CONTEMPORARY ISSUES and PERSPECTIVES on GENDER RESEARCH Lilijana Čičkarić Zorica Mršević

The actuality and content of the papers, their scientific foundations This thematic collection of papers aims to bring together and the high quality of research results of fundamental and applicati- two fields of inquiry: research on gender politics and ve character, are the key reasons why the collection as a whole meets policy changes, with particular attention to gender aspects • Andrija Krešić all the necessary standards for publication. This volume provides a of democratic institutions and research on dynamics of U svom i našem vremenu valuable contribution to the development of gender studies, an input LGBTIQA+ population and understanding of different into understanding and critically reconsidering basic concepts in gender identities. This volume on contemporary challenges • Ка бољој демографској creating gender identities and in gendering institutions. in gender research is conceptualized interdisciplinary volumes будућности Србије and covers issues that are currently relevant to gender Prof. Nevena Petrušić studies within the social sciences and humanities. The • Multiculturalism This thematic collection of papers is dedicated to current topics of objective was to make a productive and stimulating edited in Public Policies gender studies, abounds with results from recent research projects publication with research across various fields - philosophy, and provides the review of contemporary relevant literature in these sociology, economy, political science, legal studies, • Кa evropskom društvu - edited volumes fields. Authors from different disciplines of social sciences and huma- anthropology, cultural studies - in order to facilitate a ograničenja i perspektive nities perceive various gender issues in the context of current social better understanding of current challenges to gender theory and practice. The volume also aims to move forward situation. The volume is characterized by a remarkable innovation in CONTEMPORARY • Филозофија кризе и отпора the selection of topics and unavoidable interdisciplinary approuch in in research and theorizing the consequences of increased - мисао и дело Љубомира the study of gender issues. opposition and attacks to gender equality. Its focus is Тадића ISSUES AND on analysis and understanding the relation between Prof. Slađana Jovanović gender equality and processes of de-democratization, the • Xenophobia, Identity and implications of backlash for equality rights and policies Considering the interdisciplinarity in the study of gender issues, actu- PERSPECTIVES New Forms of Nationalism ality of themes, different approaches and interpretation of particular and the dynamics of response of the actors that promote problems, as well as the informative and epistemological value of gender and sexuality rights. The fact that gender studies • Contemporary Issues and are endangered and suffocated at many universities across the publication, I consider it particularly important to be published in ON GENDER Perspectives Series Edited Volumes by the Institute of Social Sciences. Europe indicates the high relevance of this field in theory on Gender Research Zoran Lutovac, PhD and research and reveals the revitalization of patriarchal, RESEARCH authoritarian and conservative influence on norms and principles of women‘s rights and feminist intellectual, activist and artistic practices.

EDITORS Lilijana Čičkarić and Zorica Mršević CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER RESEARCH Lilijana Čičkarić Zorica Mršević

www.idn.org.rs CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER RESEARCH PUBLISHED BY Institute of Social Sciences Belgrade 2019

PUBLISHER Goran Bašić, Ph.D.

REVIEWERS Prof. Nevena Petrušić Prof. Slađana Jovanović Zoran Lutovac, Ph.D.

SERIES Edited Volumes

SERIES EDITOR Natalija Mićunović, Ph.D.

ISBN 978-86-7093-226-5 Zorica Mršević Lilijana Čičkarić EDITORS ON GENDERRESEARCH PERSPECTIVES ISSUES AND CONTEMPORARY Institute ofSocial Sciences |Belgrade2019 edited volumes Contents 5 edited volumes 6 82 14 36 54 13 214 154 174 198 100 117 118 Foreword Jelena Simić Sofija Mojsić Lilijana Čičkarić Dušan Maljković Mirjana Dokmanović Mirjana Dokmanović the Research Results Gender (Self)Creation Tatijana Đurić Kuzmanović Đurić Kuzmanović Tatijana Isidora Jarić and Maja Krek Gender Research in Transport: Gender Research in Transport: RE-THINKING GENDER EQUALITY RE-THINKING Violence Against Women in Politics Women Violence Against Zorica Mršević and Svetlana Janković Janković Mršević and Svetlana Zorica Labor Market and Women's Labor Force Labor Force and Women's Labor Market on Issues and Perspectives Contemporary Nada Novaković and Marijana Maksimović Nada Novaković Life in Legal Limbo – Trans* Persons in Serbia Persons – Trans* Limbo in Legal Life Key Issues, Tools and Policy Relevance in Serbia and Policy Issues, Tools Key Gender Aspects of Natural Catastrophes/Disasters DIFFERENT GENDER IDENTITIES UNDERSTANDING Gender Research in Feminist Economics - Case of Serbia Economics Gender Research in Feminist Vesna Nikolić Ristanović, Sanja Ćopić and Ljiljana Stevković and Ljiljana Sanja Ćopić Ristanović, Nikolić Vesna Attitudes of Students in Serbia Towards Lesbians and Gay Men: and Gay Lesbians of Students in Serbia Towards Attitudes Transgender Trouble: Women Between Sisterhood by Blood and by Between Sisterhood Women Trouble: Transgender T (Trans* vs. TERF) Trek: Feminism and the Frontier of Womanhood and the Frontier Feminism vs. TERF) Trek: T (Trans* The Philosophical Reflections on the Feminist Subversion of Identity Subversion The Philosophical Reflections on the Feminist in Developed Countries of Europe: Case of Switzerland and Germany Case of Switzerland of Europe: Countries in Developed Foreword

This thematic collection of papers aims to bring together two fields of inquiry: research on gender politics and policy changes, with particular attention to gender aspects of democratic institutions and research on dynamics of LGBTIQA+ population and un- 6 derstanding of different gender identities. This volume on contem-

foreword porary challenges in gender research is conceptualized interdisciplinary and covers issues that are currently relevant to gender studies within the social sciences and humanities. The objective was to make a productive and stimulating publication with research across various fields - philosophy, sociology, economy, political science, legal studies, anthropology, cultural studies - in order to facilitate a better understanding of current challenges to gender theory and practice. The volume also aims to move forward in research and theorizing the consequences of increased opposition and attacks to gender equality. Its focus is on analysis and understanding the relation between gender equality and processes of de-democratization, the implications of backlash for equality rights and policies and the dynamics of response of the actors that promote gender and sexuality rights. In the context of European societies, a conservative right wing ideological strike on gender equality policies and practice is happening these days. Many European countries are currently face with re-traditionalising family and gender policies and feminist knowledge production is considered threatening and 7 edited volumes - - - - Finally, the aim of this publication is to fill the gaps between publication is to fill the gaps between the aim of this Finally, There are still considerable gaps in formal education at all There are still considerable gaps in formal Gender studies everywhere, have both in Serbia and abroad, academic research and the practice of designing and implementing and the practice of designing and implementing academic research gender policy develop- the light of current political and social in more ac Making gender research and EU. ments in Serbia, region unacceptable. The fact that gender studies are endangered and gender studies are The fact that unacceptable. (Hungary,Poland, Europe universities across at many suffocated high relevance of indicates the Republic,Czech Bulgaria) Romania, in theorythis field of pa- and reveals the revitalization and research and conservativetriarchal, authoritarian norms and influence on and rights and feminist intellectual, activist principles of women’s artistic practices. cessible outside academia and overcoming the dualism of theory and overcoming the dualism cessible outside academia main are to be the pursuit of gender equality, and practice in the goals of contemporary gender politics. In this respect, the main intention of editors is that, through continued publication in the future, provide necessary and knowledge pro- impetus to education analysis. duction through the gains of gender studies; a major source of the levels regarding the field of gender the area of non-formal edu- current growth in interest for topics in cation and research practices. As these gaps are systemic in nature and long-lasting, we now try gaps, being however cer to fill these areas in the field of tain that interest in developing new thematic within academia. gender studies will also continue to grow methods and patterns contributed to the rethinking of established of thought, behaviour and culture that underpin the patriarchal observationof habit the which by principles one-sid- a in acquired is Thus, gender studies have contributed to the ed, traditional way. by reflecting on the social cir diversification of scientific analysis inequality emerge and per cumstances in which various forms of sist, above all those of engenderment. On this basis, it has become to analyse its weaknesses, to possible to demand gender equality, to argue for directions of development, its necessity, and theorize to seek its consistent incorporation into legal, political and economic systems. All of this is nowadays – at first glance, at least – in- disputable. But in practice, incorporation and acceptance of gender perspective, in fact rarely happens, as it is always the case when it comes to challenging traditional gender relationships, role-sharing, distribution of power, interests, and privileges, what we also find out through gender analysis. The hallmark of today’s democratic age is the continued ac- quiescence to the neglect of the capacities of women, while, at the same time, gender equality is considered an accomplished goal that no longer needs to be engaged for. And, in parallel, across the globe, upbringing and tradition allow disproportionately much more men than women to be prepared from childhood to expect and achieve a high degree of autonomy, pride and opportunity in life . On these identity grounds, the dominance of men, and the social structures that enable this, continue to persist. This is why gender analyses of identity policies and the realization of the possibilities and dynamism of change are needed. Current philosophical and sociological considerations (e.g. Goffman, Ericson, Halpern, Ruano-Borbalan) which likewise form a significant component of gender studies, profess the seductive notion that today everyone should make a story out of their lives; lit- 8 erally, invent their identities themselves. Identity-building, or, as it

foreword is called, is the staging of the “self”, in this same sense, is one form of practice and individual representation. To create that “own story”, and to allow Goffman’s “I” to become a system that adjusts to circumstances and even surpasses itself, learning is needed, especially in the field of gender studies. We need role models, a great deal of good, inspiring and high quality analysis, reflection, wandering, rescue from oblivion, and to deal with the not-always-pleasant fact that, unfortunately, the traits of history also include the discontinuity and forgetting of women’s achievements. All of this will help contribute to a better and more egalitarian view of gender relationships within society. It would enable us to simultaneously become what we are given and what we want, what we envisioned to be, but also what we have learned. It should not be forgotten that women become equal members of society and a part of the modern elite only when (and because of the fact that) they achieve their right to education and, on that basis, professional and political emancipation. This collection consists of two parts. First one Re-Thinking Gender Equality comprises five chapters devoted to problems 9 edited volumes - - Contemporary Issues chapter Contemporary Đurić Kuzmanović in Tatjana Key in Transport: Mirjana Dokmanović in text Gender Research in Politics Against Women ad- Lilijana Čičkarić in text Violence concerning gender policyconcerning - trans labour market, in economic sphere, port, violence. The and disaster and political catastrophes natural Identities is concentrat Different Gender Understanding second part gay, lesbian, gay, attitudes towards gender identity politics, ed on the the feminist perspective. trans* population from of - Case Economics in Feminist Research on Gender and Perspectives Serbia, based on the author’s and collaborative research, individual of sci- of feminist economics as a school outline the main tenants some of and pedagogical discipline, and entific thinking, teaching chapter insights and reflections in Serbia. The its epistemological and who is feminist economics needed why answers questions its econo- its insights within Serbian academia, would benefit from in text and Marijana Maksimović Novaković Nada my and society. of Eu- Countries in Developed Force Labor and Women’s Market Labor - , are concentrated on so and Germany of Switzerland rope: Case in position in the labor market cio-economic analysis of women’s gender in- where they have investigated and Germany, Switzerland employment,equalities in the field of activity levels, and op- wages portunities for the social promotion. relat issues introduces key in Serbia and Policy Relevance Issues, Tools ed to gender research in transport, such as economic development, and the im- mobility, sustainable personal security, health, safety, professional and personal lives. The pa- pact of mobility on women’s per gives an overviewof innovative tools developed for gender re- best practices in engenderingsearch in this sector and presents the findings of the policy-oritransport systems based on implementing - in chapter Gender Janković Mršević i Svetlana ented research. Zorica - explain how the exclud Disasters Catastrophes/ Aspects of Natural personal and groupingly defined gender roles result in different behaviors, and ex- identities and potentials, social responsibilities, and climatepectations concerning natural catastrophes/disasters change. Gender based differences lead to gender inequality in the field of vulnerability and disaster risk reduction, disaster management, and recovery anticipating possible damage after them. dresses various aspects of emerging research area, exploring concepts, theories, and data related to the study of violence against women in politics. It occurs within the political sphere but specifically targets women leaders who challenge patriarchy and the prevailing social expectations and norms. In many societies, such practices are marginalized, naturalized, depoloticized and remained invisible. Often normalized, these dynamics serve to maintain gender hierarchies, undermining democracy and eroding the possibilities for women’s political empowerment. Vesna Nikolić Ristanović, Sanja Ćopić i Ljiljana Stevković in chapter Attitudes of Students in Serbia Towards Lesbians and Gay Men: the Research Re- sults, give an overview of the available so far research on the students’ attitudes towards lesbians and gay men. This is followed with a brief examination of the survey methodology and findings presented and discussed. In conclusion they offer recommendations related to the necessity of raising awareness about the rights of persons of different sexual orientation in the field of higher education and the importance of sensitizing future professionals who could work in the criminal justice system. 10 Jelena Simić in text Life in Legal Limbo – Trans* Persons in st foreword Serbia point out that in the Republic of Serbia, the 21 century brought changes that can be interpreted as significant for the position of trans* persons. She offers an analysis the significance that those legal novelties hold for the very position of the trans* community in Serbia, and whether and to what extent they actually contributed to the improvement of their position in everyday life. Isidora Jarić i Maja Krek in chapter T(Trans* vs. Terf) Trek: Femi- nism and the Frontier of Womanhood problematize the relationship between feminism, particularly ‘trans exclusionary radical feminism’ (Terf) and trans* community in Serbia, on the level of theoretical articulation and practical politics. The analysis focuses on theoretical and activist tensions and the differences between these two understandings of the trans* issue and the social position of trans* persons that are materialized in four critical questions: gender authenticity, relationship between the body, sexual orientation and the feminist identity, the right to be present/accepted and motherhood. Dušan Maljković in text Transgender Trouble: Women Between Sisterhood by Blood and Gender (Self)Creation examines two basic 11 edited volumes - Lilijana Čičkarić and Zorica Mršević and Zorica Lilijana Čičkarić Although there is a growing amount of research on equality growing amount of research on equality Although there is a arguments of antitrans feminism: that the key sex difference be- sex difference that the key of antitrans feminism: arguments our bodies and that in biology of and women is rooted tween man - different for fe woman is distinctively of becoming a social process of trans- of this deconstruction males. The conclusion males and questions when it unanswered are still many phobia is that there women. relations between trans women and comes to complicated Feminist on the Reflections The Philosophical Sofija Mojsić in chapter from the philosophical of Identity tries to reexamine Subversion under of subversion of the traditional standpoint the necessity Belgrade, October 10, 2019 standing of female sex, gender and identity. Starting from the ba- Starting from sex, gender and identity. standing of female to Adorno the ranging from Pascal sic ideas of some philosophers of the concepts and manysidedness author shows the complexity sex and gender. identity, and phenomena of policy on the and its gendered implications, most of it is focused volume goes further ad- process of analysis of adopted one. This in policies and the challeng- dressing the impact of gender equality come up against.es and resistances that equality policies Feminist social and political con- approach that essentially involves changing sciousness dominates. This multidisciplinary collection was written sources: official statistics, by consulting a large number of scientific on gender equality relevant reports by international organizations from specific empirical re- mechanisms and priactice, data gained do hope that this publication search. Based on all of the above, we and practical guide for fu- will be considered as an important tool ther gender equality research. 12 foreword 13 edited volumes Re-Thinking Gender Equality Equality Gender [email protected] Novi Sad School of Business Sad School Novi TATJANA ĐURIĆ KUZMANOVIĆ TATJANA

14 Đurić Kuzmanović 15 edited volumes 1 During the last decade the ruling politeconomic oligarchy in Serbia,in oligarchy politeconomic ruling the decade last the During beenhas rationality, of interpretation neoliberal the with line the in the marketizationin and deregulation privatization, implementing all spheres of economic and social life, using political, economic com- their with state national the and capital Big power. social and bined activities have largely ignored socio-economic needs and politeconomicalThose population. Serbian the of most of interests processes are accompanied by a strong intensificationof gender confirmedanalysts Many sexism. and misogyny biases, inequalities, the existence of gender inequalities in all domains of the Serbian in women facing challenges gender specific to point and economy both the private and feminist public politeco- sphere. However, nomical and development analyses of those gendered processes and nexus between the state, patriarchy and neoliberal capital transformation during and post-socialist forced neoliberalization of Serbia as a periphery of the world system, are still rare. So is critical thinking sustainable and about human gender, development alternatives. Feminist economics is missing within Serbian academia (in the Economics and Gender and Studies), is mostly - exclud also is It programs. gender alternative some in only present country,the policyof economic shaping of processes the from ed selective policy sectors. within few, except based The on chapter, the author’s individual and collaborative in experience pedagogical alternative and academic and research, Serbia and beyond, has two purposes: first, to outline the main tenants of Feminist Economics as a school of scientific thinking, - epistemolog its of some and discipline, pedagogical and teaching Serbia. in presence their on reflect to and findings, and insights ical Translated by Stefan Petrović and Dubravka Žarkov. by Stefan Petrović Translated 1 Abstract Abstract and Perspectives Issues Contemporary Economics in Feminist Research on Gender - Case of Serbia - - - The second purpose of the paper is to point out the importance of point out the importance of the paper is to The second purpose spe- a using methods and research knowledge, Economic Feminist cific field of entrepreneurship. women’s Using this example the and needed Economics Feminist is why questions answers chapter who would benefit from its insights within Serbian academia, its economy the state and society. po- powerful of misogyny the of mechanisms recognizing Despite underminesystematically who Serbia, in actors economic and litical whilemen and women of treatment equal achieving of possibilities simultaneously promote selective aspects of empower women’s Feministwithin produced knowledge that argues author the ment, Economics can and should contribute to the development of - po Ser equal and just gender more economically and socially litically, bian society. (semi)peripheral misogyny, Serbia, Economics, Feminist words: Key entrepreneurship neoliberalism, women’s In the last few decades, gender equality has been recognized has been recognized In the last few decades, gender equality by international political elites as one of the key standards in shap- of the key by international political elites as one ing and directing contemporary economic and social processes. and research has con- The results of Feminist and Gender Studies equality and acceptance tributed to the understanding of gender social development.of its significance for economic and With its Feminist Economics, as a theoretical and intellectual grounding, to the multi-perspec sub-discipline of Gender Studies, contributes and their links with so- tival understanding of economic processes It enriches critical cial life, gender regimes and gender equality. politeconomic processes at analysis of gender and inequalities in levels, various Feminist Eco- both macro and micro levels. At macro in conventional macroe- nomics approaches address gender biases policies, or in financial conomic theorizing and analysis, in economic politics. At micro level, Feminist Economics unwraps gender dynamics of inequalities within and outside of households, addressing sexual division of labor and resources, productive and reproductive labor and their implications for the position of women in household and national economies. Introduction

16 Đurić Kuzmanović 17 edited volumes - - Scholarship of Feminist Economics contextualizes gender and contextualizes of Feminist Economics Scholarship During the last decade the ruling politeconomical oligarchy in oligarchy During the last decade the ruling politeconomical a crucial structural characteristic of women’s and men’s social posi- social men’s and of women’s characteristic a crucial structural such of power, other social relations and links it with tion and identity Economicsage and others. Feminist sexuality, ethnicity, as class, race, develop- between strategies of economic research explains relations ment, of development and posi- political and economic mechanisms While men within national and global economies. tion of women and ic and biases in conventional econom criticizing gender inequality analyti- Feminist Economics offers different thoughts and practices, would lead alternatives to economic policies that cal frameworks and sustainable development.to gender equal and Results of the contemporary Economics research and knowledge clearly Feminist human of adopting sustainable, gender equal, points out significance wom- and indicates benefits both strategy, development as a global And still, knowledge and criticalen and men would achieve thereby. by Gender Studies, are like insights produced by Feminist Economics, or very they are rejected, denied, selec far from accepted. Rather, tively used by academic, parts of economic and political elites in many the world, as well as in Serbia. big capital, has been imple- Serbia, due to the nexus of the State and in the all marketization menting privatization, deregulation and on the concept of econom- spheres of economic and social life. Relying (Đurić instrumental rationality ic actor – homo economics – and his [sic] Kuzmanović, has abused politi- 2018a: 246), politeconomical oligarchy needs and interests ofcal, economic and social power and ignored more empirical research showsmost of the Serbian population. Ever and and biases, misogyny strong intensification of gender inequalities sexism (Babović, 2010; Babović, Hjuson, 2013). How- 2014; Blagojević gen- feminist politeconomical and development analyses of those ever, and neoliber State, patriarchy dered processes and nexus between the transformation and forced al capital during post-socialist neoliberalization of Serbia as a (semi)periphery of the world system, sustainable and human are still rare. So is critical thinking about gender, development alternatives. Feminist Economics is missing within Serbi- and is onlyan academia (both in the Economics and in Gender Studies), sporadically present in some alternative gender programs. It is also excluded from the processes of shaping economic policy of the country, - - Contemporari- 2 It is important to point out that Feminist Economics as an aca- It is important to point out that Feminist Discussion on Feminist Economics and disciplinary on Feminist Economics Discussion approach necessaryThose references are to the second aim of to proceed The subject of Feminist Economics and even the veryThe subject of Feminist Economics and name of See for example Markov and Stanković (1991), Blagojević (1991, 1995), (1991), Blagojević and Stanković See for example Markov (1999), and Đurić Kuzmanović (1997), Đurić Kuzmanović and Žarkov (2011). and Markov Stanković 2 bian academia, its economy, the State and society. bian academia, its economy, demic discipline is at its very Serbia, although some impor inception in participation in economy has been donetant research on women’s as sociologists. ever since 1990s by economists as well except within selective and partial gender mainstreaming aspects of a aspects of partial gender mainstreaming selective and within except few policy sectors. present differences have as its aim to this chapter does not adopted in of thoughts theoretical orientations and schools existing within various in contemporary is Economics. Although Feminist Economics Feminist diverse, its body of knowledge is rich and relatively young discipline, justice in a short text.and would not be done following Thus, in the : give a gen- I will address the first aim of this paper section of this paper thought, Economics as a school of scientific eral review of Feminist and of its im- discipline, and will point to some as educational/pedagogical achievements.portant insights and of knowl- the relevance of including the rich body this text: to point to into the gender studies andedge produced within Feminist Economics and practices of post-socialist,research, as well as into debates about and the future of Serbia. Us- transitional and (semi)peripheral economy is Feminist I answer why ing an example of female entrepreneurship from its insights within Ser Economics needed and who would benefit Feminist Economics: Research and Teaching Research Economics: Feminist the discipline still create arguments and confusion, not only in academic and general public, who work on the issues of but also among those ly, there are very ly, few feminists within Serbian academia working on I rely for this this small number, Feminist Economics. Being one among entrepreneurship, producedchapter on my own research on female those colleagues.both individually and in cooperation with

18 Đurić Kuzmanović 19 edited volumes - - (Nelson,1995: 146, Đurić (Nelson,1995: 3 century reformers who, in the works of feminists and social th In its theoretical, methodological and analytical insights, Femi- Already 19th century economists such as John Stuart Mill (1806 Discussions on ‚good economics‘ and pedagogy of (feminist) economics goes beyond the scope of this paper. See however Đurić Kuzmanović, 2019c. beyond the scope of this paper. 3 nist Economics leans on traditions of various classical economic schools, such as Marxist, capability, institutional, postkensian, like Harriet Taylor Mill (1807 — 1858), Beatrice Webb Potter (1858 – Potter Mill (1807 — 1858), Beatrice Webb Harriet Taylor like – 1935) researched gender in- Gilman (1860 1943) and Charlote Perkins and argued for women’sequalities in social and economic relations Potter, Webb Gilman, 1998; Mill, 1998; Perkins right to labor (Taylor 1891). In the second half of the 20th century Feminist Economics was thought thanks to the contri- shaped as a separate school of economic economists who expendedbution of increasing number of feminist ever more themes, question- and deepend the body of knowledge on end of the century, the ing conventional economic doctrines. Towards Associationin 1992, the establishment of The International for Femi- recognition of Feminist Eco- nist Economics (IAFFE) contributes to the scientific economic thought andnomics as a new school of heterodox, pedagogic discipline (Đurić Kuzmanović, 2019b). gendered, human-centered, ‘good economy’ human-centered, ‘good gendered, ognizes and researches limits of the mainstream economic paradigms and researches limits of the ognizes that do of economic thought and knowledge questioning the purpose of entire of economic opportunities not contribute to enhancement investi- politeconomic relations of power, population; deconstructs at dif of functioning and interconnections gates their causes, modes to world models within the household ferent levels (from negotiation ć, economic and social effects (Đurić Kuzmanovi economy), and their 2018a: 239-260). of exclusion (1857- 1929) criticized Veblen —1873) and Thorstein Engels (1820 - 1895) Friedrich women from certain professions, while inferior position within the family an importantconsidered women’s 1899; Engels, 1950, 185– shortcoming of capitalism (Mill, 2017; Veblen, 233, see also Đurić Kuzmanović,- 2018a: 239-260). But historical devel can be traced from theopment of Feminist Economics as a discipline end of 19 Kuzmanović, 2019b). Feminist Economics is not simply ‘women’s econ- is not simply ‘women’s Feminist Economics Kuzmanović, 2019b). omy’ and economy, between women researching relation – a discipline rec Feminist Economics Rather, role of women in economy. and/or the - - [sic] instrumental rationality (Becker, instrumental rationality (Becker, [sic] As economic theo- a distinct school of pluralist and heterodox tive as a foundation of feminist scientific methods gives answers totive as a foundation of feminist scientific questions, such as who defines, interprets and epistemological key facts, and who produces knowledge. Such methodscontextualizes indivisibility of research problem from the purpose of therecognize regarding his/her political en- research, subjectivity of the researcher of cultural experiences and so- gagement and ethics, and intersections age, etc (Harding, class, race, cial relations of power such as gender, of Feminist Eco- 1987: 1–7). Therefore, it is crucial for methodology ‘positional objectivity’nomics to recognize of the researcher (Sen, of power within which2002:19-28) and socially constructed relations tra- exposes many she operates. The application of such methodology ditional economic themes and definitions as gender biased, sexist and misogynist. economic theory A major way by which conventional is arerepresented as gender neutral and by which values of patriarchy is the conceptualization of economic ac incorporated and interiorized – and his tor – homo economicus socio-economic and others (van Staveren, 2010: 18–48). Among the Staveren, 2010: 18–48). and others (van socio-economic theoriesof research are: 1) fundamental subjects Feminist Economics’ analysis of feminism; 2) comparative of economics and and concepts of economics and various schools and relations between characteristics ional 3) standards subjects and models of convent Feminist Economics; economics; 4) contemporary econom- themes and debates of political policy;ics, activism and economic of feminist econo- 5) experiences g femi- organizations and institutions supportin mists and professional participation in economy and women’s nist theorizing of economy Đurić Kuzmanović, & Lewis, 2004; Under 2018a: 239-260). (Peterson of theoreti- umbrella one could find a mixture the Feminist Economics - whose views on both economy/eco cians, activists and practitioners an objective are diverse, so the points above have nomics and feminism research, areas of feminist economics of the key only to highlight some economics and its con- the nature of feminist critique of conventional cepts, and some of the contemporary within Feminist Eco- debates the discipline. nomics, and not to give a full account of and reconstructs therizing, Feminist Economics critically analyzes neoclassical and other schools, usingstandard themes of orthodox, view’ on on ‘women’s 1993: 485-500) based various methods (Wolley, 1988). Such a gendered perspec economy ‘with both eyes’ (Waring,

20 Đurić Kuzmanović 21 edited volumes - Berik and Rodgers (2009: 5) have offered three methods to in- Berik and Rodgers (2009: 5) have offered 1994). Taking rational behavior as typical of modern subject, behavior as typical rational other 1994). Taking with women – culture associates behavior which patriarchal modes of Conven- reciprocity - are neglected. care and solidarity, such as love, that traditional models implicitly assume analyses and tional economic nationhoodas well as hierarchies of class, race and gender hierarchies, Gillian, men (Hewitson& class, white, citizen) that privilege (upper Economics research Feminist accepted. However, 1999) are universally ‘rational behavior’shows that the so called freedom to maximize i.e. interests, are no more than ‘free riding’ subjective and objective one’s may be relational contribution of others who of those who ignore 1–21). Theoretical un- et al., 1996: (Seguino threat to their interests reproduc about rational individual, natural derpinning of assumptions tion, elastic and free female labor and flexible factors of production in female labor and flexible factors of tion, elastic and free social rela- obscure structural inequalities and conventional economics and social groups are situated.tions of power within which individuals rational, egoistic, privileging that con- individualistic behavior Unlike ethics of Economics takes ventional economics rests upon, Feminist of equal opportunities forcare, relational responsibility and creation production of knowledge (Łap- good life as its main criteria for judging niewska, 2018: 109–133). The first method, sex disaggre- tegrate gender into economic analysis. different visible (among others) gation of economic variables, makes in economy or behavior inpatterns of male and female participation spending, investing, saving, etc. The second method, gendering the the effects of gender inequalities in various eco- visible analysis, makes and others. export-import, nomic models, such as economic growth, on the paid and unpaid do- The third, two-domains-method, reflects argue that economicmains of human activities. Feminist economists pri- spheres of activity, linked and social processes evolve in two tightly vate and public. Classical studies of family insisted that those two In the pri- relations of power. spheres are governed by different social to satisfyvate sphere, they argue, production is aimed household needs with dominant relations of care and gifts. In public sphere pro- andduction is aimed for trade and accumulation through the market, at the level of the state, redistri- or, dominant relations are exchange, bution (Đurić Kuzmanović, 2013: 23–49). Feminists have challenged this view noting that private sphere is often governed by exploitation Feminist economic analyses use and combine structuralist, analyses use Feminist economic em- are ever more di- Analytical approaches in Feminist Economics educational and peda- Development of Feminist Economics as (of female unpaid labor) and violence (against women) as much as the as much (against women) unpaid labor) and violence (of female 1997). public (Nicholson, gender biasesapproaches that unpack political economy piricist and in economy of domination and subordination and established relations structures 1995:7-32). Gender biases in economic and society (Harding, in pri- sexual division of labor of the market, are visible in segregation etc. pay, feminization of professions, unequal vate/public distinctions, through stereotype representa- gender bias is expressed Symbolically, es, suchmen, their motivations, skills and capabiliti tion of women and of wom- as male and representation ‘ideal worker’ as representation of professionssphere and their ‘natural’ extensions in en within domestic nurse, etc). Regarding gendered (teacher, such as health and education ‘breadwin- be seen in assumptions about men as identities, biases can and with men as ‘risk-takers’ ners’, representations of family business women as ‘supporting actor’ or involved only as a housewife. Empiricist inequalities by gathering andapproach identifies and measures gender political economy approach data. Feminist analyzing gender-sensitive policy and paysaddresses intersections of politics, public and economy, created through mutuallyattention to multiple structural inequalities others age and class, race, citizenship, constitutive relations of gender, (Manne, 2018: 6, 25; Đurić Kuzmanović, 2013: 23–49). all domains of conventionalverse and detailed and encompass almost and Him- Bargawi, Cozzi Lewis, 1999; economic thought (Petersonand their results are becoming part of various melweit, 2017). Moreover, economic and finan- conventional economic analyses of international Bank 1995, 2018), World cial institutions such as UNDP (for example: of feminist empiricism is(for example: 2002), although contributions of feminist structuralist andused much more often than contributions politeconomic insights. by divergent trendsis marked gogical disciple in the last few decades It has become one of the disciplines(Đurić Kuzmanović, 2019b). inWomen (Gender and Economy, thought under different names Feminist Development Economics, etc.) and within academic Economy, and interdisciplinary stud- alternative studies of economics and gender, master and doctoral programs asies. It is integrated in specialized,

22 Đurić Kuzmanović 23 edited volumes Feminist economic pedagogy applied in Feminist EconomicsFeminist economic subject is today presentIn Serbia, Feminist Economics as a study university lecturers also often avoid identifyingSadly, them- tively re- inspiring students to critically and crea aims at educating and bycitizens realities, but also, to act as responsible flect on economic and McGoldrick, towards better life for all (Laskey changing this reality criticalFeminist Economics integrates analytical, of 1999). Pedagogy and con- and approaches to economic literature, and creative thinking in both and institutionalization of knowledge tributes to production produced and Gender Studies. Still, knowledge (Feminist) Economics absent teaching of Feminist Economics is largely through research and ion of economics, and its instutionalizat from conventional studies and assumption that stu- within universities is hampered by resistance of feminist contributions todents have no need to gain knowledge economics. individual educational pro- only within non-institutional, alternative, course at Gender Studies atjects, save for one postgraduate elective thanks to support year, University of Novi Sad in 2004-2005 academic igno- of UNWOMEN, among others (Đurić Kuzmanović, 2019). Unlike towards Feminist Economicsrant and rejectionist attitude of academy face ever more hostile, con- (as well as towards Gender Studies that servative afuture of which is uncertain), political surrounding, and the almost regularly includenumber of alternative educational programs This is especially true forFeminist Economics among their courses. such as UNWOMEN,those financed by international organizations SIDA, Oxfam and others. UNDP, partly stemsselves and their work as feminist. This kind of ‘distance’ and masculinity (Nelson,from their cultural believes about femininity of power in Serbian econo- 1995: 146), but also reflects social relations Resistance facing Feminist Economics in academic andmy and society. broader social environments comes mostly from contemporary politi- (semi)peripheralcal and social circumstances of Serbia, as post-socialist, by global, regional and national power marked economy and society, relations. mandatory For example, it modules and seminars. or elective courses, Institute New York, Social Research in in the New School of is present of Economic s, Yuta London School (ISS) in The Hague, of Social Studies universities, etc.and Minster - (Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, (Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, 4 In this section of the chapter, I will use my individual and collabo- I will use my individual In this section of the chapter, how gen- Economics addresses analysis of Feminist Contextual Introduction of neoliberal regime into Serbia proceeded accord- Introduction of neoliberal regime into Serbia Small enterpreneurship is categorized a smicro and small family firms, andSmall enterpreneurship is categorized (Guide measured against income, ownership and the number of employees (Guide on small and middle enterprises, 2015; Legislation on Accounting, 2013). 4 stand why is Feminist Economics, and knowledge produced by it,stand why neglected in research, education and policy in Serbia. as an example byrative research on micro and small entrepreneurship and its contextualwhich to show importance of Feminist Economics relations of post-socialist,analysis for understanding gendered power - the context by show analyze (semi)peripheral economy of Serbia. I will in the gen- and the market ing interconnectedness of capital, the State so I hope to debunk still wide- deredness of entrepreneurship. In doing in Serbia thatspread opinion among conventional economists are gender neutral, and toeconomic processes governing business in establishing, and misogyny show presence of gender biases, sexism entrepreneurship – and ingoverning and practices of small family broader economic and social life in Serbia. Contextual Analysis: Contextual in Serbia and Entrepreneurship Women and social and asymmetries shape economic der regimes, hierarchies women and and create specific positions of institutions and structures, men therein (Đurić Kuzmanović, 2002,2005: 29– 2018a:248-250;1997; causes relations and unearths their structural 55). It identifies power relations contextual analysis indicates such a way, and mechanisms. In ge of feminist critical politeconomical knowled between production causes of change. It reveals politeconomical and possibilities of social with- direction of gender equality, possibilities of change in the blocked lic poli- and economic domains their and pub in various social, political It helps us under politics and policies). cies (including in educational Fišer and Mandić, 2016: 190-205; Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, FischerFišer and Mandić, 2016: 190-205; Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, and Mandić, 2015). at the (semi)peripherying to global model of neoliberalization of world Fischer and Mandić, 2016 (1): 32-42; Đurićsystem (Đurić-Kuzmanović, International 2019a). Kuzmanović, Đurić-Kuzmanović, 2018: 248-250; set the restrictions to theand national financial and political oligarchy

24 Đurić Kuzmanović 25 edited volumes - Privatization, deregulation and outsourcing of production, intro- Privatization, deregulation and outsourcing duction of fees in higher education, health and social and public servicduction of fees in higher education, health Serbian Government in regulating exchange rate of Dinar and public rate exchange in regulating Serbian Government Kuzmanović, and Đurić debts (Dokmanović as well as in 2019: 234-246), monetary,financial, policies, and thus and other public social, gender Following stand- 2018). (Weeks, to hegemonic capital lifting barriers rnational financial institutions, primarily Inte ards set by international instru- Bank, the Government has adopted Monetary World and Fund hand limit its ability to intervenements that on the one in economic, (Đurić Kuzmanović,political and social sphere Fischer and Mandić, 2016 control. The other hand allows it to escape public (1): 32-42) and on the economicneoliberal re/de-regulation is to extract main effect of this democratic institutions. fragile anyhow, policy control of, from public in almost technocratic expertise and procedures Using legislation and over social privileged capital life, national oligarchy all spheres of social used it destroyed labour protections and protection. Simultaneously, - Kuzmanović and Pa economic violence against labor force (Đurić 2018). Consequence of such economic strategy is crea- jvančić-Cizelj, of paupered population.tion of thin layer of rich elite and a mass es, and other decisions in the economic and social spheres destroyedes, and other decisions in the economic and women and men – as human capi- various forms of social solidarity, mechanism of so- life. The key tal - became ‘investors’ in all aspects of the State in two promoted by cial transformation has been the market, relationships and its commercialized the market crucial ways. Firstly, incuding those that during so- are extended to all spheres of existence, purposes, principles andcialism were not in its domain but had other as well as emotions, sense of belongingvalues (education and health), 2018). This has forced population to becomeand connectivity (Weeks, domains, through fees‘investors’ in their own participation in those Gov- the Secondly, by the state). (while previously these were financed the public from controlling decisions on those publicernment excludes policies and processes thus preservingthe neoliberal myth of ‘free with independent, mechanical models and mechanisms. An im- market’ portant part of this mystification is obscuring economic deals and fi- that help to privatization) nancial malversations (such as those linked when those malversations hit in accumulation of capital. Even oligarchy the public through media, thanks to research of few brave independent researchers and organizations such as a Network for Research on - - - - - Empirical analysis of benefits to women participating in 30 mi- Empirical analysis of benefits to women When it comes to entrepreneurship, general position of the general position to entrepreneurship, When it comes ospitality, ITThese family businesses perform different operations: tourism, hospitality, and intellectual services and consulting, production and purchase of food, animal feed, plastic packages, cereals; trade of bread and pastry, wine, water, bathroom interior and tools, production and trade of concrete products. in the period of post-socialist transformation (from 1990s to in the period of post-socialist 5 5 ing entrepreneurship as emancipatorypractice for women (Đurić Kuz- manović, 2018b (1): 50-63). Results of research show that there is no for women nor empowerment in family business.‘freedom of choice’ the contrary, economic, for women are social and moral benefits To more than problematic. relations among the married cou- Patriarchal encourage male ownershipples and within extended family strongly ownership and man- Women’s and management in the family business. while women – even to men’s, agerial position is marginal, subordinate when contributing to the family business – still carry the main burden 2015) indicates neoliberal instrumentalization of feminism in promot 2015) indicates neoliberal instrumentalization tion and richer offer of goods. To the contrary, the State variates, selec of goods. tion and richer offer and productive activities and innovation, between encouraging tively, ić, such as ‘rent seeking’ (Đurić Kuzmanov the unproductive domains crime, as noted in the report and even organized 2006: 2-6), racketism, and financial ben- Commission (2018.). Those activities of the European state (Baumol, 1990:893- create captured oligarchy efits they offer to the State is of the nexus between big capital and 921). Destructive role primarily to of deregulation and privatization used visible in the modes and busi- direct financial investment from abroad, attract and benefit powerful domestic and for ness environment is made attractive for Business 2018:124, Dok eign tycoons and their companies (Doing manović, 2017, Đurić Kuzmanović, 2018b (1): 50-63). At the same time, has become a mantra promising pro- ‘encouraging entrepreneurship’ gress and development, while bringing up empowerment of women in shows a Research, however, this context is a well-rehearsed tokenism. different picture. sectors of family busi- cro and small family enterprises in traditional ness Crime and Corruption (Mreža za istraživanje kriminala i korupcije; KRIK, i korupcije; za istraživanje kriminala Corruption (Mreža Crime and https://www.krik.rs/o-nama/), there is very pro- seldom a legal/criminal an outcome. ceeding as produc primarily directed towards encouraging State of Serbia is not

26 Đurić Kuzmanović 27 edited volumes In such a business environment subordinate position of womenIn such a business environment may vary,Intensity and visibility of misogyny in but it manifests - and kin is not a result of their lack of capaci to their spouses, partners atment primarily of gender biases in their tre ties and potentials but (i.e. specific economic and gen- within family business and by the State A number of research projects con- der politics and their intersections). in Serbia perpetrates brutalcluded that financial and political oligarchy (Đurić Kuzmanovićsocial and economic violence against population 2017- ; Đurić Kuz Đorđević and Rastoder 2017, 233–242; Lupšor and and sexism as and uses misogyny manović and Pajvančić-Cizelj, 2018) of neoliberalism (Đurićmechanisms of establishment and reproduction Kuzmanović, is a complex structural, social, 2019a: 406-425). Misogyny economic, political and institutional phenomenon which acts as mecha- level of family and family busi- nisms of strong gender repression at the micro and small enterprises reveal its operation at manyness. Analyzed making about resourcesbusiness aspects: in the processes of decision managerial and other care), and labor within the family (economy of negotiation models and stylesroles in the business (paid labor), in the Processes and modes of negotiation betweenof business (leadership). may be cooperative, con- female and male members within the family flictual, and violent, among others, and they extend into the family family business model of family means that in the business. Patriarchal often re- mostly invisible and unrecognized work remains women’s duced to administrative and technical ‘support’, and that decision are often limited to the less important aspects of thewomen make and Mandić, Fischer 2015).business (Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, prejudices, stereotypes, hierarchies, sexualization of women, of household and care work (Đurić Kuzmanović, Markov, Fischer and Kuzmanović, and care work (Đurić of household Markov, Mandić, position interviewed Reflecting on their 2015). women mostly adjustment,mention endurance, pa- interiorization of accommodation, life, but rath- part of [their] feminism is ‘not and conviction that triarchy (Đuric Kuzmanović, 2018b (1): 57). women’ er part of life of modern interests of big capi- benefits are limited by the women’s Furthermore, - not only sets legislative barriers to family entre tal and the State that import-export, financing, of registration, size, preneurship (in terms tax, etc.) all the regulate it as male business, despite but essentially empowerment, thus reproducing wom- women’s proclamations about subordination.en’s - understanding of science, economyscience, of understanding male male This short review of Feminist Economics and contextual analysisThis short review of Feminist Economics deregulation within ne- In this acute phase of privatization and Final considerations shows significance of feministof women in entrepreneurship in Serbia the Economics, unlike economic knowledge and research. Feminist profit and benefits for individu- conventional economics that promotes from social, political, hu- al actors, approaches economic phenomena that gender inequalities stemmanist and ethical standpoints. It shows from specific, unequal social relations of power and social roles that (with other important struc are established in the household, and that characteristics of economy and society at all shape the tural factors), analysis of gendered powerlevels. It proves links between the lack of with inequalities and relations - Its insights into gender hierarchies and influential politi and society. contribute to the visibilitycal-economic processes that deprive women and possibility for change. situation of women’s Serbia, the nexusoliberal capitalism experienced today throughout is and political oligarchy of global and national financial/economic clearly visible. So is oligarhy’s in re-patriarchalization and involvement and in suppressing abilities of emancipatorymisogyny and sustainable social transformation by the State. By systematic destruction and abolition of labor rights and social and public services and securities, it is more and more apparent that women, all their accomplishments as the carers of human capital, and asnot with standing, are kept degrading of women’s contributions to the enterprise, absence or low- to the enterprise, contributions of women’s degrading towards women’s work and indifference of women’s er remuneration so normalized are sometimes work. Those manifestations household of our interviewsthat respondents them explicitly. hardly reflect on , moth- them as normal part of their lives as wives They simply account as a meth- family business. But contextual analysis ers and members of how allows us to unwrap them and show od of Feminist Economics and interests and the State regulations patriarchy nexus of big capital, in family business (and equal participation women’s not just undermine of social economy), but also enables reproduction through it in national inequalities. and economic gender

28 Đurić Kuzmanović 29 edited volumes Recognition of antidemocratic and authoritarian nature of and authoritarian nature Recognition of antidemocratic with other hetero- Equal participation of Feminist Economics, cal and destruction of existing fragile politi the State and aggressive democracysocial institutions of and is, with patriarchal heritage key to understanding of gender regimes, a specific (semi)peripheral and en- and anti-feminism, feed misogyny structural sources that the subordination of women. Therefore, courage and reproduce in potentials of Feminist Economics’ knowledge current ignoring of cal Studies and its insights into politeconomi Economics and Gender theoretical- is understandable, but not debates and decision-making by the The same goes for the resistance ly and socially justifiable. This leaves the pos- society. ruling elites in academia, economy and and gender relationssibilities of transformation of economy through a more just policy limited, for these transformations do not and do not respond to theresult from feminist critical discourses (semi)peripheral econo- system of structural disposition of Serbian my and society. economics courses, in conventional Economics and Gender Stud- dox and wider critical knowledgeies would improve quality of economic and national strategicat universities and fulfillment of international of higher education in Serbia.and normative requests for gendering feminist economic knowledge would contribute to moreSystematic of economic andcomprehensive understanding of genderedness and their implications, asbusiness managerial processes and patterns effective potentially new, well as to critique of existing and shaping and removal of standardeconomic and gender politics. Recognition powerful actors, who simul- mechanisms of misogynist operation of also structurally and system- taneously and selectively promote, but the achievement of equalatically undermine the possibilities for treatment of men and women, might encourage realization of more effective strategies of economic and social development, creation of strategic partnership between women and men, and shaping of new feminist and other social strategies of resistance to both neoliberalism and misogyny. reserve, in a contradictory, They are caught work force. precarious by the State, who, and rejection relationship of necessity misogynous work ofproductive and reproductive hand, finds both on the one women necessary, both. hand abuses them but on the other - - , 1–43. New York, London: Routledge. nomic Policies, 1–43. New York, Beograd: UN Women. fakulteta. Institut za sociološka istraživanja Filozofskog Beograd: circle), and es- perspective: Self-sacrifice privatnost (Everydaywoman‘s life from a Srbija cape to privacy, u: Bolčić S. promene i svakodnevica: (ed.), Društvene Change and everyday 90-ih (Social life: Serbia at the begining of početkom 1990s, Beograd: ISIFF. Bank. The World . Washington, and Development perspec Srbije (Gender duživanje države i ostvarivanje ljudskih prava – slučaj ska unija i Srbija (Gender Inequalities in comparative Perspectives: European Un- European in comparative Perspectives: Inequalities (Gender ska unija i Srbija SeConS. Gore, ISIFF, Srbije i Crne udruženje Sociološko Beograd: ion and Serbia). boračka i Beograd: Ministarstvo za rad, zapošljavanje, ness sector in Serbia). socijalna pitanja. impacts and sustainable alternatives. New Gendered austerity in Europe. Routledge. York, 1) 893-921. 98 (5, Part , University of Chicago Press, Economy Journal of Political . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. to Education Reference What’s Sound and Sensible, u: Strategies and Macroeconomic Policies, van der Meulen, Rodgers, and Zammit, Ann (eds.). Social Günseli Berik, Yana and Macroeco Strategies Development Rethinking Equality: and Gender Justice Beograd, tive on state debts and realization of human rights – Case of Serbia), et all. Dug i nerazvoj Beograd: Institut V. Vukotić, Institut društvenih nauka, U: istraživanja, 234-246.. društvenih nauka, Centar za ekonomska and social rights) on economic . Beograd: IDN i Čigoja štampa. of neoliberalism Blagojević Hjuson, Marina. 2013. Rodni barometar 2012 (Gender Barometer 2012). 2012 (Gender Blagojević Hjuson, Marina. 2013. Rodni barometar outside the Blagojević, Marina. 1991. Žene izvan kruga - profesija i porodica (Women i beg u perspektive: Samožrtvovanje iz ženske Blagojević, Marina. 1995. Svakodnevica Reconstruction to Create Jobs International Bank for Doing Business. 2018. Reforming Rodni pogled na za- Dokmanović, Mirjana and Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana.2019. - of women in busi (Postion u biznis sektoru u Srbiji žena Babović, 2014. Položaj Marija. 2017. Economics and Giovanni and Himmelweit Susan (eds.). Bargawi, Hannah, Cozzi Productive, Unproductive and Destructive.Baumol, William. 1990. Entrepreneurship: with Special Analysis, and Empirical A Theoretical Gary. 1994. Human Capital: Becker, van der Meulen, Rodgers. 2009. Engendering Development Berik, Günseli and Yana (Effects i socijalna prava na ekonomska Dokmanović, neoliberalizma Mirjana. 2017. Uticaj Literature - Evrop perspektivi: u komparativnoj nejednakosti Babović, Marija. 2010. Rodne ekonomske

30 Đurić Kuzmanović 31 edited volumes - - - - bia – methodological and contextual challenges) u: Zaharijević Adriana i contextual challenges) bia – methodological and - sa kon teorija je za sve. Zbornik radova Feministička Lončarević, Katarina (ur.). teorija u Srbiji danas” (Feminist feminizam? Feministička je rekao ferencije “Neko - said Femi “Somebody from conference: Proceedings everybody. Theory is for društve i- ). Beograd: Institut za filozofiju Theory in Serbia Today nism? Feminist političkih nauka, 239-260. nu teoriju i Fakultet . (1) 50-63. Serbia. Sociologija the Neoliberal State in Post-Socialist Court in Sarajevo. European Journal from the Women’s women: Testimonies Studies. of Women’s i o Ženski sud: o događaju u Sarajevu U: (Economic violence against women). and the follow-up Court: about event in Sarajevo (Women’s procesa nastavku in Black). 233-242. Beograd, Žene u crnom (Women of the process) nege u postsocijal- i ekonomiji upravljanju mikro i malim porodičnim firmama Srbije (Bargaining in management of mi- neoliberalnoj transformaciji ističkoj neoliberal in post-sociality, cro and small family firms and economy of care biznisa, (1) 32-42. Škola transformation of Serbia). 2016. Rodna pristrasnost u upravljanju mikro i malim porodičnim firmama u biases in management of micro and small family firms in Ser Srbiji (Gender rod, građanski Duhaček, Daša and Popović, Dragana (eds.). Nasleđe, U: bia). citizenship status). Beograd: Centar za studija roda i status (Heritage, gender, političkih nauka, 190-205. Fakultet politike, nom supružničkom i porodičnompreduzetništvu (Well, I already take I already take (Well, i porodičnompreduzetništvu nom supružničkom family entrepreneur in micro spousal and house – Misogyny care of the 406-425.. 61, - broj 3: Sociologija, Vol ship), Serbia – pos- (Feminist Economics and Gender Studies in mogućnosti i izazovi and Antonijević, Dragica u: Vujadinovic, Zorana sibilities and challenges) pojmovi, prakse i izazovi obrazovanju: u visokom (eds.) Rodna ravnopravnost ), Novi Sad, and Challenges Practices Concepts, in Academia: (Gender Equality Akademska knjiga, uskoro. Ser in post-socialist (Feminist Economics izazovi metodološki i kontekstualni Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana. 2019a. Ma, već brinem o kući - Mizoginija u sit već brinem o kući - Mizoginija 2019a. Ma, Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana. Đuric Kuzmanović, Tatjana. 2018b. Small-Scale Family Entrepreneurship as Support to Small-Scale Family 2018b. Đuric Kuzmanović, Tatjana. Ana. 2018. Economic violence against Pajvančić-Cizelj, and Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana nasilje nad ženama Senka. 2017. Ekonomsko and Rastoder, Đurić Kuzmanović Tatjana Fischer Jelena, and Mandić Sonja, 2016, Pregovaranje u Tatjana, Đurić-Kuzmanović Jelena and Mandić, Sonja. Slobodanka, Fišer, Markov, Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana, Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana. 2019b, Feministička ekonomija i rodne studije u Srbiji – 2019b, Feministička ekonomija Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana. Srbiji – u postsocijalističkoj 2018a. Feministička ekonomija Đurić Kuzmanović, Tatjana, - . New York, London, Oxford: The Haworth Press. 29-55. London, ern Europe and Russia. New York, non-development directed in Serbia. From (Gender and Development tranzicije studije i istraživanja. ). Novi Sad: Budućnost i Ženske to Transition and experience post-socialist non-development: alternativa (Directed nistička feminist alternatives). Novi Sad: EXPOPRESS. Europe, Central Europe Review: of East opment in Serbia, The Anthropology in Europe and Euroasia, Special Issue: Reassessing Perirheries Eastern Studies, Bloomington, USA, 2: 31-38. Post-Communist Commission. . Strasbourg: European Report , 1–14. Bloomington, In- Issues Social Science and Methodology: (ed.) Feminism dianapolis: Indiana University Press. 1(1): 7–32. nist Economics Elgar. Man. Cheltenham: Edward Economic . Ann Abor: University of Michigan Press. agogy and Economics Press. in Entrepreneurship and Management), u: Bolčić, Silvano, mentu (Women 2015. Spouses in Household and Family Business - Who (Does) the Care and (Does) Business - Who in Household and Family 2015. Spouses 1(14). DOI: 10.1515/genst . DeGruyter Gender Studies the Work. Who (Does) -2016-0012. Genero (17) 23–49. Economics: Myth or an Alternative). methodologies of research). business – definitions and izučavanja (Family biznisa (3) 2–6. Škola Al- Stulhofer, During the 1990s. 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32 Đurić Kuzmanović 33 edited volumes earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/mill1869.pdf. ( 7.07.2019). earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/mill1869.pdf. - Izabra (eds). Karl and Engels, Fridrih In: Marks, private property and state). ly, (II)185–233. Kultura: Beograd. works). (Selected na dela . in Transition Economies (eds.). Co-Designing Walsh Bruno Giorgino and Zack 109–133. Macmillan. Cham: Palgrave Books Ltd. Pegasus . New York: Economics 9(2):131–148. ana University Press. Routledge. 27-42. . New York: and Families mann (ed.) Feminism - Los An in Social Evolution. Berkeley, as a Factor tion between Men and Women geles: Oxford University of California Press. 2(1): 1–21. Economics Behaviour: Economic Man Rides Alone. Feminist Višnjić. , xv–xvii. Economics to Feminist Companion Margaret Lewis (eds.)The Elgar Elgar Pub. Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward CID. Slobodanka, Uvod u rodne teorije (Intro- omy). In: Milojević, Ivana and Markov, Novi Sad, Meditrran Publishing, 321-335. duction to Gender Theories), - El . Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward Economics to Feminist Companion gar Pub., 360-370. Milošević, Božo i Stanković, Fuada. (Eds), Preduzetništvo i sociologija (Entre- Preduzetništvo (Eds), Fuada. i Stanković, Milošević, Božo 116. Matica srpska, pp. 100- and Sociology), Novi Sad: preneurship . New York: Macmillan. . New York: Class 1899. The Theory of Leasure Thorstein. Veblen, of the fami- svojine i države (Origin porodice, private Poreklo 1950. Engels, Friedrich. Mario In: Vincenzo 2018. Epistemology of Feminist Economics. Łapniewska, Zofia. and Dinner?A Story About Women Adam Smith’s Marçal, Katrine. 2016. Who Cooked Perspectives and Economics. Journal of Economic Nelson, Julie. 1995. Feminism . Bloomigton: Indi- Mill Works of Harriet Taylor Mill, Harriet. 1998. The Complete Taylor in Nelson, Hilde Linde- Family. Nicholson, Linda. 1997. The Myth of the Traditional - Rela A Study of the Economic and Economics. Gilman, Charlotte. 1998. Women Perkins Lutz. 1996. Gender and Cooperative Seguino, Stephanie, Thomas Stevens, and Mark . Beograd: Filip (Development as freedom) sloboda Sen, Amartja. 2002. Razvoj kao and Janice and Lewis, Margaret. 2004. Introduction. In: Janice Peterson Peterson, (The osećanja theory moralnih Podgorica: of moral feelings). Smit, Adam. 2008. Teorija and Econ- (Gender Slobodanka. (2011). Rod i ekonomija and Markov, Fuada Stanković, and Lewis. (eds.). The Elgar Strassman, Diana. 2004. Feminist Economics. In: Peterson Oxford: Oxford University Press. Report. New York, UNDP 1995. Human Development . Early Modern Texts. http://www. Texts. . Early Modern of Women 2017. The Subjection Mill, Stuart John. ton DC: Development Incorporated. Communications So- . VS Verlagfür Gender and Economics and Gülay Caglar (eds.) tine Bauhardt zialwissenschaften. 18–48. Harper & Row. Sonnenschein. ( 30.06.2019). europe.eu/free-markets-and-the-decline-of-democracy. Journal of economics, 17(4) 485-500. . Oxford: Oxford University Press. and Voice sources 2015. Lux- . Unutarnje tržište, industrija, poduzetništvo i MSP-ovi. enterprises) unije. embourg: Ured za publikacije Europske ograd: Službeni glasnik RS. Parameters. In: Chris- the Parameters. Economics: Setting out Irene. 2010. Feminist van Staveren, . San Francisco: Economics A New Feminist Counted: 1988. If Women Marrien. Waring, Great Britain, London: S. in Movement 1891. The Co-operative Beatrice Potter. Webb, https://www.social and the Decline of Democracy. - John. 2018. Free Markets Weeks, Cambridge Feminist Challenge to Neoclassical Economics, 1993. The Frances. Wolley, in Rights,- Through Gender Equality Re Bank. 2002. Engendering Development: World (Guide on small and middle poduzeća o definiciji malih i srednjih za korisnike Vodič on Accounting). 2013. Službeni list No.62. Be- o računovodstvu (Legislation Zakon - Washing . New York, Statistical and Indicators Indices Human Development UNDP 2018.

34 Đurić Kuzmanović 35 edited volumes - - feministička ekonomija, racion- ekonomija, feministička ekonomija nedostaje ekonomija u akademiji, u kako ekonomskim, tako i u rodnim studijama, sem sporadičnog prisustva u nekim alter nativnim obrazovnim progamima o rodu. ona izostaje - u Takođe, ekon oblikovanju omske i rodne politike, osim - nesistem nekoliko urodnjavanja delimičnog i atičnog javnih politika. U radu se, utemeljeno na autorkinim kritičkim razmatranjima dosadašnjih is- traživačkih akademskih i alternativnih ped- objašnjavaju šire, i Srbiji u iskustava agoških feministička kao naučnogekonomija škola mišljenja, nastavna i pedagoška disciplina, epistemološki uvidi i nalazi kontekstualnih analiza. Namera rada jeste da ukaže na značaj feminističkih ekonomskih znanja i je kome pitanja na odgovori da i istraživanja odbi ko i ekonomija feministička potrebna drža- ekonomiji, akademiji, u koristi imao nje - ekon i politička ima veze kakve i društvu i vi - Prepoznavan predhodnim). (sa moć omska jem standardnih mehanizama mizoginog delovanja moćnih istovremenoaktera, koji sistem- i strukturalno i ali promovišu, delom ski podrivaju mogućnosti ostvarivanja ravnopravnog tretmana žena i muškaraca, moguće je doprineti razvijanju njihove međusobne solidarnosti part i strateškog ekonomske strategija delotvornijih i nerstva i društvene promene. reči: Ključne alnost aktera, mizoginija, poluperiferijalni neoliberalizam, Srbija. - - - im delovanjem zloupotrebljavaju političku, zloupotrebljavaju delovanjem im moć (društvenu) patrijarhalnu i ekonomsku i zanemaruju uveliko društvene potrebe i interese većine žena i muškaraca. Ovi procesi praćeni su snažnim intenziviranjem rodnih nejednakosti i pristrasnosti (miz- bro- Sve ženama. prema seksizma) i oginije jnije analize pružaju mnoštvo dokaza o prisustvu rodnih u nejednakosti svim do menima i ekonomije srpske o specifičnim suočav- žene se kojima sa izazovima rodnim aju. Ipak, još uvek su iz analize retke koje feminističke i politekonomske razvojne perspektive osvetljavaju ove urodnjene procese i spregnutu vezu između države, tokom kapitala neoliberalnog i patrijarhata transformacije postsocijalističke i ubrzane neoliberalizacije Srbije kao periferije svet skog sistema i kritički promišljaju rodno utemeljene alternative. Feministička Tokom poslednje decenije vladajuća polite- vladajuća decenije poslednje Tokom konomska oligarhija u Srbiji, u skladu sa problematičnim neoliberalnim tumačen- finan- ubrzanu sprovodi racionalnosti, jem sijalizaciju, marketizaciju i ekonomizaciju života. društvenog i ekonomskog sfera svih združen država nacionalna i kapital Krupni Sažetak SAVREMENA PROUČAVANJA I PROUČAVANJA SAVREMENA UPERSPEKTIVE ISTRAŽIVANJA RODNIH PODRUČJU EKONOMIJE FEMINISTIČKE – PRIMER SRBIJE NADA NOVAKOVIĆ NADA [email protected] MARIJANA MAKSIMOVIĆ MARIJANA Institute of Social Sciences Institute Sciences of Social Institute [email protected]

36 Novaković / Maksimović 37 edited volumes - - 1 The labor today market is one of the most important of markets the developed industrial in society, addition to the financial market, the money and market the capital market. Changes in the labor market coun- the of place the as such factors, of number a by conditioned are global- the of flows the in position its labor, of division world the in try demographic economy, structure, ized and specificities of traditional culture and business ethics in a particular country. The subject of our socio-economic research is position of women in the labor ofmarket Switzerland and Both Germany. countries are highly developed, with belongs unemployment.low Germany and rates employment high a to the whilst family, EU-28 is Switzerland outside the In family. both labor their In workforce. the of part significant a are women countries, market, there has been significant share of foreign which workers, further complicates social and industrial relations. Switzerland and Germany are demographically old, but their population and employment policies are different. In both countries, attraction of the most educated work force is existent. In the labor of market Switzerland and employment levels, activity in inequalities are there Germany, and unemployment of women, wages and opportunities for the social inequalities social and economic These women. and men of promotion them stimulates or restricts state the period, long over maintained are mar labor flexible a as well as policies, social and economic their with ket to varying degree, and depending on needs. Are these inequalitiesthese Are needs. on depending and degree, varying to ket at the expense of the female workforce? differences Switzerland, women, Germany, labor market, Keywords: The research paper is the result of the project 179039 “Structural, Social Inte- and Historical Changes of Serbian Society in the Context of European the Ministryby funded Science and Globalization” and gration of Education, 2011-2019. Development of the Republic of Serbia, Technological bia, 2011-2019. The research paper is the result of the project 179038 “Modeling the development and integration of Serbia into world currents in the light of economic, social and political movements” financed by the MinistryEd- of Development of the Republic of Ser ucation, Science and Technological

Abstract Labor Force Women’s and Labor Market of Europe: Countries in Developed Germany and Case of Switzerland - - is one of the most developed countries in Eu Switzerland Switzerland and Germany are among the most economically de- among the most are and Germany Switzerland veloped countries in Europe. Switzerland and the EU member statesEU and the Switzerland in Europe. veloped countries in and regional cooperation agreements conclude specific interstate strength and politi- by population, economic various fields. Germany, European paramount to the functioning of the cal influence, is almost and la- countries has specific employment Each of those Union (EU). and policies towards women in the policy. Specific cultures bor market the similari- are essential for drawing conclusions about labor market - the analysis is fo of these societies. In the paper, ties and differences labour market, position on the women’s cused on the labor market, and unemployment,the gap in employment and working conditions research and women. On the sidelines of the earnings between men In this re- and foreign labor. are inequalities in the position of domestic spect, attention is drawn to the policies on attracting economic mi- These and Germany. grants, which differ widely between Switzerland regions where the majority ofdifferences exist even when it comes to paper starts with the thesisthe population is of the same origin. The is most determined by market that the position of women in the labor are strongly influencedsystemic factors. Changes in the labor market technologies, and cultural andby changes in production methods and strongly influenced by poli- political factors in a particular society are that the demo- the extent cies towards the female workforce. To specific policies are im- graphic structures of society are less favorable, The and foreign workers. posed and implemented against women gender gap in employment, earnings, reconciliation of family and and is relatively larger in Swit workroles is at the expense of women, Labor Market on Swiss Labor Force Women's rope. It is a world leader in innovation. According to the European Commission, in 2016 the summary innovation index was 64% high- Commission, 2017:7). More than 70% (European er than in the EU zerland than in Germany. Relevant conclusions from the researchers than in Germany. zerland findings. these support data statistics official and phenomena these of Introduction

38 Novaković / Maksimović 39 edited volumes - - - of Switzerland is by the most important de- of Switzerland The population The rate of natural increase is low at 2.2 (2013), while the The rate of natural increase is low at 2.2 In 2018, the share of the employment among the total work or. the private sector. work comes from research fundings of scientific growth (GDP contributed to economic productivity also High labor unemployment while the overall was 1.9% in 2016), growth rate the list of the 2019). In rate was very (OECD, low (3.2% in 2016) ninth, with 2019 ranked the world, Switzerland richest countries in Richest power of 65707 US$ (World’s GDP per capita of purchasing Countries, 2019). mographic indicators aged. In 2014 the average age of the popula- aged. In 2014 the average age of the mographic indicators (8.34 million), of the total population the size tion is 42 years. With 15 to 65 under 15 years is 14.7%, from the share of the population is 17.8%. share of the population 65 or older years is 67% and the is for men is 81.0 and for women Life expectancy at birth (in years) depend- 2015:28). Young-age 2014, Population 85.2 (Switzerland’s ency ration is 22.2, the old-age dependency ratio is 27.0 and total-age dependency ratio is 49.2 (Hrvatska enciklopedija, 2019). below the world average. birth rate (10.2) and mortality (8.5) are number of fertile women Fertility is the number of live births, the Foreigners 18.7). A simple repro- 14.3, is 1.54 (Swiss (15-49 years) Population (Switzerland's duction of the population requires 2.1 are Swiss (75%) and 2014, 2015:7). The majority of the population Ger are the French, the rest are foreign in origin. Most numerous in their attitudes towards mans and Italians. These cultures differ their authorities in the labor women in general, especially towards have made slow progress in political in Switzerland Women market. the Constitution guaranteed and economic emancipation. In 1971, and the last canton passed the right of recogni- gender equality, was adopted in 1985. Re- tion in 1995. The Law on Equality at Work in the sphere of work, par strictive policies are still being pursued classes and classes. ticularly towards members of the lower employment policies are focused on maintaining and Apparently, policy Additionally, to- producing the gender gap among natives. contributes to the gender gap. wards foreign workers ing-age population (20-64) was 82.5%, which is almost 10% above Out of the total male average (72.3%) in the same year. the EU workforce in this age category, as 87% were employed as many - - commit In 2018 two-fifths of the domestic workforce (41.9%) out of In 2018 two-fifths of the domestic workforce Full-time employment is dominant in Switzerland. It is slightly in Switzerland. employment is dominant Full-time ment to work). Men are much more frequent full-time employedment to work). Men less re- women work more often on part-time, than women, while spectable and less paid jobs. As a rule, full-time mode of employment than the population with EUis more frequent among then domestic inequalities are presentor so-called “third countries” origins. Gender groups. Main reasonsin each of the aforementioned labor force and culture. The employ- come from the sphere of politics, tradition underpins a traditional, pa- work force as a process ment of women's role as the most importanttriarchal culture, which sees the family (for the care and care ofrole of women. Therefore, all institutions are arranged according to an assumption preschool children, schools) limited professional activity.women are more present at home and snack time and lunch)The work of the institutions (shifts, vacations, indirectly show concernand relatively modest childcare investments for the preservation role of the woman, while mak of the traditional ing their recruitment substantially difficult. Observing main rea- the how much the so- employment one can notice sons behind part-time gender gap. cial system maintains and deepens the Part- part-time. worked (20-64 years) all employees in Switzerland among men (19.5%) time employment was much less frequent this mode of than women (66.0%). Among foreign-born workers, employment was about ten percent less prevalent. The main caus- are not only individual, family but also employment es of part-time wider context social. In 2018, impossibility to find a full-time job was 3-fold higher in EU worker and hence working as the part-time (79% in the EU-29), while the female employment rate was 77.9%, employment while the female EU-29), (79% in the There are signifi- average (67.4%). EU higher than the significantly in terms of age employed workforce among the cant differences than mid- are less employed people (15-24) Young and gender. of them in 2018, 62.6% additionally, workers, dle-aged and older the men and women had average is 35.4%). Young (the EU worked and level of 62.6%, but the type of employment same employment Commission, 2017). were different (European work they performed hours a week, but in reality, are 40 Weekdays lower than in Iceland. the work At the heart of this phenomena is both more is often done. eg. and the dominant cultural values ( ethic of the population

40 Novaković / Maksimović 41 edited volumes - - Another reason for opting for part-time is looking after chil- is looking opting for part-time Another reason for When they are employed, women are the most numerous in (24.8%) than in Switzerland (8.3%). To a lesser extent among men extent among men a lesser (8.3%). To in Switzerland (24.8%) than the main as inability was recognized the mentioned than women, part/time employment.reason for more in the EU There were the relative dif Switzerland, (10.6%). In in Switzerland (33.4%) than ference between women and men was small (10.3% for women). women). and men was small (10.3% for ference between women easier in indicates that getting employment is This also indirectly average. EU and unemployment is lower than the Switzerland we ob 2 (end of the paper)- adults. In Table dren or incapicitated serve employees by slightly lesser extent among reason was stated prevalent reason average. Three times more than EU in Switzerland system than for men (7.2%). The institutional is for women (21.2%) of family support, of institutions for the especially the existence con- pre-school children, is an important factor care of young and of employment for women. tributing to the activity level and mode working 20-36 hours a week, Laura Ravazzini found among women national average in child- inhabited in regions investing above the by 2%. The effect was care facilities employment rate is increased mothers of two, married of strong significance for higher educated women did not enter the la- or in cohabitation. Although inactive have increased women who already work part-time bour market, at an overall number of hours their presence on labour market was not noticed among single mothers, low The increase worked. 2018:1). For rich families, educated or disabled women (Ravazinni, Ruesch, it is not worth it to according to research from Butler and works more than 60% bring children to care facilities if a woman The main reason is tax policy (Ravazinni, 2018). Women part-time. and temporary part-time without children are also employed in jobs, and income from this is necessary for the family budget. Most prevalent in and women are frequent, men are full-time workers, the secondary em- In 2018, 63% out of all women job market. highest share 4). The full-time (Table worked ployed in Switzerland of the labor market in the flexible part-time of women worked Netherlands (Figure 1). industries. According to official statistics, the for the “feminized” eign labor force, both male and female, is more prevalent among Among less-skilled and routine occupations than domestic workers. - - - - Interestingly, citizens often decide on a referendum about often decide citizens Interestingly, The family policymaterni- was also reflected in the length of uation about the sick leave due to illness, child or other family uation about the sick leave due to illness, French ones, which differ from the Policies members care is similar. childcare facilities, less by other measures (low prices, numerous successfully encourages birth rates (Figure 2). household taxation) migrant women. Due to their In a particularly difficult situation are and culture they are un- lack of structures, knowledge of language from the lower Women able to land a job or care for their children. their children. One reason classes are repeatedly disabled in raising is the model of employment, gap. but also existing gender wage a proposal of law on limit numerous issues. In 2013, they rejected with of directors and workers ing the ratio between annual salaries a referen- the lowest salaries (12:1) (Stevanović, 2016.) A year later, hour), which would be the dum on minimum income law (22$ per has reject Switzerland largest in the world, had the same outcome. in the world. The most in- ed the world’s greatest minimum income the extension of the fluential Swiss unions have publicly advocated length of service required for retirement. Employers have benefit ed most from the extension. Conservative parties, which are have justified such decisions by taking emerging in Switzerland, care not to move capital out of the country and preventing disrup- tion in the labor market. the employees with the highest non-manual occupations and the non-manual occupations with the highest the employees than Switzerland men born in in the companies, highest positions exists among the similar gender gap women, and the outnumbers is especially 68-75). There 2017: (Seminario, foreign professionals profes- among managers. Accordingly their little female work force cally mobility opportunities are systemati sional and vertical social - one third are women out of all em sector, limited. In the property wages (less than 4000). On the contrary,ployees with the lowest category up to a quarter in the highest-wage women account only 2018). Conse- Federal Statistics Office, (over CHF 8,000) (Swiss of wom- gender wage gap was at the expense in 2016, the quently, average (16.0%) (Table higher than the OECD en (18%). It is slightly Gap, 2018). Closing Gender Pay Index, in Work 4) (PwC Women it is veryty leave. In Switzerland, restrictive. Length of maternity (Figure 2). Sit (14 weeks) leave days is among the lowest in Europe

42 Novaković / Maksimović 43 edited volumes - - The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 2013-2018 was de- The unemployment rate in Switzerland In Switzerland, generational inequalities in employment are inequalities in generational In Switzerland, a high standard of living, is something with The rich society, ket, but also to address the growing demographic problems. In addi- but also to address the growing demographic problems. ket, medicine, finance), sector, tion to highly educated professionals (IT desirable. Migration hasmigrant educated women are increasingly by making educated foreigners more contributingbeen ‘feminized’ existing employment andto economic growth and narrowing the Inequalities in job opportuni- wage gap relative to domestic women. exist among migrant women.ties, working conditions and wages also women to land a job, whilstIt is easier for more educated migrant for several years (Afonso,less educated ones have been waiting 2018:1-19). As the unemployment rate for the local population is population, the gap is eventhree times lower than for the migrant According to some estimates,higher for low-income migrant women. the next two dec over needs 400,000 foreign workers Switzerland ades. The policy foreign labor has been almost the same of attracting for years. It is following the interests of the state that a flexible labor fosters the growth of productivity and economy. market had almost during all periodclining and in 2018 it was 7,%. Germany present, moreover, they are further enhanced by the flexible labor enhanced by the they are further present, moreover, employed was of the total work force 2014, about 17% In market. Hyman, Gumbrell-Mccormick of trade unions (Bernaciak, members has Switzerland to fact across Europe, 2014). This data contributes women, after 28 years, mas- In June 2019, been the fewest strikes. “against sexism, inequality Switzerland sively protested throughout and burning bras” (Naši u svetu, 2019). at work, leaving jobs crisis Besides, 2007 world economic labor. that attracts foreign thus un- passed almost unnoticed Switzerland, seemed not to have has responded low all the time. Switzerland employment remained people, domestic employment (young to the crisis not by increasing (Afonso, but by the influx of foreign labor women, older workers) up a third out of the total workforce. 2018:1-19). Foreigners make Member States (68%), born in the EU Majority of them are citizens being most prevalent as origin and Portugal Italy, with Germany, quotas 2014, 2015:13). Annually, Population, countries (Switzerland's are set, new ones the previously received foreigners are returned and the needs of the labor mar are received. The selection is tailored to - - In terms of economic development, is the “engine” Germany is, according to demographers The population of Germany Women's Labor Force on German Labor Market Labor Force Women's The growth rate after 2007 was positive and in 2016 of the EU-28. people for many was 1.9. It has become an attractive destination and the Mid- from the Far from other countries, including migrants to the so-called so- dle East and Africa. The economy belongs and protecting some of the basic combining the market cial-market, years, regarding this, In recent and citizens. social rights of workers flexibility and labor market there have been changes in social policy, of some of the previously achieved citi- restrictions on the exercise rights. One of the goals is, among other things, alignment la- zens’ with the needs of the economy and alle- developments bor market viating the country’s structural-demographic problems. old. Following indicators point to this fact: the average age of the population, life expectancy, age pyramid of population, aging index and dependencycat of the working-age population indices, the size many (1990). Switzerland had small fluctuations in the unemployment small fluctuations had (1990). Switzerland many and both country, 5). In the EU-28 5% (Table rate which was about rate is as double as (19-24 years old) unemployment young workers’ aged 20-64 in the EU- Among the unemployed the total population’s. among the elderly there were more women, and 28 and Switzerland, women. One of the rea- it was reversed, men outnumber (55-64 years) search. One can conclude from quitting her job sons was the woman’s had a smaller unemployment Germany 3. all the time, women in Table in Germany In short,rate compared to males. the flexible labor market the gap be- has largely involved women, although and Switzerland In both persists across all major age groups. tween men and women population is smallercases, the unemployment rate of the domestic shortage is present among thethan among migration, while the labor most skilled and the less-skilled workers. egory, natural population movement, annual population growth its unemployment rate at the half of the EU-28 average, reducing the average, half of the EU-28 rate at the its unemployment 2.8% in 2018.. This is 4.9% in 2013 to rate from initial unemployment of the two Ger since the unification unemployment rate the lowest

44 Novaković / Maksimović 45 edited volumes - Population decline of Germany, the most numerous EU coun- EU the most numerous of Germany, decline Population The high employment rate of the population (20-64 years) in (20-64 years) The high employment rate of the population The consequences are vast,measures ”. The consequences austerity - both for the posi try, Ac that has been around for several decades. has been a trend and the role of migration in all this. Altogether has contribut ed toall this. Altogether of migration in and the role and necessarythe changes - of education, em reforms in the field ployment, and everything pension system to the so-called related “ who use in the fields and for all other citizens tion of the employees their services. to mentioned, a brief overview In respect of the most and especially of changes in the labor market, important directions female workforce is being introduced. of the position of the cording to some estimates, the land threatens by 2060, the popula- the land threatens by 2060, the cording to some estimates, n is 82.8 million to 71.0 million. If migratio tion from the current into account, be eased and slowed down. this process will taken alleviating migrants was a logical step towards Thus, accepting mass median age of the popula- the growing demographic problems. The and 2017 was 47.1 years (male tion is among the highest in Europe (Index Mundi, 2018). It contributes not only 46.0, female 48 years) also lowers the mortalityto advances treatment conditions, but in 2017 was 11,7. Lowrate. The death rate per 1,000 population for 30 years. In 2017, birth rates have been in existence in Germany rate was 1.4, average8.6 children per 1000 were born. Fertility conse- 15-49 years is low, number births of children by marriage the demo- the population growth rate is -0.16. Additionally, quently, aged 0-14 years, aged 65graphic population has 12.82% of children 6% older than 80 years.and over 22.06% and 65.10% aged 15-64. Life expectancy(males in the total population is about 80.8 years affecting the total popula- 78.5, females 8.3). With migration also is classified in societies where external migration has tion, Germany of the poor demographic picture of the popula- advantage taken it is important to consider the policies towards tion. Subsequently, are The consequences migrants and their role in the labor market. in long-term. workers affecting both domestic and migrant apart from other EU-28the period 2013-2018. years is sets Germany members. It has been increasing since 2013 going, from 77.3 to 79.9 in EU average has decreased from 10% to2018. The difference from the had a lower employment rate Germany 5%. Compared to Switzerland, of about 3%. In 2018 even 43.5 million people were employed. - - Inequalities in the labor market are also reflected in the pre- Inequalities in the labor market employment. Data There are two main reasons for part-time ference is the one between natives and workers coming from coun- natives and workers ference is the one between - young workforce (15-24 years old) is em The EU.” the tries “Outside 35.4). EU 47.2, (Germany average ployed above the EU vailing mode of employment, among men it is full-time and among was 24.8% In 2018, on the flexible labor market, women is part-time. average 21.2% 9). Such work was employers (EU a share of part-time (26.4%) than among workers less frequent at native-born workers rate employment in part-time born abroad (29.8%). The gender gap (male 8.7%, female 45.7%)is larger among the domestic workforce - Com 51.3%) (European than among foreigners (male 11.7%, female mission, Eurostat, of these jobs are underpaid. 2018). Most 2 leads us to conclude in 2018, the problem of caring for from Table household members domi- young children and helping dependent position for the part-time nant reason. Following cause is settling cited lack of full- due to the lack of full-time employment. Women reason, almost 6 times moretime employment as the first and main OECD to According 30.2%). female 5.5%, (male men than frequently and was 22% in Switzerland data, the gender pay gap is larger than gained the right to vote in in Germany 4). Women in 2016 (Table acquired the right to de- 2018, and it was not until 1977 that they the decision was a job. Earlier, cide for themselves whether to take mass employ- made by the spouse or other family members. Today, ment of women is considered to be one of the most important fac 129 a day what tors of economic growth. German women earn EUR 2018). 8)! (B92 Vesti, is 16 times more then women in Serbia (EUR According to Eurostat data, the employment rate of the population data, the employment to Eurostat According Eurostat, Commission, 2018). The was 13% (European 70-74 in 2018 the retirement of prolonging points to the problems data indirectly employment rate policies. In 2018 the as to “active aging” age, as well have been increasing for women 75.8. Women for men was 83.8 and more in the last 6 years. Men were their share of total employment 1. show that in women (45.4). The data in Table employed (48.8) than of was an employment gap to the detriment all age groups there same data sources, one concludes employmentwomen. Based on the thanand women natives are significantly higher rates for both men The biggest dif member states. who come from other EU for workers

46 Novaković / Maksimović 47 edited volumes ------German migrant policy the has changed dramatically with Care about women and family is reflected, among other is reflected, among women and family Care about ly interested in attracting a large number of foreign workers (car a large number of foreign workers ly interested in attracting is to introduce a tax on It is planned example). egivers, medics for which would finance care for the elderly. employees’ wages, - in Germa migration in 2015. That year, massive intercontinental In addition to contributing to entered 1.390 million migrants. ny, migration brings with it cer the economic progress of countries, terrorism and the or tain problems. Among them are extremism, criminal (Đorić,ganized 2018: 44, 41). According to National Sta- as three-quarters of migrants has not been tistics, as many highly educated migrants Syria, school. From graduated from any arrived very integrating more easily into cultural Germa- quickly, door” For this reason, the “open policy ny. was intended to attract positions which need educa- foreigners to compensate and fill in lacks. Germany’s visa market tion and skills that the German labor most migrants are young In addition, liberalization later took off. the structure of the total (up to 30 years old), which can improve in the process of accept population. All material costs invested are multiple times pays ance and integration of foreign workers migrants, with adequate lan- off in the long run. Better-educated - easier land a job. Lower-edu guage skills and skills in short supply, cated migrants are prevalent. This group has a higher unemploy- and low-paying jobs. ment rate, work in insecure, demanding, are in a particularly difficult position, with no greater Women chance of getting a job. They have been discriminated in many ways, both by the total male workforce and by domestic women Therefore, migrant women are more often poor and so- workers. Rights and social protection remain almost inac cially excluded. migrant women. cessible to many things, in maternity leave. In Germany, a woman is entitled to 6 a woman is entitled Germany, maternity leave. In things, in is not a This after. and 8 weeks leave before childbirth weeks paid - both hus Additionally, birth rates. measure to encourage sufficient but entitled to sick leave for up to 14 months, band and wife are unemployed married cou- of their earnings. Even receive two-thirds benefits during maternity leave. ples receive some cash As society elderly has age, a care of the sick and the is of a deep demographic particular problem. In this regard, the state is become a significant - - A comparative analysis of the position of the female female position of the analysis of the A comparative many confirmed the thesis that there is a gender gap. The gap gender gap. The gap the thesis that there is a confirmed many in employment, work earnings, reconciliation of family and and women is at the expense of women, roles between men Germany. than in in Switzerland it is relatively larger moreover, They less employed, especially full-time. are generally Women jobs, which auto- employed in part-time are more frequently earnings. The growth of the servicematically means lower sec women to of the professions have led tor and the feminization and more insecure in less paid, less reputable be more likely in Switzerland culture is more pronounced jobs. Patriarchal - Swiss women are faced with nu consequently, than in Germany, reconciliation of family and merous barriers to employment and gap is in earnings. In work responsibilities. The biggest gender is 18% to 22%, while in Switzerland the wage gap is Germany, in professional and social the detriment of women. Inequalities portrayed in the fact the advancement opportunities are also are positions in companies (managers) majority in top executive are and Switzerland men. Low unemployment rates in Germany of policya consequence, among other things, toward attracting has a restrictive policy Switzerland (so-called foreign labor. door”. has an “open and Germany offer Both countries “quota”) of migrants, of lower ed- the worst chances in the labor market young and dependent ucation, with low language skill, having and the EU Germany women in Switzerland, children. Briefly, compared to men. are at a disadvantage in the labor market reflected in earnings, pro- The consequences of inequalities are further complicates the fessional and social promotion, which culture and Patriarchal reconciliation of family and work roles. such relationships. social institutions foster and consolidate Conclusion and Ger Switzerland, in the EU, in the labor market work force

48 Novaković / Maksimović 49 edited volumes 21,2 30,2 27,7 Females Females 5,1 2,6 3,7 66,1 66,9 52,4 Females Women in Women full time employment % of total female employment 63 55 88 63 84 84 7,2 5,5 5,3 Males 79,1 76.1 65,4 Males Males 5,4 3,2 4,2 55-64 godine 17,9 25,5 22,3 Total Looking after children or children after Looking adults incapacitated 72,6 71,4 58.7 From 55 to 64 years to 55 From Total Total 5,2 2,9 4,0 Famale Famale unemployment 4 5 6 3 4 4 % 7,7 8,9 22,1 Females Females 7 2,9 5,1 77,9 75,8 67,9 Females

Males 6,5 3,8 4,3 10,3 15,9 33,4 Males 87,0 83,9 79,9 Males 20-64 godine From 20 to 64 years to 20 From Total 6,7 3,3 4,7 8,3 10,2 24,8 Total Could not find not Could full-time job 82,5 79,9 73,2 Total Labor force participation 74 Female 80 73 68 58 69 % Females 17 6 8 62,6 45,4 33,4 Females 63,0 46,7 30,8 Females Males 15,7 7,1 8,4 62,6 48,8 37,4 Males 17,0 9,3 8,0 Males 15-24 godine From 15 to 24 years to 15 From Pay gap Pay 22 18 24 25 37 16 Differences between female and male, % median pay, Total 15,2 6,2 7,9 62,6 47,2 35,4 Total 38,5 26,8 18,5 Total In total employment In total Employment ad activity by sex and age, annual date, 2018, 2018 (%) age, annual date, 2018, ad activity by sex and able 1. Employment Switzerland Germany EU - 28EU countries Switzerland Germany EU - 28 EU countries EU - 28 coun- 28 - EU tries Germany Switzerland Country Germany Switzerland Estonia Japan Koreja OECD Source: Eurostat, . Employment statistics, Authors made a table, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database Izvor: Eurostat,statistics, Authors made a table, . Employment https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database Table 4. Next 5 countries in the PwCIndex, 2016 WIW Table Unemployment rate by sex, age and citizenship, 2018 (%) 3. Unemployment rate by sex, age and citizenship, Table Main reason for part-time employment –Distribution by sex, 2018 (%) employment –Distribution 2. Main reason for part-time Table T Source: OECD, Eurostat (According : PwC Women in the Work Index: in the Work (According : PwC Eurostat Women Source: OECD, Closing the gender pay gap, www.pwc.co.uk, March 2018, p.37) Source: Eurostat. Employment statistics, Authors made a table, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database 2018 7,9 2,9 5,1 2017 7,7 3,2 5,0 2016 8,6 3,7 4,9 2015 9,3 4,2 4,8 2014 10,1 4,6 4,9 2013 10,6 4,6 4,8 Labour market participation of part-time workers among men and among workers of part-time participation Labour market women in 2017, EU-28 Germany Switzerland Figure 1: Unemployement rate (20-64 years) 2018 (%) rate (20-64 years) 5. Unemployement Tabela Source: OECD, Labour Statistics database. Source: OECD, Source: OECD, Labour Statistics database. Labour Source: OECD, Figure 2: Maternity leave Source: Eurostat, statistics, Authors made a table, Unemployment https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database

50 Novaković / Maksimović 51 edited volumes - - letprod_WAR_NavTreeportletprod_INSTANCE_IFjhoVbmPFHt&p_p_lifecy l_ cle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-2&p_p_co count=1, accessed: 8. 7. 2018. 2018. https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/catalogues-databas- 8. 7. 2018. es/publications.assetdetail.5786118.html , accessed: conemprary- Migrations on develompenthttps://www.pwc.com/hu/hu/csr/as , accessed: 8. 7. 2018. sets/women-in-work-index-2018.pdf and Statistics, Swiss periment using Swiss cantons. Journal of Economics Journal of Economics and Statistics, pp. 154-170 DOI 10.1186/s41937- 017-0003-x , accessed: 10. 7. 2018. Studies International Fo- In Women’s in Switzerland. riences as care workers 71, pp.68-75 DOI: 10.1016/j.wsif.2018.08.009 rum Vol. Sindikati u Evropi. Inovativni odgovori na teška vremena. Beograd. Friedrich Beograd. Friedrich Inovativni odgovori na teška vremena. Sindikati u Evropi. Ebert Stiftung.p.28. culture, 15(35) 41-55. Police (Serbian), Germany - google.com/search?q=European+Commission+(2017)%2C+European+Inno - vation+Scoreboard+2017.&rlz=1C1CHZL_srRS687RS687&oq=European+ Commission+(2017)%2C+European+Innovation+Scoreboard+2017.&aqs=chr accessed: 10. 7. ome..69i57j69i64.1592j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8, 2018. database, accessed: 10. 7. 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database?p_p_id=NavTreeport ply policies in post-war Europe, Journal of Comparative Policy Journal of Comparative analysis: Re- Europe, post-war ply policies in 1-19, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080search and Practice, pp https://doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2018. 1527584 /13876988.2018.1527584 , accessed:10. 7. 2018. Labour market indicators for 2018. Comments on findings for the period 2012-2018. indicators for 2018. Comments on findings for the Labour market www.pwc.co.uk, Gap. March 2018. Index, Closing Gender Pay in Work Pwc Women employment: a natural ex- part-time Ravazinni, Laura. 2018. Childcare and maternal - expe Seminario, Romina. 2018. A life-course perspective of South American women’s Djoric, Marija. 2018. Impact contemporary of extremism in migrants on development Innovation Scoreboard 2017, https://www. European Commission. 2017. European https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/ Commission. 2018. Eurostat European Commission. Eurostat. 2019. Employment and unemployment (LFS), European Bernaciak Magdalena, Gumbrell-Mccormick Rebecca and Hyman Richard. 2014. Bernaciak Magdalena, Gumbrell-Mccormick Literature labour sup- Comparing women? or migrant worker 2018. Migrant Afonso, Alexander. -

bija.php?yyyy=2016&mm=03&dd=31&nav_id=1114223, 7. 2018. accessed: 10. www.kapitalmagazin.rs/radni-i-pravni-odnos-srbija-nemacka-uporedni-prikaz/, accessed: 10. 7. 2018. 2018. 7. 10. accessed: ti/39389/strajk-zena-sirom-svajcarske-fotovideo-9920/, tistical Office. id=1114223, accessed 10. 7. 2018. Serbian women work for 8 EUR, German for 129 EUR https://www.b92.net/biz/vesti/sr work for 8 EUR,Serbian women EUR German for 129 Stevanovic, Danijela. 2016. Labor relations - Serbia: Germany (comparative). https:// Stevanovic, (comparative). relations - Serbia: Germany Danijela. 2016. Labor 2019. https://www.nasiusvetu.com/ves Switzerland. Striking women around - Confederation & Federal Sta- 2014. 2015. Neuchatel: Swiss Population Switzerlandˈs Internet http://www.worldsrichestcountries.com/, accessed: 10. 7. 2018. accessed 10. 7. 2018. https://www.indexmundi.com/germany/, accessed 10. 7. 2018. http://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?id=60083, http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/economic-survey-switzerland.html, accessed 10. 7. 2018. accessed 10. 7. 2018. https://www.penzin.rs/svajcarska-odbila-najveci-minimalac-u-svetu/, https://www.b92.net/biz/vesti/srbija.php?yyyy=2016&mm=03&dd=31&nav_

52 Novaković / Maksimović 53 edited volumes - - tržište rada, žene, Nemačka, vene i industrijske odnose. I Švajcarska, i stare, smislu demografskom u su Nemačka ali su im populaciona politika i politika prisut zemlje, obe U različite. zapošljavanja no je privlačenje najobrazovanije radne Nemačke i Švajcarske rada tržištu Na snage. aktivnosti, stepenu u nejednakosti postoje zaposlenosti i nezaposlenosti žena, zarad- promo- društvenu za mogućnostima i ama ciju muškaraca i žena. Ove i ekonomske društvene nejednakosti se dugoročno ekonomskom svojom ih država a održavaju, i socijalnom politikom, kao i fleksibilnim zavisnos- u a meri, različitoj u rada tržištem ti od potreba ograničava ili podstiče. Da li ženske štetu na nejednakosti pomenute su radne snage? Ključne reči: razlike Švajcarska, naroda. U obe zemlje, žene su značajan deo značajan su žene zemlje, obe U naroda. u zemalja ovih rada tržištu Na snage. radne strukturi radne snage su odavno i strani radnici, koji dodatno usložnjavaju društ - turi, ali i specifičnostima tradicionalne kulture i poslovne u etike zemlji. konkretnoj Predmet ovog sociološkog-ekonomskog istraživanja je položaj žena na tržištu rada visoko su zemlje Obe Nemačke. i Švajcarske razvijene, sa visokim stepenom zaposlenosti stanovništva i nezaposlenosti.niskom Nemačka pripada porodici EU 28, dok je Švajcarska izvan te porodice evropskih Tržište rada Tržište danas predstavlja jedno od najznačajnijih tržišta razvijenog - industri jskog društva, pored finansijskog tržišta, na Promene kapitala. tržišta i novca tržišta tržištu rada uslovljene su brojnim faktorima, kao što su mesto zemlje u svetskoj podeli rada, način uklapanja u glo- tokove struk demografskoj ekonomije, balizovane Sažetak TRŽIŠTE RADA I ŽENSKA RADNA SNAGA U RAZVIJENIM ZEMLJAMA EVROPE: I NEMAČKE PRIMER ŠVAJCARSKE [email protected] MIRJANA DOKMANOVIĆ Institute of Social Sciences of Social Institute

54 Dokmanović 55 edited volumes - - - 1 Although transport may - wom appear as a sector, gender-neutral and en’s experiences men’s with transport systems and services safety affordability, accessibility, to respect with particularly differ, and personal security. The topic of this paper is introducing key issues related to gender research in transport, such as economic mobil- sustainable security, personal safety, health, development, ity, and the impact of mobility on professional women’s and per sonal lives. The paper gives an overviewdevel- an tools gives innovative paper of The lives. sonal best the presents and sector this in research gender for oped practices in engendering transport systems based on implement ing findings of the policy-oriented research. The paper points out of patterns travel in differences interpret to danger a is there that women and men by thatover-simplifications, often result in stereotypes. Therefore, the approaches to gender research in trans- and vulnerability, intersectionality, of concepts include should port interdisciplinary,implementing suggests paper The inclusion. social transdisciplinary, participatory, evidence-based and community-based research in order to address the complex challenges of transportation. The gender consideration is still absent in the transport policy of transporta- to approach gender of lack The Serbia. of Republic the tion design, planning and management aggravates women`s ac maternalchildcare, care, health opportunities, employment to cess care, social services and community participation, contributing to their social The exclusion. paper identifies aneed toconduct and mainstream- in step first a as sector, this in research gender support enhancing ing economic gender, development, and improving - This work was supported by the Ministry Science and Tech of Education, nological Development of the Republic of Serbia. The project no. 179023 is implemented by the Institute of Social Sciences, Belgrade. 1 Abstract Gender Research in Transport: in Transport: Research Gender and Tools Issues, Key in Serbia Relevance Policy quality of everyday life of women and men in both urban and rural areas. The aim of the paper is to contribute developing gender transformative public policies in the Serbian transport sector in order to ensure that if offers services that incorporate the needs of both women and men into the design and delivery of transport operations and investments. Key words: gender research, gender mobility patterns, gender mainstreaming, transport, Republic of Serbia

Introduction

Although researchers in many countries are concerned on gender issues in transport for decades ago, gender research in this sector gained the attention of the United Nations at the beginning of 2000s. The findings have indicated that transportation policies in the countries of both the North and the South have neglected women’s mobility patterns and needs, and that women are exclud- 56 ed from participation in decision making in this sector due to their

Dokmanović marginalized position (Peters, 2001; Hamilton, 2001). The UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) has particularly underlined its importance. The UNECE urges governments, relevant agencies and research institutions conducting improved transport surveys and applying gender sensitive interviewing and other gender sensitive methodologies; analysing daily realities of female transport users, women’s latent demands and their willingness to pay for better transport; documenting transport sharing models at local levels; and providing gender sensitive stakeholder consultation (UNECE, 2008: 5). Besides, the UNECE demands providing statistics on gender differentiated mobility, including data differentiated by length of trip rather than number of trips; by reasons to travel; car drivers vs. passengers; accounting for journeys on foot which are women’s; accounting for typical times of travel (rush hours, i.e. men’s travel, vs. non-rush hours, i.e. school run); providing figures on health issues, e.g. transport poverty (being ma- rooned in rural areas links with increased use of anti-depressants). Gov- ernments are also urged to research changes in transport infrastructure with a gender perspective. The research on women`s strategies to cope with transport needs should also be supported. 57 edited volumes - - The priority in the EU research policy research of is the integration in the EU The priority that Commission (2014: 5) has underlined The European issues and tools key The topic of this paper is introducing The aim of the paper is to contribute developing gender the gender dimension into project funded and co-funded under funded and dimension into project the gender and Innovation Framework Research Commission`s the European 2020 un- 5). The Horizon Commission, 2014: (European Programme innovative solutions in transport,derlines the need of to meet chal- research in greenhouse emissions. Gender lenges such as reducing important in developing the knowledge transport is, therefore, system transport sustainable a of development the support to base and constraints of a society. responsive to the needs research to explore methods of translating the studies are needed issues related to of the while many Namely, findings into policy. re- travel patterns have been extensively gender mobility and gen- received limited attention in developing searched, they have European Therefore, the policies and programmes. der-specific assessment of transport poli- Commission considers gender impact monitor their contribution to cies should be carried out regularly to transport system. gender-neutral related to gender research in transport, and to point out to its policy relevance for the Republic of Serbia. The first section of re- arguments of the UN and the EU the paper will summarize in transport as a poli- garding promoting gender mainstreaming issues related cy objective. The following sections introduce key to gender research in transport, innovative gender research of The analysis practices in the EU. and good tools in this sector, in the Republic of Ser the gender issues in the transport sector bia is presented in the fifth section of the paper. In the conclu- of the paper. bia is presented in the fifth section the need to addressing the sion the attention has been drawn to by conducting and sup- complex challenges of transportation porting interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, participatory, evi- research at both countrydence-based and community-based and local community level. transformative public policies in the Serbian transport sector in or der to ensure that if offers services that incorporate the needs of both women and men into the design and delivery of transport operations and investments. - - - May 1999. st and the Beijing Platform and the Beijing Platform 2 with due diligence in all sectoral policies, including with due diligence 3 The UN pointed out this issue as a priority to be addressed in this issue as a priority to be addressed The UN pointed out Up to date, gender sensitive transportation policyUp to date, gender sensitive transportation has been Gender Perspectives for Earth Earth for The International Conference Gender Perspectives Women, 15 September 1995, A/CONF.177/20(1995) and A/ 15 September 1995, A/CONF.177/20(1995) Women, CONF.177/20/Add.1(1995) U.N. Doc. A/34/46U.N. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Fourth World 2 3 Gender Mainstreaming in Transport Transport in Gender Mainstreaming at International Objective as a Policy Level and the EU the preparatory De- Summit on Sustainable for the World process their obli- have been reminded on velopment 2002. Governments of All the Convention on the Elimination gation to implement against Women Forms of Discrimination spective “need to be fully integrated into all transport related poli- spective “need to be fully integrated cy-making in all departments at all levels on a regular and pro-ac for Earth Summit, 2002: 6). Perspectives tive basis” (Gender measures in order to Therefore, States should implement different of women and men, reduce transport burdens and expenditures systems and infra- while creating equitable access to transport increased participation in deci- structure, and ensuring women’s recommended to introduce sion-making. Governments have been participatory in order to be able transport planning methodologies and travel needs. to incorporate the gender divide of transport and programmes of the adopted and integrated in the policies Bank (2010), the AsianWorld Bank (2013), the Or Development ganization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2011) and Decision Making for Information Transport, Summit 2002 – Energy, recommendations to governments, donor agencies summarized aimed at mainstream- (IFIs) and International Financial Institutions for Earth Summit, Perspectives ing gender in this sector (Gender that the gender per 2002). The Conference conclusions stressed transport. by mainstreaming as a concept was endorsed Gender be- Conference in Beijing in 1995 and Women’s the Fourth World the states with binding commitment for EU came a formal legally on 1 entry the Amsterdam Treaty into force of for Action

58 Dokmanović 59 edited volumes - - - - The UNECE has issued a thematic report that pointed out key has issued a thematic report that The UNECE - Eu and transport commissioned by the The study on women Economic this Opinion of the European in account Taking ified by infrastructure and transport sectors ident gender issues in the of Ire- Plan 2000-2006 of the Government the National Development „measures are underlined that 2008: 2-3). The UNECE land (UNECE, necessary expendi- transport burdens and transport which reduce and ensur men while creating equitable access tures of women and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (2011). and Development for Reconstruction Bank the European gender have developed institutions these international Moreover, and perspective in transportation integrating gender toolkits for Bank, 2010; and men (World working for both women making it 2011; Bank, 2013; AsianWorld Bank, 2013; OECD, Development Bank for Reconstruction and Development, European 2011). ing women’s increased opportunities and participation“ (2008: 4-5). and participation“ increased opportunities ing women’s (2006) and Tourism Committee on Transport ropean Parliament`s transport policyhas showed that the European has had deep and the first ever recognising structural gender problems. This study, showed that “nor the EU, the issue of women and transport across to be androcentric mal“ transport research and policies emerge Economic and Social Committee (2015) (2006: iii). The European for integrating gender per has concluded that there was a need its dimensions (air, as all spective into the transportation sector, are traditionally logistics) sea, road, rail, inland navigation, space, following: transport policymale-dominated. This is a result of the is around their lifestyle; male-oriented, devised by men and centred male and is geared to male employment in the sector is primarily embedded in the industry the values workers; show little support gender consid- for females in the sector and lack gender-sensitivity; transport policy. eration is absent from EU has brought the Parliament and Social Committee, the European policygender issue in the transport as an important In its Res issue. of the 2011 olution of 9 September 2015 on the implementation has stressed Parliament , the European White Paper on Transport that “measures are also necessaryparticipation to boost women’s remove possible existing barriers, in the transport labour market, and ensure equal treatment of men and women by addressing existing remuneration and advancement gaps“ (para. 42). - - - and was focused on 5 . In line with this commitment, many EU member . In line with this commitment, EU many 4 In late 2017, the European Economic and Social Committee Economic and the European In late 2017, Women`s and gender issues in transport has been in the fo- Women`s bility and will explore how gender equality practices in transportation scheduled to be held on September 10-13, 2019. The Conference will provide update on the progress and challenges regarding women`s mo EU bodies, governments, companies, agencies and employers associa EU tions. The Declaration has been signed by the Coordination Body of Gen der Equalty of the Government of Serbia. The 6th International Conference on Women`s Issues in Transporation is Issues in Transporation The 6th International Conference on Women`s Up to date, the Declaration has more than 170 signatories, including the Up to date, the Declaration has more than 170 5 4 Women in Transport - EU Platform for Change and for - EU Platform in Transport the Women launched and Men Women Opportunities for on Equal Declaration adopted the em- to strengthen women`s The aim was Sector. in the Transport in the opportunities for women and men ployment and equal transport system Key Issues Related to Gender Research in Transport Gender Research to Issues Related Key The research has beencus of scholars and researchers from 1970s. conferences on women`s is- enhanced by a series of international in- aimed at exchanging sues in transportation. These events were issues affecting wom- formation and research findings on emerging and travel needs personal security, safety, en`s access to mobility, events were held inand patterns. The four of these international 2004 (Chicago) DC), 1996 (Baltimore), the USA in 1978 (Washington, and 2009 (Irvine). The first one has analysed women`s travel behav- broadened the scopeiour and conditions. The second conference from primarily research to include policy-making, planning and engi- Commission, 2014: 3). The 2009 Con- neering processes (European and the impact of security, ference focused on personal safety and - to focus to gender-neu extreme events, and expanded the scope on women`s issues. Thetral transport rather than to focus solely Paris latest Conference was held in 2014 in countries, as well as the EU institutions, have conducted gender re- institutions, have conducted gender the EU countries, as well as - The Euro and on the transport related issues. search in transport - employ security, safety, identified mobility, pean Commission has achieve to at stake issues as the key ment and sustainability 2014: 5). Commission, (European transport gender-neutral

60 Dokmanović 61 edited volumes ------The research in this field may be grouped in four key areas: field may be grouped in four The research in this The studies on gender differences in transport (European transport (European The studies on gender differences in survey Committee on The EU Parliament in 2006 (European are increasing business and economic development. It will also exchange ideas on how public agencies can incorporate good gender equality poli cies and practices with approaches to oversee efforts and measure per cessed on 20 June 2019. formance. Source: http://www.trb.org/Calendar/Blurbs/175975.aspx, ac formance. Source: http://www.trb.org/Calendar/Blurbs/175975.aspx, 1. Transportation Policies and Mobility Policies and 1. Transportation (1) transportation policies and mobility, (2) health, safety and per (2) health, safety and and mobility, (1) transportation policies “bridging the gap“ in an effort to identify to effort an in gap“ the “bridging specific issues address and system, as in the transportation use and involvement to women`s Issues (Women`s findings and policies bridging research well as on outcome of the Conference An important 2014). in Transportation, of research needs for future study. was the identification sonal security, (3) sustainable mobility, and (4) the impact of mobili- and (4) the impact of mobility, (3) sustainable sonal security, of and personal lives. In this section ty on women`s professional of the above listed ar in the each stake gender issues at the paper, future as well as the research needs for eas will be presented, Trans- Issues in by the researchers (Women`s as identified study, portation, 2014: 17-23). Commission, 2014; European Institute of Gender Equality, 2017; Institute of Gender Equality, Commission, 2014; European Institute of Gender Equality; Hamilton, 2001; Peters, European and Tourism, Committee on Transport Parliament 2001; European between women and 2006) set out the nature of travel differences as well as the implications men as transport users and consumers, - the transport system. Trans this has for planning and operations of on the basis of port policies have been planned and managed However, as “common“. men`s travel patterns considering them data have shown that the asymmetry in assignment of family and and men results in asym- care responsibilities for between women metry at different time, to differ in travelling “by different means, and with different pressure ent locations over different distances, - Parlia (European to produce spatial-temporal-social integration“ 2006: v). and Tourism, ment Committee on Transport spend less time on highlighted that women and Tourism) Transport The further identified research needs are, amongst others, research needs are, amongst others, The further identified Transport contributes to developing quality of life ena- Transport too. Gender differences exists regarding travellers’ safety, 2. Health, Safety and Personal Security travel, travel less by car, and travel by slower modes than men. slower modes than and travel by less by car, travel, travel across the EU. bus and on foot more time travelling spend Women bicycle and by car, time travelling by spend more Men by contrast the member variations between there were the train. Although lev- of the harmonised data and the different states due to the lack of do- the figures indicate the importance el of economic activities, the EU, economy travel to women across mestic related or caring wom- disproportionately on women. Employed and this burden falls vulnerable other escort and childcare from and to children escort en increase the amount of time travelling.family members, that information the differential impact (or not) of related to document on trip and online social networks communication technologies evalu- between women and men for social trips; making behaviour use of automobiles and higher use of public lower ate if women’s develop outcomes; mobility unequal to leads walking and transport rail industry convenient, standards that afford comfortable, effi- identifycient travel perceived as safe by women; the relationship e.g., are the social between mode choice and human interaction, or income based? age-based, aspects of travel gender-based, 2014: 18). Issues in Transportation, (Women’s bling access to health care facilities. Well-developed transport in- Well-developed bling access to health care facilities. public transport have frastructure, and accessible and affordable health of the population. In been proved to be beneficial for the contrary, underdeveloped transportation and infrastructure, e.g. to the population in remote and rural areas, produce constraints suggests that in their right to health care. Evidence to exercise access countries, women’s rural areas, particularly in developing child care servicesto health care, maternal health and is limited - Issues in Transporta due to the mobility constraints (Women’s tion, 2014). and causes of road accidents indi- The research of the background road risks are different than comparable males, cate that women’s

62 Dokmanović 63 edited volumes - - Further research needs regarding health, safety and person- research Further Women`s perception of personal security in transport dif Women`s fers from men`s perception. They are far more often than men ex- fers from men`s perception. They are in the transport posed to harassment and sexual harassment etc.means, on streets, bus stops, train stations, By a rule, female concerned about travelling passengers in the public transport are alone at night, travelling alone with small children, or travelling rates. They also feel unsafe in through urban areas with high crime car park at night,underground stations, in a multi-storey and in crowded transport services- may occur (Europe where harassment has shown that the EU an Commission: 2014: 15-17). The study of all forms of violence, transport sector has a high incidence Economic and Social Com- of them go unreported (European many mittee, 2015: 6). mobility needs associated al security in transportation include the other factors, identifyingwith lifestyle changes due to aging and to solve the puzzle of com- research methods that can be utilized bining mobility management, assessing safety and equity, traffic mobility security, the economic consequences of improving safety, Issues in and health of female transportation users (Women’s 2014: 19). Transportation, as both pedestrians and drivers (Women’s Issues in Transportation, in Transportation, Issues (Women’s and drivers as both pedestrians trend in road ac show a divergent statistics The EU 2014: 313-424). - than men in men with fewer women women and cidents between with increasing gender gap closes fatalities, though the volved in to risk is explained by differences in attitudes age. This divergence level differences such as high testosterone taking, with biological in fa- for the higher percentage involved in young men, accounting 2014: 11). The research Commission: tal car accidents (European develop and implement effective preventive findings assist to tion. increasing travellers` safety in transporta measures aimed at structure also indicated that differences in body The research have issue with regard women and men are a key and biology between in ergo- differences crashes. Up to recently, to vulnerability in car into account in de- have not been taken nomics between gender equipment (European sign of vehicles, infrastructure and transport et al. 2005; Dellinger, Commission, 2014: 11-12; DeSantis Klinich 2005; Beck, Shults and Colley Gilbert, 2005). - - - Access to transportation and mobility is veryAccess to transportation and mobility closely linked The research needs in this area include detecting the neces- The research needs in this area include - dimensions: envi three key transport embraces Sustainable 4. Impact of Mobility on Women`s Professional and Personal Lives 4. Impact of Mobility on Women`s 3. Sustainable Mobility 3. Sustainable es (European Commission, 2014: 21-22). Their household role has a Commission, 2014: 21-22). Their household role has es (European patterns. They tend to severe impact on their mobility and mobility and for multiple pur use public transportation on shorter distances small children to school on poses within one journey (e.g. escorting or taking “trip at the market) route to their workplace and stopping mobility patterns are chaining“, outside peak hours. Their daily more complex than men, combining domestic and care giving tasks with paid employment and social obligations; as a result, women often experience “time poverty“ (Asian Development Bank, 2013: 2). They may turn down employment opportunities if the transport system does not enable them to harmonise their family obligations with employment. Research has shown that there are gender ine- and limitations to women`s em- qualities in access to a job market with the heavier burden of family ployment opportunities. Faced with small children, tend responsibilities, women, particularly those jobs closer to home and within shorter commuting distanc to take “) and trains, “intelligent transport systems tric cars and high speed the dis- mobility for all, including the elderly, social equity (ensuring etc.)abled, rural population 2014: 18-19). Commission, (European of gaso- men tend to think about the impact Research found that to act. are Women women are more likely line on pollution, but im- automobile safety and environmental more concerned about vehicle`s both women and men consider the pacts than men, but budget have less occupants in a crash. Women ability to protect the 2014: 19). in Transportation, Issues (Women’s to purchase a vehicle sary plug-in electric vehicles to conditions for women to consider to mature women encourage greater use by women, especially 2014: 19). Issues in Transportation, (Women’s ronmental sustainability (focusing on cutting emissions), economic on cutting emissions), sustainability (focusing ronmental of elec growth, decarbonisation, introduction sustainability (green

64 Dokmanović 65 edited volumes - - - The Swedish geographer Torsten Hägerstrand (1970) has Hägerstrand (1970) has The Swedish geographer Torsten The cross-analysis of specificities in women`s and men`s - needs with this regard include examin The further research dif should allow for the measurement of Official statistics developed a “time-geography“ approach that provides an analy- approach that provides developed a “time-geography“ and spatial constraints sis of the interactions between temporal their daily activities. This and experiences of individuals during accessible space for an approach enables identification of the individual`s activities at a given period of time, which contributes to observe daily travel behaviour differences between women and men. mobility helps to understand how the city moves. With this Innovative Tools for Gender Research in Transport Gender Research for Tools Innovative ferences between women and men on various economic and social women and men on various economic ferences between in the situation of grounds, so that differences and inequalities would be reflected. Govern- women and men in a transport sector institutions have been rec ments, relevant agencies and research differentiated mobility, ommended to provide statistics on gender of trip rather than number including data differentiated by length vs. passengers; accounting of trips; by reasons to travel; car drivers times of travel (rush for journeys on foot; accounting for typical travel ac travel, vs. non-rush hours, i.e. women’s hours, i.e. men’s for Earth Perspectives children to school) (Gender companying Summit, 2002: 7). ing the gender impact of transportation technologies, the gender di- of transportation technologies, the ing the gender impact women`s planning, assessing the relationship of mension in mobility transportation decision making to policyinvolvement in the and 2014: 20). Issues in Transportation, (Women’s planning outcomes with work responsibilities. They also tend to accept a lower-paid or or a lower-paid also tend to accept responsibilities. They with work in general Besides, as women closer to or at home. informal job to constraint they may face financial income than men, have lower - afford public trans of a vehicle, or to car or another type possess a port services. and man- sensitive transportation planning Gender to increasing employment opportunities agement may contribute to women. - - Research focused on specific vulnerable groups of wom- Research focused on specific vulnerable ent families, single employees, etc. ent families, single employees, etc. the transportation system en may also be helpful in adapting the research on the and facilities to their needs. For example, - with small children in To travel behaviour of working mothers that child-caring mothers` kyo metropolitan areas has shown burdens remain heavy, although the women`s employment et al. 2014). The research rate in Japan has improved (Ishigami in the other countries, findings with this respect are same Bonin and Belton-Chevallier, (Motte-Baumvol, such as France 2014) and the Netherlands (Jorritsma and Schaap, 2014). The research methodology is based on the division of the parents` up children among responsibility of dropping off/picking themselves, and how they combine this with their work-relat ed mobility. respect, it is important to mention the “Urban Pulse“ tool that respect, Pulse“ tool that mention the “Urban it is important to travel survey for the use of new perspectives has offered data. Centre d’Étude developed by the tool has been This innovative in 2010. As France of Lyon, (CETE) de l’Équipement Technique differenti- 59-69) explain, this approach Hurez and Richer (2014: in a in terms of time and space, resulting ates daily behaviour The research observes gender time-geography. pace of life the more men by exploring: are some areas or urban women and the area who does what? does than others? feminine/masculine the arrival of more women or due to become more feminized into the spa- The deeper insight of men? due to the exodus and men of the daily mobility of women tial-temporal dynamics provid- Pulse“ tool in the Rhône-Alpes region through the “Urban bear in mind in planning policyed findings that should makers and services.and operating transportation, facilities The daily than that of active men, schedule of active women is shorter is therefore differently with more time-related constraints and distances are shorter and less dependent on the paced. Travel to the city centre than car while destinations tend to be closer other facilities. The “Urban for men, due to the type of jobs and insight into the gen- Pulse“ tool may be also useful in providing in observing der time-geography daily mobility of particular small children, single par gruops such as retirees, couples with

66 Dokmanović 67 edited volumes - - - A number of researchers argue to move from interdisci- A number of researchers argue to move Gender budget analyses are particularly important tool to tool to particularly important analyses are Gender budget - warns of the importance of devel Knoll (2014: 133-139) By a rule, research indicate on differences in travel pat By a rule, research terns of women and men interpreted that they have different different men interpreted that they have terns of women and (2014: 215-223) underline values and needs. Levin and Haith-Ell result in stereotypes. often that these over-simplifications based on Therefore, they propose using the methodology similar to those existing in methods and quality requirements assessment and social im- the fields of environmental impact pact assessment. ef That is: the method should be appropriate, to participation and criti- fective, knowledge-based and open an intersectional approach in cism. These authors prefer to take and to include addressing gendered issues in transportation, inclusion. Access to the concepts of accessibility and social the opportunities for all to transportation widens (or limits) reach employment, services, education, health care, financial in- dimension, power is as dependence, so besides place and space crucial to planning and managing transportation. plinary approach to transdisciplinary approach. Black and Black (2009) propose transdisciplinary to tackle the impacts approach on public health in Aus- of urban development and transport Issarayangyun et al. (2005) developed the tralia. Similarly, transdisciplinary framework for transport research in the fuller understanding of the community and environmental health impacts of aircraft noise. Although these cited research papers lack a gender perspective, its inclusion by the gender researchers would have a value-added impact. provide “information about how much women- and men-power, and men-power, how much women- about provide “information funding goes and research and financial resources institutional regarding transport” interests vs. men’s women’s into furthering for Earth Summit, 2002: 6). Perspectives (Gender sensitive travel surveyoping specific gender He un- methods. the inter gender analysis shows that not only derlines that “the pretations of the data, but also the questionnaires reveal bias bias data, but also the questionnaires reveal pretations of the r which veil crucial aspects in the behaviou and simplifications, in particularly the behaviour of caregivers concerning mobility, their everyday lives“. - In line with the commitment to gender equality, there is a to gender equality, the commitment In line with and adopted Department for Transport In 2000, the British - of other Europe The practice of London inspired a number ban Development Municipal Department, 2013; Kail, 2011) have numerous measures in adapting the public transport to the taken needs and travel patterns of women and men, combining them with the engendered urban planning. Swedish town Malmö in- security in the public transport thankful to creased physical Good Practices United King- countries (the of the EU number trend of increasing Ireland, Austria, Italy) that support Sweden, Germany, dom, France, trans- research in transportation and adapt comprehensive gender portation servicesgendered and infrastructure to the identified The Swedish (Co-ordination for Gender Studies, 2007). differences transgender mainstreaming in the public Government included in 2002 transport development objectives port among the main Sexual Harass- the National Plan for Preventing (EIGE). In France, been adopted in 2015. has Transport ment in the Public onGuidance and Checklist for Gender Auditing published its first intended to support providers in carrying out a Public Transport their servicesgender audit in their companies and of (EIGE). In 2004, for London (TfL), the integrated body responsible for the Transport Action Plan a Women`s the Capital’s transport system, published that detailed how it would improve services for women (Transport the Gender Equalityfor London, 2010). In 2007, the TfL adopted for achieving genderScheme setting specific goals and activities equality and eliminating sexual harassment. the TfL conducted a women`s travel patternscomprehensive research to understand has been conductedand barriers to travel. The additional research travel habits of women in allto understand the issues affecting the women in both full- andequality groups (older women, disabled, employment) and to analyse trip chaining. The research part-time safe- affordability, accessibility, findings have been used to improve system, customer in- ty and security of the London public transport transport industry.formation, and position of women in the Bolzano and Malmö. Berlin an cities such as Berlin, Vienna, Munich, of Vienna - Ur and Vienna (City (Droste, 2011; Bagge and Runge)

68 Dokmanović 69 edited volumes - - - rans- . Up to date, gender issues in the Ser 6 Majority of the official data and statistics related to travel- Majority of the official data and statistics million of employees, Official statistics show that out of 1,91 Gender mainstreaming in all policies and all levels is promot Gender mainstreaming port in the Republic of Serbia for the period 2008-2015 has expired, and the new one has not been adopted yet. The Development Strategy of Railroad, Road, Air and Intermodal T 6 bian transportation sector has not been explored in depth. There is bian transportation sector has not been that would assess the state a lack of a comprehensive gender study perspective. Without it,of play in the transport sector from gender in this sector. it is not possible to mainstream gender lers, traffic, and usage of transportation means are not disaggre- gated by sex. The available data and surveys are scarce. The Time Use Surveyin 2010 and 2015 has shown in the Republic of Serbia spend almost double that, in average, employed men (30-64 yrs) - workplace than employed wom amount of time travelling to/from while employed women spend much more time trav- en (30-64 yrs), Office of the Republic elling than unemployed women (Statistical of Serbia, 2016: 117-122). women more often majority (95%) commute to work. Employed than employed men use city public transport (bus, train, trolley) (45%) or commute on foot (30%)to work, while men (47%) prefer Gender Issues in the Transport Sector in Serbia Sector Transport Gender Issues in the integrating gender perspective in the transport policy in the transport gender perspective integrating from 2011 adopted municipality has In Bolzano, the 2011). Faith-Ell, (Levin and - that includ and work responsibilities, family a plan of harmonising d according employe public transport for adapting the ed measures 2005). di Bolzano, caregivers (Comune women`s needs as ed as one of the strategic goals of the National Strategy on Gender goals of the National Strategy ed as one of the strategic RS“, no. of the Gazette 2016-2020 (“Official Equality in the period the goal has not been translated in this strategic 4/2016). However, Traf on Strategy the in namely transportation, to related strategies Gazette of 2015-2020 (“Official fic Safety in the Roads in the period no. 64/2015) and the Strategy of the Development of the the RS“, Ga- in the period of 2015-2025 (“Official Transport Waterborne no. 3/2014) of the RS“, zette - - Injured 43% 57% Pedestrian Fatality 61% 39% Injured 46% 54% Fatality Passenger 45% 55% Injured 79% 21% Driver Fatality 94% 6% Gender of the fatalities and the injured in road accidents, Republic of Gender of the fatalities and the injured in road Serbia, 2017, in percentage As the 4th SARTRE (Social Attitudes to Road Traffic Risk in As to Road Traffic Attitudes SARTRE (Social the 4th As men more frequently than women drive vehicles, they Male Female Road Traffic Safety Agency, 2018: 29-31. Safety Agency, Traffic Road Table 1. Table ences in: (a) gendered daily commuting practices according to the commuting practices according to the gendered daily ences in: (a) of active women daily commuting practices settlement type, (b) of fe- and (c) that there is an increase and female pupils/students the previ- practice in 2011 in comparison to male daily commuting 2017: 236). and Stojsin, (Cikic ous census in 2002“ survey drivers in shown, the percentage of female in 2010 Europe) partici- less than in average in all countries Serbia (27,2 %) is much pating in the survey motorcyclists (45,0%); only 4 % were in Serbia Commission, 2014: 5-6). women (European in road accidents. In 2017, are more frequently than women victims 63% of the injured persons males account for 75% of fatalities and accidents in 2017, ma- 1). Out of a total of 525 road in Serbia (Table undertaking thought jority of cases (67%) was caused by drivers` of traffic actions. The statis- less actions and incorrect performance fatalities when it comes to tics also indicate that there are more Safety Agen- (Road Traffic young men in relation to young women died while being drivers cy, 2018: 65). Majority of young men died as passengers (81%). (66%), while majority of young women of 65+ of age, half of By analysing the types of elder male fatalities 5% of elder women were them were killed as drivers, while only died as pedestrians. killed as drivers; majority of them (65%) using a car to commute to work (Statistical Office of the Republic Office of the (Statistical to commute to work using a car daily migrations also prevail in 2011). Male employees of Serbia, th- or in ano the same municipality an occupation within performing Serbia, 2011a). of the Republic of Office (Statistical er municipality are less Stojsin (2017) also show that women Research of Cikic and are differ The researchers argue that “there commuting than men.

70 Dokmanović 71 edited volumes - - There is a lack of gender analysis of transportation acces- of transportation lack of gender analysis There is a of available data and gender analysis There is also a lack sibility and affordability. As research have indicated gender pay As affordability. sibility and pay have indicated gender research Republic of Office of the income gap (Statistical and gender Dokmanovic,Serbia, 2017; et al., 2013), it Vladisavljevic 2017; that women, particularly women belonging may be concluded wom- (unemployed, single mothers, rural to vulnerable groups etc.) have faced difficulties elderly, en, women with disabilities, trans- transportation, including the public to access and afford port, of them use a bicycle and that majority by foot. or go in rural ar to and using of transport of differences in accessing eas versus urban areas. However, the available statistics on the the the available statistics on However, eas versus urban areas. work, by by mode of transport to economic active population Republic of Serbia, Office of the sex and by areas (Statistical of women in rural areas 2011), and the studies on the position (Blagojevic, 2010; Bogdanov et al., 2011) indicate unfavourable urban population re- position of rural women and men versus health care and garding accessing employment opportunities, other social services transportation due to underdeveloped of trips in public trans- system and infrastructure. Almost 95% The urban versus port have been done in urban communities. are huge. More rural disparities regarding public transport public vehicles are in than a half of the total number of the majority of investments in Belgrade; the capital also consumes and vehicles (Ministry the transport infrastructure, equipment and Infrastructure, 2017). In- of Construction, Transportation need special attention deed, the crowded urban communities if the system. However, regarding operating efficient transport total population of Ser rural areas are neglected, 25% of the education, health care, bia would have difficulties in accessing maternal care, and social services,as they have been concen- transport infra- trated in the urban areas. Underdeveloped high prices of gasoline structures, public transportation and of rural population, particularly contribute to social exclusion of vulnerable groups such as women, children, and persons with disabilities. In rural areas women mostly use bicycles or go schools or clinics, as less ru- by foot in commuting to markets, ral women than urban women possess a driving license. In the Available research indicates that women are more often often indicates that women are more research Available in of women`s safety done in Nis The gender assessment late night,By a rule, women feel unsafe to travel walk on Belgrade municipality 37% of persons who have a driving li- of persons who have municipality 37% Belgrade such as developed municipalities, female. In the less cense are men are three times more there Pirot and Toplica, Jablanica, Office of driving license (Statistical which have a than women 2017a). the Republic of Serbia, to the risk of harassment,than men exposed sexual harass- trans- of sexual violence in the public ment and other forms space. A surveyport and the public in 2007 done in Belgrade - shown that almost all female respond Raceta) and (Tanaskovic the pub- experience of sexual harassment in ents have had the lic transport. 2014). It was for Girls, findings (Centre 2014 provided similar in collaboration with the the first research of this type done City Assembly, municipalities and civil society local institutions, were exposed to organizations. More than 35% of respondents harassment, 33% to verbal abuse, 17% to theft, 9% to physical The research violence and almost 3% to sexual violence. violence as violence, showed the lack of recognition of sexual of shame that is im- and the apparent presence of feelings which is the community, posed because of the attitude of the transport and public reason that sexual violence in the public respondents are safety, space is still a taboo. Fearing for their there is a lack of surveylimited in their activities. Although on the increasing number of this issue in other towns in Serbia, of sexual violence and headlines in the media about the cases and public space sexual harassment in the public transport 2018) indicate the need of putting more efforts in (Paradjanin, prevention. or train stations, or use dark streets, stay on desert bus stops risk of sexual harassment is lightless public parking places. The also increasing in the overcrowded public transportation and stations. Good practices in other countries show that research are useful to indicate unsafe public transport and spaces as the adequate measures to prevent harassment first step to take 2014). and sexual harassment (CIVITAS,

72 Dokmanović 73 edited volumes - - - - The broad gender research in transport bring evidence that transport bring evidence gender research in The broad The research should also address the complex challenges of The research should also address the Although all these gender issues in transport are relevant in this sector is far from being a gender-neutral one. In contrary, one. gen- a gender-neutral is far from being this sector re- identified in all countries and all regions, der differences are of economic development.gardless their level differences Gender pur patterns, means of travel used, travel are related to mobility Conclusion poses, distance travelled, etc.,poses, distance travelled, the tra- indicating their linkage with market the gender segregation at the labour ditional gender roles, responsibilities. The evidence child-raising and caring and women’s issues in the and respecting women’s suggests that considering increasing have multiple benefits, such as transport policies would to employment, opportunities family reconciliation of women’s care, in- better access to health and child and work responsibilities, and increasing quality of creasing personal security and safety, everyday Supporting and conduct lives of both women and men. first step in designing, plan- ing gender research in this sector is the gender-transformative ning, operating and managing adequate field should include the research in this transport policy. However, vulnerability and social inclusion, the concepts of intersectionality, resulting in stereotypes. in order to avoid over-simplifications with other sec transportation issues and their interconnectedness employment,tors and issues, such as urban planning, environmen- rural development and tal protection, public health, education, tools and new ap- violence. Therefore, innovative gender-based proaches are needed, such as transdisciplinary, participatory, evi- The economic,dence-based and community-based research. tech- opens space for numerous nical and technological development in depth, such as as- new fields and perspectives to be examined security, improving safety, sessing the economic consequences of users, and the gender mobility and health of female transportation impact of new transportation technologies. the Republic of Serbia as well as in other countries, its transport policy Due to the lack of gender research, gen- is still gender blind. af der differences regarding usage of transport means, mobility, safety and personal security still remain accessibility, fordability, - cess to employment opportunities, health care, childcare, maternal health care, opportunities, cess to employment servicescare, social contributing to participation, and community are women in In particularly difficult position their social exclusion. and with disabilities, women with small children rural areas, women of women. Conducting and supporting other vulnerable groups this sector by using transdisciplinary,gender research in - participa tory, pro- and community-based approach would evidence-based - designing and implementing gender-trans vide a solid basis for formative policyin the Serbian transport system. unidentified. The lack of gender approach to transportation design, transportation to approach gender of lack The unidentified. women`s ac investment aggravates management and planning,

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76 Dokmanović 77 edited volumes - - In- th International Conference, Paris Paris International Conference, th Australasian Transport Research Forum, Forum, Research Transport Australasian th (2015/2005(INI)) Brussels: European Parliament. IP/B/TRAN/ST/2005_008, Parliament. IP/B/TRAN/ST/2005_008, Brussels: European Study. Transport 26/06/2006. http://www.ipolnet.ep.parl.union.eu/ipolnet/cms/lang/en/ 2019. pid/456, accessed 20 May Conference, 11-12 January cision Making, Report on the International 2001, Berlin, Germany. Association 24 (1), 6–21. Science Regional In- Transport, Summit 2002 – Energy, Earth for Gender Perspectives paper, Decision Making, 11-12 January for 2001, Berlin, Germany. formation Issues Women’s Gender time-geography. same rate for men and women? 5 the Gap”, “Bridging in Transportation, 2011 White Paper on Transport: taking stock and the way forward towards towards the way forward taking stock and 2011 White Paper on Transport: mobility sustainable , & Documentation Centre in EIGE’s Resource and transport gender issues http://www.eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/policy-areas/transport, June 2019. accessed 20 https://www.atrf.info/papers/2005/2005_Issarayangyun_Black_Black_ accessed 28 June 2019. Samuels.pdf, 14-16 April 2014, 59-69. https://wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/confer ence/wiit-paris2014/pages/Proceedings_The_5th_International_Confer accessed 21 June 2019. ence_on_WIiT_1.pdf, metropoli- behavior of working mothers in Tokyo 2014. Travel Taniguchi. children and their resi- tan area, particularly addressing those with small 5 “Bridging the Gap”, Issues in Transportation, dential areas. Women’s ternational Conference, Paris 14-16 April 2014, 71-80. https:// ternational Conference, - wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/conference/wiit-paris2014/pages/Pro accessed ceedings_The_5th_International_Conference_on_WIiT_1.pdf, 21 June 2019. Aircraft Noise and Research: for Transport Framework Transdisciplinary Environmental Health. 28 Women and and 2006. Women and Tourism. Parliament, Committee on Transport European De- for Information Transport, Summit 2002 – Energy, Earth for Gender Perspectives 1970. What about people in regional science? Papers of the Hägerstrand, Torsten. Background Countries, Developed in Transport and Gender 2001. Kerry. Hamilton, Cyprien. 2014. Does the city`s pulse beat at the Hurez, Christophe, and Richer, European Parliament resolution of 9 September 2015 on the implementation of the of the of 9 September 2015 on the implementation European Parliament resolution Selected references of studies on on of studies references (EIGE). Selected for Gender Equality Institute European Ishigami Takahiro, Izumi Noriyuki, Hirata Shinichi, Ohmori Nobuaki, and Ayako Shinichi, Ohmori Nobuaki, and Ayako Izumi Noriyuki, Hirata Ishigami Takahiro, Issarayangyun Tharit, Black John, Black Deborah and Samuels Stephens. 2005. Issarayangyun Tharit, Black John, Black Deborah and Samuels Stephens. 2005.

th ------International Confer International th 7 April 2018. https://www.vice.com/rs/article/8x- , Paris 14-16 April 2014 International Conference, th International Conference, Paris 14-16 April 2014, 215-223. https:// International Conference, th en’s Issues in Transportation, “Bridging the Gap”, 5 the Gap”, “Bridging in Transportation, Issues en’s households with young children organize their travel behavior? . Wom their travel behavior? with young children organize households , 97-108. https://wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf. Paris 14-16 April 2014 ence, - org/conference/wiit-paris2014/pages/Proceedings_The_5th_Internation accessed 21 June 2019. al_Conference_on_WIiT_1.pdf, ber 2011. in Transportation, Issues and consultant.trian transport planner Women’s 5 “Bridging the Gap”, - of public trans process equality in the planning development. Sustainable port in the city of Malmö, VTI report 712. dual-earner families in Gender differences in escorting children among 5 Gap”, “Bridging the Issues in Transportation, region. . Women’s the Paris wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/conference/wiit-paris2014/pages/Proceedings_ 21 June 2019. accessed The_5th_International_Conference_on_WIiT_1.pdf, International Conference, Paris 14-16 April 2014,International Conference, pp. 81-93. - https://wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/conference/wiit-paris2014/pag ac es/Proceedings_The_5th_International_Conference_on_WIiT_1.pdf, cessed 21 June 2019. public transport. Vice. k89v/devojke-u-sest-reci-o-najgorim-stvarima-koje-su-dozivele-u-gsp-u, accessed on 23 June 2019. 133-139. https://wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/conference/wiit-par is2014/pages/Proceedings_The_5th_International_Conference_on_ 2019. accessed 21 June WIiT_1.pdf, “Bridging the Issues in Transportation, in Swedish transport planning. Women’s 5 Gap”, groung Paper in Preparation for CSD-9, Background paper, Gender Per paper, in Preparation for CSD-9,groung Paper Background spectives for Earth Summit 2002 – Energy, Transport, Information for Deci- for Information Transport, Summit 2002 – Energy, Earth for spectives sion Making, 11-12 January 2001, Berlin, Germany. Jorritsma, Peter and Schaap, Nina T.W. 2014. Families on the run: How do Dutch How do Dutch on the run: Families 2014. T.W. and Schaap, Nina Jorritsma, Peter Kail E.- , Barcelona, 5th Octo in Vienna – an overview 2011. Gender Implementation mobility surveysKnoll, Bente. 2014. Gendered – Practical Experiences by an Aus- Motte-Baumvol, Benjamin, Bonin, Olivier and Belton-Chevallier, Leslie. 2014. Leslie. 2014. Belton-Chevallier, Motte-Baumvol, Benjamin, Bonin, Olivier and Gender perspective on public transport on public transport Charlotta. 2011. Gender perspective Levin, Lena, and Faith-Ell, , Discussion Paper nо. 2011-11. nо. , Discussion Paper 2011. Gender and Transport OECD. they experienced in the city Iva. Girls in six words on the worst things Paradjanin, in Less Developed Countries: A Back 2001. Gender and Transport Deike. Peters, Levin, Lena and Faith-Ell, Charlotta. 2014. Methods and tools for gender mainstreaming Charlotta. 2014. Methods and tools for gender Levin, Lena and Faith-Ell,

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- - Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Belgrade: Belgrade: the year 2017. for of Serbia Republic state of road safety in the - http://www.abs.gov.rs/admin/upload/docu Safety Agency. Road Traffic accessed ments/20181016102526-statistical_report_2017_english.pdf, 15 June 2019. http:// sex, by municipalities/cities. by an occupation, performin population ac stat.gov.rs/en-US/oblasti/popis/popis-2011/popisni-podaci-eksel-tabele, cessed 23 June 2019. outside of mode occupation home, at permanent address, by that perform to work, age, and sex,transport areas. http://stat.gov.rs/en-US/oblasti/ by accessed 23 June 2019. popis/popis-2011/popisni-podaci-eksel-tabele, Report on Performing Communal Activities in the Republic Serbia in Serbia in in the Republic Activities Communal on Performing 2017. Report - 2016. http://www.mgsi.gov.rs/lat/dokumenti/izvestaji-o-obavljanju-ko June 2019. accessed 15 munalnih-delatnosti, driving licence, by sex and region, on the date of 04.11.2017. by driving licence, 23-32. public transportation in Belgrade. Temida, Bank. task teams. The World for men: Tools women and work for Bank. The World D.C.: Washington, Bank Staff, World for ance of London. of the on The Implementation Europe Executive Committee For Commission of the Strengthening Some Activities for Priorities of the UNECE Reform - , Seventy-first session, Ge of gender issues in transport Review Committee: neva, 24-26 February 2009, ECE/TRANS/2009/8, 17 December 2008. fro Serbia, Evidence Countries: Balkans Gender Pay Gap in the Western Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. Serbia. bia, 2010 and 2015. Belgrade: Statistical Office of the Republic of Belgrade: Daily migrations of the active of the active migrations Republic of Serbia. 2011. Daily Statistical Office of the population active Republic of Serbia. 2011a. Economically Statistical Office of the of Ser Use in the Republic Time Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2016. Statistical report on the on the report Safety Agency. 2018. Statistical Traffic Republic of Serbia, Road Republic of Serbia, Ministry of Construction, Transportation and Infrastructure. and Infrastructure. Serbia, MinistryRepublic of Transportation of Construction, Number of persons who possess Number of persons who possess Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2017a. 2007. Survey Branislava and Raceta, Milena. sexual harassment in on Tanaskovic, – making transport and infrastructure 2010. Social development Bank. The World Guid- Operational Transport: 2013. Mainstreaming Gender in Road Bank. The World , London: Mayor 2007- 2010 Scheme Тransport for London. 2010. Gender Equality Nations Economic to the United Report UN Economic Commission for Europe, Suncica. 2013. Ivanovic, Sonja and Vujić, Vladisavljević, Nevena, Avlijaš, Marko, Women and Men in Serbia 2017. Women Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2017. - - International Confer International th International Conference, Irvine, 10-13 Irvine, International Conference, 10-13 th ence, Paris 14-16 April 2014, https://wiit-paris2014.sciencesconf.org/ 14-16 ence, Paris conference/wiit-paris2014/pages/Proceedings_The_5th_International_ 20 June 2019. accessed Conference_on_WIiT_1.pdf, , Belgrade: FREN Foundation for the Advance- FREN Foundation for the , Belgrade: and Macedonia Montenegro ment of Economics. cessed 20 June 2019. September 2019, http://www.trb.org/Calendar/Blurbs/175975.aspx, ac September 2019, http://www.trb.org/Calendar/Blurbs/175975.aspx, Women’s Issues in Transportation, 6 in Transportation, Issues Women’s Women’s Issues in Transportation, “Bridging the Gap”, 5 Gap”, “Bridging the Issues in Transportation, Women’s

80 Dokmanović 81 edited volumes rodna istraživanja, rodni - slože na obzirom S isključenosti. socijalne saobraćajnog sektora, nost problematike rad sugeriše primenu interdisciplinarnih, - istraži participativnih i transdisciplinarnih iskustava svakodnevnih uzorkovanje vanja, i istraživanja na nivou lokalnih zajednica. U Republici Srbiji, rodna perspektiva još uvek nije uključena u saobraćaja. politike Nedostatak rodnog pristupa planiranju, sektoru ovom u upravljanju i koncipiranju zapošljava- mogućnosti umanjuje ženama nja i otežava im pristup uslugama - zdrav doprinosi što deci, o brige i zaštite stvene iden- Rad isključenosti. socijalnoj njihovoj tifikuje potrebu sprovođenja i podrške na sektoru ovom u istraživanjima rodnim urodnja- ka korak prvi je što nivoima, svim vanju saobraćaja i javnog prevoza, pod- razvoja i sticanju poboljša- ekonomskog nju svakodnevnog života žena i sredi- ruralnim u i urbanim u i muškaraca nama. Cilj ovog rada je da doprinese razvijanju rodno transformativnih politika u sektoru saobraćaja u Republici Srbiji, čime bi se obezbedilo da se usluge u ovom sektoru zasnivaju - na identifikova mobilnosti obrascima i potrebama nim i muškaraca. žena Ključne reči: obrasci mobilnosti, saobraćaj, urodnjava- nje, Republika Srbija I pored prividne rodne neutralnosti sekto- neutralnosti rodne prividne pored I ra saobraćaja, iskustva žena i muškaraca se bitno razlikuju u - saobraćaj korišćenju nih sistema i usluga, naročito u pogledu njihove pristupačnosti, priuštljivosti, bezbednosti i lične sigurnosti. Zbog svoje saobraćaja istraživanja androcentričnosti, različitosti. rodne detektuju ne pravilu po Predmet ovog rada su rodna istraživanja saobraćaja i ključna pitanja koja otvara, bez- zdravlje, razvoj, ekonomski su što kao bednost, lična sigurnost, održiva mobil- nost i uticaj saobraćaja na profesionalni i inovativ- pregled daje Rad žena. život lični saobraćaja istraživanja rodnih metoda nih sektora ovog urodnjavanja praksi dobrih i na osnovu primene nalaza ovih istraživa- nja. Primećuje se da postoji opasnost da se rodne različitosti u pogledu obrazaca mobilnosti žena i muškaraca tumače pre- terano pojednostavljeno, što može da rezultira stereotipima. Stoga istraživanja u ovoj oblasti treba da uključe koncept društvene ranjivosti intersekcionalnosti, i Sažetak RODNA ISTRAŽIVANJA SEKTORA ISTRAŽIVANJA RODNA SAOBRAĆAJA: KLJUČNA PITANJA, ZA JAVNE I RELEVANTNOST METODI SRBIJI POLITIKE U ZORICA MRŠEVIĆ [email protected] SVETLANA JANKOVIĆ SVETLANA JANKOVIĆ Institute of Social Sciences Institute [email protected] Coordination Body for Gender Equality Gender Body for Coordination

82 Mršević / Janković 83 edited volumes 1 During recent decades, international humanitarian organizations and organizations humanitarian international decades, recent During the governments of countries affected by natural catastrophes/disasters and climate change have highlighted the fact that more than events such of effects other suffer and lives their lose women causedis that phenomenon a is numbers victim in disparity This men. statussocioeconomic unequal the – with linked inherently and – by of women. In alleviating disaster risks, women and men are limited to the roles and responsibilities they are afforded at home and in society. Gender roles constructed in an exclusive manner result in respon- social potentials, and identities group and personal different differen- gender-based Thus, expectations. and behaviours sibilities, tiation leads to gender inequality in all socio-economic processes, vulnerabil- in reductions opportunities: and roles different including ity and disaster risks, improved disaster management, anticipation of possible damages, and recovery from these. Due to all these equal- participate must men and women that clear is it differences, ly in determining ways to reduce the risks of a disaster at the community level (national, regional and international) without - discrimi aspects) (and experts gender of inclusion The exclusion. and nation - guide program and policies gender-sensitive of development the in genderfor prerequisite valid a creates This ensured. be should lines climateand catastrophes/disasters of risk the reducing while equality It effective. more adaptation community-based making and change is necessary to integrate gender sensitive aspects/criteria into the mon- implementing, designing, planning, of processes and initiatives orderIn projects. and programs reduction risk evaluating and itoring to adapt to climate change and mitigate the consequences This text was created as part of the project: “Social Transformation in the This text was created as part of the project: “Social Transformation Integration - Multidisciplinary funded by Process of European Approach”, Development, no. III 47010. The the Ministry of Science and Technological project is implemented by the Institute of Social Sciences in Belgrade. 1 Abstract Gender Aspects of Natural AspectsGender of Natural Catastrophes/Disasters - - - 2 natural catastrophes/disasters, climate change, gen- stemming from this, but also to reduce the risk of - catastrophes/di and needs the to pertaining established be must parameters sasters, interests of women. These needs are a prerequisite for supporting independent initiatives women’s and for the financingof environ mentally-friendly technologies for the sustainable use of natural resources. Keywords: der roles, gender prevention, responsibility, recovery, building resistance. Catastrophes and disasters are frequent phenomena in cer Catastrophes and disasters are frequent Asian on Disaster Risk Reduction. Ministerial Conference - disasters stem from geological, mete Natural catastrophes and 2 tain parts of the world, ranging from devastating floods to tain parts of the world, ranging from devastating cyclones, erosion, drought,tornadoes, storms/tidal surges, river bank salinity in ground water, intrusion and expansion, arsenic contamination as well as human more. There is also risk of earthquakes, and many hazards such as infrastruc induced catastrophes and disasters, and theywhether Catastrophes/disasters, more. many and collapse tural action, interrupt the pro- be natural in origin or induced by human of a country.cess of social and economic development factors Many including geographicalcontribute to catastrophes and disasters, of the major rivers; highand topographical features; confluences mean sea level; rise of seamonsoon rainfall; climate change; low measures; deforestation;level; siltation of rivers; flood control consumption of excessive use of chemical fertilizers; earthquakes; ground water; over fishing shrimp cultivation and unplanned urbani- zation and industrialization (AMCDRR, 2014: 11). orological, biological and technological sources. However, their resources. However, orological, biological and technological competences and skills of thesults and effects also heavily call on the on catastrophes/ social sciences. In developing a social perspective into consideration is that catastro- disasters, the main factor to take upon human communitiesphes/disasters have significant effects 2018: 51-61). (Öcal, Introduction

84 Mršević / Janković 85 edited volumes - - - - 3 While the origins an onset of catastrophes/disasters are gener While the origins an onset of catastrophes/disasters Since it is not possible to escape catastrophes/disasters, it is catastrophes/disasters, possible to escape Since it is not “Catastrophes and disasters impact different groups of people“Catastrophes and reduce the effects of natural disasters. Sirens are to be erected at initially in suburban municipalities. 316 locations in the city, The new system will be completed soon, and will significantly prevent 3 fect Serbia – including fires, earthquakes, chemical and radioactive fires, earthquakes, fect Serbia – including oc and terrorism, while one of the most common hazards, epidemics 2019 Primarily for this reason, from September currences is flooding. floods, heavy for earthquakes, a new warning system rainfall and Serbian capital, Bel- dangers will become active in the other many major will be modelled on those of the world’s grade. This new system The Mayor of Belgrade stressed and Moscow. cities, such as Rome ingly which are becoming increas that natural catastrophes/disasters, but to climate change, cannot be predicted, common in Serbia due and improved. These pre- preventative measures can be developed the effects of natural ca- ventative measures will significantly mitigate tastrophes/disasters (RTS, 2019). necessary as their effects to them and to manage to learn to live with of hazards in the are lots of types as possible. There great an extent - are approxi can affect Serbia.There around 15 of them world, and may also af types of hazards in the world – which mately 15 different ally described by science, they need to also be addressed by the socialally described by science, they need to also social impacts and processessciences in terms of their consequences, of social recovery building. Catastrophes/disasters have and resilience and other aspects. sociological, psychological, economic, legal, gender, of care, that needs to be han- There are e.g. necessity for various types disaster man- for any dled by the related social sciences. It is impossible the social conse- agement plan to be realistic without considering approach of current socialquences of catastrophes/disasters. The by all means be made fromresearch on catastrophes/disasters should perspective. a primarily gender-sensitive socio-economic and environ- in different ways, based on their unique agencymental contexts. Without giving voice and to vulnerable groups it is difficult to deter particularly hit by all catastrophes and disasters, groups. The speechlessnessmine specific impacts of hazards on such ability toof these groups hinders planning for disaster risk reduction’s address their specific vulnerabilities. Therefore, assessing and - d that catastrophes/disasters in our worl It is a well-known fact now have limitedIn the context of gender inequalities, women “The that women (and gender evidence base recommends Gendered Impact of Catastrophes Impact Gendered wider and their effects have influenced have increased quantitatively, major women, too. For example, during a masses, more and more 2014 flood event, affected but women were found to be particularly and in the flood-planning response they were weakly represented 2018: 2). overall decision-making processes (Cvetković, that they possess the skillsimpact and control, regardless of the fact recoveryand capacities for responding to crisis and (Mršević & Jank ović, 2019: 66). Experiences of recent infamous catastrophes/disasters losses shows that womenthat caused significant human and material to become victims of natural ca- are more vulnerable to and more likely also have to bear the maintastrophes/disasters than men. Women the household and family.workload of rehabilitation, especially within and socio-economicIt is presumed that this is related to socio-cultural traditional ethicalfactors. Socio-cultural factors include pre-existing the role and status of women inand behavioural standards that define According to these standards, a womansociety and in the family. care of the house and be responsible for servingshould take all mem- especially men and seniors.bers of the family, be considered a homogenous group when assessing should not men) factors such as age, sex, race,the impacts of development activities, as which in vulnerability, and ethnicity intersect to influence a person’s turn influences the overall benefits of activities. Nor should all women as a whole, automatically and necessarily be considered more vulnera- characterization of costs and benefits requires anble than men. Full understanding of vulnerability in a given population, and characteriza- approach to risk reductiontion of structural barriers. Gender-blind addressing vulnerability to hazards should be contextualised to local should be contextualised vulnerability to hazards addressing using participatoryconditions - that will facili and inclusive approaches priorities of their challenges, by local communities tate vocalization act to address these their agencies to while also enhancing and needs, 2019). challenges” (Pincha,

86 Mršević / Janković 87 edited volumes - - - Risk of catastrophes and disasters as a separate factor, together and disasters as a separate factor, Risk of catastrophes Fundamental principles and practical lessons from gender, dis- principles and practical lessons from gender, Fundamental with other social and economic factors (unemployment,with other social and social insecuri- decline and racial inequality), has led to a labour migration, gender ty, cline im- the majority of the population. This de in living conditions of mental as they have limited material, physical, pacts mainly women, dec to change the existing situation. In recent and moral recourses - while potential gender inequalities, can further promote management to service-providers, economic benefits ly providing funders, banks, etc.,necessary so it is which benefits the perspective from to question 2016: 4). (Shreve, are assessed.” omic fac together with other social-econ ades, the risk of catastrophes, inequality, gender and racial tors (unemployment, social vulnerability, men outside of their district,seasonal migration of or even region, country)the main a deterioration of living conditions to has brought affect women. Due to genderpopulation of the regions, which mostly women are often thought –traditions at family and community levels, to change the existingby both themselves and others – to be unable situation (Kasymova, 2008). been used to identifyaster and development literature have the prima- ry and diversity, areas for distributive concerns (i.e., heterogeneity rep- agency, formal and informal rights, displacement, and ‘active’ disaster re- evidence on disaster impacts, Additionally, resentation). which are useful in help- sponses, and lessons identified for planning, are highlighted. empowerment concerns, women’s ing to prioritize “Women to have better skills in organization of essential are reported supplies and emergency amenities, saving important documents, and 2018:(Cvetković, household” dealing with the financial matters of the an advantage, but also per 15). This should be perceived not only as for a more embedded sense of prioritizing the securityhaps as a proxy motivation for arrangingof the household, which gives women greater emphasizing their role inhousehold and family concerns. This includes emergency management messaging for preparing the family for a possible hazard situation. Men appeared to be more confident in managing an emergency the perception that they were situation, including preparedness and reaction, including physical better prepared to take women had fewer opportunities to maintain asponse. Additionally, which may lead tohigh level of social networking in the community, - - - and ready oactive pr participation. Women are still in many places throughout the world, in Serbia places are still in many Women Based on the current quantitative research, there is an increas- research, there the current quantitative Based on But gender is not a merely a variable that assesses the differ ences between men and women in the wake of catastrophes/disasters.ences between men and women in the wake It is also the manifested construct of living conditions, demographic Gendered Social Roles Gendered which leads to their lowertoo, controlled by family and community, which in turn limits their social and professional/work mobility, physical factor influencing this includemobility and capacities. Socio-economic crisis, the financial con- the following: because of the global economic decreased, which has bur tribution of men to the family budget has tims of events such as floods, lessening economic losses, and reducingas floods, lessening economic losses, and tims of events such empower Thus, actions to develop strategies to other consequences. of and promote the synergistic cooperation women, educate men, at the same preparation, while also perhaps, both genders in effective stereotypes.time, overcoming gender (Kasymova, 2008). Genderdened women with greater responsibility are identifiedroles during and after natural catastrophes/disasters positions of women and menbased on the traditional status and social at family and community levels. As- a rule, men are responsible for liqui reducing its destructive con- dating the source of the disaster and also in Serbia, men Typically sequences on assets, property and people. were engaged in military service, which they were trained to during manage emergency situations, which helps in their engagement in men are perhaps seen withinovercoming catastrophes/disasters. Thus perception of being more a more generalized - women express might then underpin less informed. This them being ing TV information and of flood hazard as the main channel programs 2018: 16). (Cvetković, education in order methods research, mixed gender-focused ing need for further and at a local gender discrepancies in greater depth to contextualize t plan- target and tailor disaster managemen scale. Doing so can better response, and recoveryning and preparedness, campaigns. education in fewer vic Such work could result, significantly, perhaps even quite when situations call for

88 Mršević / Janković 89 edited volumes - - - - After catastrophes/disasters, the survival of family members – and economic attributes, behaviours and beliefs reflecting gender and beliefs reflecting attributes, behaviours and economic in this context.power relations Research shows that, before a disaster, own risk as suf perceive their of both genders usually individuals many ficiently low, reflecting an ‘it will not happen to me’ set of beliefs.me’ set of As will not happen to reflecting an ‘it ficiently low, a result, protectivenot feel the need to invest voluntarily in people do (Cvet their house or buying insurance measures such as strengthening technological sources (television, claimed that 2018: 3). Women ković, risks, and family informed them of possible press, and the Internet) on col- reported being more reliant while their male counterparts for their friends and their professional networks leagues, neighbours, are typi- be explained by the fact that women information. This might making house, for their work and child rearing, cally confined to the onvarious sources of interpersonal communicati them isolated from it 2018: 14). However, members. (Cvetković, apart from other family more realistic in evaluatingmay also be the case that women are just household, many Women’s personal and household preparedness. may lead to a focus that al- child-rearing, and related responsibilities responsibility of beinglows them less time to consider the additional were largely re- prepared for a possible natural hazard event. Women and expressed a highersponsible for preparing family members, the household ready forknowledge of stocking provisions and getting prac 2018: 2). Being more a potential natural hazard event (Cvetković, tical and more oriented towards everyday’s needs, much higher per water storage and a highercentage of women are reported to having Signifi- 2018: 10-11). proportion of food supplies then men (Cvetković, they had secured copies of im- cantly more women also reported that documents in a safe place.portant personal, financial and insurance to be the responsibility of theincluding children and seniors – is seen are also responsible for the integrity of the house andwomen. Women They are responsible for the majority of household res- other property. They participate in pre- of a natural disaster. toration works in the wake paratory and construction work, serve andall members of the family, These care of the children, seniors, and ill members of the family. take women inside the house, isolating themresponsibilities mostly keep from the outside world. All questions regarding the life of the commu- including the lives of women exposed to the risk of natural ca- nity, tastrophes/disasters, are discussed at public meetings usually without - - - - mar and women being women occur, women occur, and lower levels of involvement in community networksand lower levels of involvement preferential treatment for preferential treatment Once recognized, catastrophes/disasters and disaster prepared- Once recognized, One point of interest is the view of anthropologists of disaster of anthropologists of interest is the view One point less exposed to greater risk. Risks are likely to increase in magnitude andrisk. Risks are likely exposed to greater such with other developmental challenges complexity when combined It is and continuing environmental degradation. as growing inequality context dynamics in the catastrophes/disaster obvious that gender non-governmental and interna- should be of interest to governmental, only at the policytional organizations and projects, and not level. When their impact will continue todisaster risks are not effectively managed, achieve sustainable growth,undermine efforts to reduce poverty and Addressing continue to grow. and various types of social inequality will build resilience through initia- these risks will require investments that partnerships within and with tives that involve forming gender-equal solutions. These strategieslocal communities as the cornerstone of serve and reduce the risks stem- to build more resilient communities addressing adaptation to climate changeming from disasters. Policies of good governance and gen- must also be aligned with the principles should be perceived not merely as vic and communities der equality, tims of climate change and catastrophes/disasters, but as actors andtims of climate change and catastrophes/disasters, 2017: 4). drivers of resilience (Huairou Commission, facilitate or provide openingsness can also be seen as opportunities to groups. Successfulfor the empowerment of traditionally marginalized depend on public authorities’community-based management actions and recoveryapproaches to mainstreaming of the preparedness of women and men after disaster events, and how well gender-different realities are identified and dealt with. Thus, to assist public authorities management plans, it is necessary in organizing gender-sensitive to know how people prepare for and react to catastrophic events in dif ferent ways from a gender perspective. This should also be a priority and sectional analysis of vulnerabilities as shaped by racism and sexism. vulnerabilities as shaped by racism and sectional analysis of family a correlation between cultures where There appears to be their participation (Kasymova, 2008). Gender roles within the house- 2008). Gender roles (Kasymova, their participation for the successful direct implications may have hold and community situations. of hazard mitigation, and management prevention, disaster ex- challenge the assumed uniformity of who stress a need to for an inter manner that feminist scholars argue periences in the same ginalization

90 Mršević / Janković 91 edited volumes - - - - integrating gender and - management practices includes the pro

The protection of human rights and the promotion of genderThe protection of human rights and the Each year, the commemorations of the anniversary of the 2004Each year, equality must lie at the heart of reducing the risk of disasters andequality must lie at the heart of reducing building a society’s 2015: 8). The author of resilience to them (Čović, but promotes a mindset of en- the paper does not give ready answers, couraging non-discriminatory, creative collaboration both of and within confronting catastro- in all social groups, including both genders phes/disasters. One pathway for learning for researchers and emergencyfor researchers who needmanagement practitioners, more to identify – to contribute both research and practice – through - perceive, preparehow women and men differentiation in ing gender also factor react to natural catastrophes/disasters, experience, and for, Examples Based Community in the Make: Recovery ing in different socio-cultural and economic backgrounds. For this, it is and economic backgrounds. ing in different socio-cultural net preparedness by using necessary gender-sensitive to promote that and advocate for women, including those works that appeal to have a long history issuesof assessing and addressing public health Bearing in healthcare providers). social, educational and (e.g., women’s include situations in Serbia, it would be good to mind the typical risk school curricula (e.g. education on in children’s flood hazard education a and cooperation in the context of creating gender empowerment gement that has resilience and risk mana current and future population being prepared for and over with the purpose of knowledge and skills) not just flooding, but alsocoming problems related to risk scenarios; other natural hazards. relationships in emergency motion of success stories. For example, in Bangladesh, the introduc motion of success stories. For example, management is credited disaster tion of improved gender-responsive Sidr in 2007 when com- with a lower loss of female lives from Cyclone before implementationpared to catastrophes/disasters that occurred 2018: 15). of this policy (Cvetković, commu- with tsunami) that devastated many twin disaster (earthquake nities in Southeast and South Asia is used to raise awareness of the necessity of improving the levels of local communities’ resilience. The catastrophe challenged and overwhelmed the capacity of governments, In March 2011, Japan was hit by the devastating Tohoku Tohoku In March 2011, Japan was hit by the devastating s.in affected countrie and communities responders non-governmental servegreat opportunity to them with a it also provided theHowever, lessons learn many their capacities, and population, enhance affected to, and respond for, abilities to prepare their organizations’ to improve recover from a disaster’s damaging impact (AMCDRR, 2014: 7). The in- ng also reacted to the catastrophe by adopti ternational community for Action 2005 -2015, and subsequentlyFramework firstly the Hyogo 2015-2030, both for Disaster Risk Reduction the Sendai Framework and de- inclusion of women and men in all acting documents with clear for Action (2005-2015) The Hyogo Framework cision-making roles. (HFA) of Nations and Communities to Disasters Building the Resilience is required describe and detail the work that is the first plan to explain, es with and actors for reducing disaster loss from all different sectors building reducing disaster losses by 2015 by the goal of substantially to disasters. Gender aspectsthe resilience of nations and communities for action, as well as theare present in all five of its outlined priorities achieving disaster resilienceguiding principles and practical means for is a 15-year voluntarythat are proposed. The Sendai Framework - that the state bears the pri non-binding agreement which recognizes mary responsibility should be role in reducing disaster risk, but that including local government, the privateshared with other stakeholders It aims for the substantial reduction ofsector and other stakeholders. and health and in the eco- disaster risk and losses to lives, livelihoods nomic, assets of persons, social, cultural and environmental physical, as the expected outcomes. Un- businesses, communities and countries Improving disaster preparedness for effectiveder the Sendai priority, the need to empower womenimmediate disaster response mandates public affairs. The promotion ofand people with disabilities to conduct response, recovery,gender equality and universally available rehabilita- crucial elements. tion and reconstruction stand out as its 9 according to the Richter Scale. In addi- of magnitude earthquake area affected by the earth- tion to the tremendous damage in the Plant also suffered damage. Power Nuclear the Fukushima quake, Fukushima in Ocean left the communist of The waves of the Pacific ruins. That afternoon, a massive tsunami was triggered along the itself Japanese coast, people. The earthquake killing nearly 19,000 did not cause much damage to the power plant, but the tsunami

92 Mršević / Janković 93 edited volumes - - The gathering and publishing of survival testimonies of wom- - generators intend depots and diesel flooded fuel which followed accident. in the event of an production ed for electricity Ja- While the eighth anniversary to commemorate pan worked - of the ca campaigned to highlight Fukushima the community of tastrophe, spot in Japan. Surfers considered it the best surfing many why in solidar Japan began appearing at the events from other parts of ity. A surfers’ tourism campaign began in summer 2019, as a way campaign began in summer 2019, as A surfers’ tourism ity. the ca- community to not only overcome for the heavily affected is an optimistic recovery.tastrophe, but to provide Thus Fukushima tsunami and nucle- dealt with an earthquake, a special place, which equality time, demonstrating how people’s ar disaster at the same success. as vital to organizational be utilized and diversity might life for both genders, and will con- is a part of The sea in Fukushima 2019). Novilist.hr, tinue to be so (Portal en in local communities in Southeast Asia Yolanda hit by Typhoon as an act of resistance to the chronic crises of everydayworked pov- Go, 2016). These stories erty and gender based inequality (Ocampo that devas- Yolanda Typhoon showed how the destruction of Super countries increased the leveltated the Philippines and neighbouring of everyday but also the inequality of power violence and poverty, dominate positions of gov- holders. While it is a fact that men hold in the Philippines as well as allernance in existing political structures from positions of leader across the world, the erasure of women and participatoryship, the neglect of their roles in community devel- acted on their bodies, andopment processes, the gendered violence catastrophes/disasters, aretheir heightened vulnerabilities during remain weak, and continue tonot a natural process. Legal provisions and community mem- overlook the role of civil society organizations both disaster preparednessbers themselves, particularly women in countryand broader development efforts in the (Oxfam Internation- lack of prioritization of theal, 2014: 19-21). There is also a persisting in- segments of society, realities and needs of the most vulnerable women and children, persons with disabilities, cluding “the elderly, indigenous peoples, informal settler families, internally displaced peoples in conflict or insurgency areas, and communities that are in small islands or geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas” Go, 2016: 95). (Ocampo - - women and men re- of increasingly empowered to take on leading roles in on leading to take increasingly empowered be disaster resilience, in the wider scope of security development.disaster resilience, in A brief conclusion to this paper is that both women and men is that both women to this paper A brief conclusion Resilience of a community, a country, and a continent a region Resilience of a community, To expand on this, there should be comprehensive land use expand on this, there should be comprehensive To quires women to building Gendered Disaster Risk Management Risk Disaster Gendered combine comple- that are able to seen as valuable resources should be mentary and recovery. preparedness, response, maximize strengths to are re- so-called subjective factors of security who They both comprise sponsible for achievement, preservation of security and development of the subjects of endangerment (Ivanović,who are differentieted 2018: dialogue greater promotion of gender-related 176-203). For this reason, the respective strengths that aims to leverage One response to this stems civil society organizations dealing with gender stems civil society organizations dealing One response to this disaster underline the necessity of understanding equality issues, which system, investment inrisk, strengthening the disaster risk management resilience, improvement ofdisaster risk reduction in order to strengthen a social gender rela- readiness for effective response, and (re-)building 2019: 7). tionship “better than it was” (Đukić and Petronijević, which Framework, starts from the so-called Disaster Risk Reduction usually includes response, recovery of a rehabilitation in the wake and approaches to disaster management also include pre- Current disaster. action points relat Key paredness, prevention and mitigation phases. ing to planning, organizing, capacity building, systematizing communi- ing to planning, organizing, capacity building, under the phases ofcations are, along with others, neatly categorized Disaster’. The concept‘Before Disaster’, ‘During Disaster’ and ‘After put through systematic ef and practice of reducing disaster risks are including through reducedforts to analyse and manage causal factors, of people and property,exposures to hazards, decreased vulnerability intuitive management of land and the environment, pre- and improved Disaster Risk Reduction andparedness for adverse events (Philippine Management Act of 2010). plans, hazard maps, local disaster risk reduction management (DRRM) plans, training programs, and warning systems in place. All these activities are currently predominantly led by men, with little formal participation of women, or with rare recognition of their existing roles in local DRRM systems. In the absence of the establishment of clear

94 Mršević / Janković 95 edited volumes - - plan might be to guide national gov The purposes of a DRRM “Thefield has highlighted the analysis of the findings from the authors agree whith this. “Women affected by catastro- Many ernment to allocate 5% of the local government budget to DRR, 5% of the local government budget to ernment to allocate to access funding from national government,help the community to manage- technical capacity in disaster strengthen local government’s ment, to identify plans in anticipa- infrastructure priorities and action in pre- events, to train local actors of both sexes tion of severe hazard equal and to promote safe, gender paring for catastrophes/disasters, reduc Elements included in a disaster risk and resilient communities. connections between disaster preparedness and the chronic crises of preparedness and between disaster connections these drop- and gender equality, challenges development poverty, for implementation capital resources with insufficient down checklists Go. 2016: 96). (Ocampo disaster preparedness do little for ks to be of hazards, vulnerabilities and ris tion plan are identification te- reduction and management approaches/stra managed, disaster risk coordinationgies, agency roles, responsibilities and lines of authority, phases, budgetary- resources. Identifi in pre-disaster and post-disaster and actions needed to addresscation of measures should include steps include expansion of socialvulnerabilities and gaps; examples of this and credit facilities, installa- security coverage, improving access to loan of standard operatingtion of early warning devices, implementation to safe areas, roll-out of in- procedures for evacuation of communities institutional arrange- formation and education campaigns, fostering Actors involved in this in- ments, partnerships, linkages and networks. including women’sclude civic society organisations (particularly and research institutions, neighbouring local academic organizations), government agencies. government units, national and regional voices and agen- for women’s need to create an enabling environment cy to emerge and expand. Creation of such an enabling environment women can participate andwill mean instituting dialogues in which multiple strategies – atspeak without fear and inhibition and explore of existing so- (or expanses) times facilitated – within the constraints place their priorities andcio-cultural spaces. This will help them to choices, needs and interests, at the centre of project activities – i.e. have their voices heard – and affect outcomes of importance to them- their agencies” (Pincha, 2019). selves and their families – i.e. exercise phes/disasters must be involved in preparedness decisions that affect While men appeared to be more confident in managing anWhile men appeared increasing need forBased on the current research, there is an The response to and prevention of catastrophes/disasters their lives. These women have a right to participate in the decisions that a right to participate These women have their lives. - catastrophes /disas specific needs during lives: women have affect their these needs are is crucial in ensuring them in decisions ters and including in in- decision-making is enshrined participation in Women’s catered for. it is not policies and frameworks. However, ternational human rights they will – or mainly – women leaders and assume enough to recruit only is not certain they will have an un- specific needs, as it address women’s context. from local communitiesderstanding of the particular Women it is necessary because to create and adhere to rather, should be involved d women for the participation of disaster affecte policies that advocate 2018: 4). and Komuhangi, Markek (Tanner, in programme design” emergencywere better including the perception that they situation, preparedness and response action, of which physical prepared to take had fewer opportunities tois a major component. women Additionally, which may in the community, maintain a high level of social networking lead to them being less informed. gender methods research to contextualize mixed more gender-focused with greater concentration atdiscrepancies in greater depth, and also and tailor disaster manage- the local scale. Doing so can better target and recoveryment planning and preparedness, response, education incampaigns. Such work could result, perhaps even quite significantly, reduction of economic losses,fewer victims of events such as floods, actions to develop strate- and alleviation of other consequences. Thus, and promote the working to- gies to empower women, educate men, to prepare effectivelygether of people of both genders synergistically gender stereotypeswhile also, perhaps, at the same time, overcoming preparedness byare necessary. The aim is to promote gender-sensitive for women, including thoseusing networks that appeal to and advocate that have a long history of assessing and addressing public health issues It is also necessary and healthcare providers). social to(e.g., women’s for increasing hazard knowl- use a range of communication channels scenarios or caseedge and preparedness, including gender-related studies that appeal to people and promote empowerment and working cooperatively together within households and communities. should not be diminished by existing inequalities at different levels.

96 Mršević / Janković 97 edited volumes Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction th Climate and Disaster Resilience. Huairou Commission, Women, Homes and Com- Women, Climate and Disaster Resilience. Huairou Commission, munity. (AMCDRR). Special issue no 13. June 2014. South Asia(AMCDRR). Special issue no 13. June 2014. South Disaster net. al-reports. Accessed 2 August 2019. 15, Is- and Public Health. Volume Research International Journal of Environmental https://www.preventionweb.– 21. Available: 3 net/ sue 12 6 December. 2019. Accessed 7 August files/62498_62498ijerph15027611.pdf. - http://socijalnoukljucivanje.gov.rs/rs/odrza ombudsman. Available: Pokrajinski - na-zavrsna-konferencija-projekta-rodna-ravnopravnost-i-smanjen je-rizika-od-katastrofa/. Accessed 11 May 2019. Fenomena. u Jugozapadnoj Srbiji. Kraljevo: Udruženje rodna ravnopravnost 5/10: 176-203. teme, Vol nate/hfa. Accessed 20 June 2019. Adding to the Agenda of the 6 Accelerating sustainable development. in Community led Strategies for 2017. Investing Literature Catastrophes/disasters, while causing immense damage, also have the causing immense damage, while Catastrophes/disasters, interest. and mutual in mind Bearing reconcile self-interest capacity to social groups interests of individuals, between the the disagreement com- on the other, and universal interest on the one hand, and nations mon efforts are necessary and to to confront catastrophes/disasters should The confrontation of catastrophes/disasters capacity. this utilize serve a safer andgood, with the goal of making the world the common general in- and policies that will represent the better place. Institutions zed. catastrophes/disasters should be recogni terest in the event of addressing catastrophes/ are involved in sexes When people of both and ways of the pursuit of the common good disasters together, achieving this develops. Annual reports. 2014. Oxfam International. Available: https://www.oxfam.org/en/annu- Annual reports. 2014. Oxfam International. Available: Vladimir and others. 2018. The Role of Gender in Preparedness and Response.Cvetković, Novi Sad: od katastrofa. i smanjenje rizika ravnopravnost Čović, Andrijana. 2015. Rodna i od katastrofa rizika za smanjenje politike Marija. (2019). Lokalne Đukić, Aneta. i Petronijević, nacionalne bezbednosti. Pravne 2018. Subjektivni činioci ugrožavanja Ivanović, Aleksandar. - https://www.unisdr.org/we/coordi for Action 2005 - 2015. Available: Hyogo Framework - - - - . Dushanbe: Mission East.sis. Dushanbe: Mission - Engi Life Cycle Ljubiša. In: ICDQM-2019 Papić risks 65-71. Ed: to disaster / accident neering and Management. of Dependa- Prijevor: The Research Center Proceedings. bility and Quality Management. studies, of graduate and postdoctoral The Faculty Vancouver: typhoon Yolanda. of British Columbia Race, Sexuality and Social Justice, the University Gender, 1. No. 1. 51-61. Management,tional Journal of Disaster Risk Vol. Ac www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/policies/v.php?id=17660. cessed 28 July 2019. - of the Afghanistan Resil from the Experiences & Constraints Factors tion, Facilitating . London: UK AID. Consortium ience , 9 March. Available: Svijet otvoren i prvi opremom. Vesti dućan sa surferskom - http://www.novilist.hr/Vijesti/Svijet/Nakon-nuklearne-katastrofe-Fukushi Ac ma-se-polako-oporavlja-otvoren-i-prvi-ducan-sa-surferskom-opremom. cessed 10 July 2019. August. Accessed 11 jane-ce-na-elementarne-nepogode-upozoravati-sirene-.html. July 2019. July 2019. org/we/coordinate/sendai-framework. Accessed 12 to Support Gender Equality in Dis- for Economic Evaluations ble “Social Framing” Depart Geography and Environmental-Management Decision-Making aster Risk- ment, Multidisciplinary Institute, Northumbria University, Digital Publishing 13 July.Newcastle upon Tyne, aster preparedness. London: Disaster & emergencies, preparedness programme. Accessed https://www.preventionweb.net/publications/view/58965. 4. Available: 25 July 2019. Mršević, Zorica. i Janković, Svetlana. 2019. Gender perspective of risk management related of risk management 2019. Gender perspective Svetlana. Mršević, i Janković, Zorica. A feminist ethnographic research on women survivorsOcampo Go, Chaya. 2016. of super Interna- Social and Economic Perspective. Disasters in Turkey: Öcal, Adem. 2018. Natural https:// Reduction and Management Act of 2010. Available: Philippine Disaster Risk Disaster Risk Reduc & Agencies in Community-Based Voices Pincha, Chaman. 2019. Women’s - disasters: gender analy risk of natural of women in mitigating 2008. Role Kasymova, Sophia. Portal Novi List.hr . 2019. Nakon nuklearne katastrofe, Fukushima se polako oporavlja: se polako Fukushima nuklearne katastrofe, Novi List.hrPortal . 2019. Nakon Društvo. 3 sirene. RTS. RTS,Beograđane će na elementarne nepogode upozoravati 2019, http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/ci/story/124/drustvo/3611950/beograd- Available: https://www.unisdr. 2015-2030. Available: for Disaster Risk Reduction Sendai Framework Economic Efficiency 2016. or Gender Equality: Conceptualizing an Equita- Shreve, Cheney. in dis- Leadership Catherine. 2018. Women’s Darja. and Komuhangi, Markek, Lydia. Tanner,

98 Mršević / Janković 99 edited volumes - prirodne katastrofe/nepogo- prirodne taciju, nadzor i evaluaciju programa i pro- i programa evaluaciju i nadzor taciju, jekata. Za prilagođavanje klimatskim promenama i ublažavanje njihovih posle- katastrofa/ od rizika smanjivanje i ali dica, nepogoda, neophodni su parametri o su potrebe Te žena. intresima i potrebama nužan uslov za podršku ženskim nezavi- odgo- finansiranja radi i inicijativama snim varajućih i razumnih ekološki tehnologija u održivoj upotrebi prirodnih resursa. reči: Ključne rod- uloge, rodne promene, klimatske de, ne odgovornosti prevencija, oporavak, otpornosti izgradnja - isklju i diskriminacije bez muškarci, i žene učestvuju da ravnopravno moraju čivanja, u odlučivanju i smanjivanju rizika od kata- regi- (nacionale, zajednice nivou na strofe obezbe- se Mora međunarodne). i onalne diti uključivanje rodnih eksperata i politike senzitivne rodno razvoju u aspekti i programskih uputstava. Time se stvara u ravnopravnosti rodne preduslov validan toku smanjivanja rizika od katastrofa i kli- matskih promena i vrši efikasnije prilago- đavanje klimatskim promenama na nivou zajednice. Potrebno je da se integrišu inici- u aspekti/kriterijumi senzitivni rodno jativu, planiranje, dizajniranje, implemen - nim i grupnim identitetima i potencijali- ponaša- odgovornostima, društvenim ma, njima i očekivanjima. Rodno zasnovane - neravnopravnos rodne do dovode razlike ti u svim procesi- društveno-ekonomskim mogućno- i uloge različite i uključujući ma, sti: ranjivost i smanjenje rizika od katastrofa, upravljanja katastrofama, predviđanje moguće štete i oporavak na- njih. kon Zbog svih tih razlika, jasno je da Poslednjih Poslednjih decenija međunarodne huma- pogo- zemalja vlasti i organizacije nitarne nepogoda- katastrofama/prirodnim đenih ma i klimatskim promenama, ukazuju na muška- na odnosu u žena više da činjenicu race gubi živote i trpi druge nepovoljne disprporcija Ta događaja. takvih posledice viktimizacije je pojava i uzrokovana - pove zana sa nejednakim socio-ekonomskim statusom žena. U smanjenju rizika od ka- uslov- su muškaraca i žena odnosi tastrofa ima- koje odgovornostima i ulogama ljeni rodno Isključujuće društvu. u i kuće kod i ju definisane uloge rezultiraju različitim lič Sažetak RODNI ASPEKTIRODNI PRIRODNIH KATASTROFA/NEPOGODA [email protected] LILIJANA ČIČKARIĆLILIJANA Institute of Social Sciences Institute

Čičkarić 100 101 edited volumes 1 This chapter addresses various aspects of this emerging rese- This chapter addresses various theories, and data related to thearch area, exploring concepts, women in politics. It occurs within thestudy of violence against targets women. It is used to re- political sphere but specifically and political structures by aiming wo- inforce traditional social and the prevailing social patriarchy men leaders who challenge such practices are societies, In many expectations and norms. and remained invisi- depoloticized naturalized, marginalized, for their political ble. When female politicians are attacked againstviews alone, therefore, this is not a case of violence to the due women in politics. Ambiguity emerges, however, often re- fact that the means for attacking female politicians bodies and their lies on gendered scripts, focusing on women’s wives, to deny traditional social roles, primarily as mothers and - competence in the political sphere. Sym or undercut women’s in sustai- bolic and semiotic violence in politics can be effective in- is subtle, euphemized, oppression because it ning women’s of these acts as exercises if women recognize visible. Even name it as violence, even in societies they still do not power, The concept of semiotic with greater levels of gender equality. symbols asviolence refers to the use of language, images and and disqualifya means in purpose to marginalize women as these dynamics servepolitical actors. Often normalized, to maintain gender hierarchies, undermining democracy and eroding political empowerment. the possibilities for women’s Vio- Semiotic Violence, Symbolic Politics, Women, Words: Key lence, Sexism, Misogyny Historic Changes of Serbian Society in Context of European Integration Historic Changes of Serbian Society in Context of European (179039), funded by the Ministry Sci- and Globalization” of Education, Development of Serbia and implemented by the ence and Technological Institute of Social Sciences in Belgrade. This chapter was created as a part of the project “Structural, Social and 1 Abstract Violence Against Women in Politics Women Against Violence - the context of violence against women in politics the context of violence against women women in poli- the nature and extent of violence against and the effect of this tics, the motive behind such violence, violence the awareness of violence against women in politics bythe awareness of violence against women identifying in combating it. and disseminating best practices - have focused on the intersecting phe Researchers recently deteriorate political Violence against women in politics can factors that have to be invovlved in systematic re- The key - - - The worrying rise in aggression and violence against wom- Opportunities for women to participate in politics, as voters, participate in politics, for women to Opportunities activists, and politicians, have been viewed as a positive develop- been viewed as politicians, have activists, and are for democracy. Recent gains, however, ment for women and attacks, in- number of reports of physical challenged by a growing timidation, harassment,politically ac semiotic violence directed at or with the aim of deterring their participation tive women, often r will effective as political actors. This chapte rendering them less exploring of this emerging research area, address various aspects and data related to the study of violence concepts, theories, against women in politics. citizen’s and election violence, repression of nomena of political and even violence against political participation, and discrimination set of academic and poli- women in the public sphere. The resulting cy by papers have been prolific and provocative, yet characterized contradictions and gaps. numerous conceptual and methodological damaging impacts might be selection and politician quality and the representation (Dal Bó, Dal Bó, particularly relevant for women’s 2006; Čičkarić, 2016). It serves pa- to reproduce and maintain Tella undermine democracytriarchal values, hegemonic masculinity, and full political empowerment. eroding the possibilities for women’s politics are: search on violence against women in en in politics is correlated with the increased number of women engaged in political and public life. The questions are - does violence against politicians occur in response to political Introduction

Čičkarić 102 103 edited volumes - - Violence against women in politics occurs within the political in politics occurs within the political Violence against women AssemblyIn 2011 The United Nations General first called Definition of the Concept Definition the Concept of reinforce targets women. It is used to sphere but that specifically lead- political structures by targeting women traditional social and expectations and the prevailing social patriarchy ers who challenge occurs and violence explains both why and norms. Being female with violence against women be- the particular forms that it takes, women out of politics and activ- ing used as a mechanism to keep work, and to hamper their ism, to limit opportunities to learn and societies, and claim their rights. In many capabilities to organize stereotyp- including through gender such practices are naturalized, and to remain large- ing, leading them to be viewed as non-political against women in politics is a prob- violence ly underreported. Yet in everylem in all countries, affecting women socio-economic group and life stage. tolerance for violence against female candidates and for zero the first countryelected officials. In 2012, Bolivia became the in political violence and harassment against world to criminalize campaign by lo- women, in response to a more than decade-long numerous injuries and cally elected women to document the 2017, global action on this abuses they confronted. In 2016 and Democratic Institute issue began to accelerate and The National to stop violence against polit launched the NotTheCost campaign empowerment and activity of women, and does more women in more women in of women, and does and activity empowerment As a inequality? in discrimination and to a reduction politics lead in politics has violence against women phenomenon, misogynistic and toxic of hegemonic masculinity in the domination deep roots masculinity in patriarchy. ically active women. The Inter-Parliamentary Union undertook the Union undertook the ically active women. The Inter-Parliamentary first global study of sexism, violence, and harassment against together with women parliamentarians (IPU 2016). UN Women the United Nations Development Programme released a programming guide on preventing violence against women in elec UNDP 2017). tions ( UN Women/ - - - - - Political gender equality is not guaranteed by parity in posi- not guaranteed by gender equality is Political her research agenda towards great Jennifer Piscopo orients The fast-growing literature on gender aspects of political vio- The fast-growing tions of power or influence over policy: or influence tions of power con- central are the equally to carry work. Being able which politicians ditions under out politi- is a of violence and threats free from fear cal functions ers for political representation. Research fundamental prerequisite n that political violence and intimidatio have raised the concern hence women more intensively than men, seems to be targeting political still largely understudied obstacle to posing a severe yet Restrepo Sanín 2016). gender equality (Krook, er conceptual clarity and methodological sophistication (Piscopo and methodological sophistication er conceptual clarity 2016:445). First, violence she argue for analytically distinguishing from soci- and political and electoral violence from discrimination in prac Though incidents may overlap etal and domestic violence. policytice, this distinction drives more effective interventions. Sec among violence’s ond, she intends to sharpen distinctions differentiating between motivations and objectives, insisting upon versus political vio- political violence that is gender-differentiated captures political vio- The former lence that is gender-motivated. differentially for reasons of lence that men and women experience are physically male citizens gender (i.e., voter intimidation in which whereas are sexually assaulted) threatened while female citizens political violence that aims to remove cer the latter conceptualizes because of their gender. tain participants from the public sphere a forwardThird, she use these distinctions to delineate research and appropriate methodo- agenda defined by conceptual precision conceptual schema indicates logical approaches and indicators. Her such as whether violence how scholars can investigate questions, political backlash to women’s against female politicians indicates a empowerment, or a longstanding phenomenon previously over focused on male violence (Piscopo 2016). by researchers’ looked of intimidation and formslence has highlighted that different tactics of attacks are used against female and male politicians. Krook and Re- strepo Sanín have made important theoretical contributions by con- ceptualising female politicians’ gendered experiences of political vio- studies have lence (Krook, Restrepo Sanín 2016: 463). Up until now, surveys and narratives from womenbeen based on self-recruited

Čičkarić 104 105 edited volumes - Research on the gendered nature of political institutions nature of political institutions Research on the gendered Previous research on gender aspects of violence against of violence against Previous research on gender aspects have connected sexist treatment of female parliamentarians, in- treatment of female parliamentarians, have connected sexist har and belittlement as well as sexual cluding micro aggressions without comparison to men’s experiences. A cross-national research A cross-national experiences. to men’s without comparison the UK,project in Australia, and Norway New Zealand, found that be- experienced someparliamentarians had and 95 per cent of tween 80 point, at some from citizens form of violence the hence underlining urgencyMeasuring life-time victimi- of the issue (James et al. 2016). light on how frequ. ently politicians does not shed zation, however, these studies have not thoroughly Furthermore, experience violence. between women and men. analysed differences assment and violence, to masculinised culture being informally in- to masculinised culture being informally assment and violence, Raney 2018; organisations (Collier, stitutionalised in political these 2018; Krook 2017; Čičkarić 2016). While Erikson, Josefsson in politicians’ imme- studies offer important insights to inequalities capture the majority diate environments, this does not necessarily lo- perpetrators are many of experiences of political violence since cated and act outside of these structures. use different politicians has demonstrated that perpetrators men. Krook and Restrepo forms of violence against women and influence the way female Sanín maintain that gendered scripts by adversaries: perpetrators focus on politicians are attacked and traditional roles as mothers and wives to un- bodies women’s roles as competent politicians (Krook, Restrepo dermine women’s against female politi- 2016). The sexualised dimension of attacks (Bardall 2011; Bjarnegård cians is evident in online environments and men’s women’s 2017). The few studies that have compared and psychological vio- experiences have established that sexual female voters and candi- lence is more commonly used against violence and prop- physical dates, whereas men experience more 2017). The existing body of erty damage (Bardall 2011; Bjarnegård rather than how much, politi- research has largely focused on how, It relies on data that consists of convenience cians are attacked. samples and a mixture of voters, candidates and political activists. gender for the propensity to the impact of politician’s However, be targeted with political violence is not necessarily equal across different roles or hierarchical levels. - - who demonstrate important lead The finding that women for their political views When female politicians are attacked Gender biased attitudes and beliefs have been identified as beliefs have been attitudes and Gender biased ance for women’s mistakes and higher standards for female politi- and higher standards for mistakes ance for women’s 2015). Josefsson 2018; Hayes, Lawless cians’ conduct (Erikson, and ambition are ership qualities such as confidence, assertiveness in contrast to men who are rewarded for seen as unlikeable, is well-estab- behaviour, demonstrating the same qualities and women are conferred lower lished (Rudman et al. 2012). Similarly, behaviour gives whereas the same status if they express anger, 2008). The disadvantage of men higher status (Brescoll, Uhlmann in politics is also evident in psychological gender bias for women is a general tendencyvoters’ treatment of candidates: there to dis- are perceived as power-hungry but only female leaders if they like (Smith to be power-seeking candidates are punished for appearing that women in politics et al. 2006). This literature review indicates similar characteristics are evaluated less favourably when isplaying feelings and reactions when as men, and spur particularly negative leadership. they behave in ways pertaining to exercising violence against women in alone, therefore, this is not a case of the fact that the due to politics. Ambiguity emerges, however, often relies on gendered means for attacking female politicians bodies and their traditional social scripts, focusing on women’s or undercut women’s roles, primarily as mothers and wives, to deny competence in the political sphere. When adversaries rely on gendered imagery or stereotypes to attack female opponents, the act blends into a case of violence against women in politics, as it suggests that women per se do not belong in the political realm. These Bias Against Women in Politics in Politics Women Bias Against such as politics. In in power spheres for women principal obstacles with about desirable leaders are inconsistent essence, stereotypes 2008; women (Bohnet 2016; Brescoll, Uhlmann stereotypes about women have to be studies find that Many Rudman et al. 2012). and skilled than men in order to be perceived more qualified and 2010; Hayes, Lawless candidates (Fox, treated as viable political fact that female politicians worryLawless 2015). The than more to be related to a lower toler seems mistakes male about making

Čičkarić 106 107 edited volumes Symbolic violence operates at the level of portrayal and rep- Symbolic In this respect, im- against women in politics shares violence resentation, seeking to erase or nullify presence in politi- women’s as vio- theorized cal office. Such behaviors are only peripherally against women in lence in existing NGO reports on violence media coverage and sexist on misogyny recent studies politics. Yet activities as forms of ag- lend support for conceptualizing certain (Mršević 2016; gression, harassment and outright discrimination be reduced to healthy Sawer 2013). These acts, we argue, cannot and opponents. media criticism or rude behavior by colleagues Negative treatment becomes violence when it entails fundamental producing and distributing highly like disrespect for human dignity, and derogatorysexualized using social media to incite vio- images, a of existence the denying explicitly or recognizing, not or acts, lent female politician for the simple fact of being a woman. Symbolic and Semiotic Violence and Semiotic Symbolic portant points of contact with hate crimes, using mechanisms of with hate crimes, using mechanisms portant points of contact as a against people with a particular identity power and oppression hierarchies. threatened be to perceived are what reaffirm to means women in politics are hate crimes, acts of violence against Like and to create a equal access to rights to deny message intended other heightens the sense of vulnerability among ripple effect that cas- challenge arises, in both a key Yet members of the community. experience the same sense es, from the fact that victims may not may have naturalized of harm. Indeed, some female politicians cost of doing politics, or these types of behaviors as simply the the problem, concerned to deflect charges that they may deny they are not coping, in fear of justifying that women do not claims belong in politics. actions can have a powerful impact, have a powerful actions can they are not directed because - other fe They also seek to intimidate one woman. solely towards a political ca- who might consider deter women male politicians, as a whole to society communicate insidiously, and even more reer, not participate (Krook, Resetrepo Sanin that women should 2016:136). - Furthermore, Mona Lena Krook has developed the concept Furthermore, a difference between genderd po- It is important to make Symbolic violence was theorized by Bourdieu as discipline by Bourdieu as theorized violence was Symbolic tification, like highly sexualized media and social representations. media and social representations. highly sexualized tification, like of symbolic violence varyThe form and content than more widely but it is present economic and psychological, other types, physical, most appro- violence may be While physical in all types of society. the other three forms priately addressed through legal channels, may require different types of interventions, alongside or sepa- rately from legislative proposals. of recognizing a fifth type ofof semiotic violence, arguing in favor referring to the use of lan- violence against women in politics and - and ex means to marginalize guage, images, and other symbols as a 2017:79). Drawing on re- clude women as political actors (Krook, developed the concept ofsearch in a variety of disciplines, she has operates in practice using ex- semiotic violence and illustrate how it these dynamics normalized, amples from around the world. Often serve undermining democracy to maintain gender hierarchies, and full political empowerment.eroding the possibilities for women’s language render womenSemiotic violence comprises images and is connected withincompetent and/or invisible. This phenomenon vi- and rationalize constructions which naturalize taken-for-granted are two types of semiotic violence against women in politics. There olence, everyday public life and rendering treths for women in vices Silences women’s women incompetent and invisible in politics. in politics is structural (stratify(jus- cultural opportunities by group), oftify hiyerarchy maltreatment), and simbolic (restore inequality, domination, acceptance/complicity of dominated) (Krook, 2017:80). litical violence and sexism in institutions. Violence is forceful act - placement in a so that individual’s another to confirm used against 1984). As (Bourdieu, cial hierarchy can be symbolic violence such, em- it is culturally violence because than physical more powerful - forms of violence look or feel right.bedded, making these Symbol oppression be- in sustaining women’s ic violence can be effective even when some invisible, such that cause it is subtle, euphemized, may not they of power, these acts as exercises women recognize equali- societies with greater levels of gender be believed, even in when it involves sexual objec violence is most evident Symbolic ty.

Čičkarić 108 109 edited volumes - - - While women experience only marginally more violence more violence While women experience only marginally The first comprehensive empirical analysis of gender pat empirical analysis of gender The first comprehensive terns in violence against politicians, based on three waves of of politicians, based on three waves terns in violence against survey has showed that the data on 8000 local-level politicians, exists among politi- most pronounced gender gap in violence (Hakansson 2019). Female cians high in the political hierarchy other politician. than any mayors experience far more violence a higher penalty than men for media vis- women receive Further, This suggests that perpe- ibility and for supporting minorities. towards targeting wom- trators of political violence are biased women. The findings en, particularly more powerful and visible the personal have important implications for understanding and how it power, price paid for holding positions of political differs by gender. the group of politicians than men as politicians in general, in women experience substantial- highest in the political hierarchy of violence exposure in- ly more violence than men. The risk both women and men, but creases with the level of power for higher the level of power, more dramatically so for women: the exposure (Hakansson the greater the gender gap in violence furthermore visibility in 2019). Much in line with these findings, media is more highly correlated with violence exposure for female politicians than male, and indications that women are pe- nalised more than men for substantively representing minorities. This suggests that perpetrators of political violence are biased towards targeting women. used to disrupt regular political process – carried out with explic process – carried regular political used to disrupt Misogyny Sexism and Are of Doing Politics? the Cost tions, actors (polititions, – targets political to affect politics ite intent Everyday- enforces mail domi sexism and voters). candidates occures in most inequality which perpetuate gender nance and disrupt polit in politics, happens not just to arenas, not exclusive not women, because they are women ical process and targets political actors. - - - Sexism and misogyny are tools to keep in check the mas- are tools to keep Sexism and misogyny The same Inter Parliamentary Union Report found that Why women are still such a threat to men in power? Is it Is it in power? a threat to men women are still such Why vey from the Inter-Parliamentary Union found that 81.8% of the Union found that 81.8% of the vey from the Inter-Parliamentary form of parliamentarians had suffered some responding women had re- including 44.4% who said they psychological violence, their rape, beatings or abduction during ceived threats of death, parliamentary (IPU 2016). Such is the phenomenon term General Assemblythat United Nations A/73/148 Resolution (17 authori- puts the bonus on legislative December 2018) explicitly zero to adopt specific measures stating ties and political parties against women in politics. tolerance for violence The more women there are culine image of political leadership. his traditional understand- in politics, the greater the threat to view is that white, het ing of decision-making. The fundamental all deci- should make erosexual, economically privileged men women also become sions, on behalf of all people. When this worldview is challenged. The easiest way decision-makers, and delegitimise those to return things to normal is to discredit made an art form of women. Sexists and misogynists have shaming women in politics. to sexist behaviour over 60% of those who had been subjected had been intended primari- and/or violence believed those acts colleagues from continu- ly to dissuade them and their female in the discussion on ing in politics. There are similar strains of women in politics, par ‘merit’ and the under-representation ticularly among conservative When men consciously politicians. entryexist to women’s ignore the significant barriers that in financial, cultural, or politi- the political arena, whether they are - power. Po disproportionate own their rationalising are they cal, challenges litical violence operates involving verbal and physical to create an atmosphere of fear in order to achieve political goals. It is employed in authoritarian regimes as a tool of repression, and in democratic ones, it challenges core values of the political system. because women may change the way politics is done? Or, is it is it Or, is done? the way politics may change because women of own dominance invested in their have too much because men A global sur and culturally? sphere both financially the public

Čičkarić 110 111 edited volumes - - Existing dynamics of violence primarily examines research for Electoral A 2011 report by the International Foundation There is a need to develop and expand new directions in There is a need to develop and expand new directions in and harassment in relation to citizens, voters, and activists. Most ofvoters, and activists. citizens, in relation to and harassment countries at the aggregate level, focusing on this work is conducted towards re- experiences, with a strong bias rather than on individual public sphere acts of violence taking place in the porting on physical of social media Opitz, Fjelde, Höglund 2013). The rise 2011; (Gillies in an upsurge of abuse lev- key factor as a has also been identified and Facebook. Twitter on platforms like elled at female politicians focuses on violence and harassmentThe new area of research perceived aim of groups in politics, with the against marginalized re is re- participation. Most of this literatu depressing their political the ob- women. This work first emerged from lated to the case of servations rise in reports of as- of practitioners, noting a troubling sault, intimidation, and abuse directed at female political actors. significant gender differences in experiences of found Systems typically experienced physical electoral violence: while male victims female voters most of violence taking place in the public sphere, New Research Directions New Research ten reported intimidation and psychological abuse (Bardall 2011). ten reported intimidation and psychological of looking beyond Data from the IPU confirms the importance abuse as an indicator of political violence: while 25% of fe- physical violence in the of physical male MPs had experienced some form more than 80% had suf course of their work as parliamentarians, 30% had been targets of fered psychological violence, more than had experienced some economic violence, and more than 20% Union 2016). Research form of sexual violence (Inter-Parliamentary in abuse against women MPs by Amnesty International on Twitter political spectrum are targets the UK finds that women across the however, MPs of color, of online violence and intimidation. Female counterparts (Dhrodia receive 30% more abuse than their white IPU’swith parliament in women young that finding Together 2017). are particularly targeted for harassment, these results indicate a need for both a gendered and an intersectional perspective on violence against politicians. research on violence against female political actors. Institutional - - To answer the question how interpret, prevent and punish To tions to all federal employees (Collier, Raney 2018). In July 2018, 2018, Raney 2018). In July employees (Collier, tions to all federal and adopted an Independent Complaints the UK Parliament in British to address bullying and harassment Grievance Scheme a report on bullying of House of later, politics and a few months on vio- released. This legislative action taken Commons staff is across spaces and time par lence against women in politics varies responsiveness to ticularly in its effectiveness and substantive power hierarchies and women. It also reveals how pre-existing institutions can work to gendered rules embedded within political legislatures safer workplaces for undermine efforts to make women across parliamentary contexts. actors, there is a need to disag- abuses suffered by women political forms, and impact (Bardall, gregate political violence into motives, motives appear when perpe- Bjarnegård, Piscopo 2017). Gendered trators use violence to preserve control of the men’s hegemonic and the targets are political system: here, the motive is misogyny, roles and beliefs can shape the forms gendered usually women. Yet the motivating misogyny and impact of political violence, without structures how gender Gendered forms emphasize violence itself. commit and experience the means through which men and women are targeted sexually and political violence (for instance, women Disaggregating forms, motives, and men are targeted physically). improvements over impacts offers theoretical and methodological prior approaches. It comprises the separation of the structural vio- indignities and attacks women experience be- lence of misogyny, cause they are women, from political violence, the abuses women suffer because perpetrators wish to disrupt politics, elections, or governance. responses to violence gainst women in politics is very women in politics to violence gainst responses important Kingdom, both and the United For example Canada question. that deal explicitly new rules have developed relatively countries - House of Com In 2014, the Canadian in politics. with harassment to do so of the first legislatures in the world mons became one policy a new sexual harassment protection when it introduced for it adopted a new parliamentary of MPs. The next year, staffers in 2018, Conduct on Sexual Harassment and MP-to-MP Code of protec a law extending sexual harassment the legislature passed

Čičkarić 112 113 edited volumes - - - - To generate public awareness and support for change, wom- for change, awareness and support generate public To Political parties can also take a number of concrete steps to a number of concrete steps parties can also take Political sexism, racism, and Other initiatives include rules against en’s organisations and groups have to create partnerships and net partnerships and have to create and groups organisations en’s Conclusion works to monitor, document and address violence against women and address violence against women document works to monitor, be a pow- mainstream and social media may in politics. Mobilizing women and combating violence against erful means for exposing expose can be an especially powerful to in politics. Social media wom- garner support for projects to empower acts of violence and ns funded by international organizatio en in politics. Programming report for journalists and recruits female provides gender training strategy to reporting as a double-pronged ers to engage in political height in media coverage, including enhance gender-sensitivity - Train of violence against female politicians. ened attention to acts also address how to de- ing programs for female candidates can to on-line attacks. In crease vulnerability and respond effectively from political elites to addition to working to secure public pledges safety during elections, gender equality concerns ensure women’s can be integrated into electoral observation missions. declarations of principle and tackle this problem. One is by issuing introduce a zero-tolerance revising internal party regulations to policy of wom- for perpetrators of sexual violence and harassment en in politics. brochures and handbooks bullying in party meetings, as well as party organizations that of produced and distributed by women’s techniques used fer strategies for recognizing and counteracting all actors at the global, na- against women in politics. And finally, steps to prevent, treat and pun- tional, and local levels should take ish violence against women in politics. lence. Washington, DC: IFES.lence. Washington, - presented at the Gender and Politi Impacts. Paper lence. Motives Forms and 29-30 2017. in Uppsala, March cal Violence Workshop and Women/Gender Symposium: Golder (eds) Agenda in Matt and Sona Organized Politics CP: Newsletter of the Comparative Comparative Politics. Science Association Political Section of the American 27(1): 1-109. Belknap Press of HarvardUniversity Press. bridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press. Psychological and Expression of Emotion in the Workplace. ferral, Gender, Science 19(3): 268–75. in Australia, the United Parliaments A Comparison of Westminster Politics: State & International Studies in Gender, Kingdom, and Canada. Social Politics: 432–455. 2018, Pages 25, Issue 3, Fall Volume Society, of Social Beograd. Institut društvenih nauka (Institute Gender Perspective). p.163.. Sciences) ment in a TheoryScience Review. Political Influence. American of Political 100 (1): 41-53. Online at: https://medium.com/@AmnestyInsights/unsocial-media-tracking- January (accessed 25, twitter-abuse-against-women-mps-fc28aeca498a 2019). Exploring members of parliament’s experiences of working in the Swedish (3):432-455. vol. 25 parliament. Science Review. International Political ty Press. Bardall Gabrielle, Elin Bjarnegård, Piscopo Jenniffer. 2017. Gender and Political Vio- 2017. Gender and Piscopo Jenniffer. Bardall Gabrielle, Elin Bjarnegård, and Election Violence: Advancing the Comparative Bjarnegård Elin. 2017. Gender by Design. Cambridge/London: The Gender Equality Works: Bohnet Iris. 2016. What Cam- A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Bourdieu Pierre. 1984. Distinction: Brescoll Victoria, Uhlmann Eric. Can an Angry 2008. Get Ahead? Status Con- Woman 2018. Understanding Sexism and Sexual Harassment in Collier Cheryl, Raney Tracey. from and Politics (Women Čičkarić Lilijana. 2016. Žene i politika iz rodne perspektive Bribe and Punish- Rafael. 2006. Plata o Plomo?: Di Tella Dal Bó Ernesto, Dal Bó Pedro, MPs. Abuse against Women Twitter Dhrodia, Azmina. Media: Tracking 2017. Unsocial legislature as a gendered workplace: Erikson Josefina, Josefsson Cecillia. 2018. The Universi- ed. 2011. Elections in Dangerous Places. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Gillies D. Literature Vio- Gender and Electoral Mold: Understanding 2011. Breaking the Bardall Gabrielle.

Čičkarić 114 115 edited volumes - Female Candidates in Contemporary Congressional Elections. Perspectives in ContemporaryFemale Candidates Perspectives Congressional Elections. 13(1): 95–118. on Politics in progress. Work Uppsala University. litical violence in Sweden. https://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/reParliamentarians. - - ports/2016-10/sexism-harassment-and-violence-against-women-parliamen 20, 2018). tarians (accessed April Associationsdom Parliament: of Forensic Psychi- and Consequences. Journal atry & Psychology 27 (3): 309-330. 28 (1): 74–88. A Defense of the Concept. y Gobierno (2): 459–90. Polı´tica of Eastern African Studies 7 agement Bodies on Electoral Violence. Journal (4): 713-731. Political Ambition. The Journal of Politics 72(2): 310–26. 72(2): The Journal of Politics Ambition. Political ing Violence against Women in Politics. Polı´tica y Gobierno 23 (2): 437–58. Polı´tica in Politics. ing Violence against Women Female Leaders. Journal of Ex Motivates Prejudice against - Gender Hierarchy perimental Social Psychology 48(1): 165–79. 105-117. Science. 65 (1) ments. Political 69(2): Journal of Politics Decision Makers. Do Not Trust Certain People 285–99. in Elections: A Programming Guide. http://www.unlence against Women - women.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/11/preventing-violence-againstwomen-in-elections (accessed May 20, 2018). Hakansoon Sandra 2019. Do women pay a higher price for power? Gender bias in po- Do women pay a higher price for power? Hakansoon Sandra 2019. Sexism, Harassment, Union. 2016. Inter-Parliamentary Women and Violence against - Harassment and Stalking of Members of the United King James David et al. 2016. of Democracy Journal in Politics. Krook Mona Lena. 2017. Violence against Women in Politics: Violence against Women Krook Mona Lena, Restrepo Sanı´n Juliana. 2016. UNDP. Beograd. UN Women. protiv nasilja: uloga medija. 2016. Kako Mršević Zorica. Opitz C., The Influence of Electoral Man- Fjelde H., Höglund K. 2013. Including Peace: Rights: Rethink Criminal Justice, and Political State Capacity, 2016. Piscopo Jennifer. Hayes Danny, Lawless L. Jenniffer. 2015. A Non-Gendered Lens? Media, Voters, and Voters, Media, Lens? 2015. A Non-Gendered L. Lawless Hayes Danny, Jenniffer. Fox Richard, Lawless Jenniffer. 2010. If Only They’d Ask: Gender, Recruitment, and 2010. If Only They’d Ask: Gender, Lawless Jenniffer. Richard, Fox Rudman Laurie et al. 2012. Status Incongruity and Backlash Effects: Defending the Rudman Laurie et al. 2012. Status Incongruity and in Australian parlia- and misrepresentation: Women Sawer Marian. 2013. Misogyny Evolutionary B.. et al. 2006. TheorySmith Kevin Leadership: Why and Political 2017. Preventing Vio- Nations Development Programme (UNDP). UN Women/United - žene, politika, simboličko žene, politika, simboličko korišćenjem korišćenjem i zloupotrebom obrazaca rodnog identiteta, tela ženskog i tradicionalne uloge i majke supruge, bi kako žen- efikasnost i kompetencije potkopale skog aktivizma u političkoj sferi. Sim- uspešno vrlo nasilje semiotičko ili boličko suptil- je jer opresiju žensku reprodukuje i čak da tako nevidljivo, eufemizirano, no, mnoge žene ne prepoznaju ovu vrstu stepenom višim sa društvima u to i nasilja rodne ravnopravnosti. Koncept semi- nasilja otičkog uključuje upotrebu jezika, slika i simbola kao sredstava za margal- izaciju i diskvalifikovanje žena kao političkih aktera. Često normalizovana i opšteprihvaćena, ova dinamika nasilja služi održavanju rodne hijerarhije, pot društva demokratksog temelje kopavajući i umanjujući mogućnost za os- političko naživanje žena. Ključne riječi: nasilje, nasilje, semiotičko seksizam, mizoginija - - sa koja se odnosi na nasilja nad ženama u u ženama nad nasilja na odnosi se koja sa unutar događa se nasilja vrsta Ova politici. sfere političke i posebno je usmerena na žensku populaciju. Koristi se za jačanje tradicionalnih društvenih i političkih struktura i vrednosti i usmerena je pretežno na liderke i žene na vodećim pozicijama u upravljanju i odlučivanju. U mnogim društvima takve se prakse neu- tralizuju, uključujući rodnu stereotipizac iju, depolitizuju i najčešće ne prijavljuju. Kada se napadaju političarke zbog svojih političkih stavova, ne se može govoriti o nasilju nad ženama u politici. Međutim, problem nastaje kada se političarke diskvalifikuju, vređaju i omalovažavaju NASILJE POLITICI PREMA ŽENAMA U Sažetak U ovom poglavlju se govori o različitim aspektima relativno novog područja u prak i teorije koncepti, istražuju se kome

Čičkarić 116 117 edited volumes Identities Understanding Understanding Different Gender Gender Different SANJA ĆOPIĆ SANJA Belgrade University, Belgrade University, Belgrade University, University, Belgrade LJILJANA STEVKOVIĆ [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] VESNA NIKOLIĆ-RISTANOVIĆ Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation of Special Education Faculty Faculty of Special Education and Rehabilitation of Special Education Faculty Institute of Criminological and Sociological Research of Criminological Institute

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 118 119 edited volumes - - 1 In 2018 Serbia took part in the Comparative Study of StudentIn 2018 Serbia took part and Gay and Lesbian Issues thatAttitudes towards Punitiveness countries. Theand non-European encompasses ten European the use of the standardised question- data was collected with were students who could work in thenaire, while respondents Serbia, the surveycriminal justice system. In was conducted on of the third and fourth year of the un- a sample of 188 students the Faculty dergraduate studies at three faculties in Belgrade: of Phi- and Rehabilitation and the Faculty of Special Education of Psychology (University of Belgrade) Department losophy, The questionnaire in- of Law (University Union). and the Faculty and gay men,cluded three scales of attitudes: towards lesbians aim of thetowards crime and towards criminal sanctions. The chapter is to present a part of the survey findings concerning The Herekstudents’ attitudes towards lesbians and gay men. Men was(1998) Scale of Attitudes towards Lesbians and Gay used in the survey. It consisted of 20 different statements, ten respondentsabout gay men and ten about lesbians, to which 5-pointa on disagreement or agreement of level their indicated with an overview scale. The paper starts of the avail- Likert-type lesbiansable so far research on the students’ attitudes towards and gay men. This is followed with a brief overview of the sur Afterwards,vey methodology. the survey findings on students’ fac attitudes towards lesbians and gay men and contributing tors are presented and discussed. In the final part, the main the methodology of crime recording as the basis for creating effective creating effective as the basis for of crime recording the methodology its suppression and prevention, No. 179044, financed by measures for Development the Ministry Science and Technological of Education, of Special of the Republic of Serbia, and implemented by the Faculty and Rehabilitation of the University of Belgrade under the Education Nikolić-Ristanović. dr Vesna supervision of prof. Development of is the result of the project Development of this paper Writing 1 Abstract Abstract Attitudes of Students in Serbia Towards in Serbia of Students Attitudes Men: and Gay Lesbians Results the Research - - - in the field of higher educa sexual orientation sons of different future professionals who importance of sensitizing tion and the justice system. could work in the criminal gay men, research, Serbia. attitudes, students, lesbians, Keywords: ed to the necessity of raising awareness about the rights of per about the rights of of raising awareness ed to the necessity conclusions are pointed out,conclusions relat as well as recommendations Although evident improvements have been made Although evident improvements have 2 The empirical study of negative attitudes towards homosex- The empirical study of negative attitudes men (Carpenter 2007; Herek, Chopp and Strohl, 2007), while institutional men (Carpenter policies create disparities in health care between heterosexuals, on one and bisexual people, on the other (Institute of hand, and lesbian, gay, Medicine, 2011). For example, in the USA gay men have lower income than heterosexual Sexual orientation towards persons of the same sex has been towards persons of the same sex has Sexual orientation 2 stigmatized as a psychopathology, illness or deviance in many coun- illness or deviance in many as a psychopathology, stigmatized acts are le- countries homosexual While in many tries and cultures. 2016), with (Carroll, are illegal and criminalized gal, in others they term im- from fines, forced labour and long punishments ranging acts are when homosexual Even prisonment to the death penalty. obstacles to enjoy fundamental rights, different not criminalized, treatment, discrimination in various areas of life (in education, employment, healthcare, social services) of victim- and different forms on the grounds of sexual ization (violence, hate crime, harassment) 2007; Herek, Chopp and orientation are still evident (Carpenter 2016; and Lazar, Isaković Strohl, 2007; Institute of Medicine, 2011; FRA, 2014). Introduction globally, with endeavours of the governments, state institutions globally, the respect of human and civil society organizations to enforce the advance to and orientation sexual different of persons of rights bisexual, trans and intersex persons (Moral equality of lesbian, gay, 2013; FRA, le da O, de la Rubia, Vale 2018), negative attitudes to- known as homophobia, homonegativity and wards homosexuality, cultures. many sexual prejudice, are still prevalent in in- psychologist Weinberg uality began in the early 1970s, just after to the American public,troduced the concept of homophobia which close quarters with he defined as “the dread of being in

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 120 121 edited volumes , includes prejudicial attitudes to- , includes prejudicial 3 Negative attitudes and prejudices towards homosexuality Negative attitudes and prejudices towards ward members of a particular social group (Herek, 2006; Dovidio et al., 2010; Herek and McLemore, 2013). The term “prejudice” is often simply defined as a negative attitude to- The term “prejudice” 3 homosexuals - and in the case of homosexuals themselves, of homosexuals - and in the case homosexuals “discomfort 1972: 4), thus, emphasizing (Weinberg, self-loathing” of lesbian in the presence can experience and fear heterosexuals - 2005: 81). How and D’Augelli, Falanga (Lingiardi, and gay people” attitudes to- to describe negative using the term homophobia ever, atti- was criticised by the academics: negative wards homosexuality ia, result from fear and, therefore, homophob tudes may not always cases, does not fit clinical definitions of phobia in extreme except sug- 158). In 1980, Hudson and Ricketts 2010: (Rye and Meaney, term that de- as a more general gested the term homonegativity to affective, and behavioural reactions scribes negative cognitive, Herek suggested et al., 1998: 80). Finally, homosexuality (Roderick that, in accordance with the contempo- the term sexual prejudice rary prejudices definitions of wards lesbians, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals, and en- wards lesbians, gay, within the existing couraged the research on sexual prejudices 1984a, 2000, 2004). literature on prejudices in general (Herek, towards individuals with a contribute to maintaining of intolerance few decades, negative atti- homosexual orientation. During the last become an important re- tudes towards lesbians and gay men have sciences. Early research was search topic in psychology and social showing of homosexuality, focused on the component of deviance with a statement such as that heterosexuals would readily agree and Cado, 1982; Kite “homosexuality is a mental illness” (Leitner who hold heterosexuals and Deaux, 1987; Kite, 1994). Moreover, attitudes towards ho- traditional gender roles have more negative R. M. R. and Laner, (Laner, mosexuals and homosexuality in general with a homosexual orien- H, 1980), and tend to perceive individuals 1980). Later research has tation as deviant (Krulewitz and Nash, with attitudes towards shifted the focus to the factors associated while the most evaluated correlates are demo- homosexuality, level, study pro- age, educational graphic variables, such as gender, gram, etc. - - - Gender is considered to be one of the important factors important factors Gender is considered to be one of the

Attitudes of professionals who come or who are likely to likely come or who are of professionals who Attitudes Demographic Variables as Factors as Factors Variables Demographic Homosexuality: with Attitudes Towards Associated Findings Research An Overview of the Available individuals with ho- contributing to negative attitudes towards numerous studies indicate mosexual orientation. The results of towards homosexuali- that women are generally more tolerant while men hold more negative attitudes towards lesbians ty, attitudes towards gay and gay men than women. Additionally, men are significantly more negative than attitudes towards lesbians (e.g. Herek, 1988, 1994; King and Black, 1999; Cardenas Xiao and Xiang, 2011; Miler and Kim, and Barrientos, 2008; Yu, 2015; Etchezahar et al., 2012; Huić, Jugović and Kamenov, 2016). Gender differences in sexual prejudices are often ing human rights, they may violate them and discriminate against may violate them and discriminate ing human rights, they of their sexual orientation. In 2018 Serbia individuals on the ground towards Study of Student Attitudes took part in the Comparative - ten Eu and Lesbian Issues that encompassed Punitiveness and Gay was conducted on a countries. The study ropean and non-European under of the third and fourth year of the sample of 188 students three faculties in Belgrade, encompassing graduate studies at aim of this in the criminal justice system. The those who could work a part of the surveychapter is to present stu- findings concerning gay men. The paper starts dents’ attitudes towards lesbians and with an overview on the given topic. of the so far research This is followed with a brief overview present study methodology. of the Afterwards, the survey attitudes towards les- findings on students’ are presented and dis- bians and gay men and contributing factors cussed. In the final part, we point out to main conclusions and rec ommendations. come in contact with persons of same sex orientation, including of same sex orientation, with persons come in contact judiciary, justice system (police, in the criminal those working prisons, etc.)- impact their pro of their work and affect the quality may 2015). Thus, instead of protect (Kovčo-Vukadin, fessional decisions

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 122 123 edited volumes - - - Similarly, a survey Similarly, conducted on a sample of Canadian (Yu, Xiao and Xiang, 2011), so it is not surprising that Xiao and Xiang, 2011), so it is not surprising that (Yu, Many recent studies mentioned age as a predictor of nega- studies mentioned age as a predictor recent Many It is known that education changes person’s attitudes and attitudes and person’s It is known that education changes 4 dents of the criminal justice programs please see Kovčo-Vukadin, 2015. dents of the criminal justice programs please see Kovčo-Vukadin, For a detailed review of the research related to the attitudes of the stu 4 sons with homosexual orientation depending on the study pro- sons with homosexual orientation depending students studying arts and gram of the respondents. Namely, social sciences had more positive attitudes towards homosexuals than students studying economics and natural sciences Hirt and Sears, 1999). These findings have not (Schellenberg, students has shown the differences in attitudes towards per students has shown the differences tive attitudes towards persons with homosexual orientation, but persons with homosexual orientation, tive attitudes towards and King unambiguous. For example, Hebl, Law the results are not more nega- young people and older people hold (2010) stated that mid- homosexuals in comparison to the tive attitudes towards older while other studies have shown that dle-aged individuals, 2000; Herek and Mc adults have a higher prejudice level (Herek, explained with the cultural construct of masculinity and femi- construct of masculinity with the cultural explained for men and cultural expectations lead to different ninity that is often 2013: 221). Masculinity and McLemore, women (Herek are be achieved, so men a status that must as conceptualized to conform to gen- than women to feel compelled more likely and thereby avoid losing the acceptance der role expectations 2000; Theodore heterosexual peers (Franklin of their same-sex Glick et al. 2007). and Basow 2000; Lemore, 2013). On the contrary,- the results of the research con did not confirm statis- and Garner (2008) DeValve ducted by Lyons, age and attitudes towards tically significant correlation between persons with homosexual orientation. values tolerant towards persons higher educated individuals are more of lower education with homosexual orientation than those 1996; Loftus, 2001; Grapes, (Herek, 1984b; Herek and Capitanio, the study program impacts attitudes as well. 2006). Additionally, justice program hold Thus, students of the so-called criminal with homosexual ori- more negative attitudes towards persons and Murataia, 2001; Can- entation than other students (Olivero and Eisenman, 2007; Miller and Kim, non, 2005; Dantzker 2012). Many studies have investigated and documented the atti- have investigated and documented studies Many with homosex- Studies also support the idea that people been confirmed in a surveybeen confirmed of Chinese conducted on a sample on the contrary,students; survey this that students has shown - towards homo positive attitudes sciences have more of natural and Gao, 2010). Wang (Cao, students of humanities sexuals than of pro- and gay men of particular groups tudes towards lesbians - psychologists and mental health profession fessionals, such as (e.g. and Coyle, 1995), social workers als (e.g. Annesley 1997; Swank and Raiz, 2010), medical Berkman and Zinberg, Kopacz, (e.g. Klamen, Grossman and trainees and professionals criminal justice 2014), de la O, Rubia and Valle 1999; Moral de la (e.g. Cannon and Dirks-Linhorst, trainees and professionals profes- of professionals who are in attitudes 2006). Personal affect persons with homosexual orientation sional contact with of work, which has been their readiness to react and quality Barrett and McWhirter, confirmed in numerous research (e.g. studies have shown that 2002; Krieglstein, 2003). For example, hold negative attitudes towards lesbians who social workers quality support to ho- and gay men have difficulty in providing 2002; Krieglstein, mosexual clients (e.g. Barrett and McWhirter, feelings seem to in- 2003) and that psychologist’s homophobic of clients and the terfere with his/her effective assessments or counselling tech- choice of appropriate treatment goals - 1996; Berkman and Zin Ezoviski, Williams and niques (O’Hare, negative attitudes of criminal berg, 1997; Ryan, 2000). Likewise, with homosexual orienta- justice professionals towards persons violates the principles tion can influence their decisions, which of social justice (Lions et al., 2005). attitudes towards ual relatives or friends hold more favourable (Herek, 1988; Herek and persons with homosexual orientation 1996; Oles, Ezoviski, Capitanio, 1996; O’Hare, Williams and Newman, 2002; 1999; Barrett and McWhirter, Black and Cramer, Dannenfelser and Benishek, 2002; Krieglstein, 2003; Snively et al., 2004; Swank and Raiz, 2010), while those without these con- and tacts hold more prejudiced attitudes (Lingiardi, Falanga, Miller and Kim found that personal Augelli, 2005). Moreover, contact with persons with homosexual orientation is the

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 124 125 edited volumes - - (Duckitt and (Duckitt and Certain ideological beliefs seem to be linked with hostility with hostility seem to be linked beliefs Certain ideological Despite the variability in measurement, religiosity has been 158), the scientific According to Rye and Meaney (2010: - higher level of au with a People and gay men. towards lesbians the traditional values and condemn thoritarianism reverence as a they perceive homosexuality non-conformists. Accordingly, 2002; Green, 2005) gender roles (Schulte, violation of traditional traditional norms and values and as a threat to - towards them (Mill attitudes predictor of favourable strongest 2012). er and Kim, Siblei, 2010). Consequently, they hold more negative attitudes they hold more negative attitudes Siblei, 2010). Consequently, member affiliation and gay men. Political towards lesbians and atti- seem to be significant in predicting ship in political parties in a way that Conservativestudes towards homosexuals and Re- levels of sexual prejudice (Shackelford publicans show higher and Henriquez, 2008; Miller and Kim, 2007; Brown and Besser, 2012; Etchezahar et al., 2016). prejudices, even when it found to be a strong predictor of sexual of the importance of faith is tested by a simple global assessment 1988; Jugović and Ančić, in the life of an individual (Herek, 1987, 2015). Religious individuals 2013; Huić, Jugović and Kamenov, individuals, al- hold more negative attitudes than non-religious in the extent to which they though religions differ significantly (Adamczyk and Pitt,systematically condemn homosexuality 2009). In relation to that, persons to whom faith is important in life and who often attend religious services also have more nega- men (Jugović and Ančić, tive attitudes towards lesbians and gay Christian ideology has 2013). When it comes to college students, of homophobic atti- been found to be the strongest predictor religious fundamentalism et al., 2004). Additionally, tudes (Snively (Ryan, 2000; Kriegl- is strongly correlated with sexual prejudice 2009). stein, 2003; Whitley, is “the best route to study of attitudes towards homosexuality the development of more positive attitudes toward homosexuality”. could provide an under Therefore, empirical findings people hold negative attitudes to- standing of the reason why wards homosexuality and how best to achieve a positive attitude change. - reat and Faculty of Philosophy - the Department - the Department of Philosophy and Faculty 5 Which of the examined variables contribute to more neg- Which of the examined variables contribute and gay men? ative attitudes of students towards lesbians studies, the contri- Bearing in mind findings from previous bution of sex, age, sexual orientation, contacts with The general objective of the present study is two-fold: first,The general objective of the present and, conse- Given the objectives, there are two hypothesis 1. In 2018 Serbia took part in the Comparative Study of Stu- the Comparative took part in In 2018 Serbia cation and rehabilitation study program, module Prevention and T ment of Behavioural Disorders (PTBD). ment of Behavioural Disorders (PTBD). A sub-sample from FASPER included students studying the Special edu- included students studying the Special A sub-sample from FASPER 5 Objective, Research Questions and Hypothesis Questions Research Objective, demographic variables, in- to determine the contribution of certain orientation, contacts with cluding sex, age, study program, sexual affiliations, the signifi- persons of homosexual orientation, political services,cance of religion and attendance at religious to students’ and second, to determine attitudes towards lesbians and gay men, and gay men between the difference in attitudes towards lesbians of prevention and law students, on the one hand, and students and psychology (the so treatment of behavioural disorders (PTBD) called “auxiliary other. professions”), on the two main research questions: quently, of Psychology (University of Belgrade) and the Faculty of Law of Law and the Faculty of Belgrade) of Psychology (University who could Thus, respondents were students (Union University). non-le- criminal justice system (as legal and be employed in the gal professionals). Methodology of the Present Study of the Present Methodology and Lesbian Is- and Gay towards Punitiveness dent Attitudes sues. The surveywas conducted during the winter semester of the sample of 188 students 2018/2019, on a convenience facul- of basic academic studies at three third and fourth year and Rehabili- for Special Education Faculty ties in Belgrade: the tation (FASPER)

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 126 127 edited volumes - - - - or know persons with 6 homosexuals, political and religious affiliations and at affiliations political and religious homosexuals, tendance at religious ceremonies was expected. at religious ceremonies tendance and towards lesbians differences in attitudes There are and PTBD on the one hand, law students gay men among on the other. and psychology students, As for the political affiliation, half of the respondents opt The survey 188 on a convenience sample of was conducted 2. homosexuals. This is important to note, given the fact that 15.4% of stu of their friends is of homosex- dents from the sample do not know if any ual orientation. More precisely, they know they have friends who identifyMore precisely, themselves as 6 homosexual orientation. 10.6% of them identi- ed for liberal or moderately liberal, while a moderately conservativefied themselves as a worshipper of or conservative of the participants reported political option. Most a (71.3%), while more than their religious affiliation as Orthodox as atheists. In this regard, quarter of them defined themselves almost never at slightly more than a half of the respondents which is not surprising giv- tended religious ceremonies (52.7%), that the religion is not en that 68.8% of the respondents stated important for them. students of the third and fourth year of basic academic studies at and fourth year of basic academic students of the third more stu- 1). There was slightly (Table three faculties in Belgrade students (37.2%) and PTBD (35.1%) than law dents of psychology (41) with 78.2% (147) of female and 21.8% (27.7%) in the sample, of the sample is in accord- of male students. Such gender structure student population studying ance with the gender structure of the the mean for the age was 22 at these three faculties. The value of between 20 and 25 years, years, with most of the participants aged Students iden- year of study. which is expected with regards to the tifying the majority of the themselves as heterosexuals comprised sample (92%), with 5.9% identifying as bisexual and themselves Slightly more than half of the 2.1% as persons with fluid sexuality. participants have homosexuals for friends Sample

129 edited volumes

7.3 14 year a times two - Other

0.5 1 week a once than often More

1.1 2 week a Once

Services Religious 4.3 8 month a times three Two,

14.4 27 month a Once

52.7 99 never Almost

19.7 37 religious Not

27.7 52 Atheist

0.5 1 Muslim

Religion 0.5 1 Muslim

0.5 1 Catholic Religion

0.5 1 Catholic

71.3 134 Orthodox

10.2 19 apolitical - Other

3.2 6 Conservative

7.4 14 conservative Moderately

26.6 50 Moderately

Political affiliation affiliation Political

26.6 50 Moderately

Political affiliation affiliation Political

20.7 39 liberal Moderately

29.8 56 Liberal

2.1 4 liberal Extreme

15.4 29 know don’t I

friends/acquaintances

30.9 58 No

Homosexual

friends/acquaintances

30.9 58 No

Homosexual

53.7 53.7 101 Yes

2.1 4 sexuality fluid - Other

Sexual orientation Sexual 5.9 11 Bisexual

92.0 173 Heterosexual

37.2 70 Psychology

Psychology Psychology 37.2 70

program Study PTBD PTBD 35.1 66

Law 27.7 52

31-35 3.7 3.7 7

SD=4.28 31-35 3.7 3.7 7

M=22.25 26-30 4.8 4.8 9 SD=4.28

Age M=22.25 26-30 4.8 4.8 9

Age 20-25 91.5 91.5 172

20-25 91.5 91.5 172

Female Female 78.2 78.2 147

Sex Female Female 147 78.2 78.2

Sex Male Male 41 21.8 21.8

Male Male 41 21.8 21.8

n n Per cent cent Per

Table 1. 1. Table The sample characteristics sample The

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 128 Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 128 129 edited volumes

129 edited volumes

7.3 14 year a times two - Other

0.5 1 week a once than often More

1.1 2 week a Once

Services Religious 4.3 8 month a times three Two,

14.4 27 month a Once

Almost never Almost 52.7 99

Not religious Not 19.7 37

Atheist Atheist 27.7 52

Muslim Muslim 0.5 1

Religion Muslim Muslim 0.5 1

Catholic 0.5 1 Religion

Catholic 0.5 1

Orthodox Orthodox 71.3 134

Other - apolitical apolitical - Other 10.2 19

Other - apolitical apolitical - Other 19 10.2

Conservative Conservative 6 3.2

Moderately conservative conservative Moderately 14 7.4

Moderately Moderately 50 26.6

Political affiliation affiliation Political

Moderately Moderately 50 26.6

Political affiliation affiliation Political

Moderately liberal Moderately 39 20.7

Liberal Liberal 56 29.8

Extreme liberal Extreme 4 2.1

I don’t know know don’t I 29 15.4

friends/acquaintances

No 58 30.9

Homosexual

friends/acquaintances

No 58 30.9

Homosexual

Yes Yes 101 53.7 53.7

Other - fluid sexuality fluid - Other 4 2.1

Sexual orientation Sexual Bisexual 11 5.9

Heterosexual 173 92.0

Heterosexual 92.0 173

Psychology Psychology 37.2 70

program Study PTBD PTBD 35.1 66

Law 27.7 52

31-35 3.7 3.7 7

SD=4.28 31-35 3.7 3.7 7

M=22.25

26-30 4.8 4.8 9 SD=4.28

Age

M=22.25 26-30 4.8 4.8 9

20-25 91.5 91.5 172 Age

20-25 91.5 91.5 172

78.2 78.2 147 Female

Sex 78.2 78.2 147 Female

21.8 21.8 41 Male Sex

21.8 21.8 41 Male

Per cent cent Per n

Table 1. 1. Table The sample characteristics sample The

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 128 - Attitudes to Attitudes the The data was collected with the use of the standardised the use of the standardised was collected with The data col- questionnaire was used to A thirteen-item demographic towards lesbians In order to evaluate students’ attitudes (ATLG) was used: it is a 20-item scale designed to capture to capture was used: it is a 20-item scale designed (ATLG) negative attitudes towards lesbians and gay men (Herek, 1984b; and gay men (Herek, 1984b; negative attitudes towards lesbians Herek, and Glunt, 1993; Herek and Capitanio, 1996). It was origi- only 20 items (state- nally developed from the 64 items, but item-total correlations were included in with the highest ments) Morera, 1994; Stoever and scale (Kyes and Tumbelaka, the ATLG - subscales: the Atti scale consists of two 2007). The original ATLG with 10 statements that evaluate atti- - ATL lesbians tudes towards and tudes towards lesbians (items L1 to L10), with 10 statements that evaluate attitudes gay men - ATG wards to G10) (Herek, 1988, 1994). towards homosexual men - (items G1 Likert-type is rated on the 5-point Each statement on the ATLG level of agreement or scale, where the respondents show their to “strongly agree”). disagreement (from “strongly disagree” aspect of scale is intended to capture the attitudinal Herek’s ATLG 2010). The result Meaney, homonegativity (Herek, 1984b; Rye and is counted for each sub-scale and for the scale in total (results for each sub-scale are added and then divided with a number of A higher score indicates greater prejudice towards homo- items). sexuals, while a lower score indicates favourable attitudes towards homosexuals. Results on subscales are not directly Instrument - study includ used in the present The questionnaire questionnaire. of atti- questionnaire and three scales ed a socio-demographic towards and gay men, towards crime and tudes: towards lesbians criminal sanctions. program, na- sex, age, faculty/study lect information concerning with homosexual orientation, personal contact tionality/ethnicity, political affiliations friends/acquaintances), sexuals (homosexual at reli- of religion and attendance and religiousness (importance age, sexual orientation, The data on the sex, gious ceremonies). ss political affiliations and religiousne contacts with homosexuals, in the present study. were analysed as independent variables and gay men lesbians towards and gay men, the Herek’s Attitudes scale

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 130 131 edited volumes - - (Rye and Meaney, 2010). High reliability of the of the 2010). High reliability (Rye and Meaney, 7 oldfashioned homonegativity and modern homonegativity please see: oldfashioned 2002. Morrison, M.A. and Morrison, T.G., For more information about the forms of homonegativity known as In the original study, the ATLG scale reveals high internal scale reveals high internal the ATLG In the original study, 7 The data was collected using a paper-and-pencil method. Af The data was collected using a paper-and-pencil consistency, with Cronbach alpha .90 (for the ATL subscale α= .77 subscale α= .77 alpha .90 (for the ATL consistency, with Cronbach a 1988). Additionally, subscale α= .89) (Herek, and for the ATG was confirmed, with conver of the ATLG good external validity - the term “homo translation, we used In the Serbian comparable. - to re men” and “homosexual to refer to lesbians sexual women” subscale and (four from the ATG men. Seven items fer to gay are coded reversely. subscale) the ATL three from gent validity with the Index of Homophobia and the Modern Ho- Index of Homophobia and the Modern gent validity with the monegativity Data Collection Data ATLG scale was confirmed in the present study as well. The relia- scale was confirmed in ATLG scale was .91, for for the overall ATLG bility with levels obtained α= .88 attitudes towards lesbians (ATL) the subscale measuring men (ATG) measuring attitudes towards gay and for the subscale adapted into scale has been translated and α= .96. The ATLG Dutch (Van and Felling, 2003), Turkish de Meerendonk, Eisinga (Bauermeister et al., 2007) and and Duyan, 2006), Spanish (Gelbal our knowledge, the ATLG Xiao and Xiang, 2011). To Chinese (Yu, scale has not been used in Serbia yet. For the purpose of this scale was translated into Croatian and the original ATLG study, then adapted into Serbian. ter getting approval from the deans of the given faculties and pro- ter getting approval from the deans of clearly explained the ob- fessors teaching particular courses, having and participants, and jectives of this research to the professors of the participants, the having obtained the informed consent of re- anonymity scale was applied in the classrooms. The ATLG participants were informed spondents was assured. Furthermore, would be only used for sci- that the data derived from this research entific purposes. - - ” = -1.53). Despite estab- (188) = -1.13). Additionally, female stu- = -1.13). Additionally, (188) The adjustment to the normality of the ATL and the the normality of the ATL The adjustment to 8 The data was processed in SPSS 20. First, processed in SPSS The data was statistics descriptive The research suggested that female students (n=147, M=2.49,The research suggested that female students In order to examine the impact of other demographic character In order to examine the impact of other In regression, five-point responses were transformed into three-point re sponses, with 1=agree (answers “totally agree” and “mostly agree”), and “mostly agree”), sponses, with 1=agree (answers “totally agree” 2=neither agree nor disagree and 3=disagree (answers “totally disagree and “mostly disagree”). 8 Research Results Research - was contrasted through the Kol predictors score and analyzed ATG Z). (K-S mogorov-Smirnov test Demographic Variables as Factors Associated with Respondents’ as Factors Variables Demographic and Gay Men Lesbians Towards Attitudes Data Analysis Data for every of the scale’s followed by the analyses item were calculated, correlation, t-test, independent-samples an Additionally, reliability. regression were used and linear (one-way ANOVA) analysis of variance for data analyses. SD=.743) reported lower prejudice levels towards lesbians than maleSD=.743) reported lower prejudice levels students (n=41, M=2.64, SD=.632, t dents (M=2.61, SD=.667) reported lower prejudice levels towards gaydents (M=2.61, SD=.667) reported lower t men than male students (M=2.78, SD=.453, lished differences regarding prejudice levels towards lesbians and gaylished differences regarding prejudice those differences were notmen between female and male students, significant (p>.05). lesbians and gay men, an anal- istics on respondents’ attitudes towards ATL and of means for ysis of variance was performed. The differences study pro- sub-scales were statistically significant related to the ATG orientation and thosegram, between respondents of heterosexual (bisexuals and fluid sex- who defined themselves as non-heterosexuals and between those who have homosexual friends andual orientation), the differences of means 2). Additionally, those who have not (Table were statistically significant between re- sub-scales and ATG for ATL spondents of conservative and those with more lib- political affiliation eral political orientation, and between students who attend religious services and those who often (once or more times a week or month) 2).do not (almost never) (Table

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 132 133 edited volumes *** *** * * ** p<.05 *

F (eta squared) .552 (<.01) 19.702 3.774 3.114 2.299 11.242 (.01) (.03) (.03) (.01) (.01) .622 (<.01) p<.01 ** SD .645 .444 .377 .431 .183 .443 .333 .508 .972 .350 .366 .370 .483 .317 .632 .319 .363 .475 .404 1.824 .989 .397 .291 .706 .377 .325 p<.001 ATG (N=188) ATG M 2.64 2.73 2.77 2.62 2.48 2.60 2.55 2.72 2.88 2.42 2.53 2.55 2.68 2.82 3.10 2.48 2.57 2.71 3.08 3.14 2.97 2.60 2.46 2.69 2.58 2.60 *** *** *** *** * *** F (eta squared) .797 (<.01) 16.011 (.02) (.02) (.01) (.02) (.04) .771 (<.01) 6.699 4.311 5.381 8.608 SD .729 .655 .604 .917 .595 .497 .746 .592 .531 .697 .266 .290 .590 .831 .819 .527 .707 .679 1.262 .150 .493 .584 .759 .706 .642 .630 ATL (N=188) ATL M 2.50 2.78 2.69 2.91 2.55 2.22 2.63 2.22 2.40 2.53 2.06 2.20 2.38 2.68 2.70 2.35 2.76 3.11 3.25 1.93 2.27 2.33 2.62 2.93 3.30 2.40 omparison of means by One-way ANOVA - demographic variables - demographic One-way ANOVA means by omparison of (total sample) Age 20-25 26-30 >30 program Study Law PTBD Psychology Religion Orthodox Atheist Catholic, Muslim Sexual orientation Heterosexual Bisexual Fluid sexuality Homosexual friends Yes No know I don’t affiliation Political Extreme liberal Liberal Moderately liberal Moderately Moderately conservative Conservative Apolitical services Religious Almost never Monthly Weekly times a year Two Table 2. C Table - - =3.16, (188) =3.92, p<.001, 95% CI[.26-.80]). (188) (Table 2). (Table 9 Since available studies suggest that study program impacts Since available studies suggest that study as for the scale in total, as well Mean scores for the ATLG The results presented in Table 2 show that heterosexuals, that heterosexuals, 2 show presented in Table The results hen, 1988, Fan, 2001 and Grissom and Kim, 2005 2001 and Grissom hen, 1988, Fan, For more information about the efect size for ANOVA please see in: Co- for ANOVA For more information about the efect size 9 Differences in Attitudes Towards Lesbians and Gay Men Between Law Men Between Law and Gay Lesbians Towards in Attitudes Differences Students and Psychology Students and PTBD attitudes on lesbians and gay men, we wanted to see if there are attitudes on lesbians and gay men, we who could work as legal some differences between law students, on one side, and PTBD professionals in the criminal justice system, be involved in the criminal jus- and psychology students, who could (“auxiliarytice system as non-legal professionals professions”), on for independent samples was applied In doing so, t-test the other. scale in total. For the ATLG on average results on the sub-scales and sub-scale, the results ranged between 1 and 4.70, and for the ATL 3, sig- sub-scale from 1 to 5. As suggested by data in Table the ATG lesbians and gay men be- nificant differences in attitudes towards students were es- tween law students and PTBD and psychology tablished. show relatively low prejudice level among sub-scales, and ATG ATL law students 3). However, students of all three faculties (Table towards lesbians than have significantly more negative attitudes PTBD and psychology students (t ences between means of attitudes towards lesbians and gay men of attitudes towards lesbians and ences between means var size confirmed with eta-squared. The effect are small, which is 0.4 ies between .01 and students studying at the Law school and respondents who do not who do not school and respondents studying at the Law students lower acceptance acquaintances show friends or have homosexual levels towards gay higher prejudice and gay men, with of lesbians lesbians. Conservativesmen than towards re- and more religious too, acceptance of lesbians and gay men, spondents show lower to- prejudice levels towards lesbians than but with a bit higher despite the significance, the real differ wards gay men. However, In addition, law students have significantly more negative attitudes towards gay men than PTBD and psychology students (t

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 134 135 edited volumes *** *** ** t-test 4.02 3.92 3.16 SD .383 .569 .353 **p<.001, **p<.01 * 2.45 2.38 2.53 M PTBD and Psychology PTBD and Psychology 136 136 136 n .841 .917 .989 SD 2.94 2.91 2.97 M (items L2, L6, L8) (Table 4). (items L2, L6, L8) (Table Law school 52 52 52 n 10 Differences in attitudes towards lesbians (ATL) and gay men (ATG) between (ATG) men gay and (ATL) lesbians towards attitudes in Differences

Significant differences in attitudes between law students Significant differences in attitudes Law students were also significantly more likely than PTBD more likely Law students were also significantly For more information about items of the ATLG scale that indicate open scale that indicate For more information about items of the ATLG and subtle rejection towards lesbians and gay men please see: Moral de 2013. de la O, la Rubia and Valle 10 ATG ATL Scale ATLG Table 3. Table students and psychology law and students of PTBD p<.01, 95% CI[.16-.72]). The effect size of the difference, both in of the difference, effect size CI[.16-.72]). The p<.01, 95% d by Cohen’s sub-scales, expressed scale in total and terms of the 1988). (Cohen, effect a medium (d=.07), indicates and PTBD and psychology students were found on most of the an- and PTBD and psychology students were 5), meaning that law 4 and alysed statements in sub-scales (Table PTBD and psychology stu- students have higher prejudices than than law students were significantly more likely dents. Namely, seven statements that PTBD and psychology students to endorse items that indicate open indicate rejection towards lesbians: four items that indicate subtle rejection (L3, L5, L9 and L10), and three rejection and psychology students to endorse nine statements against gay and psychology students to endorse nine towards homosexual men men: all five that indicate open rejection out of five that indicate (items G2, G3, G4, G6, and G10), and four men (items G1, G5, G8, and subtle rejection towards homosexual 5). G9) (Table 137 edited volumes ** ** ** * *** *** *** ** ** ** * *** *** *** t-test t=-3.32 t=3.56 t=.89 t=3.69 t=3.01 t=1.42 t=2.94 t=2.55 t=4.06 t=1.61 t-test t=4.06 t=1.61 t=3.56 t=3.01 t=2.55 t=-3.32 t=.89 t=3.69 t=1.42 t=2.94 **p<.001, **p<.01 * **p<.001, **p<.01 .162 .063 .206 .133 .346 .170 . 267 .115 .260 .104 .191 .100 .254 .109 .271 .108 .261 .113 .153 .103 * SE .261 .113 .153 .103 .206 .133 .260 .104 .271 .108 .162 .063 .346 .170 . 267 .115 .191 .100 .254 .109 SE 1.167 .528 1.486 1.117 2.498 1.419 1.924 .961 1.873 .869 1.379 .834 1.830 .913 1.952 .901 1.882 .946 1.100 .863 SD 1.882 .946 1.100 .863 1.486 1.117 1.873 .869 1.952 .901 1.167 .528 2.498 1.419 1.924 .961 1.379 .834 1.830 .913 SD 4.17 4.84 2.79 1.64 3.73 3.41 2.56 1.34 2.52 1.36 4.02 3.83 2.56 1.51 2.38 1.36 2.29 1.34 2.08 1.53 M 2.29 1.34 2.08 1.53 2.79 1.64 2.52 1.36 2.38 1.36 4.17 4.84 3.73 3.41 2.56 1.34 4.02 3.83 2.56 1.51 M 57.7 90.0 15.4 4.3 5.8 17.1 11.5 4.3 7.7 2.9 25.0 17.1 5.8 1.4 0.0 2.9 7.7 2.9 3.8 0.0 5 7.7 2.9 3.8 0.0 15.4 4.3 7.7 2.9 0.0 2.9 57.7 90.0 5.8 17.1 11.5 4.3 25.0 17.1 5.8 1.4 5 15.4 5.7 25.0 7.1 13.5 8.6 11.5 1.4 13.5 1.4 38.5 55.7 15.4 4.3 9.6 1.4 7.7 4.3 5.8 7.1 4 7.7 4.3 5.8 7.1 25.0 7.1 13.5 1.4 9.6 1.4 15.4 5.7 13.5 8.6 11.5 1.4 38.5 55.7 15.4 4.3 4 15.4 2.9 19.2 2.9 11.5 2.9 36.5 61.4 13.5 4.3 17.3 4.3 25.0 22.9 19.2 7.1 23.1 7.1 23.1 2.9 3 15.4 2.9 23.1 2.9 11.5 2.9 17.3 4.3 23.1 7.1 19.2 2.9 36.5 61.4 13.5 4.3 25.0 22.9 19.2 7.1 3 13.5 4.3 1.9 1.4 19.2 20.0 13.5 1.4 17.3 4.3 15.4 11.4 5.8 1.4 17.3 `18.6 17.3 5.7 28.8 25.7 2 13.5 4.3 28.8 25.7 19.2 20.0 15.4 11.4 17.3 5.7 1.9 1.4 13.5 1.4 17.3 4.3 5.8 1.4 17.3 `18.6 2 51.9 85.7 5.8 0.0 28.8 65.7 15.4 8.6 42.3 85.7 42.3 80.0 1.9 2.9 38.5 68.6 44.2 82.9 38.5 64.3 Attitudes towards lesbians towards Attitudes Per cent of responses of cent Per 1 51.9 85.7 38.5 64.3 28.8 65.7 42.3 80.0 44.2 82.9 5.8 0.0 15.4 8.6 42.3 85.7 1.9 2.9 38.5 68.6 Attitudes towards lesbians Attitudes towards Per cent of responses of cent Per 1 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy 1 1 1 1 1 1 L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form of sexuality. L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form L10: Lesbians are sick. L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem unless L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem it a problem. society makes of our basic L8: Female homosexuality is a threat to many social institutions. L5: Female homosexuality is a sin. a decline in L6: The growing number of lesbians indicates Serbian morals. L3: Female homosexuality is bad for society because it L3: Female homosexuality divisions between the sexes. breaks down the natural between L4: State laws against private sexual behaviour consenting adult women should be abolished. L1: Lesbians just can’t fit into our society. fit L1: Lesbians just can’t should not be a cause for job homosexuality L2: A woman’s situation. discrimination in any Statements Reverse scored scored Reverse Differences in attitudes towards lesbians - comparison of means for claims from ATL from for claims of means comparison - lesbians towards in attitudes 4. Differences Table 1 Law - law students, PTBD - students of Prevention and Treatment - students students, of Prevention and Treatment - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form of sexuality. L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form L10: Lesbians are sick. L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem unless L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem it a problem. society makes L6: The growing number of lesbians indicates a decline in L6: The growing number of lesbians indicates Serbian morals. L4: State laws against private sexual behaviour between L4: State laws against private sexual behaviour consenting adult women should be abolished. L3: Female homosexuality is bad for society because it L3: Female homosexuality sexes. breaks down the natural divisions between the L2: A woman’s homosexuality should not be a cause for job homosexuality L2: A woman’s situation. discrimination in any L1: Lesbians just can’t fit into our society. fit L1: Lesbians just can’t Statements L8: Female homosexuality is a threat to many of our basic of our basic L8: Female homosexuality is a threat to many social institutions. L5: Female homosexuality is a sin. Reverse scored scored Reverse 1 Differences in attitudes towards lesbians - comparison of means for claims from ATL from for claims of means comparison - lesbians towards in attitudes 4. Differences Table Law - law students, PTBD - students of Prevention and Treatment - students students, of Prevention and Treatment - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural

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137 edited volumes ** *** *** *** ** ** * ** *** *** *** ** ** * t-test t=2.55 t=4.06 t=1.61 t=3.56 t=3.01 t=.89 t=3.69 t=1.42 t=2.94 t=-3.32 t-test t=4.06 t=1.61 t=-3.32 t=3.56 t=.89 t=3.69 t=3.01 t=1.42 t=2.94 t=2.55 **p<.001, **p<.01 * **p<.001, **p<.01 .271 .108 .261 .113 .153 .103 .206 .133 .260 .104 .346 .170 . 267 .115 .191 .100 .254 .109 .162 .063 * SE .261 .113 .153 .103 .162 .063 .206 .133 .346 .170 . 267 .115 .260 .104 .191 .100 .254 .109 .271 .108 SE 1.952 .901 1.882 .946 1.486 1.117 1.873 .869 1.100 .863 1.830 .913 2.498 1.419 1.924 .961 1.379 .834 1.167 .528 SD 1.882 .946 1.924 .961 1.873 .869 1.379 .834 1.830 .913 1.952 .901 1.100 .863 1.167 .528 1.486 1.117 2.498 1.419 SD 2.38 1.36 2.29 1.34 2.79 1.64 2.52 1.36 2.08 1.53 2.56 1.51 3.73 3.41 2.56 1.34 4.02 3.83 4.17 4.84 M 2.29 1.34 2.56 1.34 2.52 1.36 4.02 3.83 2.56 1.51 2.38 1.36 2.08 1.53 4.17 4.84 2.79 1.64 3.73 3.41 M 0.0 2.9 7.7 2.9 15.4 4.3 7.7 2.9 3.8 0.0 5.8 1.4 5.8 17.1 11.5 4.3 25.0 17.1 57.7 90.0 5 7.7 2.9 11.5 4.3 7.7 2.9 25.0 17.1 5.8 1.4 0.0 2.9 3.8 0.0 57.7 90.0 15.4 4.3 5.8 17.1 5 9.6 1.4 7.7 4.3 25.0 7.1 13.5 1.4 5.8 7.1 15.4 4.3 13.5 8.6 11.5 1.4 38.5 55.7 15.4 5.7 4 7.7 4.3 11.5 1.4 13.5 1.4 38.5 55.7 15.4 4.3 9.6 1.4 5.8 7.1 15.4 5.7 25.0 7.1 13.5 8.6 4 23.1 7.1 15.4 2.9 11.5 2.9 17.3 4.3 23.1 2.9 19.2 7.1 25.0 22.9 36.5 61.4 13.5 4.3 19.2 2.9 3 15.4 2.9 23.1 7.1 13.5 4.3 17.3 4.3 25.0 22.9 19.2 7.1 36.5 61.4 23.1 2.9 19.2 2.9 11.5 2.9 3 13.5 4.3 17.3 5.7 15.4 11.4 19.2 20.0 28.8 25.7 17.3 `18.6 5.8 1.4 17.3 4.3 13.5 1.4 1.9 1.4 2 13.5 4.3 17.3 5.7 17.3 `18.6 5.8 1.4 17.3 4.3 15.4 11.4 13.5 1.4 19.2 20.0 1.9 1.4 28.8 25.7 2

51.9 85.7 44.2 82.9 42.3 80.0 28.8 65.7 38.5 64.3 38.5 68.6 1.9 2.9 42.3 85.7 15.4 8.6 5.8 0.0 Attitudes towards lesbians Attitudes towards Per cent of responses of cent Per

85.7

51.9

82.9

44.2

68.6

38.5

2.9

1.9

80.0

42.3

85.7

42.3

8.6

15.4

65.7

28.8

0.0

5.8

64.3

38.5

Attitudes towards lesbians towards Attitudes

Per cent of responses of cent Per 1 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy 1 1 1 1 1 1 L10: Lesbians are sick. L1: Lesbians just can’t fit into our society. fit L1: Lesbians just can’t should not be a cause for job homosexuality L2: A woman’s situation. discrimination in any is bad for society because it L3: Female homosexuality sexes. breaks down the natural divisions between the between L4: State laws against private sexual behaviour consenting adult women should be abolished. a decline in L6: The growing number of lesbians indicates Serbian morals. unless L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem it a problem. society makes of sexuality. L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form Statements L5: Female homosexuality is a sin. of our basic L8: Female homosexuality is a threat to many social institutions. Reverse scored scored Reverse 1 Differences in attitudes towards lesbians - comparison of means for claims from ATL from for claims of means comparison - lesbians towards in attitudes 4. Differences Table Law - law students, PTBD - students of Prevention and Treatment - students students, of Prevention and Treatment - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural L10: Lesbians are sick. L2: A woman’s homosexuality should not be a cause for job homosexuality L2: A woman’s situation. discrimination in any is bad for society because it L3: Female homosexuality divisions between the sexes. breaks down the natural between L4: State laws against private sexual behaviour consenting adult women should be abolished. L5: Female homosexuality is a sin. a decline in L6: The growing number of lesbians indicates Serbian morals. unless L7: Female homosexuality in itself is no problem it a problem. society makes of our basic L8: Female homosexuality is a threat to many social institutions. of sexuality. L9: Female homosexuality is an inferior form Statements into our society. fit L1: Lesbians just can’t Reverse scored scored Reverse 1 Differences in attitudes towards lesbians - comparison of means for claims from ATL from for claims of means comparison - lesbians towards in attitudes 4. Differences Table Law - law students, PTBD - students of Prevention and Treatment - students students, of Prevention and Treatment - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 136 139 edited volumes t-test t=3.62*** t=4.75*** t=-2.42** t=4.20*** t=-1.91 t=5.49*** t=5.01*** t=- 3.06** t=-3.22** t=6.21*** t-test t=-3.22** t=-2.42** t=-1.91 t=- 3.06** t=6.21*** t=4.20*** t=5.49*** t=3.62*** t=5.01*** t=4.75*** ***p<.001, **p<.01 ***p<.001, **p<.01 .260 .073 .279 .137 .216 .133 .270 .114 .253 .145 .229 .131 .227 .116 .228 .120 .254 .149 .230 .111 SE .254 .149 .216 .133 .253 .145 .228 .120 .230 .111 .270 .114 .229 .131 .260 .073 .227 .116 .279 .137 SE 1,873 .619 2.009 1.146 1,560 1.116 1.949 .958 1.823 1.211 1.651 1.100 1.637 .973 1.647 1.003 1.831 1.246 1.655 .928 SD 1.831 1.246 1,560 1.116 1.823 1.211 1.647 1.003 1.655 .928 1.949 .958 1.651 1.100 1,873 .619 1.637 .973 2.009 1.146 SD 2.46 1.17 3.04 1.61 3,19 4.03 2.92 1.44 2.67 3.57 3.02 1.51 3.29 1.56 3.38 4.33 2.48 3.89 3.25 1.47 M 2.48 3.89 3,19 4.03 2.67 3.57 3.38 4.33 3.25 1.47 2.92 1.44 3.02 1.51 2.46 1.17 3.29 1.56 3.04 1.61 M 9.6 1.4 13.5 5.7 17.3 47.1 7.7 2.9 11.5 27.1 23.1 5.7 25.0 4.3 28.8 60.0 5.8 40.0 23.1 4.3 5 5.8 40.0 17.3 47.1 11.5 27.1 28.8 60.0 23.1 4.3 7.7 2.9 23.1 5.7 9.6 1.4 25.0 4.3 13.5 5.7 5 7.7 0.0 9.6 2.9 23.1 21.4 11.5 2.9 5.8 27.1 3.8 2.9 19.2 0.0 15.4 21.4 11.3 1.4 19.2 0.0 4 11.3 1.4 15.4 21.4 23.1 21.4 5.8 27.1 19.2 0.0 11.5 2.9 3.8 2.9 7.7 0.0 19.2 0.0 9.6 2.9 4 25.0 12.9 17.3 2.9 32.7 10.0 23.1 21.4 32.7 7.1 25.0 30.0 32.7 4.3 17.3 8.6 23.1 14.3 25.0 4.3 3 23.1 14.3 25.0 12.9 23.1 21.4 25.0 30.0 25.0 4.3 32.7 7.1 32.7 4.3 17.3 2.9 17.3 8.6 32.7 10.0 3 11.5 2.9 19.2 5.7 9.6 10.0 19.2 7.1 15.4 10.0 23.1 7.1 17.3 11.4 21.2 21.4 13.5 5.7 9.6 21.4 2 13.5 5.7 11.5 2.9 19.2 7.1 23.1 7.1 9.6 21.4 15.4 10.0 17.3 11.4 19.2 5.7 21.2 21.4 9.6 10.0 2 Attitudes towards gay men gay towards Attitudes 17.3 2.9 42.3 90.0 28.8 71.4 15.4 2.9 26.9 77.1 30.8 8.6 21.2 75.7 15.4 65.7 42.3 8.6 21.2 70.0 Per cent of responses cent Per 1 42.3 8.6 17.3 2.9 15.4 2.9 30.8 8.6 Attitudes towards gay men gay towards Attitudes 21.2 70.0 26.9 77.1 21.2 75.7 42.3 90.0 15.4 65.7 28.8 71.4 Per cent of responses cent Per 1 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Statements G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages seems ridicu G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages kind of G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different lifestyle that should not be condemned. G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that my son was a G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that homosexual. G8: Sex between two men is just plain wrong. lous to me. G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression of sexuality G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression in men. do everyG6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should - thing he can to overcome them. G4: Male homosexuality is a perversion. G2: I think male homosexuals are disgusting. G2: I think male homosexuals should not be allowed to teach G3: Male homosexuals school. G1: Male homosexual couples should be allowed to adopt be allowed to adopt couples should G1: Male homosexual children the same as heterosexual couples. Reverse scored Reverse Differences in attitudes towards gay - comparison of means for claims from ATG from claims for of means comparison gay - towards in attitudes 5. Differences Table 1 Law - law students, PTBD - students students, of Prevention and - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural Treatment Statements G1: Male homosexual couples should be allowed to adopt be allowed to adopt couples should G1: Male homosexual children the same as heterosexual couples. G2: I think male homosexuals are disgusting. G2: I think male homosexuals G8: Sex between two men is just plain wrong. G6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should do everyG6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should - thing he can to overcome them. G3: Male homosexuals should not be allowed to teach G3: Male homosexuals school. G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages seems ridicu- G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages lous to me. G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that my son was a G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that homosexual. G4: Male homosexuality is a perversion. G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different kind of G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different lifestyle that should not be condemned. G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression of sexuality G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression in men. Reverse scored Reverse Differences in attitudes towards gay - comparison of means for claims from ATG from claims for of means comparison gay - towards in attitudes 5. Differences Table 1 Law - law students, PTBD - students students, of Prevention and - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural Treatment

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 138

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 138 139 edited volumes

139 edited volumes t-test t=-3.22** t=-1.91 t=- 3.06** t=-2.42** t=6.21*** t=4.20*** t=5.49*** t=3.62*** t=5.01*** t=4.75*** t-test t=-1.91 t=5.49*** t=5.01*** t=- 3.06** t=-3.22** t=6.21*** t=3.62*** t=4.75*** t=-2.42** t=4.20*** ***p<.001, **p<.01 ***p<.001, **p<.01 .254 .149 .253 .145 .228 .120 .216 .133 .230 .111 .270 .114 .229 .131 .260 .073 .227 .116 .279 .137 SE .253 .145 .229 .131 .227 .116 .228 .120 .254 .149 .230 .111 .260 .073 .279 .137 .216 .133 .270 .114 SE 1.831 1.246 1.647 1.003 1.823 1.211 1,560 1.116 1.655 .928 1.651 1.100 1.949 .958 1,873 .619 1.637 .973 2.009 1.146 SD 1.647 1.003 1.823 1.211 1.651 1.100 1.637 .973 1,873 .619 2.009 1.146 1,560 1.116 1.949 .958 1.831 1.246 1.655 .928 SD 2.48 3.89 3.38 4.33 2.67 3.57 3,19 4.03 3.25 1.47 3.02 1.51 2.92 1.44 2.46 1.17 3.29 1.56 3.04 1.61 M 3.38 4.33 2.67 3.57 3.02 1.51 3.29 1.56 2.46 1.17 3.04 1.61 3,19 4.03 2.92 1.44 2.48 3.89 3.25 1.47 M 5.8 40.0 28.8 60.0 11.5 27.1 17.3 47.1 23.1 4.3 23.1 5.7 7.7 2.9 9.6 1.4 25.0 4.3 13.5 5.7 5 28.8 60.0 11.5 27.1 23.1 5.7 25.0 4.3 9.6 1.4 13.5 5.7 17.3 47.1 7.7 2.9 5.8 40.0 23.1 4.3 5 11.3 1.4 15.4 21.4 5.8 27.1 23.1 21.4 19.2 0.0 3.8 2.9 11.5 2.9 7.7 0.0 19.2 0.0 9.6 2.9 4 15.4 21.4 5.8 27.1 3.8 2.9 19.2 0.0 7.7 0.0 9.6 2.9 23.1 21.4 11.5 2.9 11.3 1.4 19.2 0.0 4 23.1 14.3 25.0 12.9 25.0 30.0 23.1 21.4 25.0 4.3 32.7 4.3 32.7 7.1 17.3 2.9 17.3 8.6 32.7 10.0 3 25.0 12.9 17.3 8.6 25.0 30.0 32.7 4.3 32.7 7.1 17.3 2.9 32.7 10.0 23.1 21.4 25.0 4.3 23.1 14.3 3 13.5 5.7 11.5 2.9 23.1 7.1 19.2 7.1 9.6 21.4 17.3 11.4 15.4 10.0 19.2 5.7 21.2 21.4 9.6 10.0 2 11.5 2.9 21.2 21.4 17.3 11.4 23.1 7.1 15.4 10.0 19.2 7.1 9.6 10.0 19.2 5.7 9.6 21.4 13.5 5.7 2

42.3 8.6 17.3 2.9 30.8 8.6 15.4 2.9 Attitudes towards gay men gay towards Attitudes 21.2 70.0 21.2 75.7 26.9 77.1 42.3 90.0 15.4 65.7 28.8 71.4 Per cent of responses cent Per

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15.4

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2.9

15.4

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42.3

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Attitudes towards gay men gay towards Attitudes

Per cent of responses cent Per 1 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 52 136 n Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Law PTBD+Psy Study Study Program - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Statements G1: Male homosexual couples should be allowed to adopt be allowed to adopt couples should G1: Male homosexual children the same as heterosexual couples. G2: I think male homosexuals are disgusting. G2: I think male homosexuals G6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should do everyG6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should - thing he can to overcome them. G8: Sex between two men is just plain wrong. G3: Male homosexuals should not be allowed to teach G3: Male homosexuals school. G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that my son was a G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that homosexual. seems ridicu- G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages lous to me. G4: Male homosexuality is a perversion. G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different kind of G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different lifestyle that should not be condemned. G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression of sexuality G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression in men. Reverse scored Reverse Differences in attitudes towards gay - comparison of means for claims from ATG from claims for of means comparison gay - towards in attitudes 5. Differences Table 1 Law - law students, PTBD - students students, of Prevention and - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural Treatment G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different kind of G10: Male homosexuality is merely a different lifestyle that should not be condemned. G2: I think male homosexuals are disgusting. G2: I think male homosexuals should not be allowed to teach G3: Male homosexuals school. G4: Male homosexuality is a perversion. of sexuality G5: Male homosexuality is a natural expression in men. do everyG6: If a man has homosexual feelings, he should - thing he can to overcome them. my son was a G7: I would not be too upset if I learned that homosexual. G8: Sex between two men is just plain wrong. seems ridicu G9: The idea of male homosexual marriages lous to me. Statements be allowed to adopt couples should G1: Male homosexual children the same as heterosexual couples. Reverse scored Reverse 1 Differences in attitudes towards gay - comparison of means for claims from ATG from claims for of means comparison gay - towards in attitudes 5. Differences Table Law - law students, PTBD - students students, of Prevention and - law PTBD Law Psy - students module, of psychology Disorders of Behavioural Treatment

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 138 - - - of the scores on both sub- 12 - that in the sub-sample of law stu The data suggested 11 Similarly to law students, in the sub-sample of PTBD and Similarly to law students, in the sub-sample In order to find out if there are differences in the two the two are differences in find out if there In order to relation please see: Moore, Notz and Flinger, 2013. relation please see: Moore, Notz and Flinger, For more information about the strength of relationship in Pearson cor For more information about the strength of relationship in Pearson The regression analysis was preceded by a check of the normal distribu The regression analysis was preceded by a check tion of predictor variables and average values tion of predictor variables and average values and depend- correlations between predictors scales, as well as Pearson’s kurtosis and Kolmogorov-Smirnov ent variables. The values of skewness, deviation from test for all predictors indicate a statistically significant on the positive part the normal distribution (positioning the participants test show results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Additionally, of the scale). Z=1.90, sub-scale (K-S that distribution of a mean score for the ATL significantly Z=2.34, p<.001), likewise, sub-scale (K-S p<.01) and the ATG according to Tabachnick deviates from a normal distribution. However, and Fidell (2012) disturbed normality of distribution does not have to be an obstacle for the regression analyses if asymmetry in distribution is one direction. 12 11 dents, there is no correlation between sex, age, sexual orienta- correlation between sex, age, sexual dents, there is no and homosexual friends, as predictors, tion and contact with Addition- lesbians, as the dependent variable. attitudes towards sex, age, contact with ho- there is no correlation between ally, hand, and the importance of religion, on one mosexual friends - 6). Correla gay men, on the other (Table and attitudes towards lesbians predictors and attitudes towards tion between other be- of the correlation with the exception and gay men is weak, which and attitudes towards gay men, tween sexual orientation is moderate (r=.54). psychology students there is no correlation between sex, age, sex- psychology students there is no correlation friends and religion, on ual orientation, contact with homosexual As for the on the other. one hand, and attitudes towards lesbians, correlation with sex, age, attitudes towards gay men, there is no affiliation, religion and contact with homosexual friends, political religious services. other predictors and atti- Correlation between 6). verytudes towards lesbians and gay men is weak or weak (Table dependent variables are not Predictors that do not correlate with sub-samples. included in regression analyses in both formed. sub-samples of students related to the correlation of certain of certain to the correlation of students related sub-samples attitudes and respondents’ (demographic variables) predictors was per additional analysis and gay men towards lesbians

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 140 141 edited volumes - * * ** ** -.27 -.18 - .41 9. -.08 .30 .40 .31 .08 *** * .16 - 8. .04 .05 .28 -.09 -.16 -.29 .16 *** ** .08 .08 7. -.07 .36 .20 - .10 .36 -.04 .08 .01 6. .15 -.01 .06 .07 -.05 .18 - ***p<.001, **p.01, *p<.05 *** * .09 .14 .19 5. -.15 .23 - .09 .01 .54 -.06 .14 -.12 4. - -.07 -.02 -.07 -.02 -.09 * .21 .07 - -.11 3. -.17 -.05 -.03 -.03 -.01 *** * -.01 .10 .08 -.10 .56 2. .17 .14 -.01 - *** *** *** -.07 .33 .15 .42 .13 -.05 - 1. .07 .46 Pearson’s correlation between predictors and dependent variables on a variables and dependent predictors between correlation Pearson’s of PTBD and sub-sample the diagonal) students of law sub-sample (above students the diagonal) (below and psychology Results of the linear regression (Tables 7 and 8) show 8) show 7 and Results of the linear regression (Tables Age Age Religious ceremonies Religion Homosex. friends ATG Sex ATL ATL Sexual orientation Political Political affiliation Table 6. Table iables does not predict more negative attitudes towards lesbi- iables does not predict more negative 7). On the other (Table ans in the sub-sample of law students hand, more conservative and more frequent political affiliation attendance at religious ceremonies are predictors of more negative attitudes towards lesbians in the sub-sample of PTBD and psychology students, with a significant independent contribution to the explanation of variance for this dependent variable 7). (Table that two sub-scales highly correlate in both sub-samples, even in both sub-samples, even that two sub-scales highly correlate research (e.g. Rye and more than in some of the previous predictor variables signifi- 2010), and that analyzed Meaney, of variance of dependent cantly contribute to the explanation In relation and gay men). variables (attitudes towards lesbians predictor variables to the attitudes towards lesbians, selected sub-sample of law students explain 28.6% of the variance in the of PTBD and psy- and 39.5% of the variance in the sub-sample predictor var none of the analyzed chology students. However, - * *** *** t 2.05 t 5.70 3.50 β .176 .424 β .270 * *** Students of PTBD and Psychology (n=136) B .726 .159 .395 1.229 Students of PTBDStudents of and Psychology (n=136) B .344 1.006 .539 *** t 3.66 1.72 1.69 1.87 t 1.18 1.59 - coefficient of determination - coefficient 2 - coefficient of determination - coefficient 2 β .435 .205 .207 .244 β .168 .230 *** ** .391 Students of Law school (n=52) B .267 .107 .123 .625 .118 .286 Students of LawStudents of school (n=52) B .217 .116 .535 p<.05, B - unstandardized coefficient, β - standardized coefficient, - co R coefficient, β - standardized B - unstandardized p<.05, p<.001, B - unstandardized coefficient, β - standardized coefficient, R - coefficient, β - standardized B - unstandardized p<.001, * of law students of law on a sub-sample and a sub-sam- ATL for Linear regression students and psychology of PTBD ple of law students of law on a sub-sample and a sub-sam- ATG Linear regression for students and psychology of PTBD ple *** 2 2 p<.001, p<.001, p<.01, p<.01, Predictors Sexual orientation Political Political orientation Predictors Religious Religious ceremonies MODEL SUMMARY R R Political Political orientation MODEL SUMMARY R Religion Religious ceremonies R Table 7. Table *** ** efficient of multiple regression, R efficient of multiple coefficient of multiple regression, R of multiple coefficient Table 8. Table

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 142 143 edited volumes - Although gender differences in attitudes towards lesbians From the presented results it can be concluded that the first the presented results it can be concluded From In relation to the attitudes towards gay men, selected pre- gay men, selected to the attitudes towards In relation man and Zinberg, 1997; Schellenberg, Hirt and Sears, 1999; Roper man and Zinberg, 1997; Schellenberg, present study showed that and Halloran, 2007) the findings of the negative attitudes towards respondents hold significantly more can be explained by the gay men than towards lesbians, which homosexuality than for lesbi- greater social stigmatization for male 2013). The contribution de la O, anism (Moral de la Rubia and Valle with homosexuals, political of sex, age, sexual orientation, contacts attendance at religious and religious affiliations and more frequent services are studies have reported that people was expected. Many to hold prejudices towards homosexuals if significantly more likely 1989; Chng and Moore, 1991; Seltzer, they are males (D’Augelli, 1999; and Kopacz, 1992; Donnelly et al., 1997; Klamen, Grossman, Mikić and Petković, Schellenberg, Hirt and Sears, 1999; Kozjak studies also found that hav- 2015; Etchezahar et al., 2016). Recent predictor strong a is acquaintances or friends gay or lesbian few ing (Herek and Glunt,of positive attitudes towards homosexuals 1993; et al. 2005; Brown and Henri- Herek and Capitanio, 1996; Lyons, and Kim, 2012; quez, 2008; Swank and Raiz, 2010; Miller 2015). Some of these findings were confirmed in Kovčo-Vukadin, the present study. and gay men are not significant, the research suggested that females seem to be more tolerant towards homosexuals. The ATL hypothesis was confirmed partially, while the second one was con- confirmed partially, was hypothesis In line with the previous studies (Berk firmed in the present study. Discussion and Conclusions dictor variables explain 39.1% of the variance in the sub-sampl e of of the variance in explain 39.1% dictor variables gy and psycholo sub-sample of PTBD and 15.9% in the law students were included in variables that Among three predictor students. significant only heterosexual orientation is a the regression model, both attitudes towards gay men in predictor of more negative to the ex- a significant independent contribution sub-samples, with 8). for this dependent variable (Table planation of variance - - - Study program is one of the main predictors of holding Study program is one The present study also showed that for an explanation of The present study also showed that for For example, students of the fourth year of basic academic studies at the PTBD module received a lecture about the specifics of the position of homosexuals in prisons, from renowned national expert in this field. 13 13 tive on the social life (Herek, 2000; Herek and McLemore, 2013). (Herek, 2000; Herek and McLemore, tive on the social life - measured through having homosexu Contacts with homosexuals, of more proved to be a predictor als for friends or acquaintances towards lesbians and gay men. favourable attitudes law stu- towards lesbians and gay men: more negative attitudes lesbians higher prejudice levels towards dents have significantly be and psychology students. This could and gay men than PTBD used at these faculties. The the result of differences in curriculums for the so-called “auxiliaryPTBD and psychology students study they are more sensitive to professions”, and due to the curriculum on sexual orienta- differences, including differences grounded tion. and ATG sub-scales did not have correlation with age, which could age, which could correlation with did not have sub-scales and ATG sample (20 to range of the present of a limited age be the result de la Rubia and conducted by Moral as in the study 35), similarly broader age range the based on Other studies, O (2013). de la Valle prejudice shown that older adults have a higher of the sample have a result of their more conservativelevel, which could be perspec more negative attitudes towards lesbians conservativemore negative attitudes towards lesbians political af at religious ceremonies are filiation and more frequent attendance for the total sample and the significant predictors. This was proved The finding that sub-sample of PTBD and psychology students. conservative to more negative atti- political ideology contributes recent studies that point tudes towards lesbians is consistent with to the parties as important out political ideology and affiliation in a way that Con- predictors of attitudes towards homosexuals servatives prejudice levels (Yang, and Republicans show higher 2007; Brown and Henriquez, 2008; and Besser, 1998; Shackelford 2016), as well as people Miller and Kim, 2012; Etchezahar et al., and those of the right-wing with a higher level of authoritarianism, the finding 1998). Additionally, political orientation (Altemeyer, the higher frequencyabout religiousness (expressed through of at as a predictor for higher preju- tendance at religious ceremonies) dice levels towards lesbians (both on the total sample and the

Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 144 145 edited volumes - Finally, the results showed that, the results showed in both sub-samples, only Finally, First,The present study has some limitations. the study re- homosex- the empirical study of attitudes towards However, sub-sample of of PTBD and psychology students) is in line with psychology students) of of PTBD and sub-sample predictor of as a strong point out religiousness studies that many orienta- with homosexual attitudes towards individuals negative 1996; Berk and Capitanio, Herek, 1994; Herek 1992; tion (Seltzer, man and Zinberg, 1997; Basset et al., 2005; Shackelford and Besser, and Besser, Basset et al., 2005; Shackelford man and Zinberg, 1997; 2008; Barrientos, 2008; Brown and Henriquez, 2007; Cardenas and Etchezahar et al., 2016). Swank and Raiz, 2010; negative is a significant predictor of more heterosexual orientation and men, which is in line with other studies attitudes towards gay scale (Herek, 1984b, 1988, 2000; of the ATLG the original concept 2013). According to Herek, neg- O, de la Valle Moral de la Rubia and and so- homosexuality have a psychological ative attitudes towards ual in- contribute to the fact that heterosex cio-cultural basis, which minorities in the form of dividuals project feelings towards sexual prejudices (Herek, 2009; negative attitudes that constitute sexual et al., 2016). Etchezahar, students from cruited a convenience sample of undergraduate gen- it is not possible to make only three faculties. For that reason, measures is a conclusions. Second, the use of self-report eralized shortcoming because people significantly differ in their ability to the topic of the Additionally, be aware of their own internal states. research is the so-called sensitive topic, so, although participants were told that the surveygiv- there is still a risk of is anonymous, may not be willing to ing socially desirable answers. Participants apprehension under show their attitudes publicly due to their and Barrientos, 2008; Delgado evaluation circumstances (Cardenas and Castro, 2012). for the prevalence of such uality is a way to understand the reason et al. 2015). Therefore, attitudes and how to change them (Moreno it is necessary present research and expand to further develop the the diversity of participants, focusing on students at other faculties that educate students who could work in the criminal justice sys- and professionals in the criminal justice tem (e.g. police studies) and (e.g. general population) system as well. Larger sample sizes the use of objective measures of homonegativity (e.g. behavioral - - - . Reading: Addison-Wesley. The Nature of Prejudice (pp.47-92). San Diego, CA:es in Experimental Social Psychology Academic Press. , 38 (2) 338-351. Research of religion and cultural context. Social Science , 5 (5) 327-331. and Applied Social Psychology Journal of Community 24 (2) and Christianity, orientation and practices scale. Journal of Psychology 165-175. Allport, G., 1954. G.,1954. Allport, Advanc older „authoritarian personality“. In: Zanna, M. (Ed.). B. 1998. The Altemeyer, Literature contact argue that Allport’s contact titudes towards homosexuals, we may theoryhypothesis for reducing seems to be a relevant framework (Allport,prejudice towards lesbians and gay men 1954; Herek, 1997), and it should serve developing and implement as a basis for ing awareness raising interventions. - of the findings. Develop may increase the reliability indicators) change interventionsment of attitude in order to is encouraged x- with homose of persons and victimization prevent discrimination lesbians and attitudes towards due to the negative ual orientation relevant to first ex- contexts. Therefore, it seems gay men in many of focusing different study programs in terms plore the content of sex- and treatment of persons with different on the position, rights to human second, to introduce themes related ual orientation, and rela- different sexual orientation and adequate rights of persons of sexual di- that will promote acceptance of tionship towards them the crimi- particularly those that could work in versity in students, re but in other systems as well (social welfa nal justice system, the system, education, etc.). in mind system, healthcare Keeping lesbian the results of other studies that having present study and predictor of positive at or gay friends or acquaintances is a strong Adamczyk, A. and Pitt, C. 2009. Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: The role and Coyle, A. attitudes toward lesbians. 1995. Clinical psychologists’ P. Annesley, Bassett, R. L., Kirnan, R., Hill, M. and Schultz, A. the sexual Validating 2005. SOAP:

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Nikolić-Ristanović / Ćopić / Stevković 152 153 edited volumes - - stavovi, studenti, lezbejke, vira istraživanja, a potom prikaz i analiza poseban je čemu pri istraživanja, rezultata predra doprinose koji faktorima na fokus gej i lezbejkama prema ispitanika sudama muškarcima. U završnom delu su izneti glavni zaključci, kao i preporuke us- podizan- na rada neophodnost na merene seksu- drugačije osoba pravima o svesti ju alne orijentacije u oblasti visokog obrazovanja i značaju senzibilizacije budućih stručnjaka mogu koji da rade u krivičnopravnom sistemu. Ključne reči: gej muškarci, istraživanje, Srbija istraživanja koji se odnose na stavove ispi- stavove na odnose se koji istraživanja tanih studenata prema lezbejkama i gej muškarcima. U istraživanju je korišćena lez- prema stavova skala (1998) Herekova bejkama i gej muškarcima. Ona je - obuh vatila 20 različitih tvdnji, deset o gej koje za lezbejkama, o deset i muškarcima su ispitanici zamoljeni da navedu stepen Likertovog skali petostepenoj na slaganja tipa. U radu se polazi od pregleda nalaza Na- temu. ovu na istraživanja dosadašnjih toga kon je dat prikaz ok metodološkog - verzitet u Beogradu) i Pravnom fakultetu fakultetu Pravnom i Beogradu) u verzitet (Univerzitet Upitnik Union). je obuhvatio lez- prema stavova: ispitivanje za skale tri bejkama i gej muškarcima, prema krimi- nalitetu i prema kažnjavanju. Cilj ovog poglavlja je prikaz i analiza dela nalaza Srbija je 2018. godine uključena u - Kom parativnu studiju o stavovima studenata prema kažnjavanju i prema lezbejkama i gej muškarcima, koja je uključila deset evropskih i van evropskih država. Podaci su prikupljani putem primenom ankete, stu- uzorku na upitnika standardizovanog denata koji se školuju za rad u krivično- pravnom sistemu. Istraživanje je - sprove deno na uzorku od 188 studenata i studentkinja treće i četvrte godine tri speci- za Fakulteta Beogradu: u fakulteta Filozofskog rehabilitaciju, i edukaciju jalnu fakulteta, Odeljenja za psihologiju (Uni Sažetak STAVOVI STUDENATA U SRBIJI O STUDENATA STAVOVI LEZBEJKAMA I GEJ MUŠKARCIMA: ISTRAŽIVANJA REZULTATI JELENA SIMIĆ [email protected] [email protected] Union University School of Law Union University

Simić 154 155 edited volumes - - century brought changes that st In the 21st century, to personal the rights of trans* persons fully enjoyed by and moral security, development and physical observed cannot be other members of the society, as contro- requires a certain amount of time in versial or something that order to clearly observe related issues. New policies spe- their purpose throughout the world pri- cifically formed for that provisions regarding the dignity marily rely on constitutional discrimina- of the human personality and the prohibition of Rights Court of Human tion, on the decisions of the European persons. In and the authentic experiences of trans* (ECHR) the Republic of Serbia, the 21 can be interpreted as significant for the position of trans* per can be interpreted as significant for the position sons. Thereby, the Health Insurance Act provides insured per the sons. Thereby, sons at least 65% of the health service price from the compulsory health insurance fund for medically induced sex reassignment; the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia Conditions; the Public formed a Commission for Transgender Registry Act introduced an option to change sex in the birth register book, and a work group of the Ministry of State Ad- and the Ministry of ministration and Local Self-Government on the Health of the Republic of Serbia passed a Rulebook issued by a manner of issuing and the form of the certificate reassign- competent healthcare institution concerning sex ment.these legal This paper analyses the significance that novelties hold for the very position of the trans* community actually con- in Serbia, and whether and to what extent they tributed to the improvement of their position in everyday life. trans* persons, discrimination, sex change in birth Keywords: register book, public registry. Abstract Life in Legal Limbo in Legal Life in Serbia Persons – Trans* - New 2 Signifi- 1 version of the International Classi- th session in end-May 2019, the World Health session in end-May 2019, the World nd here: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/25-05-2019-world-health- assembly-update , (30/05/2019.) take an array of measures to fight discrimination based on sexual orien an array of measures to fight discrimination based take These measures have been listed in a Council tation and gender identity. represents the first comprehensive Recommendation, which of Europe persons. intergovernmental agreement on the rights of LGBT World Health AssemblyWorld Update, 25 May 2019, New release available In March 2010, 47 member countries of the Council of Europe agreed to agreed Council of Europe In March 2010, 47 member countries of the In the past 30 years, more and more countries have shown a more countries 30 years, more and In the past 2 1 Organization voted out the 11 transgender-related categories have been added to Chapter 17 on categories have been transgender-related which is one of the five new Conditions Related to Sexual Health, categories are: Gen- chapters in ICD-11. New transgender-related Adulthood; and Gender In- der Incongruence in Adolescence and congruence in Childhood (Joint Statement on ICD-11 for process tendency persons. recognition to trans* to offer full legal cant advancements in terms of their status have been largely in terms of their status have been largely cant advancements Therefore, for Courts’ jurisprudence. achieved through European has of the status of transgender persons example, the question Rights several Court of Human the European been placed before issue fell until 2002 the Court found that the times since 1979, and of each countrywithin the jurisdiction individually (Simić, 2012: Court of the Grand Chamber of the European 313). Then, in 2002, in terms the direction of decision-making Human Rights changed a prece- of transgender persons’ new sex in of legal recognition - Kingdom, when it was unani dent verdict in Goodwin vs. The United mously concluded that Art. family 8 (right to respect of private and violated in the case had been and Art. 12 (right to marriage) life) App. No. 28957/95 The United Kingdom, ECHR, Goodwin v. (Christine based on the growing from 11.07.2002). This decision was passed - and international consensus regarding the legal recogni European Such a trend continues to tion of transgender persons’ new sex. at its 72 date. Namely, fication of Diseases (ICD-11), removing transgender-related catego- transgender-related fication of Diseases (ICD-11), removing Behavioural Disorders, which ries from the Chapter on Mental and formally depsychopathol- indicates that trans* identities have been Assembly Health (World release, 2019). Update, New ogized Introductory notes

Simić 156 157 edited volumes - - - - revision of the In- th Before ICD-11 formally en- Before ICD-11 3 Such a solution was passed by the passed by a solution was Such 4 Such a connection of trans* identity to mental Such a connection of trans* identity to 5 During that time, in Serbia, out of a veryDuring that time, in heterogeneous certain diseases according to defined criteria. The 10 certain diseases according to defined criteria. on the “Gate” website: ,https://transactivists.org/icd-11- on the “Gate” diverse people trans-process/ (30/05/2019) available here: sion of the International Classification of Diseases, https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/wiki/display/EHSEMANTIC/ ICD-11%3A+The+11th+Revision+of+the+International+Classifi cation+of+Diseases (30/05/2019.) ternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Prob ICD-10 now lems, was released in 1992 and has been in use to this day. Transsexualism offers five diagnoses for Gender Identity Disorders (F64): (F64.1); Gender Identity Disorder in (F64.0); Dual-Role Transvestism Childhood (F64.2); Other Gender Identity Disorders (F64.8); Gender Iden Unspecified (F64.9). tity Disorder, ICD -11 was released on June 18, 2018. See the ICD-11: The 11th Revi ICD -11 was released on June 18, 2018. See the of categories awarded to Classification of diseases represents a system Joint Statement on ICD-11 process for trans & gender & gender trans See the entire info Joint Statement on ICD-11 for process 3 5 4 trans & gender diverse people, 2019). people, & gender diverse trans disorders frequently leads to strong stigmatization and denial of nu- disorders frequently leads to strong stigmatization to get employment;merous civil rights to these persons (inability ters into force, there will be a period of implementation until Jan. a period of implementation there will be ters into force, will officially come of diseases the new classification 1, 2022, when into effect, Nations member means the United which actually the new for the implementation of countries will be responsible level. version at the national World Health Organization at the moment when the society, medicine when the society, at the moment Health Organization World that gender is a socially-developed acknowledge increasingly and law and stable. fixed and that it is not necessarily category, onlyacknowledges system healthcare the identities, trans* of group of legal sta- for the recognition of change transsexuality as grounds and behav- for the classification of mental tus. In the ICD-10 system of gender in Serbia, code F64 contains a group ioural disorders used refers to transsexualism,identity disorders, and the F64.0 diagnose to live and be accepted as a person of the oppo- wish i.e. “a person’s by a sense of discomfort andsite sex, which is usually accompanied own anatomical sex, and a desire toinadequacy in relation to one’s undergo a hormonal treatment and surgery in order to bring the sex” (International Statis- body as close as possible to the preferred Version Health Problems, tical Classification of Diseases and Related 10, 2013:139, 7, 8). - - Unlike gay men, lesbians and bisexu- gay men, persons? Unlike Who are trans* Transsexual persons are those whose gender identity differs Transsexual That is precisely why the new classification of diseases for new classification the why That is precisely The Notion of Trans* Persons The Notion of Trans* key- from heterosexual, the als, whose sexual orientation differs identity and gender expres- words for trans* persons are gender between by a disharmony persons are characterized sion. Trans* and certain gender identity, the intrinsic feeling of belonging to a gender role expect the biological sex at birth and the stereotypical firmed by the World Health Organization itself through its decision Health Organization itself through its World firmed by the does not mean the person or gender-different that being a trans* of this in light That is why a mental disorder. person suffers from to point Health Organization it is important decision by the World fit into specific group of persons who do not to the status of this the two existing binary of any gender and sex – what categories of When referring to of trans* persons in Serbia? is the legal position s a roof paper (trans with asterisk), that implie trans* persons in this sex at the persons with a difference between term that covers all and it includes perception of gender identity, birth and their own persons, and gender-fluid gender-queer transsexual, transgender, and agender persons, etc.transvestites/cross-dressers, bigender fall into the categoryed from that sex. All the subgroups that of and gender-queer trans* population (transsexual, transgender, bigender and persons, transvestites/cross-dressers, gender-fluid agender persons, etc.) are not treated equally by the justice system Serbia legally recognizes in Serbia; i.e. of all these trans* identities, only transsexual persons. from the sex at birth and who have an explicit need to bring their body as closely to the desired gender using hormonal therapy or Such a medical intervention,surgery, i.e. to undergo “sex change”. aiming at adapting the external sex characteristics to a person’s psychological gender “adaptation – sex reassignment” brings denial of rights to plan a family and adopt children; narrowing the and adopt children; to plan a family denial of rights healthcare, etc.). right to access to range of the major change af hope for a in Serbia represents trans* persons

Simić 158 159 edited volumes ------7 In Serbia, persons who fall un- 6 A legal recognition of the desired gender identity in Serbia,A legal recognition der in: Agius (et.al.). 2011.Human Rights and Gender Identity, Best Prac der in: Agius (et.al.). 2011.Human Rights and Gender Identity, py or surgery is not required to obtain a legal recognition of a new sex: The sec Malta, Denmark, Spain, Hungary, Finland, the UK and Portugal. hormonal therapy ond group consists of the countries which require and/or surgery a new sex: Belgium, Bulgaria, the to legally recognize - the Netherlands, Austria and Po Italy, Republic,Czech Estonia, France, which have no provisions land. The third group involves member states in 2014 adopted a law The Danish Parliament regarding this matter. which enables a full recognition of gender identity to trans* persons evaluation and/or psychiatric diagnosis. See psychological without any how certain countries regulated the process of legal recognition of gen tice Catalogue, pp.19-22. transsexual persons’ legal status, the EU member states can be split into transsexual persons’ legal status, the EU in which a hormonal thera three groups. The first one contains countries ders, while diagnosis F64.0 refers to transsexualism. ders, while diagnosis F64.0 refers to transsexualism. ders used in Serbia, code F64 contains a group of sexual identity disor ders used in Serbia, code F64 contains a group In ICD-10, a system for the classification of mental and behavioural disor In ICD-10, a system for the classification of of recognition of change of Based on their approach to solving the issue 6 7 i.e. the recognition of the change of a legal status, depends on ai.e. the recognition of the change of a undergoing different medi- number of medical procedures, such as cal examinations and processes (psychiatric, surgi- endocrinological, cal, etc.), all of which begins when a person is diagnosed with a to transsexualism, and diagnose F64.0 which refers mental disorder, transgenderism (ICD-10, 2013:193). significant legal consequences. After a transsexual person is done After a transsexual legal consequences. significant with the surgery, to the desired adapting their body successfully is necessary it with the le- the actual state to adjust sex and gender, necessary matters, i.e. it is gal state of all the personal to change to the biological sex at birth and adjust them data indicating their before the Of course, this issue arises even actual state of matters. of hormonal therapy treatment.surgeries, at the stage The body person intense changes at that stage, so the already undergoes personal ID some sort of a legal vacuum – their finds themselves in to their primarycontains data referring while their sex, sex at birth, the significantly differs from appearance physical which makes it, daily functioning difficult, exposing them to various types person’s violence. of discrimination and der all the remaining subgroups from the range of trans* identitiesder all the remaining subgroups from is they do not want to under cannot have their legal status changed go medical treatments or if they only want to achieve partial modifi- go medical treatments or if they only therapy. cation of their body through hormonal - - - . This way, Ser . This way, 8 In Serbia, the 2011 changes and amendments of the Law on In Serbia, the 2011 changes and amendments An interesting piece of information is that the Belgrade is that the piece of information An interesting public of Serbia” no. 107/2005, 109/2005 – corr., 57/2011, 110/2012 – 57/2011, 110/2012 107/2005, 109/2005 – corr., no. public of Serbia” Constitutional Court decision, 119/2012, 99/2014, 123/2014, 126/2014 - See also Constitutional Court decision, 106/2015 and 10/2016 – st. law. 1, point 4, indent 3 of the new Law on Health Insurance, Art. 131. par. no.25/2019. of the Republic of Serbia” Gazette “Official Art45, par. 4 of the Law on Health Insurance, “Official Gazette of the Re- Gazette 4 of the Law on Health Insurance, “Official Art45, par. 8 bia has enabled the right to sex adjustment partly at the state’s ex- partly at the state’s bia has enabled the right to sex adjustment finances 65% while the re- pense. Practice indicates that the state patient.maining 35% is to be provided by the Then, the Republic in Serbia Disorders of Transgender Treatment for Expert Commission was formed in March 2012. The veryname of this Commission was in the existence of a disorder not adequate because it accentuated is a that gender disharmony transgender persons despite the fact Trans* Persons and Persons Trans* System Healthcare Serbia’s possibility that recognized Health Insurance introduced a legally on compulsory„when realising rights to healthcare based health in- at least 65% of the price of a surance, insured persons shall receive medical service from the compulsory health insurance fund for the reasons“ purpose of sex reassignment for medical formed in Belgrade ever since (Vujović, 2009: 1018–1023). Today, (Vujović, Belgrade ever since formed in 1018–1023). Today, 2009: centres specializing in this type of Serbia has four 30 years later, tion known as one of the centres for educa surgeries, it is globally and nu- in sex-reassignment surgeries, of professionals engaging precisely for this kind of medi- visit Serbia merous foreign citizens cal interventions. with 30-years’ experience in work Unfortunately, of did not lead to a significant improvement transsexual persons of the subgroups position of persons from any their position or the aspect or identities, both from the legal from the range of trans* in Ser system. The position of trans* persons within the healthcare featuring insufficiently legally regulated, and bia is extremely bad, the healthcare system. numerous serious unresolved issues within Team for Sexual Identity was informally founded in Belgrade in founded in Belgrade was informally for Sexual Identity Team er have been p surgeries that so-called sex-reassignment 1989, and

Simić 160 161 edited volumes - The members of the The members of the 9 The Rules of Procedure regulate the Commission’s work and regulate the Commission’s The Rules of Procedure ka-komisija-za-transrodne-poremecaje-najzad-promenila-ime ka-komisija-za-transrodne-poremecaje-najzad-promenila-ime (30/05/2019). vesti/1304-obelezen-dan-akcije-za-depatologizaciju-trans-osoba-republic For more info visit vebsite Transserbia: https://www.transserbia.org/ For more info visit vebsite Transserbia: 9 Commission changed on that occasion and the minister ordered to on that occasion and the minister Commission changed for the Commission. pass a Rules of Procedure following tasks for it: (1) to decision-making processes, setting the and doctrine stands in rela- establish professional-methodological - expert sugges to harmonize tion to transgender disorders in order institutions, expert i.e. tions and positions of reference healthcare institutions, as well as professional associations, higher education of healthcare in the do- renowned experts in terms of the provision monitor and analyse the work main of transgender disorders; (2) to in the domain of of medical institutions that provide healthcare measures to improve the transgender disorders and to suggest professionals and asso- work of medical institutions, i.e. healthcare in the process of ciates; (3) to suggest good practice guidelines transgender disorders; (4) to healthcare provision in the domain of from the compulsoryestablish standards for healthcare provided procedure which is health insurance funds for a sex reassignment considered medically necessary; (5) to suggest professional train- to appropriate high- ing of healthcare professionals and associates of transgender disorders; er education institutions in the domain in the domain of trans- (6) to monitor the development of science reference international insti- gender disorders and cooperate with tutions in this domain; and other affairs of significance for phenomenon of human diversity which must not be condemned as be condemned which must not of human diversity phenomenon Contrary pathological or negative. something our to the attitude of com- and other countries European more and more Commission, them enabling identity, persons with trans* pletely depathologizes g the se- their gender identities, includin to live freely and express - medical pre in personal documents without any lection of marking requisites (Simić, after years of ad- 2012:303). In September 2017, rights of trans* NGO which deals with the vocacy by Gayten LGBT this com- with the help of the Ombudsman, persons in Serbia, and - Transgen for Commission name to the Republic mission changed its (in further text: Commission). der Conditions - - - - If an in- 12 (30/05/ 2019). 13 As quoted is notable in the 10 One of the Commission’s most important tasks is to provide most important One of the Commission’s The conditions and documentation necessary for sex reas- - an expert opinion based on an in The Commission forms Art 42b. of the Rulebook on the way and procedure of realizing rights Art 42b. of the Rulebook on the way and procedure from compulsory health insurance for Health Insurance, Sex Reassignment A brochure of the Republic Fund for Medical Reasons, available here: https://rfzo.rs/download/brosure/ Brosura-promena%20pola.pdf (30/05/ 2019). See also: The Status and Bel- in the Republic of Serbia, Gayten LGBT, Persons of Trans Position here: https://transserbia.org/images/2015/ grade, 2012, p.11. Available - dokumenti/Trans%20osobe%20u%20Srbiji%20-%20analiza%20poloa ja%20i%20predlog%20pravnog%20reenja.pdf A decision on the formation of the Republic ExpertA decision on the formation of the Republic Commission for Conditions of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Ser Transgender Art. the Rulebook on the way and procedure of realizing rights 42a. of from compulsory of the Republic of Gazette health insurance, “Official 80/2010, 46/2010, 52/2010 -corr., Serbia “, no. 10/2010, 18/2010 -corr., 60/2011 –a decision by the Constitutional Court, 1/2013 and 108/2017. bia, no. 119-01-482/2017-02 dated Sept 1, 2017. 11 12 13 10 11 provisions of the Commission’s Rules of Procedure, the term Rules of Procedure, of the Commission’s provisions instead of “trans- in use in the text disorders” is still “transgender r a serious amateu be considered as which can gender conditions”, ism in the Commission members’ work. ism in the Commission inclusion the fulfilment of conditions for the an expert opinion on for med- into the process of sex reassignment of an insured person realizing on the way and procedure of ical reasons. The Rulebook rights from compulsory proce- health insurance describes that dure. ent” healthcare system subsidiary. signment for medical reasons include: sured person is sent to a medical institution outside their “parent” sured person is sent to a medical institution healthcare system subsidiaryreassignment for medical rea- for sex medical commission provides an opinion sons, a first-instance treatment outside their “par about sending the insured person to treatment of transgender disorders. treatment ed doctor sends the insured person to an appropriate tertiaryed doctor sends the insured person to med- medical reasons. ical institution for sex reassignment for sured person’s medical documentation, and it is valid throughout medical documentation, sured person’s decision date. The Commission determines six months since the for medi- and standards for sex reassignment whether the criteria medical insured person’s cal reasons have been met based on an decision is positive, the select documentation. If the Commission’s

Simić 162 163 edited volumes - - - - -

16 while certain sources state that over 300 per while certain sources state that over 15 wo letters of recommendation, not older than a year, a year, not older than of recommendation, wo letters gender identity disorders; who treat from psychiatrists for “woman to man” persons, a full gynaecological exami- for “woman to man” if necessary,nation and mammography six not older than months; persons, a full urological examina- for “man to woman” tion, not older than six months; a surgical transfor for persons who have already initiated mation of genitals – insight into complete medical docu- mation of genitals – insight into complete and additional mentation for previous surgical treatments either missing or previously mentioned analyses that are whose results are older than six months. that a person over 18 submitted an application with per an application over 18 submitted that a person sonal information and a copy of their healthcare ID card; of their healthcare and a copy sonal information from an en- not older than a year, a written confirmation, treats this specific group of patients docrinologist who recommended hormonal therapy, about conducting the its results and check-ups; an endocrinologist does not con- if a confirmation from tain this, laboratory analyses are required, as well as kary- analyses; otype and hormonal 5. HbsAg, HCV, HIV serological analysis; 5. HbsAg, HCV, 6. 7. 8. the period between According to the Commission data, in 1. 2. t 3. 4. In agreement with the patients, the Commission should In agreement with the patients, the Commission ument, point 4. Politika daily newspaper from May 18, 2017. Available here: http://www. daily newspaper from May 18, 2017. Available Politika politika.rs/scc/ - clanak/380905/U-Srbiji-se-niko-nije-pokajao-zbog-operacije-promene-po la (30/05/ 2019). For a specific list of laboratorydoc and hormonal analyses, see the same here: http://www. from May 13, 2013. Available daily newspaper Politika politika.rs/scc/clanak/257642/Nijedna-promena-pola-nije-uradena-o-trosku-drzave (30/05/ 2019). 16 14 15 sons from Serbia and former Yugoslavia underwent this process sons from Serbia and former Yugoslavia precisely in Belgrade. ment procedure, 1988 and 2006, 147 persons underwent the so-called sex-adjust make a plan and program of surgical procedures, and approve a plan and make - - Another extremely important aspect is present in the dis- - in providing ex engages solely that the Commission tice indicates for the inclu- of the conditions about the fulfilment pert opinion the process of sex adjustment for medical sion of a person into reports of the Commis- official to find any reasons. It is impossible on the work, there is no dedicated page sion about its previous Ministry work could be website where the Commission’s of Health no published acts on which the Commission followed, there are are no the waiting lists are not published, there bases its decisions, practice guidelines, there is no information recommended good healthcare profes- professional training programs for about any In in the domain of transgender conditions. sionals and associates short, of the Commission is nei- it can be concluded that the work trans* community. Serbia’s ther transparent nor coordinated with years of existence, the Commission fails to pro- after seven Even questions concerning trans- vide answers to extremely important Some of them are: the fact sexual persons’ access to healthcare. by the regular health in- that not the entire triad therapy is covered includes (endocrinological surance; the question what triad therapy treatment, voice training, permanent epilation and similar proce- of the adjustment process dures that are often an essential part which part of it is covered by health insur and for trans* persons) ance; the question of compulsory the beginning of a sterilization; the issue of lack of in- therapy for underage transsexual persons; trans* persons by healthcare formation, attitudes and treatment of opinion when it comes professionals; the inability to get a second extremely expensive consultations with en- to hormonal therapy, the inability to reach them docrinologists in private practice and state-owned medical institu- during their regular working hours in in Serbia works with tions (for example, only one endocrinologist verytranssexual persons and only once a week), frequently unethi- endocrinologists; con- cal behaviour of certain doctors, especially stant shortages of hormones used by trans women, which are covered by health insurance, etc. course of Serbian medical experts for transgender conditions. De- centres and decades of practice in developing and spite specialized surgical treatment for eight to ten patients from the waiting list to ten patients from for eight surgical treatment Previous prac different in practice. things are However, every year.

Simić 164 165 edited volumes - include nine new princi- (30/05/ 2019). The lack of clear procedures in this domain in Serbia plac The lack of clear procedures in this domain 17 Relevant international documents require establishing fast,Relevant international documents require Out of international documents focusing on gender identity and trans*Out of international documents focusing on persons, the most important in the author’s opinion are: the Yogyakarta persons, the most important in the author’s opinion are: the Yogyakarta and Gender Identity, principles, the UN Declaration on Sexual Orientation Commissioner for Human recommendations of the Council of Europe Ministerial Com- of Europe Rights, and recommendations of the Council principles plus 10 (YP+10) mittee. The Yogyakarta ples and 112 additional obligations for the states, in terms of development in the international human rights law and changes in the society in gender expression and sex relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, For more information visit: http://www.yogycharacteristics (SOGIESC). - akartaprinciples.org/principles-en/yp10/ 17 Importance of Change of Documents Importance legal recognition of gender transparent and clear procedures for identity. perfecting these extremely complicated medical treatments of complicated medical these extremely perfecting suggest and practice medical expert persons, domestic transsexual for an individual as the only option correction surgical anatomic turn- and gender, categories of sex the dichotomous who exceeds who do not problems of those trans* persons ing a blind eye to the to be socially and who would like seek surgical sex reassignment their permanent in- precisely in categorized accepted and culturally termediary In addition to undoubtedly important, status. often fas- to them, results of modern medicine, parallel cinating insights and in intersexuality and sexuality transsexuality, medical discourse on - layers of unquestionable and self-understand general often hides masked well as cultural-historical stereotypes ing assumptions, as with all the as scientific “principles”(Šarčević,However, 2015:21). evident system of access to healthcare, it is flaws of the existing a coverage of a part of that the Republic of Serbia has provided necessary treatment for transsex- costs for one part of the medical is not from the health insurance fund. That,ual citizens however, persons’ legal sub- enough. The process of recognition transsexual ID documents are issued. jectivity ends only after new personal es trans* persons into a legal and life vacuum, directly jeopardizing es trans* persons into a legal and life between visible Due to a disharmony their socio-economic stability. who has entered the process sex markings of a transsexual person -

18 The Law prescribes passing a decision about registry The Law prescribes passing a decision based The existence of procedures and the possibility to change and the possibility to change The existence of procedures By passing the Law on Changes and Amendments of the Law the of Amendments and Changes on Law the passing By 19 Law on Changes and Amendments of the Law on Civil Records “Official Law on Changes and Amendments of the Law on Civil Records “Official no. 47/2018 (in further text LCR) of the Republic of Serbia”, Gazette Art. 6 of the LCR 18 19 quired education, work booklets, etc.)quired education, work for hold vital importance sex and so they can live in line with the desired transsexual persons for to prescribe by law the procedures A decade-long fight gender. effective in birth certificates finally became change of sex marking in June 20, 2018, when the Serbian Assembly passed the Law on on Civil Records. Changes and Amendments of the Law of transition and personal data in their documents, the possibility in their documents, and personal data of transition employment,and work of domain the in rights education, realize to - activities – be as well as various and healthcare, social protection either seriously travelling – is area, socialization, ing in a public compli- disabled until the end of a long, threatened or completely of the regulated process of change cated and legally insufficiently information. - pass ID, and other documents (personal personal ID documents ports, driver’s diplomas on ac license, birth/marriage certificates, 1. Law on Civil Records on Civil Records 1. Law on Civil Records (in further text LCR), Serbia has enabled recording on Civil Records (in further text LCR), to Art 45b of the sex reassignment in birth registers. According requires a decision of municipal recording a change amended LCR, of Belgrade, or city administration, i.e. the City Administration and decision-making which are in charge of running civil records proce- administrative concerning civil records in first-instance dures. on a prescribed certificate from a competent medical institution, on a prescribed certificate from a competent to a responsible adminis- which needs to report sex reassignment sex reassignment proce- tration within 15 days from the date of and via post electronically, dure. The certificate is to be submitted the content of the certifi- 4 prescribes Art. par. 45b, without delay. cate and the necessary needs to include. The law es- information it tablishes an obligation of the competent minister and the minister

Simić 166 167 edited volumes - - - Sex reassign- 23 Sex reassignment certificate is issued by Sex reassignment 20 As per request of the person undergoing sex re- 22 A medical institution shall issue a sex reassignment A medical institution shall issue a sex 21 The Rulebook on the way of issuing and the form of sex re- way of issuing and the form of sex The Rulebook on the Art. 3 of the Rulebook 2 of the Rulebook Art. 3, par. 3 of the Rulebook Art. 3, par. Art. Rulebook on the way of issuing and the form of sex reas 1 of the “Official Ga- signment certificate from a competent medical institution, no.103 dated Dec.26, of the Republic of Serbia “, zette 2018 21 22 23 20 Rulebook on Way of Issuing and Form of Sex Reassignment Certificate Certificate of Sex Reassignment of Issuing and Form on Way Rulebook Institution Medical From Competent assignment, the certificate shall be signed by a psychiatry specialist when the certificate is is- and an endocrinology specialist in cases hormonal therapy sued after conducting an at least 1-year-long with indication and monitoring of a psychiatry specialist and an endocrinology specialist. In case of a sex reassignment surgery, a sur gery certificate. specialist signs a sex reassignment a medical institution after 1) conducting an at least 1-year-long hor after 1) conducting an at least 1-year-long a medical institution indication and monitoring of a psychiatrymonal therapy with spe- ign- specialist or 2) after a sex-reass cialist and an endocrinology ment surgery. ment certificate is a public document based on which a municipal ment certificate is a public document of Belgrade (as a or city administration, i.e. the City Administration will approve recording the competent body) passes a decision that birth register of the person sex reassignment information into the 2. of health affairs to agree and prescribe the manner of issuing and prescribe the manner affairs to agree and of health a medical institution. certificate from of sex reassignment the form assignment certificate from a competent medical institution which from a competent medical institution assignment certificate way of is- only after Jan 1, 2019, prescribes the entered into force a compe- of sex reassignment certificate from suing and the form tent medical institution. certificate for a sex-reassignment procedure conducted abroad certificate for a sex-reassignment procedure issued by the foreign medical based on the medical documentation procedure and institution which conducted the sex reassignment fact that sex reassignment has which possesses the evidence of the stated ways envis- been conducted in one of the two previously aged by this Law. - Sex reassignment certificate certificate Sex reassignment 24 27 25 Since Jan. 1, 2020 it will be possible for Since Jan. 1, 2020 it will be possible for 26 It is important to point out a crucial decision by the Constitu- It is important to point out a crucial decision the lack of an explicit legal regulation that con- “Considering - institution then submits the sex reas A competent medical Art. 2 of the Rulebook 2 of the Rulebook Art. 6, par. Art. 5 of the Rulebook 1 and Art. 8 of the Rulebook Art. 4, par. 24 25 26 27 Decision by Constitutional Court Constitutional Decision by medical institutions to submit sex reassignment certificates to medical institutions to submit sex reassignment competent bodies electronically. registers: name and surname, date, place and municipality/city of date, place and municipality/city name and surname, registers: and surname, parents’ name number, identity citizens birth, unique who underwentthe person sex reassignment, about information of the the person, the name and surname sex reassignment for When re- the certificate and his/her signature. doctor who issues the identi- into a sex reassignment certificate, cording information underwentty of the person who sex reassignment is identified ID or passport,based on personal is col- while other information register. lected from the birth a. who underwent sex reassignment. tional Court of Serbia which served as the only legal grounds for re- sex in birth registers priorcording change of information regarding Law on Civil Records. Namely, to the aforementioned changes of the 8, 2012 passed a deci- the Constitutional Court of Serbia on March that: - 3238/2011 in which, among other things, it states sion no. Už regarding sex in birth regis- cerns recording change of information the provisions of the Law onters, the Constitutional Court finds that such a way that recordingCivil Records should be interpreted in can be conducted by analoguechanges of information regarding sex signment certificate to a competent body in charge of the birth to a competent body in charge of signment certificate who underwentregister of the person the sex reassignment: after who and at the request of the person sex reassignment procedure underwent sex reassignment, or in case of a sex reassignment sur gery conclusion of the sex reas- within 15 days since the date of signment procedure.

Simić 168 169 edited volumes - - The Constitutional Court assessed in case of the Municipal in case of the Court assessed The Constitutional when after despite this decision, practice saw cases However, This is why it was necessaryThis is why to regulate by law the entire Administration of the Z.Administration of the municipality that, engage in meri- failing to of the about the request of the submitter torious decision-making documen- and, should they possess relevant constitutional appeal change medical institution, to record the tation from a competent to it also failed sex into the birth register, of information regarding the le- which would harmonize obligation” comply with its “positive of the con- state and thus enable the submitter gal with the factual guaranteed by the Constitu- the rights realize stitutional appeal to Convention after of Serbia and the European tion of the Republic according sex reassignment procedure. This, undergoing a surgical to the Constitutional Court, of breached the right of the submitter free development of their the constitutional appeal to dignity and personality as guaranteed by Art. the 23 of the Constitution, and right to personal life, guaranteed by Art. Con- 8 of the European Court’s acceptance of the vention, which led to the Constitutional - 3238/2011 dated March 8, 2012). constitutional appeal.” (Už persons were not able tofulfilling medical requirements, transsexual registers. Arbitraryrecord the change of their sex in birth actions of more notable in inner Serbiancompetent municipal bodies are much a case when a trans womantowns and cities. For example, there is examination, evenwas sent to an expert witness for a genital though she had all the necessary documentation from a psy- medical chiatrist, an endocrinologist and a surgeon, which clearly states that she has undergone sex reassignment, which a surgeon explicitly stat implementation of the legal provisions that regulate recording birthprovisions that regulate of the legal implementation which is recorded in including sex, types of information, and all other in a medical institution. for a person born the register ed in a patient discharge list (Pavlović, 2012:61). Then, there was also a sex reassignment certifi- a case when a registrar refused to issue agreed to pay the ser cate for several months, until a trans woman vice to a lawyer who is related to the registrar (Pavlović, 2012:62). process of changing the legal status of transsexual persons – and not only them, but persons of other trans* identities, which the failed to do in the changes of the unfortunately, Serbian legislator, Law on Civil Records. - - - - This law should cover persons of all trans* identi- This law should cover persons of all trans* 28 There is no doubt that the question of the legal position of the question of the legal position There is no doubt that Bearing all this in mind, a difficult job lies ahead for the Ser job lies ahead this in mind, a difficult Bearing all In 2013, Gayten-LGBT designed the Model Law on Gender Identity, which the Model Law on Gender Identity, designed In 2013, Gayten-LGBT regulates and protects the rights of trans* persons. For more informa tion, visit: https://www.transserbia.org/trans/transeksualnost/543-mod- (May 30, 2019) el-zakona-o-rodnom-identitetu 28 bian legislator. Even though it seems like they are half way through, through, way half are they like seems it though Even legislator. bian on Civil beginning. The last changes to the Law they are still at the trans* per step in improving the position of Records made a major be seen what the implementation of it remains to sons, however, in practice. A major issue will look like the adopted legal solutions Conditions, Commission for Transgender lies in the work of the - a major obstacle to a more comprehen which right now presents it of the position of trans* persons because sive legal regulation identities, the pathologizing approach to trans* firmly holds on to frameworks. and global in European which is largely outdated Precisely that complexity trans* persons is extremely complex. bodies in the Republic of Ser puts an obligation on the responsible trans* persons by passing a bia to legally regulate the position of solution to the problems of law that would bring a comprehensive trans* persons. ties and guarantee their safety against discrimination, prompt,ties and guarantee their safety against of information in docu- transparent and clear procedure for change domain of healthcare, labour ments and realization of rights in the and employment, the oth- insurance and marital and family life. On framework represents the er hand, this does not imply that legal What is necessarysource of all problems and solutions. is a multidisciplinary – professional and approach and active participation health- trans* community, ethically responsible, of all parties, the care professionals and lawyers, as to avoid the situation that, so to solve a problem, we find even when there are “good intentions” approach to the solution (as usual) the absence of a systematic amateurism. In line with with appalling personal and professional the Stabiliza- when it inked the obligations Serbia took upon itself tion and Association- Agreement and the priorities to acquire Euro pean partnership, the Serbian legislator must also bear in mind the Conclusions

Simić 170 171 edited volumes - ka-komisija-za-transrodne-poremecaje-najzad-promenila-ime (30/05/2019). ka-komisija-za-transrodne-poremecaje-najzad-promenila-ime ILGA Europe. ILGA - Jovanović Batut”. Availa 10. 2013. Institute for Public Health of Serbia “Dr Milan ble at: http://www.batut.org.rs/download/MKB102010Knjiga1.pdf (30/05/2019). ble at: https://ec.europa.eu/cefdigital/wiki/display/EHSEMANTIC/ - ICD-11%3A+The+11th+Revision+of+the+International+Classifi cation+of+Diseases (30/05/2019). website: ,https://transactivists.org/icd-11-trans-process/ ble on the “Gate” (30/05/2019). Consequences of Legal on Recognition in Republic of Serbia, in: Model Law Persons Persons – from Rights of Trans and Establishing Transsexuality, of Sex Reassignment , Gajin Saša (ed.). Belgrade: CUPS. Framework to Creation of Legal Non-Existence clanak/257642/Nijedna-promena-pola-nije-uradena-o-trosku-drzave (30/05/2019). clanak/380905/U-Srbiji-se-niko-nije-pokajao-zbog-operacije-promene-pola (30/05/2019). , (2) 299-322. Records Legal Consequences of Sex Reassignment, Legal vesti/1304-obelezen-dan-akcije-za-depatologizaciju-trans-osoba-republic , Catalogue Agius Silvan (et.al.). Best Practice 2011. Human Rights and Gender Identity, of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Version International Statistical Classification - of Diseases. 2019. Availa ICD-11: The 11th Revision of the International Classification - info. 2019. Availa & gender diverse people trans Joint Statement on ICD-11 for process and Transsexual of Transgender Pavlović, Slavoljupka. 2012. Analysis of Legal Position at: http://www.politika.rs/scc/ May 13, 2013. Available daily newspaper from Politika at: http://www.politika.rs/scc/ May 18, 2017. Available daily newspaper from Politika Recognition of – Facing Simić, Medical-Legal Aspects Jelena. 2012. of Transsexuality info at: https://www.transserbia.org/ vebsite. 2017. Available Transserbia Literature European Court of Justice case law, especially in matters of em- in matters especially Justice case law, Court of European ployment, Last, social security rights. equal wages and the but not least,- work togeth and civil sector that state institutions it is crucial - and understand among citizens raise awareness er to continuously reduce vi- that trans* persons face, in order to ing of the problems these persons are exposed to. olence and discrimination sud.rs/page/predmet/sr-Latn-CS/6790/?NOLAYOUT=1 (30/05/2019). sud.rs/page/predmet/sr-Latn-CS/6790/?NOLAYOUT=1 the Republic of Serbia”, No. 47/2018. the Republic of Serbia”, 110/2012 – Constitutional Court decision, 57/2011, 109/2005 – corr., Court decision, 119/2012, 99/2014, 123/2014, 126/2014 - Constitutional 106/2015 and 10/2016 – st. law. of the Republic of Serbia “, Gazette competent medical institution, “Official No.103 dated Dec.26, 2018. ditions of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia, no. 119-01- 482/2017-02 dated Sept 1, 2017. (30/05/2019). ples.org/principles-en/yp10/ trans/transeksualnost/543-model-zakona-o-rodnom-identitetu (30/05/2019). https://transserbia.org/images/2015/doku - here: Belgrade. Available LGBT: menti/Trans%20osobe%20u%20Srbiji%20-%20analiza%20poloaja%20i%20 (May 30, 2019). predlog%20pravnog%20reenja.pdf , (6)1018–1023. Study, Journal of Sexual Medicine www.who.int/news-room/detail/25-05-2019-world-health-assembly-update, (30.05.2019.). Explanation of the topic of Practice, Criticism of Clinical Methodological ology: - here: webserver.rcub.bg.ac.rs/publicFileDownload?idS PhD thesis. Available ednicaMaterijal=26185 (30/05/2019). List of Cases 11.07.2002. App. No. 28957/95 from , ECHR, The United Kingdom Christine Goodwin v. at: http://www.ustavni. - 3238/2011 dated March 8, 2012. Available Decision No. Už Legal Sources Legal of Gazette Civil Records “Official Law on Changes and Amendments of the Law on No.25/2019. of the Republic of Serbia” Gazette Law on Health Insurance, “Official no. 107/2005, of the Republic of Serbia” Gazette Law on Health Insurance, “Official sex reassignment certificate from a Rulebook on the way of issuing and the form of Con- Decision on the formation of the Republic Expert for Transgender Commission The Model Law on Gender Identity. 2013. Available at: https://www.transserbia.org/ 2013. Available on Gender Identity. The Model Law of Serbia, 2012. Gayten in the Republic Persons of Trans The Status and Position Follow-Up in Serbia: A Twenty-Year 2009. Transsexualism (et al.), Svetlana, Vujović Health Assembly at: https:// World New release. Available Update, 25 May 2019, Ide- and Cultural Science between Transsexuality Šarčević, Predrag, 2015. Constructing The Yogyakarta principles plus 10 (YP+10). principles http://www.yogyakartaprinci at: Available - The Yogyakarta

Simić 172 173 edited volumes - - - trans* osobe, diskriminacija, eznog zdravstvenog osiguranja za promenu pola iz medicinskih razloga; stan- transrodna za Komisija je formirana ja pri Ministarstvu Sr zdravlja Republike bije; o Zakon matičnim knjigama uveo je mogućnost promene oznake pola u matičnoj knjizi rođenih a radna grupa Ministarstva za državnu upravu i lokalnu samoupravu i Ministarstva zdravlja Re načinu o Pravilnik je donela Srbije publike izdavanja i obrascu potvrde nadležne zdravstvene ustanove o promeni pola. U ovom radu, analizira se, u kojoj meri su ove zakonske novine značajne za sam i su li da i Srbiji u zajednice trans* položaj unapređivan- doprinele zaista meri kojoj u ju njihovog položaja u svakodnevnom životu. Ključne reči: pola, matične knjige. promena oznake osiguranim licima, najmanje 65% od cene cene od 65% najmanje licima, osiguranim zdravstvene usluge iz sredstava obav - - - - va, ne se može posmatrati kao nešto što je ili kontroverzno što iziskuje određeni protok vremena da bi pitanja s tim u vezi mogla da se sagledaju u jasnijem svetlu. Nove politike koje se tim povodom na primarno se oslanjaju svetu u formiraju ustavne odredbe o dostojanstvu ličnosti i zabrani diskriminacije, na odluke - Ev suda ropskog za ljudska prava i autentič no iskustvo trans* osoba. U Republici Sr biji, 21. vek doneo je promena koje se mogu tumačiti kao značajane za položaj zdravst o Zakonom je Tako osoba. trans* venom osiguranju obezbeđeno, U 21. veku pravo trans* osoba na lični raz- lični na osoba trans* pravo veku 21. U voj i fizičkui moralnu sigurnost, u kakvu društ članovi ostali uživaju smislu punom Sažetak ŽIVOT U PRAVNOM LIMBU - TRANS* LIMBU PRAVNOM U ŽIVOT U SRBIJI OSOBE MAJA KREK ISIDORA JARIĆ ISIDORA JARIĆ [email protected] [email protected] Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade University of Philosophy, Faculty Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade University of Philosophy, Faculty

Jarić / Krek 174 175 edited volumes - - 1 the flexibility of gender identities and, consequently, thethe flexibility of gender identities and, consequently, Theperspectives of feminism, particularly paper examines the (TERF)'trans exclusionary com- towards trans* radical feminism' of theoretical articulation and prac munity in Serbia, on the level will be focused on theoretical and activ- tical politics. The analysis issue and the social position ofist tensions regarding trans* in four critical questions:(a) trans* persons that are materialized dis that appears within the TERF- the issue of gender authenticity fix identitiescourse as a motive/believe that sex and gender are thethat cannot be changed/adjusted. This view denies/endanger idea of for trans woman, trans possibility of gender self-determination men and gender non-binary the issue of the relation- people; (b) and the feminist identity, sexual orientation ship between the body, privi- which appears within the TERF discourse as an epistemic that enabledlege of those born with bodies of a particular form - to self-de them to pass through the specific gender experience (c) the is- termine themselves as women, lesbians and feminists; and/or in certain (physical sue of the right to be present/accepted of the mother symbolic) spaces and (d) the issue of reaffirmation as an exclusively female status. Critical discourse analysishood as an exclusively data: (a)will be conducted on several different types of empirical organi- LGBTIQA data published on official websites of feminist, dis- data collected from various social media where zations, (b) cussions are held on this topic,theoretical discussions and (c) among gender scholars and feminists. women transgender, feminism, TERF, words: Key from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation pro- Horizon Union’s from the European gramme under grant agreement No 822682. This paper reflects only the authors’ view and that the Agency use that is not responsible for any may be made of the information it contains. This paper is a part of the POPREBEL project that has received funding 1 Abstract T (Trans* vs. TERF) Trek: Feminism Feminism vs. TERF) Trek: T (Trans* Womanhood of Frontier and the - - - - y community. Like many other political actions that are other many Like community. 2 One of the most frequently quoted authors from the 1970s quoted authors from the 1970s One of the most frequently ent combinations of gender identities that do not fit into a hegemonic ent combinations of gender identities that do gender binary matrix, in this text we consciously opt to use the term trans* to avoid the necessary identities when closing of certain exclusion form that is most inclusive. the definition of the term and leaving it in a - definition: For example, Aleksa Milanovic states the following “Transgen which was not attributed to der people live in the gender they chose and and need to modif them at birth and usually do not have the desire people do not have a their body or gender characteristics, the agender way, their gender in any or refuse to define/declare gender identity, are gender fluid, androgynous and genderqueer persons polygender, feminine characteristics which implies a combination of masculine and and gender expres and a blurred boundaries between gender identity - in particular circum sion, transvestites and cross-dressers occasionally, assigned to that wasn’t stances, wear a wardrobe intended for a gender with that gender in them at birth, while the intensity of identification those occasions may vary. The group of identities / types of gender ex- does not include intersex persons pression covered by the term trans since their divergence from the binary norm refers to biological sex char sex characteristics, which acteristics that diverge from the standardized means that they have sex and / or reproductive organs which cannot be (Milanović, 2015: 33). female or male” defined as exclusively Although we are aware that within this term, authors often imply differ Although we are aware that within this term, Over the past few years, certain subcultural circles of left and subcultural circles past few years, certain Over the 2 feminist-oriented communities within the Serbian society have the Serbian society communities within feminist-oriented the representa - attack by ways unexpected by in many been shaken exclusionarytives of “trans (in further text TERF)” radical feminism on trans* manifested in attempts to establish symbolic and real-existed fron- to establish symbolic and real-existed manifested in attempts power over certain control and (re-establish) tiers that regulate, product of Ser symbolic) spaces, this is not exclusive and (physical bian context but rather something that has flowed into local femi- something that has flowed into bian context but rather xt and landscapes of the global feminist conte nist reality from the political conflict within feminist movement a five decades long transgender issue. over the stance on political position that we now identifywho advocated the as TERF Raymond. In her book The within the feminist movement is Janice , she claims that of the She-Male Empire: The Making Transsexual sex, the latter of which is “gender is an expression of biological - she stresses the impossibili chromosomally dependent. Moreover, this premise, gender and ty of changing chromosomal sex. From (Hines, 2019: each other and secured at birth” into sex are locked the adjustment of sex in the 2). In that sense, Raymond argues that

Jarić / Krek 176 177 edited volumes - - human rights. The authors and signatories human rights. The authors and signatories 3 Since the publication of this book (1979) until the current of this book (1979) until the current Since the publication Declaration are worried about “recent The authors of the Declaration In particular TERF meaning of this notion. 3 case of transsexuals could be only of a “cosmetic nature” (Ray- nature” only of a “cosmetic could be case of transsexuals superficial, artifac always only “a 4), because it stays mond, 1994: tual, and socially and surgically constructed change” rather than “a rather constructed change” socially and surgically tual, and development” existential change that encourages deep intrinsic when the On the basis of this, she states that (Raymond, 1994: 3). is by “hormones and surgeryprocess of sex adjustment … adminis- man or the can only be “the feminization of a tered” then the result (Raymond, 1994: 3). a woman” masculinization of moment, toward and thwarting position excluding this radically not changed during this conflict,trans* persons has yet over time moment, been additionally elaborated. At the the arguments have the best overview the text of of the current situation is offered in Rights- Sex-Based (in further text Decla on Women’s the Declaration TERF activ- ), which was made by the group of international ration on March 16, 2019. On this occa- ists and presented in New York Jeffreys, Heather sion, the prominent TERFeminists, Sheila the importance about and Maureen O’Hara, talked Brunskell-Evans of protecting women’s hood and related practices.” (Declaration, 2019: 1) In the following hood and related practices.” (Declaration, contemplations about the text we will limit our analysis only to the adult women. changes replacing references to the category of sex, which is biological, with the language of ’gender’, which refers to stereotyped strategies, and actions”. sex roles, in United Nations documents, which ultimately risks According to them this has “led to confusion human rights” (Declara- undermining the protection of women’s tion, 2019: 2). Surprisingly it seems that the authors of this document intend to erase the theoretical contributions and practical policyof the second wave feminism and redirect achievements of this document advocate “the re-affirmation of women’s sex- of women’s of this document advocate “the re-affirmation and reproductive rights to physical based rights, including women’s and the elimination of all forms of discrimination against integrity, replacement of the categorywomen and girls that result from the mother of sex with that of ‘gender identity’, and from ‘surrogate’ - - - the flexibility of gender identities and, conse- the flexibility of gender identities and, Critical discourse analysis is conducted on several different In this paper we will examine the attitude of feminism, par In this paper we will quently, the possibility of gender self-determination for trans* the possibility of gender self-determination quently, woman, trans* men and gender non-binary the issue of people; (b) itsthe relationship between the body and the sexual orientation and feminist identity, which appears within the TERF dis- to relation of those born with bodies of course as an epistemological privilege pass through the specific a particular form that enabled them to as feminists or themselves gender experience to self-determine in certain lesbians; (c) the issue of the right to be present/accepted and/or symbolic) spaces; and (d) the issue of reaffirmation (physical female status” (Declaration, of the motherhood as “an exclusively 2019: Article 2). types of empirical data related to attitude of TERF community to- data published on official websites of wards trans* persons: (a) ticularly ‘trans exclusionary radical feminism’ (TERF),ticularly ‘trans exclusionary towards radical feminism’ with particular reference to Serbian articulation trans* community, articulation and of this relationship, on the level of theoretical - on global and local (Serbi practical politics. The analysis is focused and activist tensions and the social position of theoretical an) in four fundamental ques- trans* persons that are materialized issue of gender authenticity that appears within the the tions: (a) sex and gender are fix iden- TERF discourse as a motive/belief that This view denies/endan- tities that cannot be “changed”/adjusted. gers the idea of that says: “States that says: of the cat maintain the centrality should laration egory … identity’,sex, and not ‘gender of to women’s in relation (Declaration, 2019: 13). How- discrimination” right to be free from the possibility of discrimination this position opens/suggest ever, - , should/do not be according to the Declaration against those who, according to the categories of “women” long to these particular n are on birth-sex. The authors of the Declaratio classification based of about the rights of the three categories particularly concerned – from - women, lesbians and mothers female birth-sex persons themselves as women, lesbi- who self-identify which trans* persons are excluded. ans and/or mothers historical course toward essentialist understanding of sex. This is understanding course toward essentialist historical the text of the Dec expressed in evident in the position especially

Jarić / Krek 178 179 edited volumes - - - - rights” from the rights” from the 4 In spite of the fact that the category of gender is “a much The issue of authenticity that is materialized in the request in the request The issue of authenticity that is materialized In the following text, in or we will look at one issue at a time Which are understood in the Declaration as rights that can be consumed only by female birth-sex women, as well as the rights that should not ap ply to male birth-sex persons who identify themselves as women. 4 point of view of gender theorygender of view of point “Sexcontroversial. rather is sex”, is as sex is... culturally deter writes Gayle Rubin, “but what counts difference in human Sex difference in human mined and obtained” (Rubin 1975: 165). and cultural determination societies is always a product of social (Milić, 2007: 498). Sex difference is universally present in all hu- and types of gender re- man societies, but the forms, significance culturally and socially lations are always specifically historically, conditioned. contested concept, as slippery as it is indispensable, but a site of and Kaplan, 2000: IX) it unease rather than of agreement” (Glover the infinite historical varia- is the only concept that could explain human species that ap- bility of (gender) differentiation in the pears within the universal sex structure. for “reaffirmation of the women’s sex-based for “reaffirmation of the women’s Sex-Based Authenticity Sex-Based der to point out the places of tension in which the TERF discourse places of tension in which the TERF der to point out the dis- hand from the mainstream feminist on the one moves away, from assumptions, and more specifically, course and its theoretical when talk feminism - constituting, at least the discourse of radical an- towards the trans* question, a new ing about the attitude discourse. extremist radical but right-wing ti-feminist and not feminist and LGBTIQA organizations, (b) data collected from vari- data collected (b) organizations, LGBTIQA feminist and this topic during are held on media where discussions ous social till July 2019) the September 2018 months (from the last eleven and femi- among gender scholars discussions and (c) theoretical in the debate, followed the most active TERF participants nists. We scene as groups, or are active in feminist that belong to different individuals. - - y of , but rather indirectly, through cultural practic , but rather indirectly, 5 sex instead of the culturally constructed category. of gender identity Which points to the theoretical groundlessness of the underlying claim of the Declaration – reaffirmation of the biological categor 5 “Although the claim to epistemic privilege as a tool may seem to be a “Although claim of the oppressed, due to some of its history, re- it nonetheless 1993: 97) veals itself also as a master’s tool.” (Bat-Ami, Gender is seen as a notion that relates to the practice and notion that relates to the practice and Gender is seen as a say that between practice of labeling In that sense we could “…there are many genders. So various are the different conceptions of conceptions So various are the different genders. many “…there are sites and of from the miscellany and femininity that emerge masculinity to them in the we can justifiably refer societies, that settings in modern 2000: 28) Kaplan, (Glover, and femininities.” plural as masculinities es, because our understanding of sex is always mediated by differ es, because our understanding of sex throughout the interiorized ent cultural layers/meanings that we is then, construction process of (gender) socialization: „Crucially, initiated by subject and cul- neither a single act nor a causal process place effects. Construction not only takes minating in a set of fixed which operates through the in time, but is itself a temporal process in the and destabilized reiteration of norms; sex is both produced 1993:10) which is always in rela- (Butler, course of this reiteration“ dynamic of particular soci- tion with historical, social and cultural etal context. discussion of sex-based autenticity In that sense any it is 1993) derived from and the epistemological privilege (Bat-Ami, and in relation to practical from theoretical point of view objectless against the marginalized politics just a new tool of oppression ones, in particular case trans* persons. public actions of body as a biological category,public actions of body not be but it could - debate between constructiv body as it is. „The reduced only to the alto- thus misses the point of deconstruction ism and essentialism been that ’everything for the point has never is discursively gether, our notion of sex included. 1993:8) constructed’“ (Butler, discord- (sex) exist a certain discordance. This and biological reality directly as fact that sex could not be understood ance points to the objective category

Jarić / Krek 180 181 edited volumes - ) Significant difference in communication strategy is visible “I can’t force myself to gendering. I think a couple of gray brain cells “I can’t would die out in me each time. So I try to use neutral pronouns when but at least a calm addressing trans people. A little mental gymnastics, conscience. ” (KK, 21st July 2019) FB, One of the most common ways to reject identifyingOne of the most common ways to reject people “States or punish- form of sanctioning, prosecution should prohibit any them to identifyment of persons who reject attempts to compel others on the basis of ‘gender identity’ (underlined by au- rather than sex 16) (Declaration, 2019: thors).” “States should uphold the right of everyone to describe others on the than their ‘gender identity’(underlinedbasis of their sex rather au- by that attempts by state in all contexts. States should recognize thors), and private organizations to compel individuals agencies, public bodies ‘gender identity’to use terms related to of rather than sex are a form this measures to eliminate women, and shall take discrimination against (Declaration, 2019: 16 form of discrimination.” This oppressive intention in rhetorical organisation of narra- rhetorical organisation intention in This oppressive between TERF activists with no ambition in developing political ca- reer and members of the political organization that have long-term plans on transforming into a political party and participating in on the basis of their gender identity and imposing birth-sex identi- on the basis of their gender identity and form of intentionally misgendering people in the fication takes everyday Misgendering is online or face-to-face communication. or bullying of trans* considered a sign of transphobia, disrespect for that reason, it is Particularly persons within trans* community. the use of an individu- important to look at the practices regarding with trans* per al’s preferred gender pronouns in communication sons. Thus, some TERF activists think it is okay to use preferred pro- sons. Thus, some TERF activists think nouns, while others consider the following: ’s Article 4 - Reaffirming ’s Article 4 in Declaration is especially visible tive flow of expression opinion and freedom to freedom of rights women’s (d): paragraphs (c) and and its by authors) (underlined - - - “So, sex is not a discourse, although there are discourses on sexuality, but it is a material reality on the basis of which women are oppressed inity, society” October 20, 2018 JL); speaking of trans woman - “More on (FB, June 25, 2019 JR); “This (FB, do” rubbish these pro- what men with makeup transovets are poisoning with can only be described as a daily dose of idio- men who have a fetish on women’s struggle so hard to defend cy. Women wardrobe !!!!!” (FB, June 19, 2019 JR); “Radical feminists do not exclude trans men from their communities, and this has been the case for the last believe that the oppression of because radical feminists 40 years. Why, There are two types of TERF attitudes in the discussions that There are two types of TERF attitudes an immutable biologi- The first refers to the thesis of sex as “That is why I LOST IT because of leftists in Serbia who want to ‘decon- IT because of leftists in Serbia “ThatLOST I is why and work on it,struct gender ideologies’ but at the same time they special sweethearts who go around calling want to indulge all those about oppres- to the people of Facebook women CIS and complaining sion of MISGENDERING. and RADICAL have both MISGENDERING can’t None of FEMINISM. You it’s approached radical feminism and understood the trans people who In remain ‘trans persons’. There they are, the political analysis did not they are mostly young girls. ternet is full of them and on my conflict with literally wanted me to give up And this group I am in is, to call individuals political analysis and be a little more polite, that so I can “work with the who behave this way their ‘preferred pronouns’, FB, 21st July 2019) young and lost trans persons.” (SV, ticing more “polite” communication strategies. This trend has not This trend communication strategies. “polite” ticing more activists: TERF internet by some prominent gone unnoticed parliamentary tool for prac seems to be motivating elections. This ticipants of social network discussions make the following state- make ticipants of social network discussions ments: are intertwined but will be separated for analytical purposes - first are intertwined but will be separated one concerns socially con- one concerns biological sex and second structed gender. cal fact, that is, the material reality of every person that cannot be we and, ultimately, changed by changing certain sex characteristics, chromosomes. Thus, the par can never change the “sex” of cells, or

Jarić / Krek 182 183 edited volumes One of the parallel streams of argument concerns gender “The criticism of the whole ‘TERF’ narrative comes down to the assumption that ‘terf’ which again, for feminists are essentializing feminism, the most part, wombs and so on. translates into biologization. Cunts, uterus, tits just as I do not think that pussy, think so. However, I really don’t are born with them, I alsoand other biological things define women who and by whicheverdo not think that by getting all these things surgically become one. (...) gendermeans, a person who is not born as a woman can matter of socialization, it’sis not just a matter of biology and it’s not just a of weather you have in always a matter of both. (...) it’s the [difference] the menstruation that hits youyour experience (underlined bt the authors) you faint in the tram, andso hard in your second grade in high school that front of Hayat you fallwhen you grab the fucking edges of the lawn in to defend you from theasleep there at 8 in the morning, stray dogs have shitheads that want to touch you - or not. fuck you, but unless you live after you again - not tothat with the anxiety that your body will turn against the fear that once amention serious health issues - but if you live with that you will live throughmonth your body will completely betray you and as far as I’m concerned youpain that is, haha, equal to a heart attack, then women are trans women, but they are not women.can eat shit. (...) Trans End of story.” (SA, FB, 10th September 2018) The second refers to thesis that precisely because of this to thesis that precisely because of this The second refers women begins at the fact of sex, so, a woman is oppressed because she is a woman is oppressed at the fact of sex, so, women begins radical because or (...) why, is feminized, and not because she of female sex, also materialistic,feminism is (...) sex is awith literally what exists it deals , 9th June 2019) show: Ozbiljne priče Talk category (SV, based on reality.” expression, as in the following example of answering the question material reality and the immutability of biological fact,material reality and a person of - must fulfill a set of social roles that re certain sex characteristics life, aspirations and appearance, behavior, late to his / her identity, not in- sense, TERFs argued that one should expectations. In this dulge those (self) who speak of an identifications of trans* persons or female, regarding that they have of being male “internal sense” gender burden of specific socially imposed not experienced the birth-sex. roles derived from - - The individual behavior of certain trans* women who are The individual behavior of certain trans* “I don’t even know if trans women are engaged in feminism. What I am “I don’t been beaten by trans reading is that various radical feminists have to as male principle or women, which in character could be referred June 19, 2019); “Never male violence against women. ”(BM, Twitter, attacks which are of them threatening such virulent HATE seen any X16 is like in trans people mostly done to WOMEN. The misogyny Threatening women with acid showing their true masculine personality. 25th June 2019). Twitter, (CW, Misogynist prick!” attacks in Serbia?!? As network user noted - there are differences the social is left aside for a mo- If the question of “being a woman” “Yes, trans women are not women. Trans women are trans women. And are trans women. And women are not women. Trans trans women “Yes, are between trans women. For example, some there are differences is a cos- some trans women, ‘woman’ are. For not misogynists, but many or dress up. make-up tume that you wear as means being a porn trope. They are differ For some, ‘being a woman’ 3rd July 2019) Twitter, ent.a woman.” (DP, In general, none of them is thors of the text in order to protect her privacy. Note: The name of mentioned trans* person has been removed by au 6 by VG on weather zealots of feminism are refusing the right to are refusing of feminism on weather zealots by VG persons DP responds: to transgender womanhood portrayed as violent, to their actually masculine therefore, points In the next comment, elab- we can also see a slightly more identity. orate version of the same argument: among trans* women. However, it is not clear how the argument it is not clear how the argument However, among trans* women. - are applied the same claim to cis women would continue if we “being a do some of them think that some of them misogynists, Assuming that we could find means being a “porn trop”. woman” it remains unclear how such examples in the cis female population, the trans* female population the existence of these phenomena in from the categoryleads to their exclusion of women. ment, the second line of argument goes from trying that to prove behaviors, to actually say- trans* women exhibit masculine gender examples: ing they are men, as in the following

Jarić / Krek 184 185 edited volumes - - - - ? ”(DD, Twitter, 31st Twitter, ? ”(DD, 8 July 2019) So, part of the feminists is referring to Blanchard and shift So, part of the feminists “You call lesbians who do not want to conform your ‘trans women are conform your ‘trans women who do not want to call lesbians “You ‘TRANSPHOBIC’women’ face in public. and you get in their What more the ideology of TRANSGRESSIONevidence of fe- of the borderline of herself a les than X27 who declares do you need, other male sexuality bian even though she is a typical AGP transsexual is a typical AGP bian even though she As regarding see from all the above, the arguments one can evidence, we can see Going back to the previous empirical derlying disorder, which may be characterized as autogynephilic gender which may be characterized derlying disorder, dysphoria.” (Blanchard 1989: 616) thors of the text in order to protect her privacy. transsexual” is actually one of the categories put forward in his ty- “AGP by Ray Blanchard. He claims that “major types pology of “transsexualism” of nonhomosexual gender dysforia constitute variant forms of one un Note: The name of mentioned trans* person has been removed by au Note: The name of mentioned trans* person 8 7 ing from the field of gender to the field of sexuality while of gender to the field of sexuality while ing from the field trying to the existence of trans* women. answer questions regarding Ray- identical to those presented by Janice sex changeability are Empire: The Making of the She- mond in her book The Transsexual immutable biological fact, Sex is therefore an Male. re- the material ality of every certain bodily characteristics person, and by changing get complicated things we can never actually change sex. However, to the terrain of gender when we move from the subject of biology and gender roles. As we have seen, the phenomenon most com- from which and gender, monly cited as the meeting place of sex also follows, is a woman” the concept of the experience of “being even if they have some menstruation. In this sense, trans* women, of cis women, will never have life experiences comparable to those Of and socially. a menstrual experience, both physiologically consider given that it does not course, this argument is difficult to menstruation in the explain the existence of cis women without category of women. a wom- that what makes the attitudes that lead to the conclusion is, in fact,the biological characteristics an, essentially, that part of hand and the experience of relating to chromosomes on the one in a patriarchal society on the other. “being a woman” ) are actually (confused) women 10 ) are men and as such they are “aggressive” because ) are men and as such they are “aggressive” 9 When debating with authors or activists who approach sex When debating with authors or activists The last example, if we look at it together with some of the we look at it together with some of The last example, if In this regard, let’s look at how attitudes towards transgen- attitudes towards let’s look at how In this regard, a binary is not “(G)ender category it is also a equals women and men, that category (...) points to a hierarchical division of power in society. that - activism, in some ways it implies that gender iden when it comes to trans reality of our sex. I for our sex than the physical tity carries more weight radical feminists includedeeply and that is why do not agree with this and deal with them, solely because transtrans men in their movement - (...) the biological reality of sex does not disap men were born as women, any male or trans identified female or whether it be trans identified pear, , 9th June 2019) show: Ozbiljne priče Talk (SV, of the variations after all.” Persons to transition from female to male. Persons Persons to transition from male to female. Persons 9 10 and as such they can remain involved in the radical feminist move- and as such they can remain involved involves a reverse pro- ment. The TERF categorization, however, females, while trans cess: trans* men are called trans* identified TERFs are males. In this manner, women are called trans* identified the persons trans* denying by oppression of kind specific practising identity. and name their own gender right to self-express it is characteristic for the TERF activ- and gender in a different way, of a straw man argu- ists to present rival theories by the method opposite side as “postmod- ment and to resort to labeling of the and non-scientific.Related of to this is the juxtaposition ern” gender identity when defin- biological reality with the concept of ing categories of men and women. The opposing concepts are thus also presented as the difference between objective, material examples above, gives us some clue as to what it means from a examples above, gives us some clue as For be a woman in society. TERF perspective, to be a man and to (sex) characteristics, trans* TERF activists, according to biological women (MTF der women and transgender men differ: and transgender der women violence is the masculine principle.They are the ones who attack violence is the masculine principle.They rights”. On the other and hardly won women’s spaces “women’s hand, for TERFs, trans* men (FTM

Jarić / Krek 186 187 edited volumes - - . In the current moment we attend . In the current moment we attend 11 Article 5: Reaffirming women’s right to freedom of peaceful assembly right to freedom of Article 5: Reaffirming women’s “ and association assembly and free- rights to peaceful States should uphold women’s dom of association with others. (ICCPR, 21 and 22). This should Articles and associate as wom include the right of women and girls to assemble During the 1970s and 1980s feminist community was in- During the 1970s and 1980s feminist en or girls based upon their sex, and the rights of lesbians to assemble and associate on the basis of their common sexual orientation, without The above example also addresses the issues of who gets to also addresses the issues of who gets The above example “This is a very theorypoorly learned postmodern good text on how the is used to challenge and vilify (...) the task of the left is to feminists/socialists move- that the historical role of the women’s understand and practice women, and that men can contribute to thisment is the liberation of other men to learn lessons from this movement.movement by organising and yet living in the leisurely struggle else’s Not by appropriating someone feminist is a compliment.”ignorance that being a (JL, FB, 24th July 2019) See more about this in Pamuković and Urošević, 2019: 107-175. See more about this in Pamuković 11 reality, and the scientific principle, and subjective experiences, that experiences, that and subjective the scientific principle, and reality, principle. is, the non-scientific the continuation of one of these debates that began in the late that began in the late the continuation of one of these debates exclusion of par the idea of 1970s related to the affirmation of ticular persons from the women’s (and feminist’s) assemblies and and assemblies (and feminist’s) ticular persons from the women’s and/or sexual orientation. associations based on their birth-sex volved into series of internal collective debates regarding a num- volved into series of internal collective Differences of sexuality. ber of issues broadly relating to issues the deeply polarized of opinions expressed in those debates in the feminist movement, particularly leading feminist thinkers, late 1970s and early 1980s New-Old Front in Feminist Sex Wars in Feminist New-Old Front be a feminist, subsection. this is a topic we will cover in the next and - Which changes a little in the basic tone of TERF discussants: Which changes a little in the basic tone is sexually attracted to “I think that a lesbian is a biological woman who women. I think democracy is impossible if men speak on behalf of women, even when identifying that the themselves as trans women. I think bi- which talks about people who “do not fit into of Gender Identity, Law nary roles”, instead of talking about the rights of people in the process and the veryof gender adjustment is half creepy, idea that people voluntarily fit into some binary roles is the opposite not just to the idea of equality but literally what is written in the unfortunate Kostunica’s “Homosexuals exclude the possibility of having sexual experiences with“Homosexuals exclude is by definition as exclusivepersons of the opposite sex. So homosexuality In that context, policies that go withas heterosexuality. … these various and feminists as TERF, the definition of some woman or lesbian, some community invents withoutthen imposing various attitudes that the trans lesbians are obliged today to include in their sexual basis, namely that any heterosexual butchoices some people who are trans, who are actually last year there was also a protest meaning … the reason why transgender, , 9th June 2019) Ozbiljne priče show: Talk at the London Pride.” (SV, In contemporary topic is painfully Serbian TERF debates this including men who claim to have female ‘gender identities’ (underlined female ‘gender identities’ who claim to have including men 17) (Declaration, 2019: by authors).” additionally way of thinking which wrong and oppressive This is a deeply dy- all social actors involved in this malignant (inter)group marginalized namic. second-wave feminism According to Julia Serano: “this is where When we got caught up in the myth that womencame to a grinding halt: how pride in Because when we take biology. are special because of our in a we are from men, we unknowingly engage fundamentally different 38), that injure feminist 2013: (Serano, dangerous game of opposites” body and the idea. present with one dominant argument related to the tacit coerce argument related to the tacit present with one dominant on lesbians to have sexual relations with trans wom- that is exerted men, which is the fic en, who are, by their definition, heterosexual tional reason for a protest reaction:

Jarić / Krek 188 189 edited volumes - - ) spaces is not a 12 The idea of exclusive women’s (or womyn’s women’s The idea of exclusive Constitution - that equality between men and women is guaranteed.” men and women is - that equality between Constitution (JL, 2019) FB, 17th June feminist such discussions within upsetting to have It is rather This is a deliberately alternative spelling that challenges the centering of male as norm. 12 new one. The term gained its popularity during the second wave new one. The term gained its popularity of Toronto Organization feminist movement. In 1978, the Lesbian policy in response to a re- womyn-only adopted a womyn-born woman who identified as quest for admittance by a transgender womyn policies focused on the unique nature lesbian. Womyn-born of a lifetime, and that of the feminine experience over the course who experienced life pre- could only be experienced by someone to create a space only for senting as a woman. The intention was by identity but experience. women, who were to be defined not of transgender women. There were The result was the exclusion - feminist organizations and events that adopted this wom many and among them the most yn-born womyn-only policies bar access Music Festival (known also as Mich- famous was Michigan Womyn’s music festival held annually from 1976 to fest), feminist women’s Michigan. 2015 in Oceana County, Exclusive Spaces: Spaces: Exclusive All-Exclusive Womyn’s Womyn-Born ler says: “We did not within the vocabularies that we form ourselves or ac we have to reject those vocabularies, choose, and sometimes is a ‘con- ones. For instance, gender assignment tively develop new those genderqueer and trans people refuse and yet many struction’ for a more or in full. That refusal opens the way assignments in part one that happens in solidarity radical form of self-determination, 2014), (Butler, undergoing a similar struggle” with others who are the ele- ability and openness to recognize and it depends on our will win or lose in the future.ments of that similar struggle that we and left-wing circles that make it impossible to create a common circles that make and left-wing political forces. As populist But right-wing front against the growing - reanimate the wo- Rather frequently participants in these discussions share “Policy bar access into women’s locker rooms is quite legiti- locker “Policy women’s bar access into neutral toilets next mate. I had the opportunity to see gender restrooms? are the women’s in several places. Where to men’s … again the same story, transgender people are more op- our rights and our pressed than women, and when we defend same men (pardon space we commit violence. And then, these sounds famil- against us. Wow call for violence “trans women”) for the 21st Century Same old story, only packed ”( NM, FB, iar. 25th June.2019) One of the most common claims in current discussions is re- One of the most common claims in current - festival which pro long-term existing even this However, examples that shows political In spite of recent historical suggests “the provision of single-sex services suggests “the provision Declaration and real or imagined “obvious” examples of abuse of trans* identities myn-born womyn-only space segregation. In the Article 8 - Reaf space segregation. In the Article myn-born womyn-only women, for the elimination of violence against firming the need the spaces for women and girls to provide them with safety, physical Whether provided by public or private enti- privacy, and dignity. be allocated on the basis of ties, such single sex provisions should sex and not ‘gender identity’, and should be staffed by women on identity’(underlinedthe basis of their sex and not ‘gender by au- should not include men who claim to … These facilities thors) 2019: 18-19) have female ‘gender identities’.” (Declaration, spaces, such as in women’s lated to the presence of trans* women but the safe houses, toilets, changing rooms, or women’s women’s justification of this claim is often strained: mote womyn-born womyn-only policy womyn-only mote womyn-born to its foundation had since promotion of the of consistent with the consequences confront advocacy group Equality Michigan policy whenLGBT of exclusion also criticised by boycott of the event in 2014. It was led organized Campaign, GLAAD,the Human Rights Center for Les- the National The festival held Force. Task National LGBTQ bian Rights, and the 2015. its final event in August the poli- implementation and promotion of consequences of the authors of the Declaration the tics of exclusion

Jarić / Krek 190 191 edited volumes - - - - “Wouldfor trans people and to sue it be OK for me to apply for a job the empow- No. Because them for discrimination when they refuse me? of the rights of another erment of one group cannot be at the expense 3rd July 2019) group.” (JL, Twitter, in the main “In that sense, no one in the political arena, especially rights. or with women’s stream, no political party deals with this issue where women massively This is not only the case in Serbia but in Britain, and formed their own par Labor Party emerge from Jeremy Corbin’s of them is, Women’s ties, so to speak, their own organizations. One Place UK, most massive and actually brings together the which is the with Labor who have previously worked mass of trade union organizers in a situation where their rights were They just found themselves Party. organization where she being erased. One woman was fired from the rights because she was a lesbi- and lesbian’s was dealing with women’s She was thrown out of her place to bring in a gender dys an herself. In terms of representation, it is argued that trans* women In terms of representation, it is argued “Women’s prison is deliberately separated from men’s prison men’s prison is deliberately separated from “Women’s were not the case, those women would solely because if that then in those prisons much worse … And be vilified and abused that came up where some trans women we have a lot of cases imprisoned with women and raped those got there and were , 9th June 2019) show: Ozbiljne priče Talk women. “ (SV, phoric young man who did not even enter the transition, who grounded a woman. Such an insult is feels like his/her trans identity on that (s)he this way in made against women, political representation is jeopardized which means a woman’, because it is considered that ‘it is OK to feel like for the purpose of committing crimes and /or (socially) unaccept crimes and /or (socially) of committing for the purpose able behavior in order to justifyable behavior bounda- of setting the importance - women to exclu of access for trans* to the limitation ries related these to note that spaces. It is important sively (cis)women’s in order to isolated cases that they generalize participants refer to against trans* women: support hostile arguments pose a threat to women through the use of their quotas in sports, pose a threat to women through the politics or job openings: - - —forms of sexism that sexism of —forms 13 dedicated special attention to ex- The experience of motherhood is, in cultural and symbolic motherhood is, in cultural and symbolic The experience of This materialization of the “cissexism the of materialization This “Article 1 “Article and practice of … the policies This should include the retention in law, category of men of mother to mean a female parent; and the exclusion who claim to have a female ‘gender identity’ from this category.” (Dec laration, 2019: 13-14) that it can also occupy those quotas that have been won in politics as a that have been won occupy those quotas that it can also oppression and fighting against the that is, kind of anti-discrimination, , 9th show: Ozbiljne priče Talk ” (SV, participation of women pro political June 2019) “...some examples of cissexism are quite trans-specific, others have For in- strong parallels with what women face in a male-centric society. stance, trans people and women are routinely objectified and deemed informed decisions about our own bodies, and our incompetent to make seriously by cis perspectives and lived experiences are often not taken 45) (Serano,2013: people and men, respectively.” 13 construe trans people’s gender identities and expressions as less construe trans people’s who are not trans)” legitimate than those of cis people (those The Mental Geographies of Motherhood Geographies The Mental of femininity in all so- most significant markers sense, one of the cieties. As set of social re- a social construct it implies a specific specific social position in the mother(s) lations that position appreci- actors. That position which is highly among other social dif gender order is a place in which ated inside the patriarchal the lives of moth- (re)shape ferent power relations intersect and particular position ers and their relations with others. This practical difficulties many brings in the personal lives of women access and trespass of but also symbolic benefits that provide It is for this reason why the symbolic frontiers of womanhood. the authors of the Declaration clusively define the “category of mother” limit the possibili- and the female at birth to realize tyfor those who were not assigned privilege to be a Mother.

Jarić / Krek 192 193 edited volumes - - A threatening companion to these discussions is the tacit A threatening companion to these discussions “It is scaryfact that the trans on the left are ignoring the how many trans women are not community is attacking women who claim that Ngoci, when she women, but trans women. Lashing out at Chimamando were different from said she thought the experiences of trans women ago, was an event that in the experiences of women, almost two years my mind marks the beginning of this witch hunt.” (JL, FB, 20th October 2018) safe houses, for ex “... there are evidence that trans activists targeted ample, safe houses for women victims of violence, seeking entryample, safe houses for women victims of violence, into are staying and places where the women who are already traumatized FB, 13th June 2019) who are in fact hiding from male violence.” (DD, - physi women have yet to be de-platformed or know how many “I don’t that ‘TERF’cally assaulted to realize is an insult that is used solely and to harass feminists.” (JL,exclusively FB, 6th July 2019) “Being a woman is contradiction enough without being both a transsex “Being a woman is contradiction in the middle: On the monkey like I often feel myself. like ual and a dyke if lesbians who insist that I am still a man, as one side of me are older awful disease that has infected my blood being born male was some are younger dykes On the other side of me and my bones permanently. bois, yet secretly confess trans men and tranny who are infatuated with because we act so to friends that they are disturbed by trans women (Serano,2013: 38) ‘effeminate’.” and hostile discourse of fear against trans* persons: and hostile discourse of fear against trans* Construction of the Trans Fear of the Trans Construction (Serano, 2013: 45) is particularly interesting because TERFeminists because is particularly interesting 2013: 45) (Serano, identify feminist submovement as a wing of radical themselves mother’s and rights, but the lesbian’s women’s, who are protecting do not contribute discourse of this kind of ideological promotion a new frontiers of of these categories because it produces to any addi- mental geographies that perpetuate newly invented birth-sex tional gender trouble: - The recent TERFeminist war against trans* persons regard- The recent TERFeminist war against trans* The solution for this constructed problem that is legitimized is legitimized problem that for this constructed The solution Conclusion shows the ideological down- ing the (final) frontier of womanhood digress on trans* issue fall of TERF discourse that significantly feminist discourse (Williams, from mainstream feminist and radical from the discussions 2016, Stoltenberg, 2014). The examples shows that they particu- among TERF activists about trans* issue with trans* experience larly target trans* women and lesbians and oppress. Some authors whom they additionally marginalize socially challenged posi- would claim that because of that multiple at the social margins have tion trans* persons as “subjects located in the social center”an epistemic privilege over those located (Bat- birth-sex feminists who do Ami, 1993: 85) in particular case female not need to justify Without preten- their imagined womanhood. of epistemic privilege that different social sion to measure the size - concern Bat-Ami with agree partially least at could we hold, actors trans* community to ing the potential of multiply marginalized create “space of radical possibility” for “production of a counter 1993:87). In this interpretative key (Bat-Ami, hegemonic discourse” through misuse of individual, sometimes fictional cases, is seen in sometimes fictional of individual, through misuse - It is sug zone. free online violence) violence (including creation of - separatist move women’s/lesbian’s focus on creating gested to The separa- of this solution is not clear. the logic ments. However, have emerged in the recent past,tist movements that such as Get - to remove the letter L from the acro the L Out direct their actions perform a series of interventions The activists carried LGBT. nym on lesbian community and radical feminism out on behalf of the Parades or main- that existing Pride different Prides, believing adequate do not represent lesbians (in an events stream LGBT - also contribute to further en they allegedly manner). Moreover, to their of women, lesbians and contribute dangering of the rights activ- because the Get the L Out paradoxical erasure. This is rather L that repre- of the acronym ists are the ones who demand erasure sents lesbians.

Jarić / Krek 194 195 edited volumes , Routledge, London, New York, pp. 83-100. , Routledge, London, New York, nist Epistemologies 177, 10:616-623. dysphoria, Journal of Nervous, Vol and Mental Disease Janice Raymond, The TERFs, available at: http://theterfs.com/2014/05/01/ - judith-butler-addresses-terfs-and-the-work-of-sheila-jeffreys-and-janice-ray mond/(accessed March 12, 2019) and London. New York 43, , Vol. Review Low Stanford of Color, Women and Violence Against Politics 6:1241-1299. Campaign, available at: https://www.womensdeclaration.com/ (accessed March 12, 2019) 28, 2:145-157. Studies, Vol i Orion Art. Beograd. i komunikacije za medije Fakultet Beograd, pp.498-499. Zavod za udžbenike, “Instead of pretending that all women share the same expe- all women share the pretending that “Instead of Blanchard Ray. 1989. The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender 1989. Blanchard Ray. Butler Judit. and 2014. Judith Butler addresses TERFs and the work of Sheila Jeffreys Butler Judith. 1993. Bodies that Matter: on the Discursive Limits of „Sex“, Routledge, Identity Margins: Intersectionality, Crenshaw Kimberle Williams. 1991. Mapping the Human Rights Rights, Sex-Based Women’s on Women’s Declaration. 2019. Declaration Glover David and Kaplan Cora. 2000. Genders, Routledge, London and New York. The feminist frontier: on trans and feminism, Journal of Gender 2019. Hines Sally. . identiteta u vizuelnim umetnostima transrodnih Milanović Aleksa. 2015. Reprezentacije rečnik, Milić Anđelka. 2007. Rod, in Mimica Aljoša and Bogdanović Marija, Sociološki - Femi Potter, 1993. Marginality and Epistemic Privilege, in Alcoff and Bar On. Bat-Ami Literature rience, that we are one and the same, let’s make the word ‘woman’ the word ‘woman’ the same, let’s make we are one and rience, that change. Instead of repeating historya perpetual agent of by chain- the specific definition or concept,ing ourselves to one make let’s of our uniqueness.” (Serano, a celebration of each word ‘woman’ 2013: 39) it is possible to read the following words of a gender scholar and scholar and words of a gender to read the following it is possible trans activist: - week-andrea-was-not-transphobic/ (accessed May 20, 2019) (accessed week-andrea-was-not-transphobic/ 3, 1–2:254 - 258, , Vol Studies Quarterly Radical Feminism, TSQ: Transgender - available at: https://read.dukeupress.edu/tsq/article/3/1-2/254/91781/Radi (accessed May 20, 2019) cal-InclusionRecounting-the-Trans-Inclusive means-and-where-it- available at: www.transadvocate.com/terf-what-it- came-from_n_13066.htm(accessed May 20, 2019) lezbejki: Feministički tekstovi pp. 107-175. , Labris: Beograd, Feministički lezbejki: and Lon- New York Columbia University, College, Press, Teachers ers College don. Monthly New York: of Women, an Anthropology Rayna R. (ed), Toward Reiter Review Press. California. Seal Press Berkeley, available at: www.feministtimes.com/%E2%80%AA%E2%80%8Egender Williams Cristan. 2016. Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History Inclusive of Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Williams Cristan. 2016. Radical TransAdvocate, From, What It Means and Where It Came Williams Cristan. 2014. TERF: - Teach She-Male, The Making of the Empire: G.Raymond Janice The Transsexual 1994. ‘Political Economy’ Women: Notes on the of Sex, in in Traffic Rubin Gayle. 1975. The and Queer Movements, More Inclusive Serano Julia. 2013. Excluded: Making Feminism , Times Feminist Genderweek:Stoltenberg John. 2014. Not Transphobic, Andrea Was Pamuković Nela, Miloš Urošević. in Oslobađanje poglavlje - Separatizam, 2019. Drugo Pamuković

Jarić / Krek 196 197 edited volumes - - - - prava naprava tela, seksualnetela, ori- feminizam, TERF, transrod- feminizam, TERF, jentacije i feminističkog jentacije identiteta, i se koje feminističkog unutar TERF diskursa pojavljuje kao - epis sa rođeni su koji onih privilegija temološka telima određenog oblika koji im je omo- gućio da iskuse specifično rodno žensko žene, kao samoodređuju sebe da i iskustvo pitanju (c) feministkinje; i lezbejke prisutnost u određenim (fizičkim i/ili- sim boličkim) prostorima i (d) pitanje pot vrđivanja majčinstva kao ekskluzivno žen skog statusa. Diskurzivna analiza će biti sprovedena na različitih nekoliko vrsta empirijskih podataka: (a) podacima sa zvaničnih - website-ova feminističkih, LGB TIQA organizacija, podacima (b) sa različi- tih socijalnih medija na kojima se vode disk teorijskim (c) i temu, ovu na diskusije usijama između različitih teoretičarki rod nosti i feministkinja. Ključne reči: nost, žene pitanju odnosa između

rodne autentičnosti koje se unutar TERF diskursa pojavljuje kao pojavljuje diskursa TERF unutar se koje nepromen- rod i pol su da motiv/verovanje ljive identitetske odredice, nije koje mo- guće promeniti/prilagoditi. Ovaj stav fleksibilnosti ideju pitanje u poriče/dovodi mogućnostposledično i identiteta rodnih rodnog samoodređenja za trans žene, (b) ljude; nebinarne rodno i muškarce trans Rad razmatra odnos feminizma, posebno feminizma/ radikalnog isključujućeg 'trans trans exclusionary radical feminism' (TERF), spram trans* zajednice unutar - artikulaci teorijske nivou na Srbije, društva je i praktične politike. Posebna pažnja u radu biće posvećena mestima teorijskih i aktivističkih tenzija u pogledu trans* osoba, trans* položaja društvenog i pitanja fundamental- četiri u materijalizuju se koje na pitanja: pitanju (a) Sažetak T (TRANS* VS. TERF) TREK: FEMINIZAM I GRANICE ŽENSKOSTI [email protected] DUŠAN MALJKOVIĆ University of Belgrade University

Maljković 198 199 edited volumes - This article attempts to examine two basic arguments ofThis article attempts to examine sex difference between man that the key antitrans “feminism”: biology of our bodies and that socialand women is rooted in is distinctively different forprocess of becoming a woman is being done in the theoreticalfemales and males. This theories, ranging from Simoneframework of social construction the Finally, to Judith Butler. de Beauvoir and Michel Foucault is that thereconclusion of this “deconstruction of transphobia” unanswered questions when it comes toare still many women. Thecomplicated relations between trans women and and can benew definition of sex is emerging before our eyes – rather hardly labelled as “destruction of the idea of women” women. the case is that it is being broadened to include trans transphobia, women, men, sex difference, gender, words: Key becoming (a woman) The spectre is roaming the transatlantic region, the spectre of The spectre is roaming the transatlantic transphobia. What used to be an overheated debate mostly taking transphobia. What used to be an overheated in the past few years – creat place in the United States of America TERF (meaning ‘trans exclusionary unpopular acronym ing a new, polemics in Serbia. Preva- radical feminist’) – became almost violent discussion mainly addresses lent in the space of social media, this to disre- women. I would like the issue of whether trans women are and go beyond it – or gard the mainstream current of this debate – in order to raise the question that seems more perhaps below? what is the sex fundamental to me: what is a woman (and a man), difference in itself and how the unfortunate hatred towards both creates two superficially similar yet essentially different phe- sexes nomena: the TERF misandry and gay men misogyny. Spectre of Transphobia Spectre Abstract Transgender Trouble: Women Between Between Women Trouble: Transgender Gender Blood and by Sisterhood (Self)Creation - With the rise of women studies in the 1950s, the distinction be- studies in the 1950s, the distinction With the rise of women girls should be why For example, there is no biological reason Although this particular stance has been disputed – namely by The separation between sexes wasn’t always perceived as it is always wasn’t between sexes The separation changeably. more sex and socially induced gender became tween biologically based been thought to be some kind of a given,visible. The first has bodily differences be- non-changeable essence resulting in irreducible perceived as ‘superstructure’tween men and women. The second was by our culture, which isbuilt on the basis of biological sex, influenced locations, historyactually cultures, different in geographical and rules her sex in the sense of behav- of gender i.e. how one expresses his or language, values. It is a role that we play to satisfy our ever chang- iour, woman seem to designateing cultural expectations of what man or and mean. as a widely accepted norm.wearing pink and boys blue, but it still exists that norm has a historyInterestingly, of its own revealing a drastic United States of America inchange in the perception of colours in The while blue was colour, the 1930s: pink was perceived as a “rough” both fitting better the nature of boys andviewed as “more gentle”, girls (Zaharijević, 2010). One should notice that in this particular case, hasn’twomen of nature weak and men of nature strong the of idea the in the philosophical discoursechanged, and this difference has its basis , who’s Πολιτικά in Aristotle’s of Ancient Greece. This is notably visible but seems to Plato in Πολιτεία idea of women has been challenged by be widely – but not entirely – accepted through the course of Western philosophy. the XVII de la Barre, century Poullain Cartesian philosopher François who held “that everything about women should be considered Becoming the First and the Second Sex the Second the First and Becoming the sense that both used to be fused in males and females nowadays: having basi- as two variants of one essential sex, have been understood of organs: while men have them outside cally the same reproductive 1990). On the other them inside (Laqueur, women possess the body, be a rela- between sex and gender still seems to hand, the difference le, on the yet accepted. This is visible, for examp tively new one and not inter two words generally seem to be used level of language: these

Maljković 200 201 edited volumes Given the situation, women

The second famous idea coined by Simone de Beauvoir was thatThe second famous idea coined by Simone the author of TheIt is important to notice two things. Firstly, - women are the second sex when com Her main thesis is that being whoTherefore, a woman is considered an incomplete have yet to reach equality on all levels of society. There is still (too) society. have yet to reach equality on all levels of much work to be done. No biological, psychic,“one is not born, but rather becomes, woman. or on defines the figure that the human female takes economic destiny in this intermediarysociety; it is civilization as a whole that elaborates product between the male and the eunuch that is called feminine. Only (De the mediation of another can constitute an individual as an Other.” 2011: 330) Beauvoir, Sex is not in favour of the idea that women can be reduced toSecond pared to men who occupy the first and privileged position within the the first and privileged position pared to men who occupy what she is nothing other than “And society. framework of patriarchal e seesthus called ‘the sex’, meaning that the mal man decides; she is is it in the ab- being; for him she is sex, so she her essentially as a sexed man, while and differentiated in relation to solute. She is determined - to her; she is the inessential in front of the essen he is not in relation (De Beau- She is the Other.” tial. He is the Subject; he is the Absolute. 2011: 26) voir, the contrary,needs a man to be wholesome. Men, on are the ones who Otherness is not a position of a valueless difference,are “complete”. beautiful, intelli- worthy, but it involves the idea that men are more gent, etc. than women. (The for other Others: black same can be said now- people, gays and lesbians etc.) This is a misogynistic point of view, stance in public and in theadays broadly dismissed at least as a political appearance and work of wom- vast space of academic discourse – the been mostly responsible for this change. However, movement has en’s is still widespread, resulting inseeing women as less valuable than men i.e. femicide. “genocide against women” - by other fe followed by men”, because it was written questionable MarryWoll- feminist-philosopher modern such as the first male authors of the Rights- work A Vindication and her pioneering stonecraft Wom of XVIIIan, written in century text modern the first most comprehensive – tryingtitle The what a woman is appeared under the to understand philosopher Simone de existentialist Sex,Second written by the French Beauvoir in 1949. - - - - makes a distinction be- Sex makes The Second can conclude that We to the work of continue this line of reasoning, we can revert To “In the Renaissance, madness was present everywhere and ent treatment of girls and boys throughout their lives. So a woman is and boys throughout their lives. So a ent treatment of girls “trans- – men neither – but rather a constant never a finished project role are where different expectations of her formational incarnation” and performed: she has to be a “proper”constantly enforced girl, wife, grandmother etc. mother, negating – or rather putting aside, but almost tween sex and gender, – the relevance of biology: Simone de Beauvoir is distanc not denying idea that “anatomy is destiny” –ing herself from the famous Freud’s various social interactions.and highlights how gender is created within point of view – the essence of men the standard existentialist From sense – we areand women does not exist in classical philosophical historical circumstances,structured through the courses of our current our freedom to (re)create but we have an instrument of free will and subjects are not just subjected, but also have theselves. Consequently, is how feminism can createpower to change their subjugation – that everlasting reasons – only his- actual changes for women. There are no the second sex could not become equal totorical and political – why the first. philosopher Michael Foucault and his widely praised his- the French of humanistic disciplines, previ- torical approach to various discourses and more or less permanently set in unbreak ously seen as “stable” able stone. For example, in Madness and Civilisation: A History of , he claims that the label of mental dis- Insanity in the Age of Reason by the institution of psychi- ease has been relatively recently adopted atry in the XVIII Europe century, rising in the Western as well as the new specific treatment of the “mad”. mingled with every experience by its images or its dangers. During the classical period, madness was shown, but on the other side of bars; if their biology, that the discourse of psychoanalysis is sufficient to ex- of psychoanalysis is that the discourse their biology, and that Marxismplain womanhood, determine what a too fails to creates a woman process that there is a cultural Secondly, woman is. - – wom both sexes individuals of only in relation to other who exists regulated of becoming a woman induced and an-being is the process de a whole. In the text that follows, Simone as by civilization taken the differ the sex difference is “embodied” in Beauvoir explains how

Maljković 202 203 edited volumes - Feminism and the Subversion of Iden- and the Subversion Feminism This led to the separation of the “mad” from the rest of the pop- of the “mad” from the rest of the This led to the separation can also question the idea of sex as we this point of view, From depends on yourJudith Butler in her famous – or notorious, ulation, conducting tests and experiments on them, giving them vari- tests and experiments on them, giving ulation, conducting psychiatric them off their civil liberties – ous diagnoses and stripping of a prison, an artificial laboratoryclinic becomes a sort aimed to study If madness has a historysomething “natural”. and cannot be natural- to all humans – to the medical dysfunction universal i.e. reduced ized, context mad in one cultural or historical because what is considered cultural in the other – there must be a certain can be seen as normal which can be ad- insanity, precondition that separates sanity from . dressed as a hidden epistemological a priori - a strictly natural phenomenon. If we can only approach nature by mod sex trough the opticseration of culture, we always-already perceive sex in terms of our individual The latter comes “before” of gender. that sees our sex organs us- bodies – we are born in the cultural world developed in the medi- ing the lances of predefined gender concepts cal discourse, which has its own history extending into ancient time and lasting much longer than the history of our individual life. The history of madness resembles the history of sex: the very perception of is constantly shifting,bodily organs that determine sex difference be accepted as regular in aand what is considered “abnormal” can given social context. preferences – work Gender Trouble: present,a reason that no longer under the eyes of it was at a distance, by too not compromise itself it and that would relation to felt any to look at: no had become a thing Madness close a resemblance. - with strange mecha but an animal inside oneself, longer a monster ed“ which man had long since been suppress nisms, a bestiality from (Foucault, 1998: 70). takes the previous stance even further, into the wuthering heights stance even further, the previous tity takes of radical theory: just the epistemological pre- not that the gender is rather that gender is influenc condition for the emergence of sex, but can reasonably articulate sex only in theing the formation of sex. We which is constantly being inscribed into sex. One of context of gender, sex is gender performancethese inscription that can even “overcome” (in the wide- – for example, drag queens can become more “feminine” the real spread sense of that word) than “biological” women. However, - - - film that fea John Waters is also the title of the Trouble Female This “inscription of gender into sex” can start at the veryThis “inscription of gender into sex” can begin- but sex is in trouble, too. can conclude that not only gender, We “ tures Divine, (…) whose impersonation of women implicitly suggests impersonation of women implicitly tures Divine, (…) whose as the of persistent impersonation that passes that gender is a kind the very performance destabilizes distinctions betweenreal. Her/his about gen- artificial (…) through which discourse the natural and the it or does Is drag the imitation of gender, ders almost always operates. the signifying dramatize itself is estab- gestures through which gender ural per constitute a ‘natural fact’ or a cult lished? Does being female con- constituted through discursively formance, or is ‘naturalness’ the body through and withinstrained performative acts that produce 1999: xxviii) the categories of sex?“ (Butler, ning of life: direct interventions are being done upon new-born bodies Babies are designated as ei- to fit the predefined gender expectations. what medicines defines as ather male or female upon birth based on sex difference at the current moment. Nonetheless, we can intelligibly question those definitions and try them through entwining to change How big should a penis bepolitical and scientific work. For example: do we use surgical interventions Why before it is considered a clitoris? or another sex if there areon intersex bodies to adjust them into one Etc. only two sexes? that has been going on forThis means that we are faced with a debate Nowadays it has philosophy. centuries in the discourse of Western emerged again in the very modern form. What Plato and Aristotle dis- women is still a subject of crit cussed about when it comes to men and the definite answers (and theseical examination, meaning that we lack to another). The history“solutions” seem to differ from one epoch of feminism from the very beginning sought to redefine what a woman is – not a mere being of passivity but an agent of social development.- Si mone de Beauvoir made an essential contribution to the understanding of women focusing on her “universal biography”, starting as a girl and ending as an old woman: the second sex exists in a constant point is that we are all constantly performing our own genders, even if performing our we are all constantly point is that of Wesley drag queens: masculinity opposite side of being on the - is (this performa as femininity of Divine as performative Snipes is just - hormones, mus body, the structure of a to alterations of tivity can lead cular mass etc.).

Maljković 204 205 edited volumes - - In a similar way, Judith Batler – more a symbol of a thought Judith Batler – more way, In a similar of the feminist organiza- profile In March 2018, the Facebook This radical emergence of trans women is not, however, ne- of trans women is not,This radical emergence however, twist she has proposed concerning gender, not herself personally, in not herself personally, concerning gender, twist she has proposed the inter the trans/intersex movement continue flesh and blood – and tion ‘Ženski prostor’notes from Niš witnessed the appearance of two into Serbo-Croatian – re- – originally written in English but translated titled Wake by Iama garding trans women. The first was authored 2018), (Wake, Are” Are Sisters and No Men “Why All Women I Believe - entitled “Transgen Yardley and the second was delivered by Miranda I would not 2018). (Yardley, der Ideology Does Not Support Women“ provide a general answer togo into details of both, but would rather some of the arguments that appear in the discussions of this kind. It is transeasy to determine that there are two major arguments why the anato- Firstly, women are not women (and can never be women). my of women is different from that of men, and is universal for all the socialisation of women travels a different pathwomen. Secondly, - gender onto a wom social norms of shift between enforcing dialectical to create and of a female subject her life, and freedom an throughout recreate herself. or Men? Women Trans connected tradition of what is popularly called French theory of what is popularly called French connected tradition and polit and lesbi- freedom of women, black people, gays ical organizations for recent “movement of the users of psychiatricans (even the most services” They are once again redefining the Mad Pride). organizing having a is not born, but rather becoming, even what a woman is – she female. to change her body from male into a possibility of freedom is, not the spectrum of what a woman gating but rather widening erasing this very demanding the inclusion into domain, but politically is the examination of somethe sphere of womanhood. What follows articulated in the context ofobjections to these political demands, on some issues thatSerbian radical feminism, especially focusing inclusive actors and so calledhave divided the local scene into trans is an or the proper acronym TERFs (the debate whether this is a slur ongoing one as well). - - females into a sister all females into that biology connects claims Iama Wake regards them as less women, nor that I do not think Iama Wake That brings us to another level of her argument. Iama Wake ferent sexes in terms of their bodies and gender roles prescribed by and gender roles in terms of their bodies ferent sexes live in. society they - line of reasoning starts with two indica her hood of a sort. However, everytive sentences: “Nearly first period, “ and girl has had her healthy “Nearly every her growing bosoms” (Wake, girl has dealt with healthy notice two things: first,2018). One should immediately the use of the men- is aware that Iama Wake a word “healthy.” phrase “nearly all” and development of “secondarystruation and significant sex characteris- women mem- are all of all women – so why tics” is not the experience those who do notit exclude doesn’t and why bers of the sisterhood, women? what are those beings if not participate in it? Furthermore, of those “unhealthy”And what becomes ones? between true and false wom- she implies some kind of differentiation encounters the problem ofen based on their health status. She rather definition that includes all women: our intuition would still suggest that or breast growth are forwomen who do not experience menstruation some reason still women, that the category of women includes not with as “unhealthy”.only them, but also those women labelled Faced of thinking must be aban- this kind of critique, the proposed direction but every women”, doned in favour of something for “most time we re- the vagina or the – like vert to a bodily property shared by all women have it (because of vaginectomywomb – there are women who don’t sense,” etc. or it is dysfunctional in a “proper medical or hysterectomy), universality of women must beIt must be admitted that the search for somewhere else. taken growing up white, privileged,writes, “I only know my own experience know women because I don’t liberal and female. I cannot speak for all in ”I have nothing, NOTHING the realities of all women,“ and she adds, but, she and I are sisters because she and I common with Ann Coulter, to grow up and live in our society while beingboth know what it’s like 2018). This obviously posits a contradiction. If Wake (Wake, female” knows only her experience with growing up as a female – that is rooted in her white privileged status – how can she compare her knowledge but for example women from with other women, not just Ann Coutler, than men’s: essentially, men and women are separated into two dif and women are separated men essentially, than men’s:

Maljković 206 207 edited volumes - - She must resort once again to biology: “Womenresort once again to She must share a bond - How is it that our intuition sug can now ask the question: We However, this process is not entirely successful – some boys feel this process is not entirely successful – However, Therefore, the conclusion is that “sex universality” for men and that is born from blood and biology“ (Wake, 2018). But how do we 2018). But how (Wake, from blood and biology“ that is born of bond and if all women feel that kind kind any know if biology creates the ex- in mind different experiences (especially of connection, having about their bodies, how we perceive them or feel perience of our own living in a small or a big depending on our class position, specificities) city etc. every particulars that define many There are too individual’s and comparisons are, in general, veryposition in the world hard to try especially if we make, we to use the biographical approach. What is that everyknow from that genre so this is life is more-less unique, that is particularly fruitful. not the line of argumentation gests that there is a category do we feel that at all? Why of women we can still talk about women?even in spite of all individual differences addresses it in the following passage: “I was born female. I Iama Wake the my genitalia and marked was not assigned female. The doctors saw 2018). That is how most (Wake, on my birth certificate“ box ’Female’ are assigned their sex at birth.people start “living” their gender – they on box a marked just a At the very beginning it is an empty signifier, F. Afterwards, all the social institu- birth certificate, or the letters M and tions – family foremost, not to neglect school, inner and outer circle of friends, media, etc. – are attempting to enforce gender expression and girls are being raised differ compatible with the assigned sex. Boys Namibia or Bangladesh? What if they do not have much – or even noth- they do not have much What if Bangladesh? Namibia or ing – in common? ently in order to fulfil this task of becoming “true” males and females. “true” ently in order to fulfil this task of becoming way, versa. Not all men or women behave in the same girls and vice like of gender perfor or dress as they should, so there is a proliferation are similarities because themances amongst the population. There a point,process of sex cultivation is successful to it especially when as one or – most people still accept themselves comes to self-identity is the rise of gen- the other sex. What we are currently witnessing non-binary variations of transsex andder-benders, people and many men or women and cannot betransgender people who do not feel like placed in the binary sex regime. women is the first designation after birth, the preliminary ideological - undisturbed. As a result, is always-al- discrimination relatively This generally means that we can unify the signifier of women - entitled “Trans The second text is written by Miranda Yardley The second universality that we can think of is that women are can think of is that universality that we The second ready differently performed depending on other personal properties, depending on other personal ready differently performed such as race or class. a particular culture in a spe- much more analysing their situation within have other ideas of what acific time and space: other cultures may it can be in anotherwoman is, and even if faced with discrimination, form etc. This raises the question of whether patriarchal society is uni- are different,versal, and even if it is, its particular implementations political project of con- meaning that sisterhood is rather a possible movements around the globe. It is a process and a necting women’s of biological archetype, simi- goal to be achieved rather than some kind or “in- brotherhood of men” lar to the idea of “one world” or “universal ternational proletarian solidarity”, projects with noble intention, but so far. hard to achieve and with questionable results I will brief 2018). (Yardley, gender Ideology Does Not Support Women“ ly analyse her seventh point, because most of the other claims go states that “[t] Yardley along the lines of what I have already examined. to the lives of women and thato recognise that trans lives are different which should always be re- women are entitled to their own spaces, institutions that exist tospected; it is not acceptable to attack women’s (Yardley, support vulnerable women in the name of transactivism“ safe houses2018). This implies that achievements of feminism – like and dissolved by trans women whofor women – are being attacked are basically seen as biological men: trans activism is really targeting marking by gender. Everything different path for ensues travels a that gender. marking by the assigned sex/ pushed to perform who is constantly each individual, prevalent social expectations. to currently gender according again, for being women in various ways. But then being discriminated The pres- to equal form of discrimination. not all of them are subjected onal fe- generally goes along the lines of traditi sure to have children and is her womb, a being made to procreate male identity: a woman to pre- of Homo sapiens species in order give birth to new members some women – e. g. Romaserve However, the human population. reasons, forced to have more children for various women is Serbia – are this social request andeducated women can deny while fairly rich and remain

Maljković 208 209 edited volumes - - gender, and many people are scared of what and many gender, family, heterosexuality, marriage as heterosexual in- marriage as heterosexual heterosexuality, family, gender as something natural.” (Butler, 2015: 52–53) gender as something natural.” (Butler, onal kind of reaction on the brink of an irrati So what creates this “Sex that the idea that there are only two genders, ‘anchors’ According to Butler, the consequence of creating the strong link the consequence of creating According to Butler, women’s rights. Yet again, how do we know that trans lives are differ we know that trans again, how do rights. Yet women’s ent and in what way compared to lives of women in the sense that we to lives of women what way compared ent and in - How are they social not women at all? trans women are can claim that is the inclu- we are talking about What What is their experience? ized? the into “womanhood” which means broadening sion of trans women the not destroying it.concept of women, questions – like Particular toilets – are just particular ques- in women’s presence of trans women as argu- They should be discussed, not used tion and nothing more. of “Other to obfuscate the process of recognition ments that attempt as women. women” be erased? In an interviewfear that women will for the weekly NIN in claims:2015, Judith Butler two genders, but it also ‘an- you should only become something of the chors’ the idea of and motherhood, so itstitutions, creating a bond between women who do not want to be mothers do not fulfil that women looks like and men who do not associate their sexual- their ‘natural task’. Women have children, also deviateity with reproduction, who do not aim to of ‘issues’ such as kinship, mar from the norm (…). There are a variety reproductive technologies thatriage, sexual freedom, even the right to are related to the idea of that it can bring about and think they can stop these trends by return- that it can bring about and think they can ing to the idea of leads to “anchoring”between the idea of a woman and her biology name one example, a sort of agender in nature, making giving birth, to This is the core of the all obey. natural law for women that they should justification of the right wing policy towards women: that it is in wom- in a certain manner and thus fulfil their biological nature to behave en’s it is also the consequence of ideology of transpho- purpose, and sadly, stands the idea of freedombic feminism. On the other side of this logic – very similar to the De Beauvoir’s a woman – to idea of becoming having children,choose or not to choose marriage, creating a family, even choosing gender and sex. The latter is provided by the development of medicine and new technologies that eventually allows the which represents the possibility to transition from one sex to another, -

With every of what a woman is wave of feminism, the question This means that we also create a possibility to stop somewhere a possibility to stop that we also create This means mixing” thus generates one of theThis possibility of “gender Afterthoughts and Conclusion Afterthoughts wave, starting in XIX century,emerges as a crucial problem. The first of women as passive, lessbrought upon the question of the old idea for more than two millenniavaluable beings than men, which persisted Although Plato in his Πολιτεία and political life. philosophy in Western claimed ontological equality of men and women – their tripartite soul is have beenequal – this has been far from the dominant stance. Women nowadays we can notice the second sex. Even reduced to the Other, that claiming the existence of unsurpassable abyss of biological differ – as stated by the part of the feministence between the sexes overcome the basic social difference – binary the basic social difference overcome difference – one sex of institutions.the core social more accepted It is nowadays much on the sex spectrum. in between s they from one sex to another if transition mean that people transfer For example, into traditionally perceived gender. have fully switched s – haveSisters – including three male cross dresser the Slovenian band and ap- because their gender performance been welcomed in Serbia pearance was very pop but the image of Austrian women-normative, unacceptablequite was beard”, a with “female Wurst,a Conchita singer she be- even though a man nor a woman”, because she was “neither after Sisters appeared on the public scene. came famous years recognition – that the veryfears concerning trans our society fabric of will fall apart, which is not true. Slow introduction of the idea of third political changes willsex/gender and following carefully considered not end their existenceperhaps create more bathrooms, but will if we opt for gender neu- (maybe it will just reduce them in numbers ruptured. Sim- happening and the world hasn’t It is already tral toilets). appear when a global socialilar ideas of social Armageddon always changes our society be- change is about to emerge, but only through comes more advanced and the very engine of social development is a of our understanding ofconstant revolution, in this case revolution sex and sex difference.

Maljković 210 211 edited volumes - - Starting roughly from 1990s, the third wave of feminism – hand 1990s, the third wave of feminism – Starting roughly from Naturally, this kind of “misandry”Naturally, should not be compared to mi- prob- unsolved and questions open many are there conclude, To For example, magazine Scientific American published in 2017 a in hand with transfeminism – once again raised the question of the – once again raised the question in hand with transfeminism mostly presenting different answers, meaning of sex difference, the debate whether trans approach. Today, with intersectional marked ists, ac is reaching its peak in Serbia, involving activ women are women - created equal, espe beings” are not – implies that “human movement - manifestati on – spe proclaims our carnal this point of view cially when very – dictate the organs and characteristics cifically sex es- basis of our existence.sence and/or ademia and public figures. What we can notice in the polemic is that What we can notice in the polemic ademia and public figures. gical always relies on the idea of strict ontolo transphobic argument general- men and women, and that men are being separation between sion of and brutal – almost as we came to rever ly perceived as violent a sort of can detect We stance towards sexes. the prevailing patriarchal a “misandry”constant in this stance, especially when trans women are as if they are contaminating thely “pushed back” into their “manhood”, threat of rape and sexualfemale sisterhood, representing a constant the ‘Na- by Nada Sekulić,disturbance. A recently published article “On and Endan- Transgender Feud: Heteronormativity, Political of One ture’ (Sekulić, 2019), clearly shows that thosegering the Rights of Women” based.positions are far from being scientifically subordination which is a widespread social regime of women’s sogyny - excep and perpetuate, that most gay men unfortunately internalize fems” is one of the most com- tionally visible on dating sites, where “no men hating, which is only to be found in personalmon phrases. Unlike sentiment, discrimination of men, as there there is no institutionalized people. is no heterophobia or racism against white of trans women and wom- lems when it comes to the complex relation another sex. I have tried to de- en – and what it means to be of one or in this debate in Serbia,construct some of the arguments emerging go beyond that: I am not pre- but my current ambition does not really has. There is still atending I have all the answers, nor do I think anybody lot left to discuss, but mostly to be researched in the sense of genetics, sociology and philosophy. medicine, anthropology, of Sex and Gender describedseries of articles entitled The New Science - and London: Routledge. , September 1. of Sex & Gender Matters for Everyone. Scientific American - https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-science-of-sex-and-gen (accessed August 5th, 2109) der/ Vintage Books. son. New York: Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. Sex and Third Third Books. Zone New York: bridge: Harvard University Press. https://www.noviplamen.gender and Endangering the Rights of Women. - net/glavna/o-prirodi-jednog-politickog-spora-heteronormativnost-transrod nost-i-ugrozavanje-prava-zena/?fbclid=IwAR3oQvcStzOPB0gWPXtl6plfY (accessed August 5th, 2109) 6c8LcIX0xtQm4GnG3AEhSKtd9AGIRuTrjE . New York . New York of Identity and the Subversion Feminism Judith. 1999. Gender Trouble: Butler, 26/11 50–55. for Revolution. NIN Still Have the Possibility We Judith. 2015. Butler, Vintage Books. Sex. New York: 2011. The Second Simone. De Beauvoir, The New Science and Gender: Why Fine Cordelia at al. 2017. The New Science of Sex - Foucault,the Age of Rea Michel. 1998. Madness and Civilisation: A History of Insanity in Herdt, Gilbert. in: G. and Third Genders, 1994. Introduction: Third Sexes Herdt (ed.), Making Sex: Body and Gender From the Greeks Thomas. 1990. to Freud . Cam- Laqueur, - Trans Feud: Heteronormativity, of One Political Sekulić, Nada. 2019. On the ‘Nature’ Literature Literature sex as both a process and a spectrum that starts within a womb from that starts within a process and a spectrum sex as both ultimately form- period after puberty, conception until the the day of Herdt, (Fine, 2017). Gilbert ten sex variants ing more than - anthropolo gist,- and New Guinean cul Dominican found that autochthonous has universality of binary system, thus denying tures have a triad sex sex are dwelling in a shadowydivision (Herdt, We 1994). field that has unknowns”, so unknowns” and perhaps some “unknown “known many de Stein’s – paying our full attention to Gertru we should tread carefully again! – tryingadvice: Think well and think listen to to uninterruptedly by ourpolemics, attempting not to be deafened all sides of ongoing clear lines affective reactions to disturb our own shouting or allowing of deductive thinking.

Maljković 212 213 edited volumes transfobija, žene, muškarci, od Simon de Bovoar (Simone de Beauvoir) de (Simone Bovoar de Simon od i (Michel Mišela Foucault) Fukoa do Džu- dit Batler (Judith Butler). Konačno, zakl- transfo- jučak ponuđene „dekonstrukcije bije“ jeste da još uvek postoji mnogo nerešenih pitanja kada je reč o odnosu ne- pola definicija Nova žena. i žena trans zadrživo se pojavljuje pred našim očima i ne može se razumeti kao „uništavanje pojma žene”, već pre kao njegovo proširenje u smislu uključivanja trans žena. Ključne reči: polna razlika, rod, postajanje (ženom). - dium.com/@mirandayardley/transgender-ideology-does-not-support-wom August 5th, 2109) en-2d00089e237a (accessed - dium.com/@selenablue64/sisterhood-only-women-are-wom 5th, 2109) (accessed August en-66ad28d9b31f Ovaj članak istražuje neke aspekte dva osnovna argumenta antitrans „feminiz- muška- između razlika ključna je da – ma“ raca i žena ukorenjena u biologiji naših tela i da se društveni proces postajanja žene izrazito razlikuje žena i kod - muška raca. Ovu analizu ispostavljam u okviru rasponu u konstrukcije, društvene teorija Sažetak . Beograd: Rekonstrukcija ženski fond. ženski Zaharijević,. Beograd: Rekonstrukcija Adriana. 2010. Postajanje ženom NEVOLJE S TRANSRODOM: ŽENE I PO KRVI IZMEĐU SESTRINSTVA (SAMO)STVARANJA RODNOG Yardley, Miranda. 2018. Transgender Ideology Does Not Support Women. https://me- Not Support Women. Ideology Does Miranda. 2018. Transgender Yardley, Wake, Iama. 2018. Why I Believe All Women Are Sisters and No Men Are. https://me- Are Sisters and No Men All Women I Believe Why Iama. 2018. Wake, Beograd SOFIJA MOJSIĆ SOFIJA [email protected]

Mojsić 214 215 edited volumes - - Gender Trouble. Feminism and and Feminism Trouble. Gender This paper reexamines and tries to found from the philosophical the from found to tries and reexamines paper This standpoint the fundamental effort and thesis of Judith Butler, advanced in her influential book the Subversion of Identity, about the necessity of subversion of the traditional understanding of female sex, gender and iden- ranging philosophers some of ideas basic the from Starting tity. com- the shows paper the of author the Adorno to Pascal from of phenomena and concepts the of manysidedness and plexity Her sex basic identity, and thesis is gender. that it is necessary to cancel and overcome the traditional rigid and monolithic het naturalized compulsory, as understood identity of concept erosexuality, but also to preserve the necessity of the flexible continu- basic and coherence its and identity of understanding The ity. author supports the fundamental thesis of the radical feminism that woman should become and not simply be born. The author is convinced that biology and anatomy should not relentless fate and must not be treated as unchangeable and and she advocates the changes in the predominant types of need- where and when socialization and education upbringing, ed as well. It is necessary to understand that many usual views of sex (female) and gender are historical and social constructs which can be changed and revised and which are not so-called strug- to necessary especially is It facts. data, evident and natural gle against any type of violence and discrimination of sexual it is minorities. pleaded Yet here that it is necessary to under of field complex the in constructed being is identity that stand interactions of nature and culture, biological determinism and free will, necessary coherence but also of the psychic and so- type higher and new supports author The changes. cio-historical wom- of traits specific the comprise would which universality of en, gay and lesbian persons and the dialog between tradition personal of importance the underlined also is It innovation. and Abstract The Philosophical Reflections on Reflections The Philosophical of Identity Subversion the Feminist - - - bearing witness to and specificprimacy of the practical reason in the context of struggle for truth and justice, yet which are and arbitrary. as completely optional not understood gender. change, continuity, feminism, identity, words: Key The work of Butler is especially in accordance with the es- The work of Butler is especially in accordance The very very from its essence of philosophy The beginning and especially from Socrates and his quite self-conscious and princi- and his quite self-conscious especially from Socrates which established and self-reflection, pled project of reflection acting of philosophical thinking and the measure and paradigm as of things which are considered is reexamination until now, should not be so-called “facts” which “natural”, “self-evident”, for granted and especially not brought reconsidered but taken and project of Judith But into question. In that sense the effort Gender Trouble. Feminism and and Feminism in her influential book Gender Trouble. ler realized of Identity belong to the crucial mainstream and the Subversion the very- Her aim is reexamina realizes principle of philosophy. of usual under tion, bringing into question and refoundation This, of course, as identity. standings of sex, gender and gender many fate, provokes in case of Socrates and his pathognomonic which belong to the essence reactions, discussions and polemics and vocation of philosopher and his activity which of philosophy and invites to critical dialogue. cancels self-evidence which bring and sence of modern age and modern philosophy not only social but individ- articulate new principle of freedom, enable the articu- ual, too, and human rights which emphatically - individual idiosyncra many lation, expression and respecting of phenomena and specific sies which naturally comprise both the and their realization in traits of his sexual and gender identity Especially important part,society. principle and innovation of is both reexamination and deconstruc the modern philosophy tion of inherited concepts and traditional entities which were created in human history and got the status of so-called “facts” whose subjective production and historical and and “nature” The Fundamental Critical Task Task Critical The Fundamental and Method of Philosophy

Mojsić 216 217 edited volumes - - Butler’s and personally com- work is especially politically the institu- The basic aim of Judith Butler is to de-center human origin were “forgotten” and whence considered as “eter and whence considered were “forgotten” human origin nal”, God given or autochthonous. It has also been considered been considered It has also given or autochthonous. nal”, God as an in- of man both time that some “self-evidences” for a long not be- given, not produced, society are simply dividual and and without influence and let by “nature” come, i.e. became the of man and his culture. Whence alone creative participation is demonstration of cultural impregnation basic aim of Butler phenom- the of production becoming, cultural and historical and as from which the former is considered ena of sex and gender and completely simply “given” which is so-called “nature” “self-evident”. consequence both of her quite personal, mitted, what is the and her life historyparticular experience and un- and modern and struggle at first of stoppable social and historical trend persons for equality and tolerance in women and later of LGBT contemporary as wholly legitimate. I society which I consider statement of a princi- think that beside objective, theoretical ple, it is very personally truth witness in important to be both in our concrete life behave the sense that we should in reality, advocate a true convic in accordance, struggle and personally consistence, serious- tion because the basic personal honesty, it.ness, sincerity and integrity demand truth Necessity to be - philosopher Kierke witness does not advocate only existential expected from such a phil- gaard in his late works because it is 1998: 10, 11, 291). The contemporary Kierkegaard, osopher (cf. Plessner also advocates philosophical anthropologist Helmuth freedom, humaneness, seriousness the struggle for dignity, a matter of special moral and honesty and shows that it is also decision, choice, primacy of practical reason without which the be imperiled (Plessner, dignity and earnestness of man would 1953: 19, 20). tions of falogocentrism and compulsory heterosexuality and to show that they are produced by specific historical epoch and culture and created by work of numerous institutions, practices origins and causes and discourses and not only their self-evident 2016: 32, 33). (Batler, - The essential difference between sex and gender is the con- The essential difference between sex modern philosopher who brought to consciousness, The key The clear result of her analyses is that distinction between is that distinction result of her analyses The clear l- not come from the sex directly and unequivoca titude which does of between the sex and gender There is a radical discontinuity ly. - person only one predetermined gen the natural sex of From body. The understanding directly and unambiguously. der does not come produced “natural” is socially and historically of sex as completely in mind. which is most often not kept and culturally constructed, that there are different sequence of cultural and historical fact and psychological experi- possibilities of personal determination different genders. The spe- ence of sex which whence can produce and his identity allows gen- cifically modern understanding of man and social erally the possibility of different psychological of gender from the same experiences and cultural constructions of various personal body sex and constructions and destructions lifetime. The “coherence” identities, that is, their changes during and “continuity” “natural”, of “personality”are not simply “given”, of personal bio- but they are products, effects both “self-evident” and of the social and logical, psychological and social development situation. historical epoch and particular cultural continuity and coherence of con- founded and explained the unity, Kant who did it at and personality is sciousness, self-consciousness . In the process which he first in his The Critique of pure Reason categories he constituted called the transcendental deduction of coherence and continuity of hu- self-consciousness, both the unity, man subject and the unity and constitution, at least gnoseological, world. In that part of his work he develops of so-called “objective” specific phenomenology of becoming of every knowledge, which continuity and coherence of human also presupposes the unity, subject, I would dare say that it is for the human consciousness. The Interdependence The Interdependence and Culture Nature Gender, of Sex and much more gender should be maintained. Sex is concept of sex and both (although not completely: i.e. given” than gender “naturally cul- whereas gender is almost completely sex is being produced), psychological product,tural, social and personal experience and at

Mojsić 218 219 edited volumes The sense and function of the transcendental imagination The sense and function of the transcendental consist from, on the one hand, the important attempt of close con- consist from, on the one hand, the important man and the mind and body, nection of understanding and senses, through its medium other, spatial and temporal world and, on the between sensorythe incessant two-way communication content, convictions, theses and nature, world and human understandings, theories. This enables their constant contact,hypotheses, mutual enrichment but also their mutual correction. It is necessary to be constantly open toward the world and, of course, to its own inwardness and carefully listen to their signals because it is the only way to provide human capacity of critical reflection with its authen- it fresh, flexible and vital. It at least in tic origins and so to keep first time that from the transcendental philosophical standpoint philosophical that from the transcendental first time to consciousness and bringing process of constitution the whole also of united, knowledge but particular definite not only of is and its personality human subject and coherent self-conscious forwardset forth. Kant puts multiple syntheses of representations The Critique upward (in the first edition of which begin and develop through perceptions the from develop they is, that ), of pure Reason second to understanding while in the the productive imagination d- the crucial position and power of understan edition of the work ing which intervenes imagi- in the perceptions and the productive Kant’s In this context the main and the epochal nation are stressed. philosophical transcendental explanation insight and his founding united, human subject has to be and remain is his awareness that of in order to achieve the knowledge continuous and coherent role of the transcendental imagination world at all. Here is the key consciousness which is mani- which produces the internal temporal self and which also demands fested as the internal historicity of the being is the human its linguistic competence. The self-conscious distanced step to itself in order to compre- one which can make as the only one stage hend the present phase of its consciousness past behind and future in the temporal stream which presupposes ahead (Kant, 1976: 536; Mojsić, 2009: 42, 43). So Kant made essen- of the temporalisation of tial contribution to the modern process that the meaning of time consciousness and to the understanding standpoint of its content and can be addressed primarily from the events which constitute it (Mojsić, 2009: 46). - The transcendental apperception and its representation “I apperception and its representation The transcendental I think that the feminist premise that biology is not, and I But Kant also demonstrates a typical bourgeois inclination a typical bourgeois also demonstrates But Kant ten makes superfluous the recollection that they are in fact pro- superfluous the recollection ten makes and tem- with the personal and spatial duced in close connection historically historical world. The epochally and poral and social and of thought now petrifypredominant forms necessary, in eternal, Mojsić, 2009: 49, 50). ones (cf. changeless and universal with this because it supplies the primarythink” is connected unity which the means that it projects the domain in of consciousness. It mine (Mojsić,representations become transcenden- 2009: 51). The feature is the characteristic tal apperception or self-consciousness its I. It is the historical of the modern subject which constitutes rational, adult I who has in- product of the modernity where the is created (Mojsić,sight and controls its mental content 2009: 51). of the transcendental uni- The personal and historical importance and identifyfied consciousness which can recognize its states and representations as its- own and integrate them in coherently organ experience is huge. It can be understood best if we compare ized subject exists human such situation in which the self-conscious absent (at least in its mod- with the historical epochs when it was as, for example, in the Middle Ages when whole parts, ern form) and its consciousness processes and states of the human being Sa- or control (God’s else’s were considered to be under somebody - but absolutely not his or with the situation of the schizo tan’s) of I are functions phrenic whose integrating and self-conscious (Mojsić,massively impaired or completely destroyed 2009: 51). of mediation of inward and Kant also had insight in the necessity of the personal outward experience, that is, the inseparableness one (Kant,human experience from the general world’s 1976: 179; Mojsić, 2009: 52). would add that it must not and should not be, relentless and 2016: 82). I changeless fate is true and deeply obligatory (Butler, also accept and consider as deeply true the thesis that we are not call personal in what we nowadays enables the changes principle situations. and cultural world changed historical identity in and becoming of historical genesis the temporal and to “forget” that of the prevailing way of thought and forms which determine

Mojsić 220 221 edited volumes - - - However, the fact that the gender is constructed does not the fact that the However, iden- sex, gender, The feminist claim that nothing, including born as women but we become that, but we become born as women in psychological especially philosophical tenet, sense. The modern and social that one should it is, is obligatorybecome what for every in Hegelian terms, entity; abstract,starting undeveloped, from the being in it unconscious - and self-con developed, wholly realized self we should become of all It is valid for the members and for itself. scious being in itself not only female. genders, i.e. sexes, 2016: illusion or completely artificial (Batler, mean that it is sheer with- that woman is becoming, she is process 86). This only means is generally or end and it is practice which out definitive beginning and different interventionsopen both for new and resignifications is not given closed totality but task 2016: 86). The gender (Batler, 1983: by human agency realized which is being incessantly (Sartr, she rethinks the possibili- 132, 133). Therefore, Batler is right when gender and identity which ty of the subversion of the concept of and reified and which, at least to my mind, had become naturalized constellations, but accord- can indeed in some social and historical to support the he- ing to the feminists in all, be used exclusively of masculine and heterosexual absolute and intolerant gemony 2016: 87). power (Batler, desire, is absolutely and completely natural, immediate, unme- tity, diated, original but it is from its verybeginning influenced by a cul- that nothing is ture is in accordance with Hegel’s contention immediately given as such but everything is dialectically mediated and produced and that immediacy manifests itself only as the ef fect and result of often very complex and multiple mediations. In that original formative re- that sense the feminists stress and show heterosexual and Oedipal lation between child and parent is not parent of the opposite sex erotic relation between child and the the lesbian relation between but homosexual relation – especially repressed and whence the mother and daughter – which is later becoming of gender is very hard, difficult process of the naturali- 2016: 139, zation of something which is originally opposite (Batler, 143, 148). It is in accordance with Hegel’s determination of the for mature individual as “the mation of wholly developed, socialized, path of despair” (Hegel, 1979: 15). 1979: 48) and “violence” (Hegel, - (Batler, 2016: 58). It is another affirmation of the affirmation of the 2016: 58). It is another (Batler, cogito cogito The feminists are right when they reexamine the frequent when they reexamine the frequent The feminists are right critically read some Another important feminist Gayle Rubin ferings and Troubles is necessary it into Reason and turn to train Troubles ferings and sense of Iden- self which is “destined to have the soul?” that is, in I or 1990: 214). tity” (Triling, original subject, claim about self-founding general philosophical of self-presence “the for instance, criticizes cogito. Gayatri Spivak, self”knowing unhistorical philo- as epistemic imperialism of the sophical immedi- does not found absolutely originally claim that subject ately itself but, the contrary, on according it becomes thanks to, homo- ban and repression of the primal to the radical feminists, especially the lesbian relation between mother and sexuality, on that and it is becoming, suffering and despairing daughter, and made conscious, let path which is often not even noticed alone criticized. of Lévy-Strausscrucial claims of the structural anthropology in her paper “The women: some notes on the “political econo- traffic in my” of sex” and showed a truth which is so often unjustly left unno- desire for bearing children, ticed and avoided: even sex itself and natural fact but primal, wholly maternity are in no way self-evident which need it for its own re- is the result of social practices, culture when she stresses 2016: 167, 170). She is right production (Batler, is a set of social arrange- that the whole system of sex and gender sex in the product of human ments which transform the biological agency (Papić, and Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 93). The phenomenon to existence of a kinship sys- practice of the traffic in women refer their kinswoman while wom- tem in which men are given rights to or to their kinsmen (Papić,en have no rights even to themselves the primal exploitation of Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 114). She considers as crucial and primarywomen in patriarchy while economic exploitation is derived and secondary (Papić, Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 114). Whence she defines the aim of the feminist and gay rebellion as the throwing down of the system of obligatory sex (Papić, Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 122). This is connected with veryThis is connected and profound interesting, perceptive - defi observations of man’s the path of formation about of Keats of Suf the World not see how much identity: “Do you nite personal

Mojsić 222 223 edited volumes - - - Gayle Rubin is right when she asserts the general fundamen- Gayle Rubin is right when she asserts Although I am not going into details of the classic psychoana - details of the classic I am not going into Although uration and development of children for what I have no compe- children for what I development of uration and understan d the the feminists point out that generally tence, I shall sexually de- an instrument of production of the Oedipus complex as clearly i.e. heterosexual, sexually and gender termined personality, infants from the original bisexual androgyne differentiated adult (Papić, Karen Horney also deter Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 122, 127). psychoanalytic under basic feature of Freud’s mined as the special for child the fact that he did not see the desire standing and method as some- as inborn, wholly natural formation but bearing, maternity con- psychologically reduced to its ontogenetic thing which can be or phal- derives originally from homosexual stituents and its energy (Papić,lus instinctive elements (ed.), 1983: 135). Whence Sklevicky of “womanhood” during thethe explicit derived insight that making According to the feminist socialization is an act of psychic brutality. psychoanalysis, his discussion and analysis of the reading of Freud’s to the description that aphenomenon of womanhood clearly refer human group from its veryis being prepared to live with childhood its own oppression (Papić, (ed.), 1983: 136). Helene Sklevicky of girl to her father isDeutsch is explicit: the first libidinal relation wish my father castratedmasochistic and her message is clear: “I I of some women (Papić, Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 136). However, me”, - while defending their self-re can rebel against such masochism and spect, they flee from the whole situation because they do not want and do not want toto tread this whole path of pain and humiliation which consists of masochism, self-hatred reconcile with their “fate” and passivity (Papić, 1983: 136, 142). Sklevicky (ed.), always be subject to con- tal claim that the sexual life of men will ventions and human intervention that it can never be com- and that our species is social pletely “natural” because of simple reason and cultural (Papić, 1983: 139). In this context the Sklevicky (ed.), lesbian relation is not primarily seen as a problem which should be treated but as resistance to a bad situation (Papić, Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: 142). According to Gayle Rubin, woman who does not rebel against the status of object admitted that she was defeated as an independent personality (Papić, 142). She Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: lytic and Lacan’s doctrine of biological, psychological and social mat biological, psychological doctrine of lytic and Lacan’s - - However, I would like to emphasize how much it is, both how much it is, both emphasize to I would like However, The assertion of the feminists that every sex and gender is nold Gehlen who developed his whole philosophical understand- nold Gehlen who developed his whole nature a cultural being and ing of man on the tenet that man is by 1990). Gehlen, by culture a natural being (cf. irresponsible, not speaking as a human being and professionally, and praise the fragmenta- compassionate and inhuman to insist and disintegration or com- tion, conflicts, splitting, incoherence I do appreciate the honesty pletely nonexistent I, soul and body. roman- Foucault that admits she when Butler Judith of veracity and the world of the alleged pleasure of the hermaphrodite Her ticizes culine Barbin from 19. century as “happy limbo of nonidentity” 2016: 172). Foucault is enthusiastic about the life of the (Batler, defines the essence and the basic aim of the feminist revolution basic aim of the feminist essence and the defines the of the forms but also as liberation liberation of women not only as nd from the bo human personality expression and integral of sexual al- without gender, androgyne society and realization of of gender for where the sexual anatomy is irrelevant though not asexual, love (Papić, it does and with whom it makes what a person is, what ally 139, 144), what I can understand, especi Sklevicky (ed.), 1983: to struggle against exaggerated importance when it is about need with I especially completely agree identity. of sexual and gender ema- systems of sex/gender are not ahistorical the contention that hu- but are the products of the historical nations of human reason of sex/gen- man agency (Papić, 1983: 145). System Sklevicky (ed.), le in which shows that oppression is not inevitab der is neutral term organize the product of social relations which this domain, but is way (Reiter (ed.), 1975: 168). our sexual and gender identity in that and “nature” “passive” “genuine” is certainly not “pure” Woman “endless- “spirit”, “action”, a being of “culture”, man exclusively of the complex pro- ness”. These are absolutely false distortions a woman. Here we can see cess of being not only a man but also sex and gender wrong, was how much the tradition did the female it established the gen- false and oppressive to her and how much on whose top is man. The feminists are completely der hierarchy right to try to revalue and abolish it. can be connected socially and culturally mediated and produced anthropologist Ar with the fundamental claim of the philosophical

Mojsić 224 225 edited volumes - - Yet I have to notice a contradiction, lack of logic and paradox in lack of logic and paradox I have to notice a contradiction, Yet It is necessary philosophical and histor to have praiseworthy ical sensitivity, delicacy competence as Fou- ical sensitivity, and good theoretical and quotes and is inspired by, cault possesses, whom Judith Butler and given from the verywho asserts that sex is not determined be- genuine, biological. It is also ginning as completely natural, original, meaning in the context of produced in discourse and receives its psychologically and historically mediat power (that is, it is socially, conclusion that even ed) and whence the logical and consequent organization of power (Batler, sexuality itself is historically specific 2016: 169). bi- radical feminists who point out that not only the attitude of many nary but also every opposition between man and woman indication of radical feminist authorsex and gender should be surpassed. The Monique Wittig completely discards every reference to sex outside means outside (the patriarchal,the context of gender and for her that she considers such division to be enforced culture because repressive) 2016: 195). (Batler, by economic and political needs of heterosexuality transcends the binaryThe feminists think that the lesbian woman opposition between man and woman, that she is neither woman nor categoryman, that she has no sex because she is beyond any of sex. Their aim is to show the whole contingency of cultural establishment of these categories and to discard obligatory supposition of the com- one does not need to becomepulsory That is to say, heterosexuality. - the catego world which surpasses seeing in it the hermaphrodite that afore men- should be told but it also and identity, ries of sex For me it is more its life by suicide. ended tioned hermaphrodite huge, unsupport able sign that it was and tragic enough than telling or even ig- unhappiness which can be avoided human suffering and cyni irresponsibility and - of great inhumanity, nored only in an act to have the coherent,cism. Whence the necessity iden- integrated and my conviction that everything personality else being, self, tity, individuals humanity or gender but concrete leads not just abstract to disaster and huge, often unsupportable from flesh and blood total psy- from the confusion of identity to suffering which ranges classical studies and described by many chosis movingly confirmed 1982; Laing, 1977; 1976: 119-177; Fairbairn, Erikson, and books (cf. Reich, 1982: 341-432). - - Pascal is a relevant philosopher in this context in another Pascal Afore mentioned Monique Wittig thinks that only lesbianism Afore mentioned Monique Wittig thinks teristics: the logic of heart, sensibility and perspicacious spirit, intui- consequence of this is tion. The essential meaning and important connect their under that both men and women should integrate, drives and reason and here should not standing, senses, sensibility, but both-and. either-or be followed the irrational logic of choice character of human nature for sense: he stresses the paradoxical mean, equilibrium but most which it is not appropriate the golden sharpened and conflicted extreme passions which are juxtaposed and always colliding and so hold the incessant internal dynamics of over and elaborated further by human subject. is taken This motive in 19 century dia- Kierkegaard in his conception of the paradoxical lectic and he also in the same way understands the specific either man or woman (Batler, 2016: 195). However, I must ask and However, 2016: 195). or woman (Batler, either man andwhole this problem much effort into they put so wonder why it in fact irrelevant, when they consider phenomenon even essentially - situation and dis them that this whole I can agree with nonexistent? should of sex and gender are overrated course where the relevance the when they are considered as essential, be surpassed, especially that the of men, but I cannot agree at all most important property system of is only discursive product of (political) whole concept of sex women, gay other things, in order to oppress the signification, among It seems to me as an unjustified conspiracyand lesbian persons. theory but Not only that it is much more realistic and a sort of paranoia. and ap- more human and comprehensive to accept also it is better and media- of multiple determinations, ply the dialectical understanding and important determi- different as one of many tions which comprise too. gender, nations the determinations of sex and is logically and politically necessary of feminism. consequence people who are not this is unacceptable because a lot of However, also can honestly, women and who are not in lesbian relations unjust, against many truthfully and with dedication struggle false cultural tradition and long contentions and effects of patriarchal history women. In that sense I shall mention a of oppression of philoso- the unique genial thinker, congenial example of Pascal, scientist, obviously male who stressed the moments writer, pher, charac to be women’s which are usually traditionally considered

Mojsić 226 227 edited volumes - - - which I 1 Adriana Zaharijević explicitly speaks about and stresses the explicitly speaks about and stresses Adriana Zaharijević She (sc. Butler) applies also for me acceptable attitude and Butler’s commitment for strategic action reminds me of the standing and stressing of their equality with men (although he does not libera- understand and does not support the movement for women’s is quite another and great issue which misogyny, to emphasized tion) surpasses the limits of this paper. Kierkegaard’s specific relation to women, which ranges from under Kierkegaard’s 1 see as compliment and advantage of women (cf. Kjerkegor, 1994). Kjerkegor, of women (cf. and advantage see as compliment book Becoming of women and feminism in her nature paradoxical woman (Zaharijević, problematic, 2010: 197). So the conflicting, identity is con- self, character of human personality, paradoxical with I agree underlined by feminists. However, firmed, what is also Wit extreme untenable attitude of Monique Judith Butler that the of radical dependencytig is the consequence on (obligatory) heter lly it completely unnecessarily and irrationa osexuality and that claims with heterosexual women since Wittig severs the solidarity hetero- that it is impossible to choose extremely really untenably, 216). 2016: 215, sexuality freely and voluntary (Batler, culture called the method which is in the dialectical philosophical but also preservingdefinite negation and surpassing, abolishing on of the issue. Judith the higher level of the most valued elements efficient” strategy thorough Butler suggests as more “shrewd and appropriation and displacing of the very same categories of identi- to articulate crossings of ty not only to challenge the sex but also of “identity”multiple sexual discourses in the point in order to 2016: 216). This this categorymake problematic forever (Batler, who in greater part of his life and intel- reminds me of Kierkegaard shrewd indirect commu- lectual endeavor applied the comparative man of flesh and blood and nication in order to approach existing so to uplift him in higher reli- to meet him on his present level and 1985). Kjerkegor, (cf. gious stage more efficiently and easily Marxist and proletarian ideolo- doctrine of the privileged communist sense of partial and privi- gy and its authors and champions in the the truth. I can understand itleged approach to what they consider woman’s nature which he considers to be paradoxical after having after having to be paradoxical which he considers nature woman’s with her nature are incommensurable that woman and established category on only one concept and irreducible the rational - The consequences of her claim that acts which constitute Butler’s claims that the essence or identity is artificial, Butler’s is artificial, claims that the essence or identity that gender is deter Judith Butler points out that the claim mined by performances means that it has no previous ontological has no previous ontological mined by performances means that it constitute it and establish status independently from acts which Its essence lies in the fact that our 2016: 227). its actuality (Batler, inwardness and so-called “integrity” inborn of subject is not given, and function of public or “eternal”, “atemporal” but is the effect is also the 2016: 227). The gender and social discourse (Batler, which Butler calls project product and the effect of radical will Both philosophy. Sartre’s which strongly reminds and refers to constant,gender and identity are not quite stable, changeless but - repetition of acts, they rep are fragile products, effects of stylized of which they do not fit in resent the social temporality because 2016: 233). (Batler, the classic substantial model of identity gender do not have internal continuity refer to Kant’s moral philos- where he, especially in the beginning of his construction of ophy of moral life, presents our moral personality as a series philosophy of disconnected acts which can always interrupt the continuity and maybe support it psychologically but even then only if the real but even then support it psychologically and maybe to be absolutely which I consider truth is championed, and objective Here and long-term. necessary both short-term and breakthrough to Plessner’s also pay attention we should of modern phi- defining for action and which means primarily as program as ideology losophy and temporal function of thought,particular social, historical which is absolutely not derogatory, and not a form of so-called eternal, theorypure, contemplative which is which is its own purpose and 2005: 228). and atemporal (Plessner, considered to be unhistorical of creation; that it is effect and function mediated, produced sh the that it is the only way to establi public and social discourse; “integrity” is construction which con- of the subject; that gender 2016: 227, that gender is an act (Batler, ceals its own genesis; Hegel’s assertion 228, 232) can be founded in the fundamental created, put by action, that so-called “being” is being produced, history, human agency, what Adorno aptly calls “dismantling of fundamental, essential, being” (Adorno, 1972: 35). This is the and attitude of world-historical epochal meaning, relevance whole Hegel’s philosophy.

Mojsić 228 229 edited volumes Judith Butler accepts and applies Nietzsche’s radical contention Nietzsche’s accepts and applies Judith Butler my agreement with somewhat moreI would express especially of both language and The feminist destruction and change of gender comesButler’s whole work on “denaturalization” that there is no agent behind acts because agent is being constructedacts because agent is no agent behind that there 2016: 235). The real meaning of the (Batler, by act and through act effect is that it is neither relentlessly determinedclaim that identity is arbitrarynor quite artificial and we should get rid of un- and whence 2016: 241).necessary of free will and determinism (Batler, binarism policyButler builds new feminist of the old one. Her task is on the ruins not praising of every of such new possibility but innovative description basic feminist 2016: 243). The exist (Batler, possibilities which already nature, that binarism itself and to show its artificial aim is to thwart the 2016: 243). and historical production (Batler, is, to show its social claims of Butler’smodified, complex, “moderate” in the Preface to her she (self)criticallybook from 1999. I would point out that warns against of gender which could makeidealization of some forms of expression She does not have the aim to and exclusivity. new forms of hierarchy as a paragon which should beprescribe new engendered forms of life enlarge the possible field forobediently complied with. She wants to 2016: (Batler, be realized gender and not to bid which gender should 8). It is important to oppose the compulsory heterosexuality and tradi- she sees the possibility of new Now tional patriarchal gender hierarchy. what I strongly support, which can be achieved by cul- universality, and which may invite the realitytural translations pointed to the future enable new crossings of culturalwhich has not been yet and which may which have not yet met.horizons In this sense Vittorio Hösle speaks proclaims a quite newabout the possibility that the unique individual as a rational realized has to be and different morality which, however, project in a new and different, let us hope better human community in the future (Hösle, 1996: 233). thought but also thinking sub- grammar because they limit not only radical project which is elaborated by ject itself refer to Nietzsche’s Mihailo Đurić in the way of dismantling and destroying of old I and grammar and every other subject (Đurić, 1997: 19-155). from the strong wish to fight against normative and every other which has been made and start quite new, radically free and inde- radically quite new, been made and start which has Mojsić, 2009: 72). of events (cf. pendent stream - and developed a view The idea of irreconcilable difference, otherness, brokenness otherness, brokenness The idea of irreconcilable difference, - is possible to misuse identity as an instru The fact itself that it As especially relevant and important philosophers for the acter, nature of man as an individual is unimaginable and inseparable nature of man as an individual is unimaginable acter, from society in which he lives. by early German romanticistsof personality was already elaborated who, when compared with contemporary postmodernists and their category,negation of the personal identity as repressive can be spirits. Hegel especially ad- called their predecessors and kindred dressed this phenomenon in his Aesthetics at least to my mind.which is still nowadays topical and stimulating, and showed how much itHe discussed the concept of romantic irony care of one basic fundamental unity of the artistic must be taken character and real man, what we today would call basic identity and consistently and strongly defended the principle which we nowadays could in the simplest way formulate as unity in manifoldness, in violence and discrimination against persons who are not in accordance persons who discrimination against violence and it from great wish to She has been doing norm. with the morphological this possibility afreshpossible and to think life wish to make live, from with norm who are not in accordance because people and differently still alive not be destined to death while they are should not and must pre- knowledge about gender 2016: 21, 22). The naturalized (Batler, irreducible narrows the reality and destroys the ventively and violently strug- I am deeply convinced that this and such complexity of sexuality. ce of the discrimination, injustice and for toleran gle against violence, be supported.different people should and use the reason that we should not make ment of power is not of Her book is just a part of cultural life 2016: 28). identity at all (Batler, the possi- which has so far succeeded to enlarge the collective struggle the sexual margins.bility of livable life for those who live in Adorno again. In this contextproblem of identity I mention Hegel and and theses: eternal humanI shall focus on two major Hegel’s topics many between one and other, and philosophical problem of relation Hegel is one ofnon-identity. and the relation between identity and explicitly, clearly, the first modern philosophers who extraordinarily the fundamental thesissophisticatedly and articulately elaborated the veryand topic that the individual must from beginning be ad- community and that the char dressed only in the context of society,

Mojsić 230 231 edited volumes - - - - However, Hegel is relevant in another sense. Already at the Hegel is relevant in another sense. Already However, the idea of criticized Adorno, too, made deconstruction of and - surpassed. He espe must be which, however, in its negation other, in his opinion, wrongly romanticists who, German cially criticized their character s as they constructed in their art because proceeded were mutually which characteristics multitude of many unconnected y, disparate, without unity and continuit extremely heterogeneous, There- to be deeply erroneous and superficial. what Hegel judged t of time say that Hegel already then felt the spiri fore, we can rightly the artistic of internal unity not only of and its pulse as disintegration coher of actual personality and its lack of any characters but also ence, consistency, unity, continuity. Already then he advocated the Already then continuity. unity, ence, consistency, implicit galimatias, accretion and chaos and both surpassing of such coher the necessity of existence of basic ly and explicitly supported 178, of personality (Hegel, 1975: 64-70, ence, unity and continuity today 295). I, too, consider such his stance even 220, 221, 238, 294, in art but first of all in real liferelevant and topical and not primarily with real people made of flesh and blood. very he clearly supported the beginning of his philosophical endeavor and defined mind, spirit assynthesis of the identical and non-identical understanding and senses and feel- unity of identity and non-identity, he already then had clear in- ings (Hegel, 1983: 19). That means that essential problems of the concept of identity and insist sight in many ed that in the system of spirit, and idea, reason both our biological integrated, but heemotional part have to be internally connected, also stressed the power of spirit, reason which brings the necessary element of unity and integrity. which he in his Aes- non-identical identity and pleaded for the other, showing theory identified with mimesis and nature explicitly thetical and negativity of thethe unacceptable and exaggerated extremes (Adorno, 1979: 201- modern concept and method of constructivism the importance and power of206). The modern world so underrated at the end had to ad- thinker nature and subjugated it so that German vocate the rehabilitation of the mimetic, natural, immediate, expres- sive, other in its relation to the predominant modern instrumental understanding, which not only created but also destroyed and devastated the world both as social and historical creation and as the plan- et Earth and its nature. - - Beside my stating the specific characteristics and differences characteristics and stating the specific Beside my ments but made them aimless, indifferent, empty and dependent aims in their lives, who ter young people who have no comprehensive of them became and so many ribly hated their mothers because of that problem of the Americanhomosexuals (Lasch, 1997: 107). The great was that huge number of those War way of life after the Second World develop their capabilities be- children were not really adult and did not that would stimulatecause nobody demanded from them anything The strong protest of their intelligence and strength of character. young hippies and beatniks who faced the absurd growing up and even more absurd and futile later life and work in America after the World disappointment and cynicism. manifested itself with apathy, Two War One of the fundamental problems of the modern capitalist The Common Struggle of Men and of Men and Struggle The Common of Capitalism Injustices the Against Women to send as a sort of at the end I would like between men and women, common an appeal to vital cooperation and conclusion and message and his- and men against quite concrete social struggle both of women ern civil so- and injustice of capitalism and mod torical evils, exploitation quote very In that sense I shall ciety. claims of interesting research and Life. His con- and common in his book Women Christopher Lasch made and wide- analyses show clearly that common crete social and historical were feminism that women traditionally spread idea of the modern opportunity to without family, care only of home and doomed to take holds and human status and affirmation, fight for their professional verytrue only for the life in suburbs which represent specific ambiance The economic situation of men War. in America after the Second World family without paid work ofand their salaries were enough to support periods in previous historytheir wives (Lasch, 1997: 93-96). In many of was absolutely not limited tothe American society the life of women verycare about home and family but they developed sophisticated forms of social commitment and voluntary work which was not paid with wage and salary. It was especially true for the period between 1890-1920. In the second half of 20 century when the social phenome- devoted themselves ex- non of suburbs appeared in America women sons whom they did notclusively to their home and children, especially will have versatile commit help in creating mature serious men who

Mojsić 232 233 edited volumes - - - Modern liberal philosophy and ideology interpret the duties and ideology interpret the Modern liberal philosophy of the movementOne of the causes and one of the truths postindustrial society and economy is that it does not offer any oppor not offer any is that it does society and economy postindustrial tunity for meaningful useful work except necessity to produce absurd necessity except meaningful useful work tunity for (Lasch, obsoleteness and with built-in nobody needed goods which swork which demand useful work means Good meaningful 1997: 109). bs after of all human capacities, what life in subur complete dedication with salary, provide and whose meaning is not measured did not War model of men and women grow up without wages. The young both useful work.adults having meaningful as oppor personal freedom and do not see them only as limitation of propo- and meaningful commitment and their tunities for fulfillment are depend- dissatisfied with the fact that all of us nents are especially ism another in social life. The modern capital ent and owe much one help all it paid professionals for all favors and regulated this so that nuclear family isolated and al- people need in life and so made modern most completely dependant on services of paid experts who incessant completely unable and incompetent to manage them feel ly make 168). their life by themselves (Lasch, 1997: 167, as notorious populismwhich was both then and nowadays regarded was the (self)consciousness, of both men and conviction and struggle their lives and op- organize women that they themselves as adults dilute and pacifypose the attempts of the state to control, potentially social revolutionary forces (Lasch, 1997: 168). My movements and men and women should uniteopinion and my attitude are that both of gender policyand fight not only against the injustices but also against injustice of contemporary its exploitation and the capitalism, and endless consumerismabsurd modern mass production of goods and meaning of life of mod- which should exhaust the whole content with - over the possibility, ern people. Finally I would suggest to think if they can to- in patriarchy, out reviving old subjugation of women in practice their difference,gether with men really to realize theories which equateotherness and to oppose modern neoliberal maturity only with narrowly understood individuation and isolation and separation and affirm inclination to mutual connectedness and relations without which nobody can live and which would not be regarded only as a symptom of incomplete and even pathological disturbed personal development (Lasch, 1997: 122). - - - Studies 24 (2) 102-124. C. H. Beck. sity Press. nica Zorana Stojanovića. nica Zorana Beograd : Prosveta. XX žene. (ed.) Antropologija Žarana i Sklevicky Lydia vek. and Lon- . New York of Women an Anthropology Rayna R. (ed.) Toward Reiter, don: Monthly Review Press. Feminist Metaphysics. Dordrecht: Springer. Feminist lotte (ur.). Estetika I. Beograd: BIGZ. 1975. Estetika F. Hegel, G. V. duha. Beograd: BIGZ. 1979. Fenomenologija F. Hegel, G. V. Masleša. 1983. Jenski spisi. Sarajevo: Veselin F. Hegel, G. W. . München: Idealismus und objektiver Hösle, Vittorio. 1996. Philosophiegeschichte čistog uma. Beograd: BIGZ. Kant, Imanuel. 1976. Kritika Writings. Princeton: Princeton Univer Søren. 1998. The Moment and late Kierkegaard, Literature Masleša. studije o Hegelu. Sarajevo: Veselin Tri 1972. W. Adorno, Theodor teorija. Beograd: Nolit. Estetička 1979. V. Adorno, Teodor Džudit. Karpos. . Loznica: 2016. Nevolja s rodom Batler, . Beograd: Službeni list SRJ, Tersit. i metafizika Đurić, Mihailo. 1997. Niče Pobjeda. .Titograd: kriza, identifikacija Erikson, Erik. 1976. Omladina, . Zagreb: Naprijed. studije ličnosti R. 1982. Psihoanalitičke W. Fairbairn, Masleša, Svjetlost. Sarajevo: Veselin Gehlen, Arnold. 1990. Čovjek. Foucault of Sex: Foucault and the Problem of Life. Hansen, Sarah 2018. Monsters . Beograd: Grafos. Seren. 1985. Osvrt na moje delo Kjerkegor, Seren. 1994. In vino veritas. Čačak: Gradac. Kjerkegor, doživljaja. Beograd: Nolit. 1977. Podeljeno Ja; Politika Laing, R. D. London: Norton. Life. New York, and the common Women 1997. Lasch, Christopher. Mali Nemo. . Pančevo: mislioci moderne i Hegel kao Mojsić, Sofija. 2009. Kant Verlag. . Bern: Francke und Geselschaft Philosophie Zwischen Helmuth. 1953. Plessner, knjižar nacija. Sremski Karlovci, Novi Sad: Izdavačka Helmut. Zakasnela 2005. Plesner, Rubin, Gejl. 1983. Trgovina ženama: beleške o „političkoj ekonomiji“ polnosti, in: Papić polnosti, in: Papić ekonomiji“ o „političkoj beleške ženama: Rubin, Gejl. 1983. Trgovina Naprijed. Reich, Wilhelm. 1982. Analiza karaktera. Zagreb: of Sex, in: „Political Economy“ Women: Notes on the in Rubin, Gayle. 1975. The Traffic https://philpapers.org/archive/RUBTTI.pdf (accessed July 11 2019) . Beograd: Nolit. uma I dijalektičkog 1983. Kritika Žan-Pol. Sartr, u: Witt, Char Ásta of Sex and Gender, Kristjana. 2011. The Metaphysics Sveinsdόttir, New York: Routledge. New York: Gender. Shira. 2006. When Sex became Tarrant,

Mojsić 234 235 edited volumes - - smeju da budu nepromenljiva i neumitna smeju da budu nepromenljiva za se autorka zalaže sudbina i isto tako vidovima promene i u dominantnim u segmentima vaspitanja i socijalizacije zahteva uviđan- gde je to neophodno. To je da su mnoga uobičajena shvatanja o polu i rodu istorijski i društ (ženskom) podležu promeni i re- koji veni konstrukti i očigledne prirodne viziji, a ne takozvane datosti, činjenice. Naročito se uviđa neo- nasil- vida phodnost borbe protiv svakog ja i diskriminacije seksualnih manjina. Ipak, ovde se zagovara potreba da se - u složen shvati da se identitet izgrađuje prirode i kulture, bi- om polju interakcija determinizma i slobodne volje, ološkog - ali i psi neophodne koherentnosti promene. i društveno-istorijske hološke viši tip univer za novi, Autorka se zalaže će obuhvatiti i specifičnosti zalnosti koji gej osoba i lezbejki i za dijalog iz- žena, se is- među tradicije i inovacije. Takođe tiče značaj ličnog svedočenja i svoje- uma u vrsnog primata praktičkog borbe za istinu i pravdu koji kontekstu se, ipak, ne shvataju kao potpuno ne- obavezni i proizvoljni. Ključne reči: feminizam, identitet, prom- rod ena, kontinuitet, - (accessed May 2019) (accessed May eroseksualnosti, ali i sačuvati neophodnost fleksibilnog shvatanja identiteta i - i bazičnog konti njegove koherentnosti nuiteta. Autorka podržava osnovnu tezu postaje radikalnog feminizma da se žena a ne rađa. Ovde se zastupa uverenje da biologija i anatomija zaista ne treba i ne U ovom radu se iz filozofskog ugla pre- U ovom radu se iz filozofskog ispituje i pokušava utemeljiti fundamen- talni napor i teza Džudit Batler (Judith u njenoj uticajnoj knjizi Butler) izložena i subverzija Nevolja s rodom. Feminizam identiteta o nužnosti subverzije tradi- i pola, roda cionalnog shvatanja ženskog ideja od osnovnih identiteta. Polazeći - Paskala (Pas u rasponu od nekih filozofa autorka ovog cal) do Adorna (Adorno) i teksta pokazuje svu složenost pojmova aspekte i funkcije mnogostruke i fenomena identiteta, pola i roda. Njena osnovna teza je da je neophodno izvršiti tradicionalnog ukidanje i prevazilaženje krutog i monolitnog pojma identiteta u het vidu prinudne, naturalizovane Sažetak FILOZOFSKA RAZMIŠLJANJA OFILOZOFSKA IDENTITETA SUBVERZIJI FEMINISTIČKOJ . Beograd: Nolit. 1990. Iskrenost i autentičnost Lajonel. Triling, fond. ženski Zaharijević,. Beograd: Rekonstrukcija Adriana. 2010. Postajanje ženom https://wwwgoogle.com/search?q=Adriana+Zaharijević+Postajanje+ženom+pdf&rlz CIP- Каталогизација у публикацији Народна библиотека Србијe

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CONTEMPORARY Issues and Perspectives on Gender Research / editors Lilijana Čičkarić, Zorica Mršević. - Belgrade : Institute of Social Sciences, 2019 (Beograd : Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Research and Development Centre of Printing Technology). - 235 str. : tabele ; 22 cm. - (Series Edited volumes)

Tiraž 150. - Str. 6-11: Foreword / Lilijana Čičkarić and Zorica Mršević. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz radove. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad. - Sažeci.

ISBN 978-86-7093-226-5

1. Čičkarić, Lilijana, 1965- [уредник] [аутор додатног текста]

а) Студије рода б) Родна равноправност в) Родни идентитет

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