Naturalist 14(1): 20-26.

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Pruitt, w.o. Jr., 1973. Caribou crossroads. Nature Canada 2: 22-26. ------

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Radforth, J.R., 1972. Analysis of distrubance effects of operations of off-road vehicles on tundra. ALUR 71-72-13. v + 77 pp.

Radforth, J.R., 1973. Immediate effects of wheeled vehicle traffic on tundra during the summer. ALUR 72-73-12. Raisbeck, J.M. and M.F. Montadi, 1973. Environmental problems of oil spillage on land in Alberta. In Proceedings Conference "Oil in the Canadian environment". Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Univ. Toronto. Edited by D. Mackay and W. Harrison.

Ramseier, R.O., 1971. Oil pollution in ice-infested waters. Int. Symposium on the identification and measure- ment of Environmental pollutants, Ottawa. pp. 271-276.

Reed, S., 1970. Settling characteristics of activated sludge at low temperatures. u.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. TR203. 29 pp. Reed, S.C. and T.D. Buzzell, 1973. A sewage-treatment concept for permafrost areas. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington. Publ. No. 2115: 706-712. Rehwoldt, R., L.W. Menapace, B. Nerrie and D. Alessandrello, 1972. The effect of increased temperature upon the acute toxicity of some heavy metal ions. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 8: 91-96. Reinart, I., L.E. Hurwitz, G.T.S. How and R. Diduch, 1971. Permafrost regression studies at Norman Wells and Fort Simpson, N.W.T. Gas Arctic Project. 121 pp. + App. Richardson, B., 1972. James Bay. The plot to drown the north woods. Clarke, Irwin and Co. Ltd., Toronto. 190 pp.

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Riakard, W.E. and F. Deneke, 1972. Preliminary investigations of petroleum spillage, Haines - Fairbanks military pipeline, Alaska. u.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. -118-

Riddick, J., 1973. Research on land based oil spills in the Canadian north. In proceedings Conference "Oil in the Canadian environment". Institute of Environ­ mental Sciences and Engineering, Univ. Toronto. Edited by o. Mackay and W. Harrison. Rigler, F.H., 1970. The Char Lake Project. A study of energy flow in a high Arctic lake. Proceedings rBP-UNESCO Symposium on Productivity Problems of Freshwaters, Kazimierz Oolny, Poland.

Risebrough, R.W. and D.O. Berger, 1971. Evidence for aerial fallout of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Can. Wildl. Servo 7071-052.

Risebrough, R.W. and B. deLappe, 1972. Accumulation of poly­ chlorinated biphenyls in ecosystems. Environ. Health Perspect. 1: 39-45.

Roberts, A.B., 1973. Pipeline and highway. North 20(4): 1-13. Roberts, F.W., 1972. Pollution by warm-water effluents. J. Inst. Fuel 45: 558-562.

Roberts-Pichette, P.,1972. Annoted bibliography of perma­ frost ­ vegetation - wildlife - landform relation­ ships. Forest Management Institute, Environment Canada. FMR-X-43. 350 pp.

Rodhe, W., 1964. Effects of impoundment on water chemistrY and plankton in L. Ransaren (Swedish Lappland) . Verh. Int. Vera Limnol. 15: 437-443.

Roy, M., P. LaRochelle and C. Anctil, 1973. Stability of dykes embankments at mining sites in the Yellow­ knife area. ALUR 72-73-31. 78 pp.

Roy, M. and S. Vezina, 1973. Studies of mihe waste containment of mining sites on Great Bear Lake. ALUR 72-73-33.

Sage l B.L., 1972. Oil and wildlife in Arctic Alaska. Animals 14: 56-60.

Schallock, E.W., E.W. Mueller and R.C. Gordon, 1970. Assimilative capacity of Arctic rivers. Working Paper No.7, Alaska Water Laboratory, College. 13 pp. -119-

Schmidt, J.W. and K. Conn., 1971. Abatement of water pollution in the base metal mining industry. Can. Mining J. 92: 49-52.

Schofield, E. and W.L. Hamilton, 1970. Probable damage to tundra biota through sulphur dioxide destruction of lichens. BioI. Conserve 2: 278-280. Scott, D., 1973. The migration of the caribou. Imperial Oil Review (3): 16-23.

Scott, P., 1970. Oil and wildlife in Alaska. Oryx 10: 220-226.

Scotter, G.W., 1964. Effects of forest fires on the winter range of barren-ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan. Wildl. Manage. Bull., Sere 1, No. 18. III pp.

Sewell, W.R.D., 1967. The Churchill Falls Project. Water Power 19: 101-102.

Shotton, R.T., 1971. The nature and mechanisms of problems that might arise to fish from pipeline construction activities. Environmental Protection Board Interim Rep. No.1, Appendix II. Shotton, R.T., 1973. Fish survey 1972 base data report. Environment Protection Board Interim Rep. No.3, Appendix II. 199 pp.

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Snodgrass, M.P., 1971. Waste disposal and treatment in permafrost areas. u.S. Department of Interior PB 198988.

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Spence, J.A., 1972. Consequences of existing impoundment projects as relevant to the proposed James Bay Hydroelectric Development Scheme. James Bay Committee. 14 pp.

Spence, J.A. and G.C. Spence, 1972a. Ecological considerations of the James Bay Project. UN Conference on the Human Environment, Montreal.

Spence, J.A. and G.C. Spence, 1972b. Bibliography pertaining to environmental aspects of James Bay development. Indians of Quebec Association James Bay Task Force. 46 pp.

Sprague, J.B., 1970a. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. II. Utilizing and applying bioassay results. Water Res. 4: 3-32.

Sprague, J.B., 1970b. Pollution problems from base metal mining. Yukon Conservation Society Newsletter 3: 2-5.

Sprague, J.B., 1973. Aquatic resources in the Canadian north: knowledge, dangers and research needs. In "Arctic alternatives". Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, Carleton Univ., Ottawa. Edited by D.H. Pimlott, K.M. Vincent and C.E. McKnight.

Spurr, S.H., 1966. Rampart Dam: A costly gamble. Audubon Magazine 68: 172-175.

Stander, G.J., M.R. Henzen and J.W. Funke, 1970. The disposal of polluted effluents from mining, metallurgical and metal finishing industries, their effects on receiving water and remedial measures. J. South African Inst. Mining and Metallurg. 1970: 95-103.

Stein, N.J., C.S. Jessop, T.R. Porter and K.T.J. Chang-Kue, 1973. An evaluation of the fish resources of the Mackenzie River Valley as related to pipeline development. Vol. I. Environmental-Social Committee Northern Pipelines Rep. No. 73-1. 121 pp.

Stengle, T.R., J.J. Lichtenberg and C.S. Houston, 1971. Sampling of glacial snow for pesticide analysis. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 16020 GAG o2/71. 2 3 pp. ------

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Stevens, W.E., 1971. Problems of development in northern Canada. Conservation Council of Ontario Bulletin 18: 11-15.

Strang, R.M., 1972. Environmental studies for the Mackenzie Valley transportation corridor being conducted by Federal agencies. Northern Forest Research Centre, Info. Rep. NOR-X-32. 25 pp.

Strang, R.M., 1973. Studies of vegetation, land form and permafrost in the Mackenzie Valley: some case histories of disturbance. Can. For. Servo 39 pp.

Straughn, R.O., 1972. The sanitary landfill in the sub­ arctic. Arctic 25: 40-48.

Tagatz, M.E., 1961. Reduced oxygen tolerance and toxicity of various refinery materials to freshwater fish. Chesapeake Sci. 2: 65-71.

Task Force on Northern Oil Development, 1972. Pipeline north the challenge of Arctic oil and gas. Environmental-Social Committee Northern Pipelines Rep. No. 72-1. 16 pp.

Taylor, W., 1973. James Bay. What matters most people or power. Can. Conservationist (spring): 8-12. Templeton, C.H., 1973. Environmental impact assessment. North. Perspect. 1: 3-4. Theberge, J.B., 1972. Northern wildlife resources - will we lose by default. Nature Canada 1: 26.

Theberge, J.B., 1973a. Yukon's Dempster Highway and environmental impact. Nature Canada 2: 35-36.

Theberge, J.B., 1973b. Kluane National Park - victory and defeat among our highest peaks. Onto Nat. 13(2): 5-12.

Thomas, J.F.J. et al., 1970. A preliminary report on Canadiail water quality criteria. Inland waters branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa. (Later issued as Technical Bulletin No. 67: 1972).

Thomson, D.W., 1970. Oil over the mountains. North 17: 14-23 and 38-44.

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Uppsala University Limnological Institute, 1973. Experiment med godsling av sjoar i Kukkelomradet. Kullel Project Rep. No.2 (English abstract).

Usher, P.J., 1970. The Banklanders: economy and ecology of a frontier trapping community. Vol. I, II and III. DIAND, Northern Science Research Group. 124, 169 and 88 pp.

Usher, P.J., 1972. The use of snowmobiles for trapping on Banks Island. Arctic 25: 171-181.

Usher, P.J., 1973. Land use regulations: a conflict of interests. North. Perspect. 1: 1-5.

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Verschuren, J.P., R.H. Cooper and M.E. Qazi, 1972. Classi­ fication of streamflow and fluvial geomorphology characteristics near Watson Lake, Yukon Territory. ALUR 71-72-02. 46 pp. + App.

Walker, J., 1970. The influence of man on vegetation at Churchill. Proceedings Conference on Productivity and Conservation of northern circumpolar lands. IUCN publ. 16, Paper 28: 266.

Wallis, H.F., 1972. Arctic twilight. Your Environment 3: 76-82.

Watmore, T.G., 1969. Arctic oil play facing thermal erosion problems in permafrost environments. Can. Petrol. (March): 10-14.

Weeden, R.B., 1970. Man in nature: a strategy for Alaskan living. Proceedings of Conference on Productivity and Conservation on northern circumpolar lands. IUCN Publ. 16, Paper 26.

Weeden, R.B., 1971. Oil and wildlife: a biologist's view. Trans. 36th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. pp. 242-258.

Weeden, R.B. and D.R. Klein, 1971. Wildlife and oil: a survey of the critical issues in Alaska. Polar Record 15: 479-494.

Wein, R.W., 1971. Will oil spills damage Arctic tundra? Oilweed (Jan. 4): 13-14.

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Wein, R.W. and L.C. Bliss, 1973b. Experimental crude oil spills on Arctic plant communities. J. Appl. Ecol. 10: 669-680.

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Wilson, E.D., 1973. Transportation of crude oil in an Arctic environment. In Proceedings Conference "Oil in the Canadian environment". Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Univ. Toronto. Edited by D. Mackay and W. Harrison.

Wolford, J., 1973. Aishihik River - an unfortunate precedent. North. Perspect. 1: 2-3.

~oodforu, J., 1972. The violated vision. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto. 135 pp.

Zoltai, S.C. and W.W. Pettapiece, 1973. Studies of vegeta­ tion, landform and permafrost in the Mackenzie Valley: terrain, vegetation and permafrost relationships in the northern part of the Mackenzie Valley and northern Yukon. Environmental-Social Program Northern Pipelines. Rep. 73-4. -125- SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

NOTE: The following reports were not received in time for discussion in this report. Nevertheless, they are listed here as an additional source of information.

Aberg, B. and F.P. Hungate, 1967. Editors of Radioecological Concentration Processes. Pergamon Press, New York. (See PP. 183-274).

Dewis, F.J. et al., 1972. Hydrogeochemistry of the surface waters of the Mackenzie River drainage basin -­ IV. Boron-Salinity-Clay mineralogy relationships in modern deltas. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 36: 1359-1375.

Hitchon, B. et aZ., 1969. Regional variations of river water composition resulting from halite solution -­ Mackenzie River drainage basin, Canada. Water Resources Research. 5: 1395-1403.

Hitchon, B. et al., 1972. Hydrogeochemistry of the surface waters of the Mackenzie River drainage basin -- III. Stable isotopes of oxygen, carbon, and sulfur. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 36: 1337-1357.

Hobbie, J.E., 1973. Arctic Limnology (a review). Arctic Inst. of North America, Alaskan Arctic Tundra Tech. Paper No. 25, pp 127-168.

Levinson, A.A. et al., 1969. Major element composition of the Mackenzie River at Norman Wells, N.W.T., Canada. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 33: 133-138.

Munn, R.E., J. Tomlain and R.L. Titus, 1970. A preliminary climatology of ground-based inversions in Canada. Atmosphere 8: 52-68.

Peaks, E. et al., 1972. Hydrogeochemistry of the surface waters of the Mackenzie River drainage basin -­ II. The contribution of amino acids, hydrocarbon, and chlorin to the Beaufort Sea by the Mackenzie River system. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 36: 867-883.

Reeder, S.W. et a2., 1972. Hydrochemistry of the surface waters of the Mackenzie River drainage basin -­ I. Factors controlling inorganic composition. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 36: 825-865. ORGANIZATION CHART ASSOCIATE COMMITTEE ON SCIENTIFIC CRITERIA FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY August 1974

ASSOCIATE COMMITTEE REVIEW COMMITTEES C"..hairman: L. Pich' Vice-Chairman: G.C. Butler Air: M. Katz Secretary: I. Hoffman Water: R.H. Millest + 22 Members Food: D.M. Smith

I r I I SUBCO~TTEE ON AIR SUBCOMMITTEE oN PESTICIDES MioNAGEM&NT SUBCOMMI~TEE: AND RELATED COMPOUNDS Chairman: H.N. MacFarland Secretary: R. Dickson G.S. Cooper Chairman: G.C. Butler Secretary: J. R. Roberts Secretary: I. Hoffman PANEL TOPICS: PANEL TOPICS: PANEL TOPICS: Mixed Systems: DDT Sulphur in Canadian 1. The Effects of Photochemical Smog; PCB's Environment 2. a) SOi in presence of particula~ chlordane Environmental Fluoride as ociated with power plants; fenitrothion Environmental Impact b) SO~ with hydrogen fluoride - picloram Statements fe tilizer plants; methoxychlor Role of Medicare Data c) Other special situations; chlorpyrifos in Cause/Effect 3. Automobile exhaust incl. endosulfan Relationships 4. Misc. systems not found above. ethylene bisdithiocarbemates Barnyard Wastes Bacillus thurinqiensis

I I I SUBCOMMITTEE ON SUBCOMMITTEE ON HEAVY SUBCOMMITTEE ON PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL SUBCOMMITTEE WATER METALS & CERTAIN OTHER ENERGY PHENOMENA (PEP) Chairman: A.E. Berry ELEMENTS Chairman: C.A.R. Dennis Secretary: J.R. Marier Cha1.rman: D.R. Warren Chairman: A.H. Booth Secretary: J.E. Watkin A/Secretary: M.D. Sutton Secretary: M.D. Sutton PANEL TOPICS PANEL TOPICS PANEL TOPICS: PANEL TOPICS: Pulp and Paper Wastes Alkali Metal Halides Enteroviruses Eutrophication Antimony & Arsenic Noise Gastrointestinal Bacteria Petroleum Wastes Asbestos Ionizing Radiation Pests and Vectors Oxygen Relationships Cadmium Microwaves Man NTA Chromium Thermal Pollution Air Microbiplogy Drinking Water Colloidal Phosphorus Lasers Arboviruses and Arthropods Arctic Ecology Copper and Zinc Optics Monitoring Nationally re Lead Effects of Exposure to Mercury Various Occupational Nickel Environments Population Density Studies ·c

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