IntroductionState of the Environment Part 14 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Coast, Estuaries and the Sea

427 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Introduction

Key Findings • Coastal settlements will be increasingly vulnerable to damaging weather due to climate change. Modelling shows that storm • The Victorian coast is an environment with naturally high surges of up to 2.3 metres above sea level could be expected diversity that is also subject to intensive human use. It features by 2070. Victoria must be prepared for these. landscapes, plants and animals that are highly valued by Victorians, and as a result it is subject to significant human- • Victoria’s marine and coastal biodiversity, already threatened induced pressures. by a range of development and industry pressures, faces significant challenges as a result of climate change. Effects • The coast is highly modified. This is characterised by removal have already been observed and include alteration of breeding of vegetation and a decline in estuarine condition, especially in patterns and reduced distribution, including commercially closed embayments and close to large settlements. However, important species. in many cases the current rate and extent of modification is not well monitored. • For several coastal and marine issues, data collection programs and levels of scientific understanding are • The coast continues to be a popular place to live and to visit, inadequate for comprehensive environmental assessments. with a coastal population growth rate of almost 1.4% - faster This is particularly the case for coastal vegetation and marine than the State average. This has resulted in the urbanisation of biodiversity. 16.5% of Victoria’s total coastline by 2004. • What we do on land affects the sea: Water quality is inversely related to land use intensity in the adjacent catchment. As a result, water quality in Port Phillip Bay, Western Port and the Gippsland Lakes is likely to be poorer than in the open ocean, 4 which is characterised by high levels of mixing and flushing, Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea and is further removed from high intensity land use. • Reduced water quality has a negative impact on both human use of the marine environment, and marine biodiversity. However, in many cases (e.g. extent of seagrass), inadequate baseline data makes it very difficult to determine the scale and significance of the effects. • Human use of marine species can change marine ecology. Certain species of fin fish have been historically over- harvested, and this has had repercussions on the structure of marine ecosystems. An example of this is the removal of 4.4 top predators, leading to the formation of urchin barrens, a degraded form of marine habitat. • Prevention is better than cure: introduced species are a constant threat to Victorian marine systems. There are now 161 introduced species in Port Phillip Bay, considered to be one of the most invaded marine ecosystems in the southern hemisphere, and these are changing its ecosystems. In the vast majority of cases, preventing the incursion of marine pests is cheaper than attempting to remove them once established. • The establishment of marine parks and reserves that cover more than 11.7% of Victorian waters is a progressive step in the protection of Victoria’s marine biodiversity. However, because of the interactions between coasts and the oceans, our marine biodiversity continues to be subject to exogenous pressures. • As part of an interconnected global system, climate change applies ongoing pressure to Victoria’s coastal and marine environments. For example, the projected increase in ocean acidity will have fundamental consequences for marine ecosystems and the industries that rely on them.

| 428 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Victorian coastal and marine assets Despite the value of the coastal Objectives environment and the significance of • To protect and enhance the The southern coast of Australia is one of the processes impacting upon it, our environmental, social, economic and the most significant south-facing sections knowledge and understanding, especially cultural values of Victoria’s coastal and of coast in the southern hemisphere in regard to marine environments, is less marine environment. and contributes to the unique status developed than for terrestrial areas. The of Victoria’s coastal and marine flora effects of pressures such as urbanisation • To improve and integrate the planning and fauna. Ninety to ninety-five percent on coastal biodiversity are clear. Generally, and management of Victoria’s coastal of species in most taxonomic groups however, information about the coast zone with the areas and factors occurring in southern waters occur is far more extensive where it relates to influencing it. nowhere else on earth1. The Victorian industry, demographics, and tourism. For • To provide for the sustainable use and coast contains approximately 120 bays, example, data on the condition of coastal development of coastal and marine inlets and estuaries2, ranging in water land and water resources is not gathered resources. area from 1 km2 to 2,000 km2. The in a comprehensive manner, making character of the Victorian coastline ranges assessment of the condition of coastal • To prevent disturbance of acid sulfate from dynamic and continually eroding and marine systems difficult. soils along the Victorian coast. landforms as a result of exposure to wind While predominantly focusing on the • To improve knowledge and and waves from the Southern Ocean, to natural coastal environment, it is the understanding of the coastal and gentle beaches and quiet inlets. combination of environmental, social and marine environment and factors The range of climatic, geological economic values attributable to the coast influencing it. and oceanographic regimes and the and adjacent marine systems that make Overall condition interaction of terrestrial, estuarine and this region of Victoria worthy of a section While 96% of the Victorian coast is in marine ecosystems combine to ensure of this Report in its own right. that this relatively compact and accessible public ownership, and mostly protected Despite its linearity, it is often difficult to environment is amongst the richest and in parks and reserves, much of it has exactly define ‘the coast’ due to its large most diverse in Australia. The coastal been impacted by the human pressures area and the number of processes that environment is the interface between of population growth, tourism and have an influence on it. As a result, a catchments, rivers and the sea; the urbanisation. Most Victorian estuaries number of different terms are used to condition of coasts and estuaries can have been modified to some extent, with describe particular parts of the natural reflect the condition and management of only a few remaining in near-pristine environment that come together to form the whole catchment3. condition, and it is likely that the condition the coast, including: of coastal vegetation has been degraded Victorian residents and visitors clearly • The marine environment: the near shore significantly. While significant progress value the State’s coastal environment. environment, the seabed and marine has been made in improving planning for It was the location of the first European waters out to the State limit of 5.5 km6. growth and development along the coast, settlements in Victoria and also contains these pressures are predicted to increase thousands of Indigenous cultural heritage • The foreshore: coastal Crown land in the future. The effects of climate 4 places . The ongoing presence of 200m from the high water mark. change, particularly increased storm Indigenous communities along the coast • Coastal hinterland: public and private surges in the short term and permanent is testament to a long association with the land next to and within critical views of sea level rise in the longer term, will also area. A significant and growing proportion the foreshore and near-shore marine have a significant impact on coastal of the Victorian population now lives within environment. form, coastal vegetation and the built the coastal zone, which attracts 70 million environment. visits each year by Victorians alone - more • Coastal catchments: up to the top of than any other recreational area in the catchments that drain directly to the State5. ocean. Great economic value is associated Some sections of this part of the Report with the State’s coastal environment. It focus on specific parts of the coast, contributes to Victoria’s economy through according to the nature of the issue being natural resource industries such as discussed. In general, however, references fishing, oil and gas extraction, and through to the coast are intended to include all activities that prosper from operating in a parts listed above, including the marine specifically coastal environment, such as environment. tourism, ports and trade activity. Some of the increasing stresses on the coast are due to these industrial and population pressures. Other stressors are due to exogenous factors such as nutrient inputs from catchments, the introduction of marine pests and, most significantly, climate change.

429 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Compared to many other marine The anthropogenic conversion of coastal fishing is likely to be responsible for environments around the world, water land to intensive uses places pressures altered trophic relationships, although as quality along Victoria’s coastline is on the marine environment. While certain is the case for much of Victoria’s marine generally thought to be good. A range mitigating practices can reduce the biodiversity, the extent of the effects is of parameters (risk of eutrophication, effects, the increasing size of the Victorian largely unknown. concentration of industrial pollutants, population. Particular in urban centres But it is clear that several marine species, suspended solids and risk to human close to the sea, constitutes a direct particularly those of economic importance health) are measured using key indicators. pressure on water quality. Water quality such as Southern Rock Lobster, are These parameters can vary depending is negatively affected by the inflow of ‘fully exploited’. This means that any on location, with semi-enclosed and toxins, pathogens and excess nutrients further exploitation or an increase in other highly urbanised embayments such that originate within urban and agricultural exogenous pressures would constitute as Port Phillip Bay and Western Port landscapes. a serious threat to the continuity of the being more at risk of reduced water The maritime activities of shipping and fishery. Management plans to return quality. Dredging and reduced flushing dredging also place pressure on water populations to more sustainable numbers as a result of decreased environmental quality. The more intensive the pressure are in place, but continued demand, and flows associated with climate change (size and number of ships), the greater factors such as marine pest incursions can reduce water quality in such areas. the implications for marine water quality. and climate change, will continue to put The environmental pressure of maritime An example of this occurs when demand pressure on such species. industries is generally well managed, with for increased shipping leads in turn to the number of pollution events declining. Exacerbating these localised pressures is a requirement for channel deepening. However, the expected increase in ship the suite of climate change effects, the full 4

Shipping also exerts pressure on marine Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea size, particularly as it relates to the effects implications of which are unknown. These biodiversity through the risk of pest plant of channel deepening on water quality range from changing ocean chemistry and animal incursion. in Port Phillip Bay, should continue to be to altered distribution of marine animals, closely monitored. Reduced water quality itself constitutes a some of which now exhibit clear trends. pressure on both marine biodiversity and For marine and coastal systems already Generally, there is a lack of suitable data human use of the marine environment. under pressure, these effects represent to adequately measure the condition and For example, eutrophication presents a additional and potentially confounding trends of Victoria’s coastal and marine pressure on marine life through reduced impacts. Such impacts are likely to environments and the key resources they dissolved oxygen and the presence of have major implications for coastal support. For example, no recent trend toxic algae. Other water quality issues development, water quality and marine data exists to allow tracking of changes that can put pressure on marine systems species, including economic implications. in coastal ecological vegetation classes, 4.4 and human uses of marine systems are water quality monitoring outside the toxicity, turbidity and the presence of main estuaries is uncoordinated and Recommendation harmful bacteria. disparate, and knowledge of the linkages CES0.1 Ensure that non-climate related Fishing also constitutes a pressure on between key issues (such as tourism) and stressors are minimised in regions marine biodiversity. Fishing throughout the environmental impacts is limited. identified as particularly vulnerable to 20th century resulted in a decline in the A similar situation exists in regard to compounding pressures associated stocks of certain key species. In addition, marine biodiversity, with information with climate change. about the condition of marine plants and animals predominantly gathered in the context of maritime industries that depend on them, or in response to activities with likely impacts such as dredging. Where Figure CES0.1Relationships between key pressures acting on coastal & marine data do exist, they generally show that systems (simplified) as covered by issues reported in this section. the condition of fisheries is depleted, CES4 Climate Change particularly for high value species such as the Southern Rock Lobster. Pressures on coasts, estuaries and the sea There are a number of pressures acting CES1 Coastal CES2 Water CES3 Marine on coastal and marine environments, each Modification Quality Biodiversity ultimately originating with humans. These (development) pressures also interact and accumulate to cause degradation of natural coastal and marine environments. Coastal landscapes, the animals and plants that reside there, and, in turn, the characteristics Maritime that Victorians themselves value are all Activities affected to a greater or lesser extent (see Legend Figure CES0.1). Issue or subsection in Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Pressure

| 430 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Management responses The management responses for managing To ensure a regional perspective for marine water quality have been well- coastal management and strategic Victoria is fortunate to have 96% of developed by the EPA. Historically, the planning, the Act also establishes coastal Crown land in public ownership, identification of point source pollution Regional Coastal Boards. Three Regional providing the opportunity for various and impacts on water quality has Coastal Boards have been established to levels of environmental management. influenced appropriate management date: the Western, Central and Gippsland As part of this management system, one responses to marine water quality. The Coastal Boards. A key function of the third of the State’s coastal Crown land is State Environment Protection Policy Boards is to develop Coastal Action Plans reserved as national park, coastal park, (Waters of Victoria) (SEPP (WoV)) provides (CAPs) within their region. CAPs provide marine national park or marine sanctuary the framework for the protection and direction for coastal management and under the National Parks Act 1975. Much monitoring of Victoria’s marine waters. planning issues at a regional level. To of the remaining public land on the coast The SEPP (WoV) establishes a series of date, 18 CAPs guiding management of is managed and generally protected by targets to maintain the health of marine coastal development, boating activities, Committees of Management, appointed water quality and sets the standards for estuaries and water quality protection have under the Crown Land (Reserves) Act various other water quality programs been developed by the Regional Coastal 19787. The Coastal Management Act 1995 (e.g. Beach Report program). In some Boards. is also important for protecting the State’s cases there is scope for tightening water coastal and marine environment, as it At a local level, the Act also establishes quality objectives and for a greater level of provides a framework for the coordinated the option to develop management monitoring. management of the Victorian coast. plans for any area of coastal Crown land. The Victorian Coastal Council has been The realisation that Victoria’s coastal and Local management plans set priorities established to deliver on the objectives marine environments are vulnerable to for funding and provide direction for of the Act. Any use or development of the effects of climate change led to the conservation and development at a local coastal Crown land also requires written Future Coasts project, which assesses level. The 2004 Victorian Coast report consent under the Coastal Management the vulnerability of Victoria’s coast and recorded that 68 foreshore management Act 1995 from the responsible minister. marine environment to storm surges and plans had been completed8. sea level rise. The initiative includes digital While the legislation provides a sound Under the Act, any use or development mapping, and modelling the erodibility of basis for the management of pressures on on coastal Crown land requires written the entire Victorian coast. The information the Victorian coast, additional factors such consent from the minister. The consent collected needs to be used in conjunction as resource support for coastal managers process applies to all development on with the most recent climate modelling needs to be considered to enable effective coastal Crown land and ensures that to develop adaptation policy for coastal enactment of the legislation. the broader public interest for public communities. It is also important that Development pressure on coastal land use is maintained9. In 2006/07, 247 adaptation strategies are supported with settlements is one of the pressures applications were made for consent sufficient resources to ensure that action on the State’s coastal and marine under the Act, with 239 applications is taken. environment that can result in the featuring works in the order of $35 million10 significant disturbance or loss of coastal Response Name approved. Since 2003/04 the number of ecosystems and biodiversity. The Coastal Management Act 1995 applications for consent under the Act has increased by 32%. Planning and Environment Act 1987 and Responsible Authority State Planning Policy Framework set the Department of Sustainability & framework for the sustainable use and Environment development of land to minimise these pressures. With the population growth Response Type rate of coastal Victoria increasing faster Legislation than the Victorian average (Indicator The Coastal Management Act 1995 (the CES1.5), it was recognised that coastal Act) aims to provide a co-ordinated municipalities required assistance to approach to strategic planning and appropriately manage development whilst management of the Victorian coast. The protecting coastal values. The Coastal Act establishes the Victorian Coastal Spaces initiative was established in 2004 Council (VCC) to oversee this. The to improve strategic planning for coastal direction and responsibilities of the VCC development and develop planning are established under the Act, with the tools for coastal municipalities, such as Council required to submit annual reports providing support to develop settlement to the minister to monitor the effectiveness plans and settlement boundaries. This of the Act. The VCC Annual Report initiative has made a positive contribution provides an update on various actions to managing coastal development, but associated with achieving the objectives it is uncertain whether the initiative has of the Act, including the status of actions made a similar contribution to maintaining in the Victorian Coastal Strategy and and protecting the coastal and marine Coastal Action Plans. But without any clear environment. indicators to measure successful coastal and marine management, it is difficult to determine whether these actions are effective. The Act defines coastal Crown land, and its use and development for the purpose of consent under the Act.

431 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Response Name It is not known whether the final Strategy, The Coastal Management Act 1995 Victorian Coastal Strategy which will be implemented through the established the Victorian Coastal Council Victorian Planning Provisions, will provide as the peak body for achieving the Responsible Authority local governments with a strong basis objectives of the Act, primarily through the Victorian Coastal Council for accepting or rejecting developments development and implementation of the Response Type in low-lying coastal areas that may be Victorian Coastal Strategy. The Strategy Policy/strategy subject to future innundation as a result is an important management response to The Victorian Coastal Strategy is prepared of sea-level rise and/or storm surges. At coastal modification pressures, as it sets every five years by the Victorian Coastal present there is uncertainty around the out actions for appropriately managing Council and aims to establish long-term likely extent of sea-level rise and future the coastal and marine environment into planning for the Victorian coast by: flooding risk, which is impeding the the future. However, any strategy will have timely resolution of coastal development minimal effect if the actions lack support • ensuring the protection of significant proposals. Amendment of the Victorian from the management bodies or are environmental features of the coast Planning Provisions to consider climate not implemented. Implementation of the • providing clear direction for the change impacts is required to provide actions arising from the Victorian Coastal future use of the coast and marine local governments with strong grounds for Strategy has often lacked co-ordination environment decision making regarding planning. and accountability, a shortcoming highlighted in DSE’s feedback on the draft • identifying suitable development areas Evaluation of management Strategy. There is a need to develop an and development opportunities on the responses interagency committee to coordinate and coast The Coastal Management Act 1995 progress actions outlined in the Victorian 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea • ensuring the sustainable use of natural provides an effective framework for Coastal Strategy. coastal resources. coordinated coastal management in Victoria. The objectives of the Act are The requirement to develop and review appropriate to this task and meeting Recommendation the Strategy is outlined in the Coastal them will provide sufficient protection of CES0.3 As the key strategic plan Management Act 1995. The Strategy coastal assets. However, to ensure that for Victoria’s coastal and marine provides a vision for coastal and marine Victoria is working towards this, a review environment, ensure that the actions management for the next five years and of the effectiveness of Victoria’s coastal outlined in the Victoria Coastal Strategy outlines actions to meet this. The Act planning and management arrangements are implemented. The Department outlines that land managers, including established under the Act is needed. of Sustainability and Environment ministers, local government and The review should focus primarily on establishes and leads an interagency committees of management, must take 4.4 the capacity of management bodies to committee to coordinate and progress all reasonable steps to ‘give effect’ to the fulfil their legislative responsibilities while actions outlined in the Victorian Coastal Strategy. The latest Strategy is currently examining the effectiveness of the Act’s Strategy. in draft stage and is due to be launched planning mechanisms to appropriately in October 2008, following amendment to manage coastal modification pressures. incorporate new sea level rise projections. Strengthening of the Act should also The Victorian Coastal Strategy identifies This Strategy builds upon the previous two take into account the action in the draft the need to develop key indicators and Strategies published in 1997 and 2002, Victorian Coastal Strategy, which calls targets to provide a measure of successful and outlines new key areas of adaptation for ‘consideration of improvements coastal management. For example, to climate change and improving to Victoria’s coastal planning and indicators should be developed in the management of the marine environment. management arrangement’. context of establishing performance A key achievement supported in previous measures for Committees of Management under the Crown Land (Reserves) Act iterations of the Strategy includes the Recommendation establishment of the Coastal Spaces 1978. While the need for indicators has initiative, which describes on-the-ground CES0.2 Coordination of the monitoring been identified, little work has yet been projects to protect the open spaces of and management of Victoria’s coastal done to develop the indicators, limiting the Victoria’s coastline from development (see and marine environment should be ability to make strong assessments of the CES1 Coastal Modification responses). improved. Review the governance efficacy of coastal management actions. arrangements and strategic planning processes established under the Recommendation Coastal Management Act 1995. A major focus should be on the CES0.4 Develop a set of indicators capacity of coastal management to provide coastal managers with bodies to successfully fulfil their a measure for successful coastal legislative responsibilities and management. examine opportunities for improving coordination. State Government should provide appropriate funding to expedite the implementation of the review’s recommendations into planning law.

| 432 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

CES1 Coastal Modification

Key findings Description As a result of extensive coastal modification of this kind, the distribution • The population of coastal Victoria is The coast is valued for its unique and condition of native coastal vegetation growing faster than the State average, and diverse attributes. Yet in many across Victoria has been impacted or particularly in areas close to Melbourne. cases it is the use and enjoyment of depleted significantly from pre-1750 these values which puts pressure on • While generally the planning processes conditions. In turn, the subsequent loss coastal environments. Victoria’s coastal to accommodate growth and of habitat has reduced the number and environment has been significantly development pressures in coastal towns range of fauna species. In addition, the modified since European settlement, is improving, the amount of subdivision condition of most estuaries, particularly with the rate of modification increasing and rate of urbanisation along the coast those around the more populated coastal over time as the State’s population has continues to increase. centres, has been degraded to the extent grown and more people want to use that only a few, in the far east of the State, • The number of tourists visiting the and access the coast. Various scales remain in near-pristine condition. Victorian coast is decreasing, largely and types of industrial, commercial and due to a significant decrease in day- residential developments have been A number of mechanisms are now being trippers. constructed along the length of the coast. used to help prevent further modification • Extensive modification of vegetation and Infrastructure, such as roads, has been of the Victorian coast and to prevent estuaries has occurred, with land within installed and water has been extracted further degradation of coastal values. or in closest proximity to large coastal from both estuaries and the rivers leading Nearly the entire coast is in public settlements most affected. to them to support the growing level of ownership, in various types of parks and human activity. reserves (including those that protect • The condition of most estuaries has marine habitats). However, the level The effects of this increased modification been degraded, particularly those of management varies significantly, of the coastal environment have been around the more populated and depending on reservation size and status, wide ranging, with the state of the natural developed coastal centres, to the extent with national parks generally the best coastal environment closely related to that only a few, mainly in the far east protected. For urban areas, improved the intensity of human interaction. Highly of the State, remain in near-pristine planning processes have been developed intensive human activities such as those condition. with the intention of creating clear that occur in towns and cities usually guidelines for the protection of coastal • While the coast has undergone result in a high degree of modification of townships and surrounding environmental significant modification from the natural the natural environment from its original values, and also to provide a degree of state, it remains difficult to determine state. Lower intensity activities such as certainty for residents and developers. the status and trends of the natural agriculture can allow some natural values coastal environment due to a lack of and processes to persist, while in the Within this context, the extent of consistent, reliable data. absence of any human uses, the natural subdivision and urbanisation in coastal • Victoria has at least 55,000 ha of environment is more likely to retain high Victoria continues to increase in response potential coastal acid sulfate soils, natural values. This is well illustrated by to a growing population. Projected disturbance of which can cause the Figure CES1.1, which shows the inverse population growth also follows this trend generation of sulfuric acid that can relationship between the intensity of and will likely mean that without stronger pollute, soil water, waterways, wetlands human land use (left) and the extent of mechanisms of protection, modification of and estuaries. coastal native vegetation (right) for the coastal natural environments will continue. Portland area of western Victoria.

Figure CES1.1 Comparison of the intensity of human land use (built up areas & road density) and extent of indigenous vegetation cover (coastal EVCs) in the Portland area, Victoria Source: Victorian Government11

433 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Objectives As a result, many coastal urban areas, In addition, there are sections of particularly those around and within a few public land that do not fall under these • To improve the condition of the coastal hours drive of Melbourne, are experiencing protections. In total it is estimated that environment. unprecedented levels of development. almost 96% of Victoria’s coastal land • To encourage sustainable use and This development is in the form of is in public ownership17. While much of development of coastal areas. uptake of existing residential land, rapid this protection is linear, taking the form • To improve understanding of the transformation of building stock through of reserves that have been specifically coastal environment and the processes redevelopment, and increasing use of rural designed to protect coastal features, in 14 impacting upon it, particularly allotments for residential living . some cases protection extends far inland, to areas that are less commonly regarded modification. Many of the environmental effects of as coastal18. Examples include the Great activities that occur in urban areas will State Otway and Croajingolong National Parks. be detected through environmental This extended area of protection provides Indicator CES1 Amount of coastline indicators (e.g. water quality, vegetation additional benefits beyond those that urbanised cover). However, assessing the change are provided by linear reserves. For Urbanisation is the process of converting over time in the amount of the Victorian example, vegetation is maintained in a the use of land to develop urban centres. coastline that is urbanised (see Figure better condition within these national Whether urbanisation is the result of a CES1.2) provides information on the likely parks than within freehold land and this new tourist resort, dredging for a marina scale of pressures on the natural coastal helps to maintain water quality in the local or the creation of a rural subdivision, it environment attributable to development. estuaries (see Indicator CES 4; see also inevitably involves modifying the natural While approximately 270 km of the current Figure CES3.8 for marine areas under 4 environment12. As one of the most Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea extent of Victorian coastal urbanisation protection). intensive human uses of the coastal took place prior to 1980, between 1980 Indicator CES3 Condition of coastal environment, the extent of the urbanised and 2004 a further 41 km of the Victorian vegetation communities coast is an important indicator of the coastline was urbanised, an increase of degree to which coastal environments are 15%. Victoria has consistently had the There are approximately 300 ecological modified away from the pristine state. second highest percentage of urbanised vegetation classes (EVCs) in Victoria, All of Australia’s coastal regions are coastline after New South Wales. including a large variety of coastal experiencing growth and pressure from Tasmania recorded the fastest rate of EVCs. Coastal ecological vegetation urbanisation. The causes of this vary, urbanisation, where 119 km of coast was classes vary in size and range, but each but in Victoria it generally reflects an developed between 1980 and 2004. is characterised by assemblages of plants that are specifically adapted to overall increase in population through Indicator CES2 Amount of coast in 4.4 4&$5*0/
$0-0634 coastal environments. While the effect of migration and natural increase, changes protected area system in household1"35
0/& 1"35
580 types1"35
5)3&& which1"35
'063 increase1"35
'*7& the urbanisation on indigenous vegetation is demand for housing, and a general trend The total Victorian coastline, excluding difficult to quantify, it is likely that it and 16 to retire to coastal centres (see Pressures, islands, is approximately 1800 km long . other anthropogenic pressures have 
1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 Approximately 55% falls under the highest below).1.4
 Added to this has been a buoyant exerted significant pressure over the past property market with greater investment level of protection under the National Parks 200 years. As a result, the extent and Act 1975 (consisting of national and state in coastal/&653"-
$0-0634 property as a lifestyle choice condition of several coastal EVCs, as or simply as a financial investment (see parks). A further 35% falls under the next described by conservation status (which Part 2 Driving Forces). The age and level of protection (consisting of coastal takes into account the original extent of parks and reserves). the EVC, the current level of depletion and family1.4
 structure1.4
 of 1.4
coastal1.4
 populations is also changing, which, apart from having the quality of remaining stands) is now impacts(3"1)4
on human services provision13, significantly decreased. can also have impacts on the natural A sample of EVCs selected as environment. representative of Victorian coastal Figure1.4
 CES1.21.4
 1.4
Urban 1.4
 development1.4
 1.4
 along1.4
 Victoria’s1.4
 coastline,1.4
 1.4
 total1.4
 kilometres1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 vegetation1.4
 types is shown in Table and percentage of total coastline, 1980-2004 CES1.1. The conservation status for Source: Australian Government15 each, according to the coastal bioregions

350 17.5 % in which it occurs, is also listed. The km Coastline urbanised (kilometres) Percentage of coastline urbanised distribution of these EVCs is shown in 300 17.0 Figure CES1.3. For a full description of Bioregions, Victorian EVCs and their distribution, see Part 4.2 Land & 250 16.5 Biodiversity.

200 16.0

150 15.5

100 15.0

50 14.5

0 14.0 1980 1989 2004 | 434 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Table CES1.1 Extent and conservation status of selected Victorian coastal EVCs. Source: DSE19

EVC Name Area (Ha) Description Bioregions Bioregional Conservation Statusi Coastal Dune 15,310 A mapping unit that covers the vegetation Otway Plain Depleted Scrub/ Coastal succession from the grasses and the salt- Otway Ranges Depleted Dune Grassland tolerant vegetation of the foredune to the Victoria Volcanic Plan Depleted Mosaic closed scrubs on the secondary dunes along East Gippsland Least concern ocean and bay beaches and lake shores. Lowlands Closed scrub or grassland on siliceous and calcareous sands that are subject to Wilsons Promontory Least concern high levels of saltspray and continuous Warrnambool Plain Vulnerable disturbance from onshore winds. Usually, this mosaic can be separated into its component EVCs at the site scale. Coastal Dune 2,607 Coastal dune scrub occupies the secondary Gippsland Plain Depleted Scrub dunes along ocean and bay beaches and Warrnambool Plain Depleted lake shores. Closed scrub with occasional Bridgewater Least concern emergent trees on siliceous and calcareous sands that are subject to high levels of saltspray and continuous disturbance from onshore winds. Coastal 5,207 A scrub or low shrubland on steep, rocky Gippsland Plain Depleted Headland Scrub coastal headlands often associated with cliffs Otway Ranges Depleted exposed to the stresses of extreme salt-laden Glenelg Plain Endangered winds and salt spray from the south-west. Bridgewater Vulnerable Otway Plain Vulnerable Strezlecki Ranges Vulnerable Victorian Volcanic Plain Vulnerable Warrnambool Volcanic Vulnerable Plan Wilsons Promontory Vulnerable Coastal Tussock 1,004 A tussock grassland that may contain Strzelecki Ranges Depleted Grassland emergent shrubs. Occurs on exposed Wilsons Promontory Rare coastal cliffs and bluffs. Soils are saline and Gippsland Plain Vulnerable the strong, salt-laden winds preclude tree Otway Plain Vulnerable growth. Otway Ranges Vulnerable Victorian Volcanic Plain Vulnerable Warrnambool Plain Vulnerable Coastal Alkaline 14,603 Occurs near coastal, deep calcareous Wilsons Promontory Depleted Scrub (alkaline) sand dunes and swales, and Glenelg Plain Endangered commonly on the landward side of primary Otway Plain Endangered dunes. Elevation is low (20-60m ASL) and Victorian Volcanic Plain Endangered average annual rainfall is approximately 550- 950mm. A shrubland, typically with a medium Bridgewater Least Concern shrub layer, small shrub layer and sedges, Gippsland Plain Vulnerable grasses and herbs in the ground layer.

i See glossary for definition of conservation status terms. 435 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Figure CES1.3 Current distribution of selected coastal EVCs in Victoria Source DSE20

Western Victoria Coastal Alkaline Scrub

Coastal Dune Scrub

Coastal Dune Scrub/Coastal Dune Grassland Mosaic

Coastal Headland Scrub

Coastal Tussock Grassland

0 100 kilometers

4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea Central Victoria

4.4

Coastal AlkalineCoastal Scrub Alkaline Scrub

Coastal DuneCoastal Scrub Dune Scrub

Coastal DuneCoastal Scrub/Coastal Dune Scrub/Coastal Dune Grassland Dune Mosaic Grassland Mosaic Eastern Victoria Coastal HeadlandCoastal Scrub Headland Scrub

Coastal TussockCoastal Grassland Tussock Grassland

Coastal Alkaline Scrub

Coastal Dune Scrub 0 0 100 100 Coastal Dune Scrub/Coastal Dune Grassland Mosaickilometers kilometers Coastal Headland Scrub | 436

Coastal Tussock Grassland

0 100 kilometers Coastal Alkaline Scrub

Coastal Dune Scrub

Coastal Dune Scrub/Coastal Dune Grassland Mosaic

Coastal Headland Scrub

Coastal Tussock Grassland

0 100 kilometers State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Figure CES1.3 shows that there is high Figure CES1.4 Condition of Victoria’s estuaries, 2008 diversity in vegetation across coastal Source: OzCoasts and OzEstuaries25 Victoria. Coastal Dune Scrub/Coastal Dune Grassland Mosaic currently covers the largest area (15,310 ha) and is predominantly found east of Port Phillip Bay. It is also the least degraded of the EVCs analysed. Coastal Alkaline Scrub has the second largest area of distribution (14,603 ha) and is mainly found around Wilsons Promontory, the Mornington and Bellarine Peninsulas as well as Cape Bridgewater and Discovery Bay near Portland. Of the EVCs analysed, Coastal Headland Scrub and Coastal Alkaline Scrub are the most degraded, followed by Coastal Tussock Grassland. It is not possible to show recent trends in the distribution or status of these EVCs, as no time series data is recorded. However, as discussed in Part 4.2 Land & Biodiversity, the extent and condition of nearly all vegetation types in Victoria has deteriorated over the last 200 years, and it is likely that coastal vegetation has experienced a similar change.

Recommendation CES1.1 The Victorian Government should allocate funds for and undertake five-yearly estimates of coastal native vegetation cover in Victoria, based on high quality aerial photography or satellite imagery (As per recommendation in LB1: Vegetation loss and modification).

Indicator CES4 Estuarine condition In recent years, there has been an increasing focus on estuaries and their management in Victoria. This has helped to provide a better understanding of the contributions to estuaries from catchments, and has led to a sharp increase in the perception of estuaries as important parts of coastal management21. Port Phillip Bay and Western Port, two large, permanently open estuaries in the central coast, are considered highly modified. The Gippsland Lakes are also considered extensively modified, while Corner Inlet retains greater natural values. The west and east coasts are characterised by many small estuaries that can be closed for much of the time. Smaller estuaries are the dominant estuary types in Victoria and as such are more prone to the effects of catchment modification such as land-use change and streamflow change22.

437 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 There is limited data available on the Particularly strong population growth rates Indicator CES6 Coastal recreation ecological condition of estuaries23 and in Victoria in recent years have been in and tourism so the degree to which they are modified coastal areas close to Melbourne, with Tourism is a major economic activity 24 from a ‘near pristine state’ is used as bayside municipalities (e.g. Bass Coast, in Victoria, providing benefits to the an indicator of the state of the coastal Cardinia, Casey, Surf Coast & Wyndham) local economy and community in many environment (see Figure CES1.4). all recording average annual growth rates regional areas, particularly the coast31. higher than the State average between Victoria’s most modified estuaries Eighty-seven percent of Victorians have 1996 and 200629. Much of this is related occur around the more populated and visited the coast at least once in the last to the growth of Melbourne and Geelong developed coastal centres such as Lakes 12 months32. ‘Going to the beach’ is the and the subsequent expansion of the Entrance, Warrnambool and around most popular nature-based activity for commuter belt. Coastal areas further Laverton/Altona in Melbourne (Laverton all domestic and international visitors, from Melbourne have generally had lower Creek and Kororoit Creek). Victoria’s representing about half of visits33. Coastal population growth rates, with the exception only near-pristine estuaries are located infrastructure can be costly, partly because of the Gippsland Lakes region, which in the far east, where there is minimal it is underutilised in off-peak periods. remains a popular retirement destination. modification and development, and where For coastal municipalities this can be an Larger towns such as Warrnambool and the catchments retain a good cover of economic burden that has unintended Bairnsdale are also expected to grow as native vegetation. Other largely unmodified environmental impacts. they fulfil roles as regional service centres estuaries occur around South Gippsland, for smaller coastal areas30. More research is needed to accurately along the Great Ocean Road and along characterise the relationship between the south-west coast. For more information While actual numbers may not seem tourist numbers and environmental 4 on the condition of catchments, see Part significant, the percentage growth impacts in coastal areas. Nevertheless, Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 4.3 Inland Waters. rates experienced by coastal areas are it is generally accepted that the level of significant when compared with the State tourism, as measured by visitor numbers Pressures average. For example, the population and accommodation capacity, is indicative There are many human-induced of Surf Coast Shire increased by 3.2% of the pressure that it exerts on the activities that can threaten coastal areas, per year between 1996 and 2001, while natural environment (see Box CES1)34. Victoria’s population increased by 1.1% 4&$5*0/
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 Figure CES1.6 shows the number and In addition, the provision of infrastructure type of visits to Victoria’s coast between (3"1)4
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7 continue, the quality of our coastal and 0.35 Coastalmarine Victoria environmentsTotal Victoria will continue to be Coastal Victoria Total Victoria Rest of Victoria 26 placed under pressure . This will also be 0.30 6 exacerbated by the impacts of predicted climate change (See Part 4.1 Atmosphere: 0.25

Climate Change). Index 1991 = 0 5 Indicator CES5 Coastal 0.20 Population (millions) population growth 4 Population growth is recognised as a 0.15 driving force that has a significant impact 3 on the environment (see Part 2: Driving Forces). The population growth rate of 0.10 coastal Victoria (as defined by statistical 2 local areas (SLAs)) was 1.4% between 0.05 1996 and 2006. This was more than the 1 Victorian average of 1.2%, a trend that is 0.00 expected to continue into the future (see Figure CES1.5)27. 0 -0.05 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016

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 Figure CES1.6 Total visits to Victoria’s coast by region (left) and by type of visit (right) Source: Tourism Victoria37 11 16 GippslandCoastal VictoriaGreat OceanTotal Victoria Road OvernightCoastal VictoriaDaytripTotal InternationalVictoria overnight 10 Mornington Peninsula Phillip Island 14 9 12 8 Visitors (millions) 7 10

6 8 5

4 6

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0 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

All of the coastal tourism regions An increase in population during peak experienced a reduction in total visitors Box CES1 Coastal population visitation periods can adversely affect during the period, with the greatest fluctuations in Phillip Island the health of the coastal and marine reduction occurring in the Great Ocean and Torquay environment. In Torquay, litter and coastal Road region (26.6%); however, this region Figure CES1.7 highlights coastal erosion have been highlighted as two retains its position as the most popular on population fluctuations along the Victorian coast. Coastal destinations environmental impacts associated the coast. 40 close to Melbourne are changing in with population fluctuations . Beach Overall, there has been a decrease of character, with some now functioning as cleaning and foreshore management 21.4% in total visits to the Victorian coast dormitory suburbs of larger cities, such costs peak during the summer months. between 1999 and 2006 (see Box CES1 as Torquay is for Geelong. Nevertheless, There is no firm evidence to confirm who and Figure CES1.7). Daytrips, while still Phillip Island and Torquay still show is responsible for the increase in litter the most popular type of visit, fell 30%, significant population fluctuations over on the beach during this period, but from over 14 million in 2000 to fewer the year as a result of increased visitation it is considered to be the result of the than 10 million in 2006. Overnight visits in peak periods. For example, the additional visitation to the area. remained relatively stable, while the population on Phillip Island increases to number of international overnight visits almost four times the resident population increased 3.8% from a relatively low base during weekends over summer. The total of approximately 247,000 in 2000, to population doubles during weekends 256,000 in 2006. These extra international over summer in Torquay38. visits were to the Great Ocean Road and Mornington Peninsula regions. Figure CES1.7 Peak (visitor) population estimates for selected Victorian coastal towns, 2007 Source: DPCD39

7 439 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 20086 5 4 3 2 1 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 Indicator CES7 Coastal subdivision Figure CES1.8 Building approvals by census collection district (CCD) Subdivision within township boundaries Warrnambool to Geelong, 2001-2006 Source: DSE43 is commonly undertaken to divide an existing larger block of land with a single dwelling into multiple blocks (‘allotments’) for dwellings. A large proportion of development on the coast occurs within towns, and most of this is within Melbourne, Victoria’s largest coastal settlement41. There has also been significant growth in coastal areas close to Melbourne, some of which is outside town boundaries. This growth continues to follow historic patterns of land use transition from productive to rural amenity uses42. The areas particularly affected are between Cape Otway and Wilsons Promontory. Figure CES 1.8 shows the extent of this type of development between Geelong and Lorne. 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea Further from Melbourne, the areas subject to a higher level of development are generally associated with established towns and include Portland, Port Fairy, Warrnambool, Port Albert, Marlo, The Gippsland Lakes and Mallacoota. Except where such developments are subject The coastal non-urban landscape spaces and experiences, gives individual to specifically coastal issues (see Box provides important social, economic settlements a sense of identity and CES2), the environmental pressures of and environmental benefits at a local, helps to maintain biodiversity values47. development in coastal towns are similar regional and state level. It protects rural Subdivision of coastal land outside to urban development pressures that land use, holds aesthetic landscape existing urban zones and settlement 4.4 occur elsewhere in the State. value, provides a diversity of open boundaries (see Management Responses) involves transforming land used for rural purposes, such as farming, into residential Box CES2 Subdivision erosion has already threatened existing developments of various scales. application at East Beach, properties on the primary dune at East Subdivision within and between Port Fairy Beach, with a rock seawall installed along towns constitutes pressure on coastal sections of the beach to protect the In February 2008, the Minister for Planning environments. The latter, however, is properties from further erosion. While the called in an application for a 28-lot of particular relevance as it is more seawall does provide some protection residential subdivision at East Beach in Port likely to exert pressure on distinctively from coastal erosion, it has reduced the Fairy44. The proposed subdivision comprises coastal values. For example, the sorts of beach width available for public use. This an area of approximately 4 hectares of developments that are being built and erosion problem may be accelerated coastal primary sand dunes located on that can go largely unnoticed in coastal in the future, with climate change the eastern fringe of Port Fairy. Under the towns can detract from the coast when anticipated to cause continuing rising 48 Planning and Environment Act 1987, the they are built between towns . Protecting sea levels and increased storm surge minister may call in a planning permit the agriculturally and aesthetically valuable activity. On the landward side of the site, application if the proposal raises a major non-urban spaces between Victoria’s there may be exposure to an increased issue of policy. Concern was raised because coastal settlements is of key concern risk of flooding from the Moyne River, with 49 of the potential conflict of policy outlined in to many Victorians . While Victorian extreme heavy rainfall events expected the State Planning Policy Framework and in coastal environments are subject to this to become more intense due to climate pressure, it is generally acknowledged the Victorian Coastal Strategy. 46 change . that the current absolute extent of - and The site is sandwiched between eroding The proposed subdivision at East therefore impact of - linear urban sprawl sand dunes and low-lying, flood-prone Beach highlights the importance of in coastal Victoria is not as great as that in land. East Beach has been subject to understanding coastal processes in Queensland or New South Wales. ongoing coastal erosion, which may pose managing development on the coast. a risk to development on the site. The This issue also highlights the need to construction of the Moyne River training Recommendations better understand the potential impacts walls (to direct and confine river flow) in of climate change on the coast so as CES1.2 Develop strong and consistent the late 1800s was undertaken to ensure to ensure that appropriate mitigation indicators of coastal urbanisation access to the port of Port Fairy, with the and adaptation strategies can be to measure the impact of coastal port located on the banks of the Moyne implemented. The minister has appointed development pressures on the coastal River. While the training walls allow an advisory committee to provide advice and marine environment. access to the port, the walls restrict the on the most appropriate long-term CES1.3 Strengthen strategic and natural movement of sand towards East outcome for this site. (see also Climate statutory tools for managing urban Beach and erosion occurs45. Coastal Change, Box CES12) growth on the coast.

| 440 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Implications blooms51. Acidification is also associated that does exist is predominantly for with reduced hatchling survival and low coastal areas where acid sulfate soils are The majority of the Victorian coast is growth rates in a range of species. At found in low lying coastal plains. A pilot in public ownership, with most of it acidity levels of pH 4, iron, manganese, study composed of a field survey and recognised and protected in parks and arsenic and aluminium can be mobilised preliminary spatial mapping of potential reserves (see Management Responses). into waterways and reach toxic levels. coastal acid sulfate soils was undertaken Nevertheless, the implication of the Acidification and the associated heavy in Victoria in 200352. This study estimated continued demand for use and access metal toxicity affect aquatic vegetation, a total area of 55,000 hectares of potential to coastal environments means that they which provides food and shelter for acid sulfate soils. The extent of this is will continue to be placed under pressure. aquatic animals, and can have adverse shown in Figure CES1.9 and the estimated Despite the protections, the Victorian effects on fisheries and waterbird habitats. distribution among CMA regions is shown coast has been impacted by human In addition to its environmental impacts, in Table CES1.1. Due to the high incidence pressures, and this is well illustrated sulfuric acid is highly corrosive of concrete of CASS in the sampled area, it is likely by the indicators above. With strong and steel structures, potentially damaging that the total area of land with coastal acid residential growth and associated urban coastal infrastructure. Australia-wide, the sulfate soils in Victoria may be significantly development projected to continue, these economic impact of acid sulfate soils is under-estimated. pressures are also likely to continue. estimated at $10 billion due to the need Actual acid sulfate soils have been The impact of these trends will vary across to abandon developments and the cost of found at Dowd’s Morass near Sale and coastal Victoria. In some instances, ample land rehabilitation. the Coode Island silts in the Yarra River. land is available, services are provided, Indicator CES8 Occurrence Elsewhere, potential coastal acid sulfate and development is well managed. In of acid sulfate soils soils have been found underlying parts other cases, whilst land is subdivided, of Port Albert, Patterson Lakes in Carrum, only limited services are available and Acid sulfate soils occur both inland and Frankston, Apollo Bay, in the flood plains increased development has created along the coast. Victoria-wide, there is of the Powlett River and the Nicholson issues such as pollution hotspots, little information about the distribution River. and impacts on heritage values50. of acid sulfate soils. The information Without active and close management, projected development for some coastal environments, is likely to mean that there will be several significant direct effects. These are explored here. Acid sulfate soils Figure CES1.9 Distribution of potential acid sulfate soils along the Victorian coast. Coastal acid sulfate soils (CASS) arise Source: Rampant et al. 2003. under different conditions to agriculture- related soil-acidifying processes (see 4.2 Land & Biodiversity). Potential coastal acid sulfate soils were formed within the last 10,000 years, when sea levels were higher than today. Metal sulfides, usually iron sulfides such as pyrite, form in natural environments which are anaerobic, rich in sulfate, metal oxides and organic matter. Such sites typically exist in estuaries, lakes, lagoons, morasses, swamps, marshlands and flood plains, and so coastal environments often have potential Table CES.1.2 Occurrence of potential acid sulfate soils in Victorian CMA regions acid sulfate soilsii. Such soils are known as Source: Rampant et al. 2003 potential acid sulfate soils, which pose no threat unless disturbed. However, due to CMA region (west to east) Total area of potential acid sulfate soil (ha) coastal urbanisation, they can be at risk of disturbance. If disturbed and exposed to Glenelg Hopkins 7,106 oxygen, sulfuric acid is produced and soil pH can drop below 4. In this way potential Corangamite 13,845 acid sulfate soils become actual acid sulfate soils. This reaction is irreversible, Port Phillip 11,628 constituting the crossing of an ecological West Gippsland 19,666 threshold. East Gippsland 2,651 Disturbed acid sulfate soils have severe environmental impacts. Acidic discharge from acid sulfate soils changes soil structure, resulting in irreversible shrinking and permanent lowering of the ground surface. Acidification of waterways leads to fish kills and deoxygenation of the water, which in turn leads to algal

ii Acid sulfate soils can also be found in inland environments if suitable conditions occur, e.g. at salt discharge sites, saline waterways, saline waterbodies, waters polluted with contaminants that supply sufficient organic matter, sulfate or iron oxides (see Part 4.2 land and Biodiversity) 441 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 As well as acid sulfate soils and the Management Responses Response Name erosion of community values identified as Response Name Coastal Spaces distinctly ‘coastal’ (see also Part 4, Coast, Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 Responsible Authorities Estuaries & the Sea, Climate Change, Department of Planning and Community Box CES12), there are a number of other Responsible Authority Development / Department of implications of coastal modification Department of Sustainability and Sustainability and Environment Environment • the displacement of coastal terrestrial, Response Type aquatic and marine ecosystems due Response Type Policy/strategy to land clearing for infrastructure. In Legislation The Coastal Spaces initiative was addition to the impact on biodiversity, Of the 2000 kilometres of Victorian developed in 2004 to provide a framework removal of coastal vegetation renders coastline, approximately 1920 kilometres for the development and protection of coastal communities more vulnerable to (or 96% of the Victorian coast) is in the open spaces between towns along storm surges and erosion (see CES4; public ownership in parks and reserves54. Victoria’s coastline. The Coastal Spaces Climate Change) The Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 Inception Report (May 2005) identified • a number of issues attributed to roads; stipulates the management requirements some key themes including protecting increased stormwater run-off, input of of all Crown land protected in reserves open spaces between coastal towns, toxicants to waterways, reduced access in Victoria. Under the Act, Victoria’s managing development ‘hotspots’ for wildlife and induced recreational use Minister for Planning can appoint a along the Victorian coast and capacity of undeveloped areas Committee of Management to manage building within coastal local government. the reserve. Committees of Management 4

• the effect of unmanaged recreation on The Coastal Spaces Recommendation Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea can include members of the community, coastal land close to developments. Report (April 2006), led to over $2 million representatives of Local Governments, This can result in potential impacts in funding allocations from the State Parks Victoria and DSE. As the appointed on biodiversity (for example, harming Government to implement local strategic land manager, the Committee has species that use particular coastal projects addressing development on the responsibility to manage, improve, habitats, such as dune- or beach- coast. maintain and control that reserve. nesting birds). As well as impacting on Coastal Spaces projects and biodiversity, this can also impact on the Approximately 58% of the entire Victorian recommendations must be developed with utility of the coastal zone, particularly for coastline is managed by public or reference to the Planning and Environment activities such as fisheries, tourism and Local Government Committees of Act 1987, which sets the legislative recreation Management55. A review of coastal framework for the planning and the basis management in 2003 identified 56 4.4 • the creation of new point and non-point for the sustainable use and development Committees of Management appointed source pollution (see CES2: Water of land in Victoria. The State Planning under the Act to manage the 400 Crown Quality) due to development, farming Policy Framework (SPPF) developed land reserves along the coast56. With over and peak tourist populations, thus under the Act outlines Statewide planning half of the State’s coastline managed placing extra demands on sediment and policies and practices that need to be in this way, it is important that these nutrient management programs considered in local planning schemes. The Committees of Management are provided Coastal Spaces initiative aims to influence • the transport of pest species due to with an appropriate level of support both the Act and the SPPF by providing recreational activities, and by both from the State Government to fulfil their actions to encourage sustainable marine and terrestrial vehicles with responsibilities under the Act so that as development along the coast such as associated effects on biodiversity values a group they can provide coordinated the development of settlement plans and local fisheries, aquaculture or conservation programs throughout coastal and settlement boundaries for coastal agriculture. Victoria. municipalities (see Indicator CES 9). The In turn, these impacts may have flow- recommendations of the Coastal Spaces on effects for people living in or visiting initiative were included in the SPPF coastal regions. With significant growth in September 2007. Coastal planning projected for a number of coastal areas, decisions must now be consistent with urban development and human activity these requirements. present major ongoing challenges. A failure to manage growth sustainably in the long term will result in a reduction of the values that make the coast special. Some important values at risk include: • reduced visitor satisfaction as a result of environmental damage and loss of natural assets • increased fire risk and the need for emergency management • loss of township character and reduced quality of life for residents and visitors53.

| 442 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Indicator CES9 Townships with scheme, an important step in ensuring that Response Name settlement plans and boundaries settlement boundaries are supported by Victorian Strategy for Coastal Acid Settlement plans are a tool used by statutory direction and weight in decision Sulfate Soils making. local governments to manage growth Responsible Authority and development of townships, and to Response Name Department of Sustainability and provide a guide to the long-term planning Coast Action/Coastcare Environment and development of coastal towns. They Responsible Authority Response Type give consideration to a range of issues Department of Sustainability & Strategy/policy including projected population growth, Environment / Department of township character and amenity; they A draft strategy for coastal acid sulfate Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts provide residents and planners a degree soils in Victoria was released in June of certainty that the values of the town and Response Type 2008. The objective of the strategy is to surrounding coastal area will be protected Program protect the environment, humans and in the longer term. Coast Action/Coastcare is a community infrastructure from the harmful impacts of disturbing coastal acid sulfate soils. A first A settlement boundary may be included program that supports coastal and principle is to avoid disturbing coastal acid as part of a settlement plan. This sets an marine-based volunteer groups. Coast sulfate soils, the most environmentally outer boundary for a town and defines Action/Coastcare is jointly funded by the and economically responsible option and the allowable extent of urban use and State and Commonwealth Governments. preferred management strategy. The draft development, although it can be reviewed The Coast Action program was initiated strategy proposes a risk management and shifted. In this way a settlement in Victoria in 1994, with the national approach to guide decision makers boundary can help to protect the values Coastcare program commencing in 1996. and draft best practice guidelines for of the open spaces between coastal The program engages and educates the assessment and management of settlements, although it should only be members of the public in protection and coastal acid sulfate soils have also been considered as one component in a suite rehabilitation of coastal environments. developed. The draft strategy also outlines of initiatives. The Coast Action/Coastcare Strategy policy requiring any development on or The Coastal Spaces initiative provides 2004-2010 outlines the objectives and near potential acid sulfate soils to show legislative, financial and skills support future direction of the program. The that disturbance will be avoided. to coastal municipalities to implement Strategy aims to increase understanding In development of the Victorian Strategy settlement plans and boundaries. Coastal and awareness of coastal and marine for Coastal Acid Sulfate Soils, site Victoria is generally well progressed with environments through training programs investigations are being undertaken to settlement planning (see Figure CES1.10), for community groups, ‘Summer by the increase the accuracy and quality of indicating some good uptake of Coastal Sea’ activities, programs, and supporting coastal acid sulfate soils information along Spaces initiatives. In 2007, of the 87 research and monitoring programs. the Victorian coast. The investigations are settlements along Victoria’s coast, 77% The Coast Action/Coastcare program focusing on priority areas determined by had a detailed settlement plan and 19% of is just one education and community pressure for land-use development and settlements had integrated their settlement awareness service for the coastal and where coastal acid sulfate soils issues are plan into the planning scheme57. More marine environment. Other programs occurring. towns had settlement boundaries include ReefWatch, Fishcare, Parks developed in 2007 than in 2006. In 2007 a Victoria Education and the Marine greater proportion of LGAs had integrated Discovery Centre at Queenscliff. settlement boundaries into the planning

1.4
 Figure CES1.10 Proportion of settlements with each stage of coastal settlement planning in 2006 and 2007 Source: Data derived from DPCD58

100% Settlement plan included Settlement boundary in planning scheme implemented into planning scheme Settlement plan completed 80% Settlement boundary Settlement plan being developed developed No settlement planning undertaken Settlement boundary 60% being developed

No settlement boundary

40%

20

0% 2006 2007 2006 2007

Settlement planning Settlement boundaries 443 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Evaluation of coastal modification Despite the significance of coastal The Victorian Strategy for Coastal Acid responses development in Victoria and the range of Sulfate Soils is currently in draft form, as management tools in place to address it, is the revised Victorian Coastal Strategy, The Coastal Management Act 1995 over half of the Victorian population still which identifies the disturbance of and Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 lack confidence in Government planning coastal acid sulfate soils during coastal provide the basis for the management and building guidelines to protect the development as a significant risk. It is too of modification pressures along the character and feel of coastal towns60. The early to evaluate the effectiveness of these Victorian coast. As outlined earlier, it is Coastal Spaces initiative aims to address responses to the threats posed by coastal recommended that a review of the Coastal this issue. While some positive progress acid sulfate soils. Management Act 1995 is conducted to has been made to manage coastal determine the effectiveness of Victoria’s growth (see Figure CES1.10), the primary coastal planning and management Recommendation focus of the initiative was not to monitor arrangements established under the the condition of the coastal and marine CES1.7 The Victorian Government Act. This review should also consider environment, and in the absence of robust should continue the current CASS the management arrangements for indicators it is therefore difficult to assess survey, along with development and coastal Crown land established under the nexus between the effectiveness of implementation of the Coastal Acid the Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978. Coastal Spaces and the condition of the Sulfate Soil strategy, which identifies risk The legislative process under this Act for coastal environment. Provision of strong areas. appointing a Committee of Management data on coastal condition would ensure for Crown land reserves is effective, that decision-makers and planners have but consideration should be given to access to the necessary information to 4 the support and direction provided to For further information Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea make informed decisions. Improvements Committees to undertake their legislative in the ongoing monitoring of coastal Coastcare responsibilities. Opportunities for processes and incorporation of this http://www.coastcare.com.au/ Committees to seek funding from both knowledge into the planning system State and Commonwealth Government should also occur. DSE, Coasts grant programs to improve the condition http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ of the coastal environment have increased dse/nrencm.nsf/Home+Page/ in recent years but many Committees are Recommendation DSE+Coasts%7EHome+Page?open likely to struggle due to a lack of funding CES1.5 Develop indicators to monitor and human resources. DSE supports the impacts of urbanisation on the CoastLinks Committees of Management through coastal and marine environment. http://www.coastlinks.vic.gov.au/index.htm ‘training, policy, planning and sustainable 4.4 Develop a program for ongoing management advice’ and it is important monitoring of key coastal processes, that this support continues and is ensuring that knowledge is utilised to enhanced where possible59. inform coastal management decisions.

Recommendation While education programs increase the CES1.4 The State Government community’s knowledge and awareness should better value and support of the coastal and marine environment the Committees of Management and the impacts of coastal modification, responsible for managing coastal these programs are often resource- Crown land. Review arrangements limited, may not be informed by the most and level of support for Committees recent science, and lack a coordinated of Management to manage coastal approach. Coordination of research effort Crown land under the Crown Land and volunteer input would also assist in (Reserves) Act 1978. At the conclusion translating knowledge gained into the of the review, State Government development of more robust management should fund and resource any critical responses. recommendations. Recommendation CES1.6 Identify a central agency to provide support and to coordinate coastal and marine education programs. Use this central agency to identify critical knowledge gaps and develop initiatives to improve connections between policy-makers, coastal managers and researchers.

| 444 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

CES2 Water quality

Key findings Description Potentially polluting discharges from terrestrial-based urban and industrial • Activities on land affect water quality. As described in CES1: Coastal systems are classified as point and non- Semi-enclosed embayments, especially Modification, a large and growing point. Point source discharges are direct adjacent to urbanised areas such proportion of Victorians live on or close to discharges into the receiving environment as Port Phillip Bay, Western Port and the coast. In addition to the implications from the pipes of industrial facilities and Gippsland Lakes can be impacted by this has for the coastal terrestrial municipal sewage treatment plants. Point point and non-point sources of pollution environment there are also implications source discharges usually introduce water that can reduce water quality. for estuarine and marine water quality, from the source into a single location, are principally due to urban stormwater run- • Locations within Victoria’s estuarine close to large population centres, and off, treated effluent discharge, and, to environments that are directly impacted most are licensed by the EPA. Non-point a minor extent, aquaculture. Port Phillip by inputs such as increased nutrient source discharges are diffuse in nature, Bay and Western Port are the two largest and suspended solid loadings have often delivered to the marine environment and most densely populated areas of historically displayed the poorest water through pulses, and are the result of Victoria’s coastline and are home to many quality. Such sites include Long Reef non-specific sources as water moves industries. The location of these heavily and Hobson’s Bay in Port Phillip Bay, across the land and through the ground. urbanised centres in close proximity to the and Corinella in Western Port. Agricultural and urban stormwater runoff marine and estuarine environment means that reaches the marine environment via • Due to the anticipated increasing that activities which occur within the streams and rivers is the major component pressures of climate change, dredging catchments can also have implications for of non-point pollution and is likely to and inflow of nutrients, and the the adjacent marine environment. Other constitute the greatest proportion of interactions between these pressures, settlements along the Victorian coast are pollution to marine and estuarine systems there is an increased risk that bays also associated with local water quality overall. and estuaries, particularly those close issues, particular those on the Gippsland to human settlements, will experience Lakes. The management of water quality is reduced water quality in the future. governed by both Commonwealth and As well as land-based pressures, Victorian State legislation. Within these policies and • While maritime activity is increasing marine waters are subject to pressures related guidelines, objectives for water and is projected to further increase, the from a number of economically beneficial quality are specifically defined for several number of reported marine pollution maritime industrial activities including sites for a range of parameters including events in Victoria is declining. shipping, fishing, and oil and gas physiochemical (salinity, temperature, extraction. Maritime activity, particularly • Most of the dredging in Port Phillip turbidity and dissolved oxygen), nutrients in terms of the size of ships calling into Bay and other Victorian ports over the (particularly nitrogen), contaminants Victorian ports, has increased since last six years has been undertaken (including heavy metals) and pathogens 2002 and is projected to increase further. for maintenance purposes. In 2008 (specifically Enterococci) in the marine Dredging is undertaken periodically in a significant dredging program was waters of Victoria. The health and utility most ports on the Victorian coast to commenced that increased the amount of the marine environment can be directly maintain navigable shipping channels. of dredged material removed to more influenced when variables fail to meet Depending upon how it is managed, than 150 times the average annual these objectives. dredge. This program is likely to have dredging can have implications for implications for water quality and water marine processes, water quality and, Monitoring by EPA Victoria indicates quality monitoring in Port Phillip Bay. in turn, marine biodiversity (see CES3 that Victoria generally has good marine Marine Biodiversity). In particular, there water quality. At key locations within Objectives are environmental implications of the Port embayments such as Port Phillip Bay, • To maintain Victoria’s marine water Phillip Bay channel deepening project that Western Port and the Gippsland Lakes61 quality within State Environment should continue to be closely monitored. however, periods of reduced water quality for parameters such as concentrations Protection Policy objectives and to In addition to dredging, other maritime of nutrients, suspended solids and further improve marine water quality activities have the potential to cause chlorophyll-a have been observed. • To reduce the impacts of maritime pollution in the coastal and marine Generally when water quality indicators fall activities on the coastal and marine environment. While the number of reported outside of State Environment Protection environment shipping-related marine pollution events in Policy (SEPP) guidelines (see also Victoria has decreased in recent years, the • Increase compliance with marine Management Responses), this is due to sources of most such events have been environmental protection rules through episodic discharges from rivers and drains not been identified. relevant legislation and regulations and reduced mixing and flushing of water. • To raise awareness of ways of improving The pressure of reduced water quality can marine water quality have implications on the health of marine flora and fauna at these sites, and also the • To improve understanding and beneficial uses of these waters for human management of marine ecosystems activities such as swimming, boating, and recreational and commercial fishing.

445 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 State Victorian estuarine and bay systems, The EPA also measures water quality in however, are subject to reduced water the Gippsland Lakes at Lake Wellington, Marine and estuarine water quality around quality. This is due both to the high level Lake Victoria, Lake King (2 sites) and the State varies according to site. Although of human activity in and around Victorian Shaving Point (Figure CES2.2). the open waters on the continental shelf bays and estuaries and the lower rates of of Bass Strait experience a slower rate of water mixing with open waters. In order mixing than the adjacent open ocean62, to monitor the condition of waters in bays water quality there is generally believed to and estuaries, the EPA measures water be good, although it is rarely monitored. quality at a number of sites in Port Phillip Water quality in the open ocean can be Bay and Western Port according to State negatively affected by sediment plumes Environment Protection Policy (SEPP) from rivers after storm events. Such local Waters of Victoria (WoV)63 guidelines, effects are usually rapidly dispersed, which in turn are based on nationally only briefly affecting recreational and agreed standards. These monitoring sites commercial fisheries. are shown in Figure CES2.1

Figure CES2.1 Spatial marine segments and fixed site sampling locations in Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Source: EPA64 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

4.4

Figure CES2.2 Fixed site sampling locations in the Gippsland Lakes Source: Adapted from EPA65.

| 446 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

The SEPP (WOV) provides objectives There are a number of parameters that are Two significant point sources of nitrogen for water quality indicators measured at important for marine water quality and in into Victoria’s waters are the outfalls these sites. The objectives are based on most cases there are interactions between associated with the Western Treatment an ecological risk assessment approach66 these parameters. These issues and the Plant in Port Phillip Bay and the Eastern and vary among sites as they are set to key indicators used to describe them in Treatment Plant at Boags Rocks near protect the most sensitive designated this report are shown in Table CES 2.1. Gunnamatta Beach on the Mornington beneficial use. Generally this is ecosystem Peninsula (Figure CES2.1) (see also Generally, Victoria’s estuarine waters are health, although it can be recreational Pressures, below). There is a risk that the in a good condition as measured by these or aquacultural use as in the case for introduction of nitrogen can reach levels indicators, with most indicators for most bacteria. The SEPP states that the that can lead to eutrophication, especially sites falling within objectives over the objectives are ‘set to protect and maintain in waters in close proximity to such period monitored68. For certain indicators aquatic ecosystem health. The suggested sites, and when mixing is reduced. Most and in certain locations, however, these use of the recommended objectives is eutrophic conditions are characterised by objectives have been exceeded. that their exceedence indicates a potential increased concentrations of chlorophyll-a, risk of adverse ecological effects’67. As Eutrophication and fluctuations in dissolved oxygen (DO) more is learnt about water quality under Nitrogen and phosphorous are nutrients levels. Reduced DO is harmful to marine natural conditions, and as is the case for that are critical for plant growth. In and estuarine animals (See CES 3 Marine toxins, as targets are met, the objectives healthy marine ecosystems, nitrogen Biodiversity). set by the SEPP standards should be is generally much less abundant than reviewed and made more stringent where phosphorous, and it is generally the lack appropriate. of nitrogen rather than phosphorous that limits the growth of algae and other Recommendation plants. Anthropogenic nitrogen loads are introduced to the marine environment CES2.1 SEPP standards should via point and non-point sources and can be reviewed and strengthened as stimulate algal growth, especially when understanding of water quality under the efficiency of natural denitrification natural conditions increases and as processes is reduced. existing targets are met.

Table CES2.1 Water quality issues and key indicators used in this report.

Water quality issue Indicators Eutrophication Concentration of chlorophyll-a Denitrification efficiency Toxicity Concentration of lead Water clarity Secchi Depth Recreational water quality Concentration of Enterococci

Figure CES2.3 Interactions between aspects of eutrophication and use of key indicators

Nutrients from Increased Increased Increased point and non- Total nitrogen algal growth Increased chlorophyll-a point sources or growrth released from Concentration of sediments chlorophyll-a

Increased respiration and Denitrification decomposition Aquatic marine environment Reduced DO concentration Denitrification

Legend Water quality indicator Water quality Key process used in this section ‘condition’

447 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Indicator CES10 Denitrification efficiency There is currently limited information A recent study of denitrification in available for quantifying the denitrification Port Phillip Bay estimates that of Nitrogen is naturally removed from processes in most of Victoria’s marine the combined input sources at least marine and estuarine system through and estuarine waters, although it is likely 60% of the total nitrogen is removed sequential microbial processes known as that the Gippsland Lakes were subject from the marine environment through nitrification and denitrification69. It assists to reduced denitrification efficiency as a denitrification73. resulting in a high level of in ensuring that nutrients (specifically result of the 2007 floods. Nitrogen cycling efficiency compared to similar estuaries nitrogen) are kept in a healthy state is of particular importance to Port Phillip internationally74. This indicates the of equilibrium, limiting the likelihood Bay, due to nutrient loading from rivers, importance of this process in reducing of eutrophication. Nitrification, is the drains and the Western Treament Plant. the risk of eutrophication. Figure CES2.5 conversion of ammonium produced by the The long residence time (slow mixing with indicates there has not been a significant decomposition of organic matter to nitrate Bass Strait) of water in Port Phillip Bay change in seasonal average denitrification ions. Nitrification rates are improved by allows time for nitrogen to be removed efficiency within sites assessed in Port high concentrations of dissolved oxygen by various micro- and macroscopic Phillip Bay. (DO), itself facilitated by mixing of the communities in the sea bed (see Figure water column. DO can be reduced when CES2.4)71,72 and as a result the low the sea bed sediments are disturbed, concentrations of nitrogen in Port Phillip which typically occurs during dredging Bay are believed to be a result of high, (see Box CES3). Denitrification converts natural denitrification efficiencies of this the bio-available nitrate ions to nitrogen water body. If nitrogen loads are in excess gas which escapes to the atmosphere. of nitrogen cycling capacity, the long 4 Bacteria at the bottom of marine Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea residence time would exacerbate water ecosystem and are disturbed during quality impacts. any process that impacts the benthic layer, including dredging, perform the denitrification process.

Figure CES2.4 Schematic of ecological nitrogen cycling in Port Phillip Bay Source: Adapted from Port of Melbourne Corporation 70.

N Atmospheric inputs Loss of nitrogen 2 to atmosphere 4.4

Uptake by phytoplankton

N+P N+P Inflows of nutrients t
:BSSB t
%SBJOT t
851 Small amount Organic matter of nutrients lost rains to sediments to Bass Strait

Denitrification

N2

org

+ NH4

NO3 Nitrification

| 448 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Figure CES2.5 Seasonal variation in mean denitrification efficiency in sediments measured in the centre of Port Phillip Bay Source: Longmore 200775,

120 120 Port Phillip Bay Port Phillip Bay - Hobsons Bay - Central

100 100 estimated

80 80

Denitrification efficiency % 60 Denitrification efficiency % 60

40 40

20 20

0 0 Winter 95 Winter 95 Spring 94 Spring 02 Spring 03 Spring 04 Spring 05 Spring 06 Spring 94 Spring 02 Spring 03 Spring 04 Spring 05 Spring 06 Autumn 03 Autumn 04 Autumn 05 Autumn 06 Autumn 07 Autumn 03 Autumn 04 Autumn 05 Autumn 06 Summer 95 Summer 96 Summer 95 Summer 96

Due to the importance of the denitrification Indicator CES11 Concentration of In particular, increased residence times process and its vulnerability during chlorophyll-a and decreased flushing in the marine dredging, it is essential that denitrification environment lead to an increase in the Chlorophyll-a is the green pigment found is monitored throughout the dredging presence of nutrients such as nitrogen in plants and is a crucial component program in Port Phillip Bay. and phosphorus. As described previously, of photosynthesis. The concentration nitrogen and phosphorus must be of chlorophyll-a in water is commonly maintained in healthy concentrations to used as a measure of water quality as it Recommendation avoid the risk of eutrophication and algal provides an indication of the abundance of CES2.2 Continue to monitor the blooms. phytoplankton in the marine environment. efficiency of denitrification in Port Phillip Increases in chlorophyll-a concentrations The SEPP (WOV) specifies objectives for Bay, with more frequent monitoring within a marine environment are usually chlorophyll-a concentrations in Victoria’s under conditions of likely denitrification due to seasonal increase in temperature, marine waters. Objectives for chlorophyll-a stress, such as after significant storm increased nutrient and sediment are either specified in SEPP(WoV) itself events and during dredging. levels, decreased flushing or increased (for example the objective for open coasts residence times and can be influenced is <1 μg/L or is set by the Australian and by a reduction in nitrogen cycling New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and (denitrification efficiency)76. For example, Marine Water Quality78). Chlorophyll-a elevated chlorophyll-a levels are more objectives are higher for Port Phillip Bay common during the summer months and Western Port than for open waters when water temperatures and light levels to allow for the naturally higher level of increase77, High levels of chlorophyll-a nutrient inputs from catchments that can are often indicative of poor water quality. feed into these bays. Where SEPP(WoV) High levels of phytoplankton may also does not specify an objective, for example, reduce dissolved oxygen. Certain species at Lake King South, the policy defaults of phytoplankton may produce toxins in to the Australian and New Zealand water, with implications for the health of Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water fish, other animals and humans that come Quality. into contact with the water.

7 7 449 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 20086 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 1990 1995 2000 2005 4&$5*0/
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Figure CES2.6 Chlorophyll-a levels objectives at Long Reef, Hobsons Bay, Corinella and Lake King South 1983 – 2008 Source: Unpublished EPA data79.

120 16 Port Phillip Bay Long Reef - Central 14 12 100 estimated 10 8 80 6 90th percentile

micrograms per litre 4 2

Denitrification efficiency % 60 0 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 Feb - 08 12 40 Hobson’s Bay 10

20 8 6 90th percentile 4 0 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea micrograms per litre 2 Winter 95 Spring 94 Spring 02 Spring 03 Spring 04 Spring 05 Spring 06 Autumn 03 Autumn 04 Autumn 05 Autumn 06 Summer 95 Summer 96 0 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 Feb - 08 14 Corinella 12 10 8 6 75th percentile 4.4 4 micrograms per litre 2 0 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 1000 Lake King South

100 Objective: 4 g/litre

10 (logarithmic scale)

micrograms per litre 1

0.1 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 Feb - 08

Chlorophyll-a concentrations measured Generally, chlorophyll-a concentrations at the four sites generally meet specified measured in Western Port are good. Recommendation objectives and are at a level below that However, at Corinella, frequent * For other recommendations targetting thought to be necessary to protect the exceedance of the objectives reflects non-point sources of nutrients, see 4.3 Ramsar wetlands on the Bay shore, the naturally elevated nutrient levels and Inland Waters although at sites in Port Philip Bay they reduced flushing conditions that are CES2.3 Reduce nutrient loads to have on occasion exceeded the objectives characteristic of this location in the Bay. meet ecological objectives. Set stretch specified in the SEPP (WoV) 80. Increasing Lake King South in the Gippsland standards for eliminating nutrient flows use of water sensitive urban design, (see Lakes periodically experiences higher for the Western Treatment Plant and Non-point sources of marine pollutants chlorophyll-a levels than the other sites Boags Rocks (Gunnammata) outfalls. below), and the levels of water treatment reported. This is the result of algal blooms and water recycling, such as that which is associated with nitrogen and phosphorus occuring for the Eastern Treatment Plant loadings, a common occurrence in the (see Point source discharges below), Gippsland Lakes (see also Part 4.3 Inland would help to reduce the flow of nutrient Waters). The SEPP for total nitrogen, concentrations at these sites. an important precursor of chlorophyll-a concentration, is also often exceeded at this site81. 7 6 | 450 5 4 3 2 1 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Industrial contamination In most cases, the presence of industrial Indicator CES12 Lead concentration toxins in the marine environment is the There are a number of potentially toxic Lead is one of a suite of metals emitted result of activities that occur or historically substances from industrial and urban by industrial processes. It is a pervasive occurred upstream within catchments, and processes that can affect water quality industrial pollutant that can be toxic at is attributable to non-point sources. As and, as a result, the health of animals and relatively low concentrations, although is the case for other marine water quality humans that use the marine environment others such as copper are more so. issues, a highly modified catchment (see Figure CES2.7). Implicated As well as industrial point sources, the such as the Yarra or Maribyrnong is often substances include heavy metals such weathering of paint and roofing materials attributed with increased influx of toxic as copper, arsenic, mercury, lead and and emissions from motor vehicles have pollutants compared to more pristine cadmium; organic compounds such as historically been common diffuse sources catchments. Intensive uses such as the pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls of lead. Due to major programs to reduce industrial and urban activities that occur (PCBs), which can be concentrated in sources of lead, trends may not be directly within these catchments are responsible estuaries due to the interaction between representative of all industrial toxicants for many substances, although in many fresh and salt water. The influx of industrial in the marine environment, although its cases substances move through the air contamination can be particularly harmful concentration is thought to be typical of (see Part 4.1 Atmosphere, Air Quality) in estuarine environments where flushing the generally declining level of heavy metal and surface or ground water (see Part is limited, and when historic deposits contamination83. Figure CES2.8 shows the 4.3 Inland Waters) before reaching the containing such substances are re- concentrations of lead in three Victorian marine environment. In some cases, suspended, as can occur during storms or estuaries. toxic substances can also enter marine dredging (see Pressures). environments as a result of maritime activities. If poorly managed, antifouling paints used to prevent the growth of organisms on ships and the spread of marine pests82 (see CES3 Marine Biodiversity) can also be a source of marine toxicity.

Figure CES2.7 Interactions between aspects of toxicity and use of the key indicator

Contamination Toxicity in Potentially toxic Toxicity in fish humans substances from: Risk to human – point Increased health – non point contaminants – natural re-suspension in water – disturbed sediments direct toxicity to biota

Aquatic marine environment

Legend

Water quality Key process ‘condition’

451 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Figure CES2.8 Lead levels and SEPP objectives at Hobsons Bay 1983-2008, Hastings 1983-1999 and Lake Wellington 1983-2001 Source: Unpublished EPA data84.

7

6 Hobsons Bay SEPP objective: 6.6 g / litre (max) 5 4 3 2 micrograms per litre 1 0 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99

3.5 Hastings 4

3.0 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 2.5 2.0

1.5 SEPP objective: 1 g / litre (max) 1.0 micrograms per litre 0.5 0 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99

4.4

5 Lake Wellington 4 SEPP objective: 3.4 g / litre (max)

3

2

micrograms per litre 1

0 Nov - 84 Aug - 87 May - 90 Jan - 93 Oct - 95 Jul - 98 Apr - 01

Lead concentrations at the three sites also recorded downward trends but Recommendation generally meet SEPP objectives. Transport other sites, including Lake Wellington, of pollution from land-based sources has recorded consistently higher levels which, CES2.4 Establish a regular program of progressively declined since the 1980’s although seasonal, may be attributed to testing for toxicants in sediments and in and by the late 1990’s lead in Port Phillip the natural re-suspension of lead from key indicator species as well as in the Bay waters was at the limits of detection, sediments rather than to new inputs from water column. although at Hobsons Bay the slightly the associated rivers and streams86. This elevated levels suggest that the Yarra River site is thought to be characteristic of the continues to be a source85. The reduction way that the legacy of poor management in lead across other sites in Victoria is of industrial wastes continues to affect attributed to the phasing out of lead in water quality and raises the importance petrol (in 1999, the date the data collection of testing for toxins in sediments and in ended), paint and other formerly common indicator species, in addition to testing in uses. For Hastings in Western Port, the water column. levels also show a downward trend and appear to be approaching background levels. Lake King in the Gippsland Lakes

| 452 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Water clarity Indicators of the transparency (Secchi Indicator CES13 Secchi depth depth, see Indicator CES13) of water Water clarity is affected by the amount Secchi depth is measured by lowering provide an approximation of light of particulate matter (suspended solids, a high contrast black and white disk (a penetration and are used to measure such as clay and silt particles, and Secchi disk) into the water and noting turbidity relevant to human use. A planktonic organisms such as algae and the depth at which it is no longer visible. different measure of turbidity; PAR zooplankton) in the water column. At A high result for Secchi depth usually (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) most sites a small amount of suspended indicates better water quality. attenuation, is the usual measure solids in the form of nutrients is essential required to assess light penetration for State Environment Protection Policies for to the survival of microscopic plants and ecosystem function. Turbidity indicators Victoria’s coastal waters specify objectives animals. However, turbidity in marine such as these provide information on for suspended solids and turbidity based waters can increase when there is a large the amount of light that is available for on each site’s natural variations. With the inflow of suspended solids from non-point marine organisms, particularly plants and exception of isolated areas usually subject sources such as rivers, for example during benthic species (those on the floor of the to point source discharges and heavy a storm event, during tidal and seasonal marine environment) or an indication of rain, Victoria’s open coast is not prone to variation such as strong winds, and during whether turbidity levels are acceptable for excessive suspended solids. However, activities such as dredging. Shallow human beneficial uses. There are ongoing Victorian bays and estuaries can be waters are more susceptible to increased programs in Port Phillip Bay, Western Port subject to periodic increases in turbidity suspended solids because of the ease and the Gippsland Lakes, using both and so Secchi depth is measured at a with which sediments are re-suspended in Secchi depth and PAR that measure water number of sites, three of which are shown the water. clarity. in Figure CES2.10. High turbidity can reduce light penetration (a condition that can also result from increased algal growth), making it difficult for marine plants to grow. High turbidity can also result in the settling of suspended solids and the smothering of plants and seaweeds that grow on the sea floor (see Figure CES2.9). High turbidity also reduces the aesthetic value of estuaries and beaches, making them less attractive for recreational activites.

Figure CES2.9: Interactions between aspects of water clarity (turbidity) and use of the key indicator.

Suspended solids from point and Increased turbidity Reduced light non point sources Increased suspended solids penetration and from sediments Aquatic marine environment Secchi depth

Legend Water quality indicator Water quality Key process used in this section ‘condition’

453 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Figure CES2.10 Secchi depth and SEPP objectives, for Long Reef, Hobsons Bay and Corinella, 1983-2007 Source: EPA unpublished data87

0 Long Reef 1

Metres SEPP objective 2 3 metres 3 4 5 6 7 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 Feb - 08

0 Hobsons Bay 1 Metres 2 4

3 SEPP objective Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 2 metres 4 5 6 7 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05 Feb - 08

0 1

Metres 4.4 2 SEPP objective Annual median 3 0.7 metres 4 5 Corinella 6 7 Jul - 83 Mar - 86 Dec - 88 Sep - 91 Jun - 94 Mar - 97 Dec - 99 Sep - 02 May - 05

The waters of Port Phillip Bay are Melbourne Water and the EPA have generally not considered to have high initiated studies to determine the impact concentrations of suspended solids of contamination from these estuarine except during flood from the Yarra systems on edible fish species that can River following heavy rain and during inhabit the surrounding waters. Preliminary dredging (see Pressures below). Elevated investigations have determined that suspended solids have been measured concentrations of contaminants in fish consistently since at Corinella in Western were below the maximum residue limits Port since the current monitoring program (MRL) for food, yet the tissues of some began in 1984. This has been attributed eels sampled contained levels of a to the highly mobile sediments in the form chemical of concern above the specified of muds characteristic of the area, hence MRL88. the lower SEPP objective for this site. The Gippsland Lakes have also historically been affected by suspended solids from the large freshwater catchment loadings into these estuarine systems.

| 454 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Recreational water quality Prior to 2002, EPA used the bacteria Indicator CES14 Enterococci species Escherichia coli (known as E.coli) concentration Recreational water quality refers to the as the principal water quality indicator suitability of water for swimming and Routine sampling of the concentration for recreational marine waters. In recent other activities that involve direct contact of Enterococci in water is performed years, The World Health Organisation and with the water89. EPA Victoria has been by the EPA from November to March the National Health and Medical Research monitoring the health of popular swimming each year. Each Summer the results are Council have recognised that Enterococci beaches in Port Phillip Bay and more assessed against objectives for primary bacteria are the best indicator for marine recently, Western Port during the warmer contact recreation outlined in the SEPP recreational water quality92 and the EPA summer months, when demand for (Waters of Victoria) 2003. For Enterococci, has adopted this indicaor. recreational use is high, by testing for the the SEPP sets an objective median of presence of indicator bacteria. Testing Enterococci are bacteria commonly found 35 Enterococci per 100ml and a 75th of recreational water quality has also in the gastro-intestinal tracts of warm percentile of 150 Enterococci per 100ml94. occurred at beaches along Victoria’s blooded animals and may be present in Figure CES2.13 shows 75th percentile western coastline90. The testing sites in marine waters. Animal faeces (including Enterococci levels for thirty-five beach Port Phillip Bay and Western Port are dogs), which are washed into the sea sites around Port Phillip Bay. shown in Figure CES2.11. via rivers and stormwater drains after rain events is thought to be the principle source of Enterococci93. Poorly managed sewage is also likely to play a lesser role. Ingestion of these bacterial pathogens can lead to gastrointestinal illnesses such as diarrhoea.

Figure CES2.11 Recreational beach quality sample locations in Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Source: EPA91

Figure CES2.12: Interactions between aspects of recreational water quality and use of the key indicator

Bacteria from point Increased bacteria in the Human use Desease and non point sources marine aquatic environment and illness

Enterococci concentration Aquatic marine environment

Legend Water quality indicator Water quality Key process used in this section ‘condition’

455 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 4&$5*0/
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 Figure CES 2.13 Enterococci readings for Port Phillip Bay, Summers 2002-2007 Source: EPA data95

300 2006/07 2005/06 2004/05 2003/04 2002/03

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 Elwood Carrum Seaford St. Kilda Brighton Mentone Hampton Canadian Sandridge Aspendale Beaumaris Half-Moon Mordialloc Melbourne F’ston LSC F’ston Coast Sandringham Williamstown

300 300 2006/07 2005/06 2004/05 2003/04 2002/03 2006/07 2005/06 2004/05 2003/04 2002/03

250 250

4.4 200 200

150 150

100 100

Enterococci 75th percentiles (orgs/100ml) 50 Enterococci 75th percentiles (orgs/100ml) 50

0 0 Rye South Safety Beach Mount Martha Eastern Portsea Sorrento Sorrento Rosebud Dromana Werribee St Helens P’arlington Blairgowrie Queenscliff Mornington St. Leonards

| 456 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Of all sites shown, the majority of beaches Because these issues are interrelated, the comply with the SEPP objective (75th Recommendations indicators Commercial Shipping, Dredging percentile). A number of sites (including CES2.5 Enhance catchment and and Marine Pollution are included here St. Kilda Beach, Elwood and Altona) stormwater education programs that to illustrate the extent of these maritime returned elevated Enterococci levels highlight the risks of poor urban waste pressures on water quality. during 2004-200596. As is the case for management to flora, fauna and Indicator CES15 Commercial shipping most incidents of elevated Enterococci human beneficial use of the marine levels, this was due to a large rain event in environment. The Port of Melbourne is the busiest February 200597. container and general cargo port in CES2.6 Increase incentives for Australia, handling 37% of the nation’s Elevated levels of Enterococci are likely municipalities, communities and container trade99. The other major to be due to both point and non-point businesses to retro-fit water sensitive Victorian ports of Hastings, Geelong and sources, particularly stormwater drains urban design into existing infrastructure. Portland cater for more general cargo. that discharge water at these sites on There are also over a dozen smaller ports Port Phillip Bay. These stormwater inputs which service the commercial fishing, contribute to reduced recreational water Pressures recreational boating and other offshore quality at times of elevated input loadings. Pressures on marine water quality have industries such as the gas and the EPA recommends against swimming near two distinct origins: those originating from petroleum sector. stormwater drains, rivers, streams and maritime activities and those originating other outlets into Port Phillip Bay during from terrestrial activities. Almost 85% of Victoria’s traded goods and 24 hours after rain. (by customs value) are exported from Maritime pressures Victoria’s commercial trading ports, and As with Port Phillip Bay, rainfall events Maritime activities such as commercial almost 80% are imported through them. around Western Port often result in and recreational shipping, and port The ports and their related businesses elevated bacterial numbers. However, activity are all vital and legitimate uses form part of an estimated 16,000 overall results for recreational water quality of our seas and coast, but they can businesses that operate primarily within in Western Port indicate that bacterial present environmental costs and risks. the freight and logistics sector in Victoria, numbers are generally better than in Port In the first instance, the more ships that providing more than 100,000 jobs. The Phillip Bay. This is likely to be because of enter Victorian waters, the greater the Victorian shipping profile, in terms of the smaller population and lower density risk of pollution from ships. There is also tonnage and number of visits, is shown in of impervious surfaces in this catchment. and greater chance of contamination Figure CES2.15. The recreational water quality of beaches by marine pests (see CES3 Marine along the western coastline of Victoria Biodiversity). Similarly, the larger the ships has been found to be very good with that seek entry to the Port of Melbourne, the exception of some estuarine sites the greater the demand for dredging, such as Wye River and Kennett River. which itself can affect marine water Elevated bacterial levels in these estuaries quality (Figure CES2.14). appeared to be associated with localised stressors on river catchments partly as a result of the increased population, pressures on the townships’ septic and sewerage infrastructure, and stormwater drainage98.

Figure CES2.14 Relationships between maritime pressures and water quality (simplified)

More Greater demand for dredging commercial Impacts on shipping water quality Greater risk of marine pollution

457 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 4&$5*0/
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120 5,000 Hastings Melbourne Geelong Potland Visits (right Y axis)

4,500 Visits 100 4,000

3,500 80 Number of records 3,000

60 2,500

2,000 40 1,500

1,000 20 500 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 0 0 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08

While the total number of visits by ships Indicator CES16 Dredging in Port Phillip • to bypass an artificial structure, such as to Victoria’s four main commercial ports Bay and Western Port a breakwater, that is an obstacle to the normal pattern of sediment movement has remained relatively stable over the last Dredging refers to the removal of along the coast. Dredging prevents a three years, at approximately 4,500 visits sediment, rocks and other material from build-up of material to be deposited per year, the weight of commercial ships the bed of shipping channels to maintain downstream of the obstacle to allow the 4.4 has been increasing over the last three or deepen them. All dredging requires natural sediment transport process to years. The greatest increase in average approval under the Coastal Management occur. gross registered tonnage (GRT) over the Act 1995. Some dredging programs three years was for ships visiting Geelong have ongoing approval under the Act Dredging is performed at a number of (15% - from 23,128 to 26,510 tonnes). (eg maintenance dredging based on an sites along the Victorian coast, but most The GRT of all shipping visits to Victoria approved management plan), others is performed in Port Phillip Bay and at the increased from approximately 101 million are a single dredge so get temporary artificial opening of Lakes Entrance in the tonnes in 2004/05 to over 110 million approvals, and others are capital dredging Gippsland Lakes. This indicator focuses tonnes in 2006/07 (an 8.9% increase). on a scale that requires an Environmental solely on dredging within Port Phillip Bay, In contrast to both Geelong and Portland, Effects Statement (eg the current Channel which consists of three types: which predominantly handle bulk goods, Deepening project). Dredging can take • Maintenance dredging conducted by a significant amount of the trade currently place for the following reasons: Parks Victoria as waterway manager of handled by the Port of Melbourne is in the • to maintain the depth in existing ports, the bay to provide safe and navigable form of containers. By 2035, the number harbours and channels to provide access. of containers handled at the Melbourne ready and safe passage for commercial • Dredging for specific activities such as Port, under a business-as-usual scenario, and recreational vessels (known as to maintain existing boat ramps and for is projected to increase 500%. This is the maintenance dredging) main driver of the Channel Deepening creating access at new boat ramps. • to create new or deeper access or Project (see Box CES3). Trade in all of • Shipping channels maintenance berths for vessels. This may mean the Victoria’s commercial ports is forecast to dredging undertaken by commercial deepening and widening of channels grow in coming years, with the highest port authorities. relative increases expected at the Port of and anchorages as well as the Melbourne and Port of Hastings101. excavation of basins and marinas from Figure CES2.16 shows dredging areas of previously dry land (known as undertaken in Port Phillip Bay each year Apart from the impacts of dredging, capital dredging) between 2002 and 2007. the implications of increased shipping on water quality include the effects of • to provide material for specific purposes antifouling paints in ports and off-shore, (e.g. beaches in coastal areas subject the introduction of exotic species into to erosion are sometimes ‘renourished’ ports, harbours and coastal waters, oil with sand from other areas) or hazardous cargo spills in ports and coastal waters, and ship waste in ports.

| 458 State of the Environment

Part4&$5*0/
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between 2002 and 2007. In comparison Figure CES2.16 Capital (C) and maintenance (M) dredging in Port Phillip Bay with the channel deepening trial, which by agency, 2002-2008. *DSE: Department of Sustainability & removed just over 1.6 million cubic metres

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 in 2005, a total of 22.9 million Source: Department of Sustainability and Environment 102, Parks Victoria 103 m3 of material, more than 150 times the and Port of Melbourne Authority104 annual average, will be dredged from the existing shipping channels within 7 Port of Melbourne Port Phillip Bay as part of the Channel Channel deepening Deepening Project. 6

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200 Parks Victoria DSE

150 Thousand cubic metres 100

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0 C M C M C M C M C M C M C M 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08

459 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Box CES3 Channel deepening sediment is disturbed and becomes to minimise the potential impact on in Port Phillip Bay - turbidity & suspended in the water, a visible ‘plume’ the coastal and marine environment industrial contamination can be created. Suspended sediment has (including plume intensity). The intensity the ability to clog the gills and membranes of the plume is measured at 20 locations The purpose of the Channel Deepening of marine organisms, reduce visibility and around the bay, with limits applying to Project (CDP) is to increase vessel light within the water column and smother 11 of these locations. Trigger levels at accessibility to the Port of Melbourne by organisms on the sea floor105. As a result these locations provide an early warning deepening some parts of the existing of dredging, re-suspended or ‘mobilised’ system to alert the port manager that shipping channel in Port Phillip Bay. pollutants, including the heavy metals plume intensity is increasing. Dredged Given the significant environmental that are a legacy of industrial activities in contaminated sediment from the north values of Port Phillip Bay and potential the Port Phillip catchment, can potentially of Port Phillip Bay will be transported to impacts of the proposed works, the contaminate marine organisms and lead an underwater clay-bunded containment project required approvals under both to biomagnification through the food web site. Monitoring will also take place in the State and Commonwealth legislation and (see Industrial contamination above). north of the bay for three months after the the development of the Environmental Human health can be affected through dredging of contaminated sediment is Management Plan (EMP). Trial dredging the consumption of contaminated marine completed and will test the concentration of small channels occurred in 2005 to organisms or by direct contact during of contaminants in fish tissue. To date test the adequacy of the environmental recreational activities (e.g. swimming). there have been only three environmental management measures established incidents, each of a relative minor nature, for the project. After these trials, the The EMP establishes ‘rules’ to minimise associated with the channel deepening 4

project was approved by State and the intensity of the plume from the CDP project; a failure to clean up in a dredged Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea Commonwealth Governments to proceed at sensitive locations in Port Phillip Bay, area, a small (less than 900 litres) oil spill in December 2007. such as areas containing important from a dredging vessel and the temporary Dredging activities can result in the re- seagrass habitat. The EMP outlines the malfunction of a turbidity monitoring suspension and mobilisation of sediments performance standards, monitoring buoy106. and pollutants on the seafloor. When programs and control requirements

Dredging can have implications for marine Other coastal and marine implications Recommendation ecological processes when it directly of dredging can be less related to disturbs species that live in benthic water quality and may not be apparent CES2.7 Undertake strategic 4.4 sediments. Of particular importance is the immediately but may progress over environmental assessment (SEA) in ecological process of denitrification that extended periods of time. These include Victoria, ensuring that the long-term these organisms perform (see Indicator changes in circulation patterns, coastal and flow-on effects of a project are CES10 Denitrification). Also of concern zone dynamics and coastal morphology considered to assess high-order is the impact that dredging can have on from modified coastline and/or seabed108. concepts, prior to the site-specific both turbidity and the ability of light to Under climate change conditions, assessment via existing EIA and EES. penetrate to plants for photosynthesis, when reduced flows and high rates of and the settling of suspended solids onto water extraction could close off river marine plants and macroalgae (seaweed), mouths, dredging to maintain access for which can also reduce their ability to recreational and commercial shipping photosynthesise107. These effects can (e.g. Lakes Entrance) is likely to be an flow on and result in changes in species issue of future concern composition, loss of biodiversity and In addition to the coastal and marine reductions in commercial and recreational implications of dredging, channel fisheries catches. deepening in response to shipping Dredging programs in ports, harbours demand has implications for road and rail and estuaries adjacent to urbanised or freight networks (see Part 3.1 Energy) in industrialised areas are also likely to the form of flow-on impacts that were not mobilise contaminated substances in the considered as part of the Environmental form of dredge spoil, which can in turn Effects Statement. It is also likely to induce impact on water quality. demand for increased materials flows (see Part 3.3 Materials). As such, a more strategic assessment of the sustainability implications of major projects such as channel deepening should be undertaken (see Part 5 Living Well).

| 460 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Indicator CES17 Reported marine Overall there has been a decrease in The cause of most (over 55%) of the pollution the number of reported incidents over reported shipping incidents shown in A marine pollution incident is defined as the nine-year period since 1999/00. Figure CES2.17 is classified as either any event that results in a chemical, oil or The highest number (109) of incidents unknown or not set, although, as noted oily mixture, sewage or garbage entering occurred in 2000/01 and the lowest above, most of these are less than the marine environment109. Most of these number (41) in 2007/08, although data for 100 litres. Nevertheless, the fact that occur in or around ports, but some are the most recent period is yet to be fully there are a large number of unknown also of terrestrial origin (see Terrestrial completed and further incidents may be sources implies that better strategies Activities below). Ballast water discharges reported. for identification of the responsible party are warranted. At 19% of all incidents, are not included in this definition of marine The greatest number of marine pollution land based discharges is the next pollution (see CES3 Marine Biodiversity). incidents reported each year is in Port most common category. This category Phillip Bay (505 incidents over the period The Victorian EPA and Marine Safety refers to oils, heavy metals and other 1999-2008), mostly near the mouth of Victoria (MSV) collect details on the type chemicals that enter waterways from a the Yarra River in the northern part of the and location of reported marine pollution variety of sources, including urban and bay112. This is likely due to the higher level incidents in the State. Marine pollution agricultural runoff and industrial and of activity associated with the bay and the incidents are categorised under a three- mining operations via stormwater, landfill greater potential for sighting and reporting tier system: Tier 1 for amounts between 1 leachate, and transportation or industrial incidents due to the larger number of and 10 tonnes,4&$5*0/
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$0-0634 than 100 litres, and 90 per Recommendation cent of those are less than 20 litres110. Figure CES2.17 shows the number of CES2.8 Investigate opportunities for better observation and reporting of reported marine1.4
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 in Victoria for each year since 1999/00. marine pollution events, specifically (3"1)4
the numerous small events currently classified as unknown or not set.

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 Figure CES2.17 Reported marine pollution events in Victoria by site 1999/00–2007/08 Source: Marine Safety Victoria111

120 Port Phillip Westernport Portland Gippsland

100

80 Number of incidents

60

40

20

0 1999/01 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08

461 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 In contrast to the many small marine Table CES2.2 Significant marine oil spills in Victoria over the 20th Century pollution events shown above, there have Source: Australian Maritime Safety Authority 113, been only five major marine pollution events in or near Victorian waters since Year Ship Sites affected Mass 1903. These are shown in Table CES2.2. 1903 Petriana Port Phillip Bay 1,300 tonnes Maritime pollution spills can result in 1988 Al Qurain Portland 184 tonnes heavy metals and other toxic substances and chemicals entering the marine 1990 Arthur Phillip Cape Otway Unknown environment (see example in Box CES4). 1999 Sylvan Arrow Wilsons Promontory Less than 2 tonnes These can have drastic impacts on freshwater and marine ecosystems. The 2003 ANL Pioneer Woolamai & Kilcunda ≈ 40 tonnes effects may vary in severity from reducing growth and reproduction to directly killing plants and animals. As described above, the effects of many toxic chemicals are increased by their ability to remain and build up in the environment over a long period of time. The results can be particularly destructive in wetlands and bays where flushing is limited114. 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Box CES4 ANL Pioneer oil spill The clean-up was coordinated by Marine Under the Environment Protection and EPA’s response Safety Victoria under the Victorian Marine Act 1970, the Environment Protection Pollution Contingency Plan. Under the Authority used its authority to track down In early 2003, the German container guidance of the Plan, a number of the responsible vessel through four ship ANL Pioneer discharged 30-40,000 agencies and volunteers were involved ports across four different countries. The litres of waste oil sludge from its ballast in the clean-up response. In total, 144 shipping company was ordered to pay water tank into Bass Strait. The incident tonnes of oily waste was removed from more than $1 million in fines, clean-up occurred outside State waters, about nine the coastline. Twenty-five oiled Little expenses, environmental projects and nautical miles off the Victorian coast. The Penguins were recovered during the legal costs, constituting the biggest spill eventually washed ashore between clean-up, two of which died. Several environmental penalty in Victoria’s 4.4 Woolamai and Kilcunda, covering species were impacted, including pied history115. approximately twelve kilometres of cormorants, silver gulls and hooded coastline. plovers. Considering the significant impact on the coastal environment, the response to the incident was effective and further environmental damage was minimised.

Terrestrial Activities point sources upstream also contribute environment are classified as either industrial facilities, wastewater treatment The majority of Victoria’s population to these). Due to their dispersed and plants or aquaculture activities, the resides along the coast, and the human ephemeral nature, non-point souces are latter making up just 0.002% of nitrogen activity in these areas can adversely not licensed and are difficult to quantify discharged. impact water quality in adjacent marine but account for the far larger proportion of and estuarine environments. Water quality potentially polluting substances that enter is directly impacted when discharges estuarine and marine waters. from domestic, agricultural and industrial Indicator CES18 Point source discharges sources enter marine and estuarine water Industrial point source discharges bodies. The EPA classifies terrestrial introduce chemical loads such as sources of marine pollution as either nutrients, various metals, petroleum point or non-point source. Statewide, hydrocarbons and other contaminants point sources account for only a small into the marine waters surrounding the proportion of polluting substances discharge point. Victoria has 29 EPA- entering marine and estuarine waters, licensed point source discharges that however point sources can be locally enter marine environments, with the significant. Most point sources are majority located within Port Phillip Bay and licensed and monitored by the EPA with Western Port (Table CES2.3). The licences those that are not usually being temporary set enforcable limits for nitrogen, dissolved and illegal discharges. Non-point sources oxygen and pH concentrations and other include urban stormwater and agricultural substances, depending upon the site (rural) runoff which enters marine waters specific licence that must be maintained (both bays and open coastal waters) to achieve environmental protection. Point via streams and rivers (although license source discharges to Victoria’s marine

| 462 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Table CES2.3 EPA licensed point source discharges along Victoria’s marine coastline Source: EPA unpublished data,116 Note: *See glossary for explanation of treatment techniques

Plant Volume Outfall Treatment Nature of Waste (ML/day) length (m) 1 Shell (PPB) 400 0 Oil/water separation Cooling 2 Boags Rocks 380 10 Secondary+ Cl* Domestic/Industrial 3 Werribee 361 0 Adv. Secondary+lagoon Domestic/Industrial 4 Great Southern Waters 80 0 Lagoon Aquaculture (Indented Head) 5 Black Rock 70 1200 Adv. Secondary Domestic/Industrial 6 Southern Ocean Mariculture 48 0 Lagoon Aquaculture (Port Fairy) 7 Ocean-wave Seafoods 48 0 Lagoon Aquaculture (Avalon) 8 Latrobe Valley 31.8 1267 Secondary+lagoon Domestic/Industrial 9 Performance Research 24 0 Lagoon Aquaculture (Leopold) 10 Victorian Mariculture 24 0 Lagoon Aquaculture (Narrawong) 11 SWOP 20.7 550 Primary Industrial 12 Altona 16 400 Secondary+lagoon* Domestic/Industrial 13 Warrnambool 12.9 20 Secondary Domestic 14 Esso Long Island Point 4.5 600 Secondary Domestic/Industrial (Western Port) 15 Venus Bay 4.1 0 Primary * Industrial 16 Wonthaggi 3.7 0 Secondary+lagoon Domestic 17 Portland 3.6 80 Secondary Domestic 18 Cowes 2.5 120 Secondary+ Cl Domestic 19 Port Fairy 2.3 10 Secondary +UV Domestic/Industrial 20 Bluescope Steel (Western 2.2 0 and 800 Biological and Lagoon Industrial/Domestic Port) 21 Lorne 1.06 0 Adv. Secondary+UV Domestic 22 Apollo Bay 0.8 0 Adv. Secondary+UV Domestic 23 DPI (Queenscliff) 0.8 0 Aquaculture 24 Anglesea 0.51 200 Adv. Secondary+UV Domestic 25 Foster 0.3 0 Secondary+lagoon Domestic 26 Toora 0.2 0 Secondary+lagoon Domestic 27 Port Welshpool 0.1 0 Secondary+lagoon Domestic 28 Portsea Camp (PPB) 0.08 Secondary + Cl Domestic

Of the 29 point source discharges, 76% of phosphorous and suspended solids into is an area within which designated the total volume of water comes from three Victoria’s marine environment In 1996 the environmental quality objectives, as set sources: a Shell industrial site in Corio Bay Western Treatment Plant alone accounted by SEPP, do not need to be met, and and the two treated effluent discharges for around half of the nutrients discharged therefore where beneficial uses may not from the Western Treatment Plant into the bay117. It now represents a be protected. Mixing zones are usually (Werribee) and the Eastern Treatment much smaller proportion (see non-point approved for particular parameters (e.g. Plant (near Gunnamatta). sources of marine pollution below), and is nutrients), rather than being zones where undergoing an upgrade which will further no objectives are met. Licence holders As a result of these, areas of concern reduce nutrient discharge118. are required to periodically review cleaner in Victoria’s marine and estuarine production and treatment technology environments include Long Reef Turnover of water in marine and estuarine to allow reductions in the size of mixing (adjacent to Werribee) and Boags Rocks environments is critical to reducing the zones. (near Gunnamatta) on the Mornington impact of point and non-point discharges. Peninsula. The point source discharges Where a discharge cannot be treated The proposed desalinisation plant will at these two sites contribute greater than to meet the objectives set by the SEPP, constitute an additional point source of 75% of the point source inputs of nitrogen, EPA may approve a mixing zone. This potentially polluting substances to the site

463 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 near Wonthaggi, south-east of Melbourne. Heavy metal contamination from non- The effects of toxic substances vary Up to 280 gigalitres per year of hyper- pouint sources has historically been depending upon the substance and saline water will be pumped back into largely confined to Port Phillip Bay. In its concentration but can range from the sea. The impact of this discharge on particularly, concentrations of metals reduced growth and reproduction, to water quality is not expected to extend there have gradually decreased over diminished abundance or distribution of beyond the mixing zone, 100 metres the years (although it is likely that the marine species, to directly killing plants from the outlet. By the time the discharge Yarra continues to be a source120). This and animals. The effects of many toxic reaches the boundary of the mixing zone reduction is due to reduced inputs of chemicals are increased by their ability it will have been diluted with seawater metals into the receiving environment to build up within the food web (known by a factor of 50. The full Environmental as awareness about their toxicity has as bio-accumulation) over a long period Effects Statement is due for release in late increased, and as industrial processes are of time. Toxicity is rarely thought to be 2008119. If the project is approved, it will be improved. an issue for Victorian marine species of essential to conduct ongoing monitoring importance to humans as food. However, Melbourne Water and the EPA have against baseline water quality objectives a 2005 investigation123 found that some initiated studies to determine the at this site. As well as water quality, this eels caught in the Yarra estuary contained impact of contamination from these project also has potential implications levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) estuarine systems on edible fish species. for coastal biodiversity and solid waste above the Food Standards Australia Preliminary investigations have determined management. As with channel deepening and New Zealand maximum residue that concentrations of contaminants in (above) the environmental implications of limit. As a result, the Chief Health Officer fish were below the maximum residue major projects such as these should be advised an eel consumption limit that is limits (MRL) for food, yet the tissues of assessed using strategic environmental still in place124. In June 2008, high bio- 4

some eels sampled contained levels of a Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea assessment (SEA) to provide a better accumulated mercury levels were found chemical of concern above the specified understanding of all impacts of the in several dolphins (20 living and 8 dead MRL121. Mussels are routinely used project (see Part 5: Living Well Within Our from stranding) in Port Phillip Bay. The as indicator species to determine the Environment). mercury is believed to have originated concentrations of chemicals in bays and from historic industrial processes and Non-point sources of marine pollutants oceans throughout the world. Consistent settled in the bay where it may have been with reduced metal input into the marine Non-point sources of marine pollutants more recently disturbed and entered environment, metal concentrations in to Victoria’s marine waters are significant. the food web125. This case emphasises mussels collected from Victorian waters They include diffuse sources such as the importance of sampling for toxins in have decreased. agricultural discharges not regulated by sediments rather than in the water column EPA and stormwater runoff that contains Implications alone. 4.4 pollutants, nutrients (See Part 4.3 Inland Victoria’s marine environment is diverse Decreased water clarity and increased Waters) and litter (See Part 3.3: Materials). and varied, and pressures on water sediment concentration can affect benthic Agricultural runoff is typically high in quality have been imposed on the many organisms such as those that perform nutrients and constitutes a potential different locations. Where nutrients or the important role of denitrification, pressure on marine water quality. other pollutants enter the sea, mixing and seagrasses. Seagrass at Corinella Catchments are considered a source and dilution of water is essential for the in Western Port, an area of inter-tidal of contamination when they introduce maintenance of water quality. Yet in the mudflats, has been shown to be affected water of lower quality to the estuaries and populated embayments and other areas by the redistribution of sediment. Seagrass subsequently into marine environment that have reduced turnover of water as beds are one of the most sensitive marine (see Part 4.3 Inland Waters), particularly well as elevated nutrient and toxin input, ecosystems to elevated suspended solids during episodic storm events and pathogens and physicochemical stressors (see CES3 Marine Biodiversity), and this sometimes for several years after can reduce water quality and the utility of can have flow-on effects for marine fauna, wildfire (see Part 4.3 Inland Waters). The the marine ecosystem. including species of commercial value, urbanised catchments of the Yarra and 126 For example, although it is natural that use this habitat . Maribyrnong Rivers contribute pollutants for chlorophyll-a concentrations to Similar to the effects of eutrophication, such as heavy metals from industry fluctuate, the Gippsland Lakes have a reduction in recreational water and nutrients in stormwater runoff into a history of increased chlorophyll-a quality (i.e. an increase in Enterococci the receiving environment of Hobsons concentrations due to limited mixing of concentrations) can have adverse effects Bay. The sources of input into these the water. Eutrophic conditions (increased on human health if not discovered early. catchments continue to be varied and it is chlorophyll-a and reduced dissolved Swimming in pathogen-contaminated difficult to manage all discharges into, and oxygen) have at times compromised waters frequently leads to gastroenteritis. from these river systems, and so they can the beneficial uses of this marine Unsafe concentrations of pathogens make a significant contribution to reduced environment122. Toxic blue-green algal in coastal waters may also require marine water quality. For example, The blooms, in particular, are of ongoing restrictions on shellfish harvesting and Yarra River system itself integrates all concern due to their effect for local recreational fishing activities. Economic the non-point, catchment influences and communities that rely on fishing as losses incurred by increased pathogen contributes one of the greatest ‘point’ both an industry and as a recreational populations include closure of shellfish sources (unlicensed) of pollutants to activity. In addition, eutrophic conditions fisheries, the costs associated with the bay (see Part 4.3 Inland Waters: can adversely affect water quality for medical treatment, lost time at work and Management Responses). swimming and, as a result, there can be economic loss to businesses that rely on significant flow-on impacts on tourism and coastal recreational activities127. local businesses.

| 464 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

In addition to these water quality are not outlined in the SEPP (WoV), Dredging works may also be subject implications, there are other effects the environmental quality objectives to further assessments and approvals. of decreased water quality that may are outlined in the Australia and New Additional approvals depend on the scale be attributable to a changing climate Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine of the works. A planning permit may be (see also CES4 Climate Change); for Water Quality (2000). The standards are required for works that occur in an area example, decreased inflow of fresh water considered integral to the maintenance subject to a local planning scheme. If the to estuarine systems can change their of both marine health and human uses of proposal is likely to involve significant ecology. In the Gippsland Lakes, it is likely marine environments. environmental, social or economic impact, that this has led to an increase in salinity the works may be subject to an approval For example, the SEPP (WoV) schedule levels, which is thought to be having an under various State and Commonwealth F6 Waters of Port Phillip recognises the effect on the breeding and migration (Cwth) legislation (i.e. Environment need to develop the Port Phillip Bay patterns of black bream. In turn, this is Effects Act 1978, Environment Protection Environment Management Plan (EMP). having an effect on local recreational and (Sea Dumping) Act 1981, Environment The EMP provides a framework for the commercial fishing128. Protection and Biodiversity Conservation identification of issues in Port Phillip Bay Act 1999 (Cwth)129). Management responses and determines priorities and actions to improve and maintain water quality Large-scale dredging, such as that Response Name standards. The EMP sets targets for currently being undertaken for the Channel State Environment Protection Policy the reduction of nutrients and identifies Deepening Project (see Box CES3), is not (Waters of Victoria) the risks of marine pests as priorities to covered by the Guidelines but requires a Responsible Authority be addressed, and various agencies detailed environmental effects statement Environment Protection Authority (including DSE, EPA, Melbourne Water) that must be signed off by the relevant are working towards meeting the targets minister. Response Type established in the EMP. Policy/Strategy Response Name To ensure compliance with the SEPP Victorian Marine Pollution Contingency The State Environment Protection Policy (WoV), the EPA monitors water quality Plan (Waters of Victoria) 2003 (SEPP (WoV)) indicators at 14 fixed sites in the three Responsible Authority aims to protect the beneficial uses and major Victorian embayments (Indicators Marine Safety Victoria values of the State’s water environments CES10 – CES13). As part of the EMP, the by setting objectives for nutrients and EPA also monitors for Enterococci at 36 Response Type other physico-chemical parameters in beaches around Port Phillip Bay during Process/function Victoria’s marine waters beyond which summer (Indicator CES14). However, there management action is triggered. The The Australian Maritime Safety Authority is very little water quality monitring outside manages the National Plan to Combat SEPP (WoV) provides a coordinated of the major embayments. approach for the protection and, where Pollution from the Sea by Oil and other required, the rehabilitation of the health of Response Name Noxious and Hazardous Substances. Victoria’s water environment. In particular, Best Practice Environmental Guidelines However, at a state level, Marine Safety the SEPP (WoV) identifies roles and for Dredging Victoria has the responsibility to ensure responsibilities for environment protection that there is an effective response to oil Responsible Authority pollution incidents in Victorian waters and rehabilitation and identifies strategic Environment Protection Authority actions and tools to address activities under the Marine Act 1988. To fulfil this that pose a risk to the Victorian water Response Type responsibility, Marine Safety Victoria environment. Guidelines developed and manages the Victorian Marine Pollution Contingency Plan To undertake dredging works in Victorian A series of schedules has been developed (VicPlan) in consultation with the EPA. under the SEPP (WoV) that relates to waters, consent must be obtained from specific marine environments, making the responsible minister under the Coastal If an oil spill occurs, VicPlan is immediately the policy administratively complex but Management Act 1995. The Best Practice activated, initiating a process to confirm highly adaptable to Victoria’s range of Environmental Guidelines for Dredging the spill and determine the most different marine environments. As marine (2001) notes the requirements that appropriate response. The response to water quality is influenced by runoff from coastal managers must meet in order the spill is managed at a regional level the whole catchment, the schedules deal to gain consent for dredging works in under VicPlan, with a number of agencies with individual catchments providing detail Victoria. These address the environmental responsible for responding to the incident. on the indicators and actions to manage issues and controls involved in dredging, The VicPlan process has proven to be the associated water bodies. Different including water quality objectives in an effective response in minimising the schedules that set targets for site-specific addition to those detailed in the SEPP potential impact of the reported pollution parameters, have been developed for (WOV), and water quality monitoring incidents, which have decreased in recent the Gippsland Lakes and Catchments, requirements. Applications for consent years (See Figure CES2.17). Port Phillip Bay and Western Port and under the Coastal Management Act 1995 Catchments. Some have been identified are submitted to DSE but advice may as not at risk of water quality decline, while also be sought from the EPA in relation to for others, decline in certain variables does compliance with the Guidelines. not affect the beneficial uses identified as important. If specific objectives

465 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Response Name With inland waterways becoming less Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious accessible due to decreasing water Recommendation Substances Act 1986 availability, and with the coast remaining CES2.10 Review the Best Practice a popular destination for both recreational Responsible Authority Environmental Guidelines for Dredging and commercial activities131, pressure on Environment Protection Authority to ensure the dredging approval the coastal and marine environment will process remains current and consistent Response Type continue. Current management responses with the current knowledge and Legislation seek to address these increasing dredging management practices. The EPA is responsible for the pressures to ensure that marine waters retain high levels of quality and, therefore, investigation of pollution in Victorian Limited resources and expertise limits utility. The State Environment Protection waters and the prosecution of offenders. the approval process for dredging works. Policy (Waters of Victoria) 2003 (SEPP The Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious To ensure that the existing framework (WoV)) provides a detailed framework for Substances Act 1986 provides the remains effective, additional support and the protection and monitoring of Victoria’s legislative framework to protect the sea resources should be focused on providing marine water quality. However, the SEPP and other waters from pollution by oil and regional government agencies with a objectives do not identify all areas for other noxious substances. Marine pollution ‘tool box’ to review and appropriately active managment. In ensure that any is also considered under the Environment consider proposed dredging works. For reduction in water quality is detected Protection Act 1970, which sets whole-of- example, a map-based database could be early, monitoring programs must be environment objectives such as preventing developed to provide DSE and EPA staff robust in methodology, continuous and pollution and minimising environmental with a decision-making tool to help identify should cover all marine and estuarine 4 damage. It establishes programs to meet issues and potential requirements needed Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea environments. these objectives (i.e. development of for an applicant. State Environment Protection Policies). Both Acts prohibit the discharge of oil and Recommendation pollution into marine waters and provide Recommendation CES2.9 Water quality programs must a mechanism to take appropriate action be methodologically sound, continuous CES2.11 Support the development against offending vessels and recover and should provide an indication of of a ‘tool box’ for State Government costs incurred during clean-up associated water quality in all Victorian marine agencies to assist in the decision- with the incident. and estuarine waters. There is a case making process for proposed dredging To ensure compliance with the Act, the for regular, low frequency monitoring works. Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious outside of the major embayments that 4.4 Substances Regulations came into should be investigated. operation in 2002. The Regulations outline Given the potential for significant impacts the timeframe and process of discharging upon the marine and coastal environment, of oil and oily substances. Marine Safety As outlined in the SEPP (WoV), dredging the framework and process for responding Victoria also has a responsibility under activities pose a particular threat to to marine pollution is well established these regulations, and this responsibility water quality and should be managed to under State and Commonwealth ensures the two agencies provide a minimise re-suspension and transport legislation. Combined with the legislative coordinated approach to responding to of sediments and pollutants that may responsibilities, the pollution response marine pollution. pose an environment risk. With ships’ framework is also considered successful tonnage increasing (See Figure CES2.15), due to the training programs and Evaluation of water quality pressure to undertake further dredging coordination amongst the agencies (both responses works to enable access to Victoria’s bays at a State and regional level). Due to its importance for human health is expected to remain high. The process and the survival of marine-based for reviewing proposed dredging works For further information industries, the health of marine waters, ensures critical evaluation of the proposal EPA, Water Quality particularly embayments and estuaries, prior to any works proceeding but does http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/water/coasts/ has been monitored for many years. not require that a strategic assessment default.asp The first comprehensive environmental of all environmental impacts of decisions OzCoasts study of Port Phillip Bay and catchment are considered in the decision-making http://www.ozcoasts.org.au/ was completed in 1971 and the initial process. SEPP that addressed pollution sources The current channel deepening project in the bay was approved by the State in Port Phillip Bay and the extensive sand Government in 1975130. management program at Lakes Entrance have significantly increased knowledge of the impacts of dredging works. In addition, the Commonwealth Government developed the National Ocean Disposal Guidelines for Dredged Material in 2002, building on the Victorian EPA’s Best Practice Environmental Guidelines for Dredging. A review of the EPA’s Guidelines would ensure that the process remains current and consistent with the current knowledge and dredging management practices.

| 466 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

CES3 Marine biodiversity

Key Findings Victorian marine environments are Conservation of marine biodiversity is diverse. They encompass sheltered and critical for maintaining ecosystem services • Macroalgal assemblages on shallow shallow bays and inlets, long stretches and for ensuring the resilience of marine subtidal reef habitats appear to be in of exposed open coast and deep sea. systems into the future. More than 5% of relatively good condition along Victoria’s In many shallow marine environments, Victorian marine waters are in a system open coast. marine plants such as seagrass and kelp of highly protected Marine National Parks • The area of seagrass habitat in bays create habitat structure for other species and Sanctuaries. Marine communities in and inlets has fluctuated over the last of algae, fish and invertebrates. In deeper these areas are protected from fishing and 50 years. Current coverage of seagrass water, the reduction in light allows species other extractive industries. Factors such as at most locations appears to be within such as sponges and corals to thrive. poor catchment management practices, the range of historical (since 1960s) fishing pressure and introduced species The diversity of marine habitats and fluctuations. (among others) have already caused species in Victoria is critical for providing changes in Victoria’s marine environments. • Ecological communities on soft a range of ecosystem services. Marine Improved management of these and sediments in Port Phillip Bay are habitats sustain stocks of fish and other pressures will be necessary to degraded. The relative condition invertebrates which form the basis of sustain marine ecological communities of open coastal soft-sediment important commercial and recreational into the future, particularly given the likely assemblages is unknown. fisheries, including aquaculture. cumulative impacts of climate change. • Some marine species have been Seagrasses, saltmarsh and mangroves overfished in Victorian waters. stabilise soft sediments, prevent erosion A lack of knowledge and understanding and provide protection from storm surges. of marine systems is a major hindrance • Introduced species have had a large Marine species process and recycle to our ability to protect marine biodiversity impact on the ecology of Port Phillip Bay nutrients derived from terrestrial sources and to report on its current condition. In and other sheltered bays and inlets. and also absorb large amounts of carbon, Victoria, a substantial amount of research • Victoria’s bays and inlets are under produce oxygen and help to regulate has been carried out in recent years substantial environmental pressure climate. In addition to these essential to remedy this problem. This includes and so are vulnerable to environmental services, marine biodiversity creates establishment of long-term and spatially changes. recreational opportunities and contributes comprehensive monitoring programs to Victoria’s social and cultural amenity. for some marine communities (e.g. • Limited data and understanding, subtidal reefs) as well as habitat mapping and large natural variability, preclude All marine habitats are strongly linked, programs along the Victorian coast. comprehensive assessment of the with many species spending parts of their While research has been conducted condition of marine biodiversity lifecycle in different habitats. For example, within Port Phillip Bay and Western Port against quantitative indicators. In many juvenile fish use seagrass and kelp in the last 30 years, it has only been in lieu of adequate data, threat-based beds for shelter but move into open water the past decade that larger scale, (and management using existing information habitats as they mature. In addition to in some cases) longer-term monitoring should be used. links within marine environments, there programs have been established are strong links between marine and • Port Phillip Bay is considered to be one along the Victorian coast. Data from terrestrial/freshwater systems. Some the most invaded marine ecosystems these programs are providing essential species use both systems (fish, birds, in the Southern Hemisphere, with 161 information about marine biodiversity in seals, humans). Furthermore, marine introduced species representing up Victoria, and will become more valuable environments are directly affected to 13% of all benthic sediment and over time. However, in many cases, by activities in adjacent catchments. encrusting species recorded in the bay. studies of marine systems in Victoria are Freshwater inputs into the catchment limited in spatial and temporal coverage, Description affects water quality in marine systems. have collected different types of data for Strong links within marine environments Victorian marine ecosystems are unique. different requirements, and provide little and between marine and terrestrial They encompass a wide range of physical information about the dynamics of marine systems create special challenges for environments that have developed in a communities and how these communities the understanding and management of unique geological and oceanographic change in response to environmental marine biodiversity. context and support representatives of pressures. Furthermore, even where more taxonomic groups than all Victorian data are available, very large natural terrestrial and freshwater habitats spatial and temporal variability limits the combined. The true extent of Victoria’s ability to detect changes in response to marine biodiversity is largely unknown, known environmental threats (e.g. for but southern Australia is recognised as a seagrass and intertidal reef communities), diversity hotspot for several taxa including particularly over large spatial scales, red and brown algae, lace corals, and therefore often precludes the setting crustaceans and ascidians (sea squirts). of practical, quantitative and spatially In addition, Victorian marine environments comprehensive indicators of condition. support diverse fish assemblages and provide critical habitat for marine mammals and seabirds, many of which are endangered.

467 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 In lieu of adequate data and State establishment of fast-growing, ephemeral understanding, our approach to assessing algae, which may prevent recolonisation of Shallow subtidal rocky reef communities condition in this part of the report has reefs by kelps137. Furthermore, introduced been to describe some general features of Indicator CES19 Conversion of subtidal species of macroalgae can exclude the major marine communities in Victoria reef communities to simplified states native species and can drastically alter 138 and to provide a qualitative assessment of Subtidal reefs in Victoria have been community structure and dynamics . condition using the available information. systematically surveyed at 14 locations In general, extensive and persistent Conceptually useful indicators are and approximately 90 sites extending from urchin barrens, turf-algal assemblages or suggested for some habitats where these Cape Howe in the east to Merri Marine assemblages dominated by introduced indicators are presumed to respond Sanctuary in the west132. Many of these species represent simplified community to known environmental pressures locations have been surveyed multiple states and indicate that large changes operating in Victoria. However, because times, particularly in central Victoria where have occurred to reef habitats over time. of the caveats outlined above, there some reefs have been surveyed up to 11 Little is known of the dynamics of is considerable uncertainty in this 133 times since 1998 . These surveys provide subtidal reef communities in Victoria assessment. Because of the fundamental some spatial and temporal coverage with and so it is difficult to assess how lack of knowledge of the dynamics of which to assess the condition of many susceptible Victorian reefs are to the marine species and communities it is Victorian reefs against this indicator. changes described. However, each of difficult to quantify the vulnerability or these changes does occur in response likely consequences to marine systems of Shallow subtidal reefs in Victoria are to known pressures that are, or could contemporary environmental pressures. dominated by complex macroalgal potentially occur, along the Victorian coast. Targeted science focussing on ecosystem assemblages, which often include species 4

Furthermore, while Victoria’s subtidal Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea dynamics in response to known threats of large canopy-forming brown algae reef communities vary spatially making it is necessary to overcome these hurdles. or kelp (Figure CES3.1). In many parts difficult to generalise among locations, the In the meantime, informed, threat-based of the world the condition and extent three changes described represent clear management using existing information of macroalgal assemblages have been departures from the complex macroalgal is required to protect Victoria’s marine declining in response to overfishing, assemblages that are characteristic of biodiversity. declining water quality and invasive species134. These three pressures can healthy reefs. Objectives cause the replacement of complex • Prevent future declines in the macroalgal communities with greatly populations of fished species simplified reef assemblages. For example, overfishing of top predators can result • Reverse declines in the populations of 4.4 in increases in population densities of over-fished species herbivores (mostly sea urchins), creating • Prevent further introduction of exotic highly simplified habitats called ‘urchin marine species, particularly those likely barrens’ (Figure CES3.1)135. Urchin to be destructive to native communities, barrens can be a natural component such as Caulerpa taxifolia of subtidal reef communities, but it is • Prevent the spread of existing marine generally recognised that regionally pests, particularly noxious species such widespread, locally homogenous (i.e. as Japanese Kelp (Undaria pinnatifida) not patchy) and persistent (years) urchin and the Northern Pacific Seastar barrens are indicative of degraded 136 (Asterias amurensis) reef communities . Declining water quality can also create simplified • Protect and maintain the integrity and reef assemblages by facilitating the dynamics of ecological communities within Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries

Figure CES3.1 Subtidal reef habitats: A common canopy-forming brown algae (Ecklonia radiate) on Victorian shallow subtidal reefs (left) and urchin barren habitat (right) Photo: Sean D. Connell

| 468 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Currently, very few surveyed reefs are Some reefs in northern Port Phillip Bay dominated by simplified states. Subtidal have also been invaded by the large Box CES5 Eastern Treatment reefs along the open coast west of brown Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida. outfall at Boags Rock (near Point Hicks are generally dominated by This species has been observed in Gunnamatta) native species of large canopy-forming dense stands on broken basalt reefs on Exposure to elevated levels of macroalgae including common kelp the northeastern side of the bay, and is ammonium and freshwater from the (Ecklonia radiata), crayweed (Phyllospora likely to strongly influence community Eastern Treatment Plant outfall at comosa), string kelp (Macrocystis structure where it occurs. This species has Boags Rocks in central Victoria has angustifolia) or a range of fucalean algae invaded and displaced native macroalgal substantially changed community such as Cystophora spp or Sargassum assemblages in Tasmania and given structure on the nearby intertidal reef146. spp 139. its invasiveness, there would appear to The brown macroalgae, Neptune’s be strong potential for U. pinnatifida to Necklace (Hormosira banksii) and Exceptions to this pattern occur in far expand its current range to the southern Bull Kelp (Durvillaea potatorum) no eastern Victoria and in Port Phillip Bay. In parts of Port Phillip Bay and to reefs in longer occur on the reef at Boags eastern Victoria, there are large areas of Westernport Bay. Rocks and have been replaced by urchin barrens at Cape Howe, Gabo Island ephemeral green algae, high densities and Tullaberga Island140. Barrens in these Given that kelp deforestation and of limpets and other gastropods and locations generally occur within a matrix undesirable community states are a aggregations of a spionid polychaete of kelp-dominated habitat and because feature of many temperate rocky reef worm (Boccardia proboscidea). The these locations have only been surveyed environments around the world, on the apparent influence of the ocean outfall twice in recent years it is premature to basis of this indicator Victorian subtidal at Boags Rocks on intertidal rocky reef draw conclusions about longer term reef communities would be considered communities is highly localised, with trends141. Eastern Victorian reefs are at in good condition. Established long- the structure of assemblages on nearby the western edge of the distribution of term monitoring programs should allow reefs indistinguishable from more the black sea urchin (Centrostephanus detection of undesirable changes in some remote sites (see also CES2 Water rodgersii), which has created extensive reef habitats in the future. However, more Quality). areas of urchin barrens in New South study is needed to improve understanding Wales. The black sea urchin is native to of the dynamics of Victorian subtidal reef eastern Australia (NSW) and is currently communities, particularly in response For the open coast, it is very difficult expanding its range southwards. to fishing pressure and declining water to detect signatures of degradation quality. Consequently, our understanding It is not known if C. rodgersii is capable on intertidal reefs in response to key of the vulnerability of Victorian subtidal of extending its distribution further along contemporary threats, given naturally reefs to drastic changes in community the Victorian coast. In Victoria, urchin high variation in community structure147. structure is limited, but it is likely that these barrens have not been recorded west of Highly-localised degradation has occurred pressures will have a negative effect. Point Hicks and the urchin has not been at Boags Rocks (Box CES5), but there recorded west of Beware Reef in eastern appear to be few clear signatures of Victoria. Recommendation degradation (which may include, for example, high covers of ephemeral algae) Subtidal reef communities in northern CES3.1 Establish a long-term at most studied locations148. Port Phillip Bay lack large stands of monitoring program to routinely monitor canopy-forming algae. Instead, these key subtidal reef communities along the Intertidal reefs in Port Phillip Bay may reefs are dominated by smaller species of Victorian coast to determine whether be degraded. While these reefs support brown, red and green algae. Of particular reef communities are changing in relatively diverse intertidal assemblages, significance is the high abundance of response to changing environmental they tend to show more consistent signs filamentous brown and red turf algae, conditions. of environmental degradation, including which provide up to 40% of the algal cover consistently low coverage of brown 142 macroalgae, effects of shellfish harvesting at some locations . Reefs in northern Port Intertidal rocky reef communities Phillip Bay are naturally exposed to higher and invasion by introduced species149. levels of sedimentation and nutrients Intertidal reefs create habitat for a diverse Intertidal habitats in Port Phillip Bay are because of their proximity to the entrance assemblage of animals and plants particularly vulnerable to degradation of the Yarra River and other freshwater between the high- and low-water tide because of the small number and limited drainages (see CES2 Water Quality). marks. Because of high levels of natural size of intertidal reefs in the bay, the However, sedimentation and nutrient variability in both physical conditions and distinct embayment assemblages that levels are likely to have increased as the biota, development of useful indicators of these reefs support, and their proximity to surrounding catchment has been altered environmental condition in these habitats a very large population centre. by human activity. Without older baseline has been difficult143 and, in Victoria, is information (systematic monitoring of reefs the subject of ongoing work144. Localised in northern Port Phillip Bay began in 2003), case studies and recent, biological it is not known if these reef communities surveys provide some indications of the have changed in response to changing current state of Victorian intertidal reef environmental conditions. environments in some locations 145. A qualitative description of condition has been done on the basis of this work, however there is considerable uncertainty associated with this assessment.

469 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Seagrass communities habitats showed signs of substantial Indicator CES20 Changes in the Box CES6 Seagrass distribution regeneration, and by 1999 covered distribution and extent of seagrass in Western Port an area of 131 km2. In 1999, seagrass habitats Seagrass coverage in Western Port was habitats in Western Port were distributed subject to dramatic change between Seagrasses are marine flowering plants across most of their former range, 1973/74 and 1983/84. During this period, that grow on soft-sediment habitats in although there has been limited or no seagrass coverage declined almost 75% relatively sheltered environments where recovery on mudflats in the north-east of from approximately 230 km2 to just 59 they can form extensive meadows. 157 2 156 the bay (Figure CES3.2) . Declines in the distribution and extent of km . Over the next 20 years, seagrass seagrass habitats have been recorded Seagrass distribution in Western Port in 1999 in many locations around the world150. Figure CES3.2 Source: DPI Fisheries Research Branch These declines have often been attributed to human activities that degrade water quality or directly disturb sediment habitats (e.g. dredging) but also occur in response to natural disturbances such as sand movement and storms151 (see CES 2 Water Quality). In Victoria, four major habitat-forming seagrass species create extensive seagrass habitats in sheltered 4

locations in Port Phillip Bay, Western Port, Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea Corner Inlet and the Gippsland Lakes, as well as in several smaller bays and inlets along the coast. Habitat-mapping (in Port Phillip Bay and Westernport Bay) and analysis of historical aerial photographs allows some assessment to be made of changes in the distribution and extent of seagrass habitats in Victoria over the last 60 years. Some caution must be used when drawing conclusions based on these long-term patterns, as studies have used 4.4 different mapping techniques and field verification methods in mapping seagrass distribution152. Seagrass habitats in Victoria have shown large, shorter-term (5-10 year) fluctuations in area and also show some signs of stability over longer periods of time (50 year). The major pattern of change in these habitats throughout Victoria appears to be a continual cycle of seagrass losses followed by re-establishment and regrowth. For example, there were well-documented, substantial (up to 70%) declines in seagrass coverage in Western Port between the mid-1970s and mid- 1980s153 followed by substantial recovery of these seagrass beds in recent times 154 (see Box CES6). Less dramatic patterns have been observed in Port Phillip Bay, Corner Inlet and the Gippsland Lakes155.

| 470 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Within these broad, bay-wide patterns, The significance of the large fluctuations Soft sediment communities large fluctuations in the abundance of in seagrass coverage observed in Victoria Although vulnerable to a range of seagrass at individual locations occur on on both local and large scales is difficult pressures including bottom trawling and 158 scales of 1-50 years . For example, at a to interpret. Seagrasses are highly effluent discharge, very little is known single site near Leopold in the Geelong vulnerable to many pressures associated about the general condition of open- Arm in Port Phillip Bay there have been with human activity and some declines coastal sediment habitats in Victoria. dramatic changes in seagrass coverage within Victoria have been attributed to However, localised changes in community 159 over the last 40 years (Figure CES3.3) . human-caused environmental changes structure have been documented, Between 1970 and 1974 seagrass such as dredging and declining water particularly near sites of effluent discharge 163 coverage declined by 80%. Over the next quality . But fluctuations in seagrass along the Victorian coast. Sediment 10 years, seagrass on this site recovered coverage may not always be the result of communities close (< 700m) to the to historically high levels by 1984 before human activity and may be a response Boags Rocks ocean outfall have shown decreasing again the following year by to natural pressures such as natural reductions in species diversity and are 60%. sand movement smothering habitat. It is dominated by spionid worms, a group of unclear if the recovery of seagrass beds A similar pattern of large fluctuations in species that is often associated with high in affected locations is due to subsequent seagrass distribution at an individual nutrient conditions164. A similar outfall near improvements in environmental conditions location has been observed at Blairgowrie, Black Rock, near Barwon Heads, had that may have occurred as a result of on the Mornington Peninsula in Port little or no impact on subtidal sediment improved environmental management Phillip Bay. From the 1950s, a gradual community structure shortly after it practices. For these reasons, the validity increase in seagrass distribution has been became operational. In general, however, of using seagrass distribution over short observed over 40 years (Figure CES3.3). changes to community structure around timescales (5-10 years) to describe More recently, intensive monitoring within open coastal outfalls do occur but tend to environmental quality is low. Nevertheless, Port Phillip Bay between 2000 and 2005 be localised. given the important ecosystem services showed declines in seagrass cover of provided by seagrass habitat (for Soft sediment communities can be 70% at two sites (Blairgowrie and Point example, as a fish nursery), and that fact vulnerable to introduced species. The Richards) whereas at a third site (Kirk that historical data is available, there is New Zealand screw shell (Maoricolpus Point) seagrass cover increased by some value in using this as an indicator. roseus) has recently invaded deepwater 80%160. Similar, if less dramatic patterns This issue highlights the value not only of sediment habitats in far eastern Victoria, are observed at nearly all intensively historical data, but also of the importance including within the boundaries of Point monitored locations throughout Victoria. of continued monitoring in the future, so Hicks Marine National Park165. This In some cases, seagrass beds have 4&$5*0/
$0-0634 that long-term trends can be established species commonly occurs in very high disappeared completely, as seen in 1"35
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580 1"35
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'063 1"35
'*7& and the best management decisions densities and can form beds covering the north-east of Western Port, where made. enormous areas of soft-sediment habitat. seagrass beds have not re-established The New Zealand screw shell is likely to since their decline in the 1980s (Box 
1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 have caused large changes to benthic CES6). 1.4
 community structure where it occurs. The invasion of this species is particularly /&653"-
$0-0634 significant as it has the potential to strongly impact the highly diverse soft- sediment assemblages that are a feature 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 of Bass Strait. (3"1)4

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 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
 1.4
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 1.4
 Figure CES3.3 Area of seagrass cover as a percentage of total study area at Leopold (left) and Blairgowrie, 1940-2000 (right) Source: Jenkins et al (2000)161 & Ball et al (2008)162

% 100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1957 1965 1975 1983 1991 1999

471 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Compared to open-coastal sediment Deep reef communities Recent subtidal mapping programs along habitats, there is better understanding Hard substrata in deep water (greater than the Victorian coast have also located of the condition of soft sediment 20 m) provides habitat for assemblages significant deep reef habitats, particularly communities in Port Phillip Bay due to of sessile invertebrates such as sponges, in Victorian Marine National Parks and the significant social and economic value ascidians, bryozoans and corals. In turn, Sanctuaries. Knowledge about the of the bay. One example is the data these invertebrates create habitat structure ecology of these habitats is limited, so collection that has occurred as part of and provide food for mobile invertebrates quantitative or qualitative assessments management responses to pressures and fish. Deep reef communities can of habitat condition are not yet possible. such as introduced marine pests and be extraordinarily diverse; phyletically, Many of these habitats are vulnerable to the closure of the scallop fishing industry they probably form one of the most human activities, particularly demersal in the 1990s. Consequently, it is known diverse ecosystems on the planet (Figure trawl fishing, which can disturb these that sediment communities in Port Phillip CES3.4). In Victoria, assemblages of habitats and remove sessile invertebrates 173 Bay have changed considerably over the sessile invertebrates on deep reefs occur over large areas . last century, particularly over the last 40 in the deep canyons at the entrance to years. Since the 1970s there has been 168 Port Phillip Bay , on rocky coasts that Recommendation an increase in the proportion of filter- descend rapidly into deep water such as feeding invertebrates and a decrease in at Wilsons Promontory, and also on rocky CES3.2 Provide ongoing support and 166 the number of deposit feeders . This is outcrops and cobble fields along the adequate funding to continue marine likely due to an increase in the abundance Victorian coast and in Bass Strait169. Some habitat mapping of Victoria’s deep of introduced filter-feeding species (e.g. species of encrusting coralline algae grow water communities at appropriate 4 European fan worm, Sabella spallanzanii), spatial scales to provide a better unattached to any substratum to form free- Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea a decrease in nutrient levels in Port Phillip living rhodoliths, which can be nodular or understanding of habitat extent and 167 Bay and overfishing of some species . branched170. Large numbers of rhodoliths condition. Information obtained should Most of the changes observed in soft form rhodolith beds, which in turn create be used to inform the management sediment communities are irreversible and habitat structure for invertebrates and of both Commonwealth and Victorian represent degradation of environmental fish171. Deep water marine habitat mapping fisheries. condition. of Marine National Parks discovered extensive rhodolith beds off Point Addis, Cape Howe and Point Hicks172.

Figure CES3.4 Deep reef community showing diverse assemblage of sessile 4.4 invertebrates such as sponges and gorgonian corals Photo: Sean D. Connell

| 472 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Marine mammals The population size of Australian Fur Seals Species from all of the main taxonomic Indicator CES21 Trends in abundance prior to exploitation in the 19th century has groups, except marine flora, are of marine mammals that were previously been estimated at approximately 200,000 considered threatened in Victoria, hunted in Victoria animals producing up to 50,000 seal although there is a significant bias towards pups annually179. Commercial exploitation charismatic fauna, particularly birds Historically, several species of whale substantially reduced the population and (Table CES3.1). In addition, there is one and seal that commonly occur in Victoria recovery has only occurred very slowly in marine community, the San Remo marine were hunted either in Victorian waters the last 150 years. However, more recently community, that is listed as threatened or elsewhere. Populations of these there has been an increase in the total under the FFG Act. species, including the Blue Whale and population, suggesting stronger recovery Southern Right Whale, were seriously has occurred in the last 10-20 years180. depleted before hunting ceased. Trends Considering that seal pup numbers are in population status provide an indication an indicator of total population size, seal of the current status of these species, pup numbers were approximately 12,000 however there is very little data with which in the late 1980s, 17,000 in the mid to late to assess the current population size of 1990s and approximately 20,000 in 2002. many of these species. The task is made Consequently, the current total population more difficult because these species are is estimated at 96,000 individuals181. inherently difficult to study and range over Nearly 80% of Australian fur seals are born very large areas. Trends in the population in Victorian waters. status of two previously exploited species are considered below. Threatened marine communities and species The pre-exploitation population size of Southern Right Whales in Australia is Indicator CES22 Marine communities estimated to have been around 40,000174. and species listed as threatened After protection in 1935, the estimated Assessment of threatened communities global population size was about 1,000. and species in marine environments Globally, the species has shown signs generally lags well behind similar of recovery, with current estimates of assessments for terrestrial environments, total population size around 8,000175. and this is particularly the case for marine There has been no clear positive trend in flora, invertebrates and fish. There is Southern Right Whales numbers visiting generally very little known about the western Victoria in the last 10 years176 population status of marine species and it remains listed as a threatened or their response to key environmental species under the State’s Flora and Fauna threats, so official lists of threatened Guarantees Act 1998. species are not always a true reflection The Blue Whale is an endangered species of the number or vulnerability of marine that visits the waters off south-west species. Despite this limitation, the Victoria. Blue Whales gather annually to advisory list is the best starting point from feed at the Bonney upwelling system, which to gather further population data. located along the continental shelf from Of particular note in Victoria is the large Robe in South Australia to Portland in numbers of species of invertebrates and Victoria177. It has been estimated that macroalgae that are apparently rare or 350,000 Blue Whales were hunted in the have a restricted distribution and so are Southern Hemisphere between 1904 inherently vulnerable to pressures and 182 and 1967, with an estimated population environmental changes . of 2,300 remaining in the Southern There are three major lists of threatened Hemisphere178. species that include Victorian marine organisms or communities: Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act); Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (FFG Act); and the Advisory List of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria. Species listed under the EPBC Act and the FFG Act have statutory protection. The Advisory List is maintained by the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment but has no statutory authority.

473 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Table CES3.1 Threatened marine fauna that occur in Victoriaiii

Crustaceans Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG ghost shrimp Eucalliax tooradin NA L ghost shrimp Michelea microphylla NA L

Echinoderms Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG brittle star Amphiura triscacantha NA L sea-cucumber Apsolidium densum NA L sea-cucumber Apsolidium handrecki NA L brittle star Ophiocomina australis NA L sea-cucumber Pentocnus bursatus NA L sea-cucumber Thyone nigra NA L sea-cucumber Trochodota sheperdi NA L

Cnidarians Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea stalked hydroid Ralpharia coccinea NA L

Molluscs Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG chiton Bassethullia glypta NA L marine opisthobranch Platydoris galbana NA L marine opisthobranch Rhodope genus NA L

Fishes Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG 4.4 Freshwater Herring Potamalosa richmondia RE L Australian Mudfish Neochanna cleaveri CE L Australian Whitebait Lovettia sealii CE L Australian Grayling Prototroctes maraena VU VU L Empire Gudgeon Hypseleotris compressa VU L Great White Shark Carcharodon carcharias VU VU L Pale Mangrove Goby Mugiligobius platynotus VU L Orange Roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus CD CD Grey Nurse Shark Carcharias taurus DD CE L Southern Bluefin Tuna Thunnus maccoyi L

Reptiles Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG Leatherback Turtle Dermochelys coriacea CE VU L

Mammals Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus CE EN L Southern Right Whale Eubalaena australis CE EN L Bottlenose Dolphin (PPB genotype) Tursiops sp. EN I New Zealand Fur Seal Arctocephalus forsteri VU Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae VU VU L Sei Whale Balaenoptera borealis DD VU Bryde’s Whale Balaenoptera edeni DD Fin Whale Balaenoptera physalus DD VU

iii Codes used in the following tables to describe the conservation status under the Advisory List and EPBC Act are as follows: Critically Endangered (CE), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Conservation Dependent (CD), Near Threatened (NT), Data Deficient (DD), Not Applicable (NA). For the FFG Act, (L) indicates that the species is listed, and (I) indicates that the species is ineligible to be listed.

| 474 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Birds Scientific name Advisory EPBC FFG Intermediate Egret Ardea intermedia CE L Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes CE L Fairy Tern Sterna nereis nereis EN L Great Knot Calitris tenuirostris EN L Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica macrotarsa EN L Little Egret Egretta garzetta nigripes EN L Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus EN L Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans EN VU L Black Bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis australis VU L Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris VU VU I Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa VU Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos VU Fairy Prion Pachyptila turtur VU VU Great Egret Ardea alba VU L Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii VU Grey-headed Albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma VU VU L Hooded Plover Thinornis rubricollis rubricollis VU L Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus VU L Little Tern Sterna albifrons sinensis VU L Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora VU VU L Royal Spoonbill Platalea regia VU Shy Albatross Thalassarche cauta VU VU L Southern Giant-Petrel Macronectes giganteus VU EN L Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus VU White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster VU L White-faced Storm-Petrel Pelagodroma marina VU Yellow-nosed Albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchus VU VU L Black-faced Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscescens NT Caspian Tern Sterna caspia NT L Common Diving-Petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix NT Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis NT Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarolaulva NT Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta NT Northern Giant-Petrel Macronectes halli NT VU L Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva NT Pacific Gull Larus pacificus pacificus NT I Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos NT Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax varius NT Red Knot Calitris canutus NT Sanderling Calitris alba NT Sooty Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus NT White-fronted Tern Sterna striata NT White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus NT Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus L Amsterdam Albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis EN Tristan Albatross Diomedea dabbenena EN North. Royal Albatross Diomedea sanfordi EN Buller’s Albatross Thalassarche bulleri L Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross Thalassarche carteri L

475 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Pressures Commercial and recreational fishing maintain or increase population size through reproduction. Overfishing occurs Activities in catchments adjacent to Commercial and recreational fishing when high levels of fishing pressure marine environments can have widespread effects on marine ecosystems183. Fishing can directly remove reduces the ability of a targeted population Activities in catchments adjacent to marine large numbers of individuals of targeted to replenish itself and so its population environments can severely impact marine species from marine environments and declines. In general, all major Victorian habitats and organisms, principally by impact large numbers of unwanted fisheries are considered to be either influencing marine water quality. The species (bycatch). Removing biomass close to full exploitation or are already alteration of streams’ flow regimes due 184 from marine habitats can also substantially fully exploited (e.g. Southern Rock to dams, weirs and other barriers can alter numbers of remaining species. Lobster), which means that the current affect marine biodiversity, particularly level of fishing pressure is at the maximum estuarine species that need both fresh There are several important commercial sustainable level, given current awareness and salt water habitats for their lifecycle and recreational fisheries in Victoria. of threats and stock status (see Box (see Part 4.3 Inland Waters). In addition, Fishing at appropriate (sustainable) levels CES7). Illegal harvesting of some species freshwater enters the marine environment allows species to be harvested without is a problem, particularly for high value via estuaries, stormwater, urban runoff impacting the ability of the species to species such as abalone and rock lobster. and effluent discharges, causing elevated In addition to catching targeted species, a levels of nutrients, suspended sediments large number of bycatch species (i.e. non- and various pollutants to enter the Box CES7 Southern Rock taget fish species, marine invertebrates marine environment. Elevated nutrient Lobster in Victoria and other species such as birds and 4 levels can result in algal blooms, loss of Many severe environmental pressures marine mammals) are caught in fishing Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea sensitive species (e.g. kelp), decreases in pre-date serious attempts to describe operations. Furthermore, discarded fishing dissolved oxygen and subsequent die-off the condition of marine biodiversity gear drifts on ocean currents and can of susceptible fish and invertebrates. and so, in many cases, contemporary continue to catch marine species (ghost- High levels of suspended sediments definitions of environmental baselines fishing). The amount of bycatch depends can limit primary productivity in the lack an appropriate historical context. strongly on the type of fishing gear used. sea by reducing light levels to marine For example, there are strong Bycatch is minor or non-existent for rock plants and algae. Pollutants, including indications that Southern Rock Lobster lobster and abalone fisheries in Victoria188. organochlorines, acid sulphates, heavy (Jasus edwardsii), which is worth However, bycatch is a larger problem metals and hydrocarbons can result in 185 $20 million annually , declined in for trawl, gillnet and long-line fisheries death or disease in affected organisms. abundance in Victoria from the 1950s in Victorian waters and can sometimes Some pollutants can accumulate to the 1990s in response to high represent up to 40% of the total catch189. 4.4 within the tissues of individual animals 186 fishing pressure , although baseline There is limited information on the (bioaccumulation) and/or increase in population levels (those prior to the ecological impacts of bycatch on marine concentration in higher trophic levels 1950s) are unknown. Victorian fisheries ecosystems in Victorian marine systems, (biomagnification), both of which can management arrangements are with preliminary research indicating that lead to chronic poisoning even if absolute explicitly targeted at ceasing overfishing reported bycatch levels for Victorian-based levels of a toxin in the environment are low. and putting in place plans to recover marine fisheries are likely to be minimum For an assessment of this issue in relation depleted stocks. The total allowable levels190. Further on-ship observations to marine environments see CES2 Water commercial catch of rock lobster in are required to clearly determine the Quality. Victoria has been set at levels that ecological impacts of bycatch on Victorian Catchment management practices that should allow populations to recover marine ecosystems. reduce flows into to the sea can also affect from historical overfishing. Promisingly, Some fishing methods such as trawling species of fish that use both marine and there has been some indication of and scallop dredging can directly disturb freshwater habitats. These fish regularly recovery towards 1950 population levels benthic habitats because the fishing gear move between the two habitats, often to in eastern Victoria, but not in western is in direct contact with the seafloor. Deep breed. Artificial reductions in river flows or Victoria (see also Part 3.3 Materials). reef and soft sediment habitats are most closure of estuary mouths may severely One of the risks associated with the vulnerable to this impact, which is more affect these species. lack of baseline population data is that, likely to be an issue in areas of higher in the absence of holistic ecological fishing intensity such as in far eastern and management principles, it may be western Victoria. assumed that 1950s population levels are ecologically functional when in fact they may not be. Such a situation can lead to a condition known as the shifting baseline syndrome187,, which can result in the gradual, and often unnoticed, erosion of the health and integrity of marine ecosystems and biodiversity (see also Part 5 Living Well).

| 476 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Introduced species Initial studies suggest that introduced Indicator CES24 Number of introduced species are likely to have widespread and species that have the potential to cause Most introduced species are transported in some cases compounding effects on large impacts into Victorian waters via ships’ ballast marine environments193 yet the extent of water or from hull fouling (attached to the The impact of most marine introduced ecological impacts of introduced species external underside of ships). Introduced species is unknown. However, the in Port Phillip Bay is largely unknown. species are a major threat to the integrity Australian Department of Agriculture, Given the numbers and wide distribution of marine ecosystems in Victoria. While Fisheries and Forestry, under the auspices of introduced species in the marine the effects of many introduced species of the National Introduced Marine Pest environment, their impacts are likely to are relatively benign, particularly invasive Coordinating Group (NIMPCG) has be substantial. It is also important to species have the potential to drastically adopted a “Trigger List” of introduced consider that many introduced species alter the structure and dynamics of marine species that are considered to have are now influential components of the ecological communities. Impacts of the potential to have a high impact in ecology of Port Phillip Bay. For example, introduced species include displacement their introduced range. This list is used the introduced East Asian bivalve (Theora of native species, altered nutrient cycling, for responding to new pest incursions, lubrica) and the introduced crab (Pyromaia changes to marine trophodynamics and however, it does illustrate that a number tuberculata) are dominant components changes to biogenic habitat structure. of species that are considered to have the in the diet of many bottom dwelling fish potential to cause large impacts already Highly destructive invasive species such species in the bay194. as the marine alga Caulerpa taxifolia have occur in Victoria, mostly in Port Phillip Indicator CES23 Number of introduced been recorded in South Australia and New Bay (Table CES3.3). A recent CSIRO species in Victorian marine environments South Wales. There is a high potential for report ranks the ecological impact of this species to invade marine habitats in Some surveys for introduced marine existing marine pests in Australia using 204 Victoria in the future. There is also a high pests have been done in Victoria’s qualitative criteria . Several of the potential for existing introduced species commercial ports and harbours. Few, species considered to have high impact to extend their distribution within Victoria. if any, formal surveys have been done in this study also occur in Victoria (Table This is particularly the case for Japanese outside these locations and there have CES3.3). In addition, three existing marine kelp (Undaria pinnatifida). This species has been no published surveys in the last pests are listed as noxious under the been observed in dense stands on broken five years. On the basis of the surveys Victorian Fisheries Act 1995. basalt reefs on the north-eastern side of that have been done, some of Victoria’s Port Phillip Bay and could have significant bays and inlets, and particularly Port impacts on subtidal reef communities if it Phillip Bay, have been heavily invaded by establishes itself in southern Port Phillip introduced species (Table CES3.2). Port Bay191. Another example is the Northern Phillip Bay is considered to be one the Pacific Seastar (Asterias amurensis), most invaded marine ecosystems in the which poses a significant threat to bivalve Southern Hemisphere, with 161 introduced communities, in particular the Australian species representing up to 13% of all scallop192. benthic sediment and encrusting species recorded in the bay195. The most abundant soft-sediment invertebrates in Port Phillip Bay are now introduced species196and the number of invasions to Port Phillip Bay appears to be increasing197.

Table CES3.2: The number of introduced marine species in Victoria’s major ports and harbours. NOTE: Except for the survey by Hewitt et al. 2004, all surveys concentrated on commercial shipping wharves and some shipping channels and dredge spoil disposal grounds.

Location Survey dates No. of introduced species Port Phillip Bay 1995-1996 and museum collections 161 Hewitt et al. 2004198 Port of Melbourne 1999-2000 29 Cohen et al. 2001199 Port of Geelong Aug-Oct 1997 20 Currie et al. 1998200 Western Port July 2000 18 (12 self-sustaining) Parry and Cohen 2001201 Port of Hastings March 1997 7 Currie and Crookes 1997202 Portland Harbour Apr-May 1996 9 Parry et al. 1997203

477 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Table CES3.3: Introduced marine species in Victoria that have the potential to cause large impacts

Species name Common name Noxious (Fisheries Act NIMPCG Trigger list Potentially high impact 1995) (2006) (Hayes et al 2005) Asterias amurensis North Pacific seastar Y Y Y Sabella spallanzanii European fan worm Y Y Y Undaria pinnatifida Wakame (Japanese) Y Y Y Carcinus maenas Eur. shore crab Y Y Crassostrea gigas Pacific oyster Y Corbula gibba European clam Y Maoricolpus roseus New Zealand screw shell Y Codium fragile spp. Green macroalga Y Y tomentosoides Ciona intestinalis Solitary ascidian Y Bugula neritina Bryozoan Y 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea Once established, the full control of Visitation caused by many of these activities is largely unknown but could be substantial, pests is almost invariably unsuccessful People visit marine environments for particularly in small areas receiving large and thus greater emphasis needs to be a range of reasons including fishing, numbers of visitors. Visitation is also placed on prevention, early detection boating, swimming, snorkelling, diving and likely to increase in proportion to any and rapid response. One of the greatest sightseeing. Some activities associated increases in the number of people living impediments to detection is the lack of with visiting marine environments near the coast. It should be noted that taxonomic expertise required to make can cause environmental damage. although a high visitation rate constitutes positive identifications of introduced Disturbance to seagrass habitats from a genuine environmental pressure, species. boat anchors may occur. People may human experiences can have positive Litter harvest intertidal animals and plants for environmental outcomes, including 4.4 food, bait or other uses, despite warning Disposal of litter and other forms of increasing familiarity and appreciation of signs informing that this is prohibited. material waste is an ongoing problem in marine biodiversity. Harvesting of intertidal molluscs has marine environments. Sources of litter are reduced the abundance and average Aquaculture varied and include terrestrial and ship- size of larger species on reefs in Port based sources. Litter will often take long Marine aquaculture in Victoria occurs Phillip Bay206. Trampling can reduce cover periods of time to break down and fish, within Aquaculture Fisheries Reserves of the common macroalga, Neptune’s seabirds and marine mammals can ingest (AFR), declared under the Fisheries Act necklace (Hormosira banksii), with or become tangled in litter, often resulting 1995. With the exception of Portland, all consequent changes to other macroalgae in death. The increase in litter in the are located within Port Phillip Bay and and invertebrates. The extent of damage ocean can also act as a ‘raft’ for marine Western Port (Figure CES3.5). species, increasing the potential of exotic species to enter the local environment205. Figure CES3.5 Aquaculture fisheries reserves in Port Phillip Bay and Western Port Source: DPI As discussed above in the Commercial and recreational fishing section, discarded fishing gear (i.e. trawl nets) can drift on ocean currents and can continue to harm species such as whales, dolphins and sea birds.

| 478 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

The potential impact of aquaculture on Coastal and urban development Implications biodiversity will depend on the species, Most of Victoria’s population lives close to The marine biodiversity of Victoria management practices and legislative the coast, which puts direct pressure on is a unique and valuable asset. The framework under which each facility marine environments through increased implications of biodiversity loss can be must operate. Physical disturbance of coastal development. Besides contributing classified under three broad types (see the site can occur with the construction to marine water quality issues (see CES2 Figure CES3.6). and maintenance of infrastructure. Other Water Quality), coastal development Environmental implications include potential impacts include risk of disease such as building marinas or reclamation ecosystems services such as nutrient from the farmed species and food supply, of sensitive intertidal habitats, such as cycling, and cumulative effects such as introduction of non-endemic species or mangroves and salt marshes, can directly a reduction in diversity that affects the genetically different individuals to wild disturb marine habitats and organisms ability of species to adapt to a changing populations, and increased nutrient (see CES1 Coastal Modification). load to water and sediment. Generally environment. Marine biodiversity provides aquaculture is well managed, however, Mineral exploration and extraction critical ecosystem services for life on pressures can impact on both native There are substantial oil and gas reserves Earth. Phytoplankton, for example, are species in adjacent waters, and onto the off the coast of Victoria. Oil and gas are free-floating microscopic ocean plants aquaculture industries themselves. There currently being extracted from some responsible for creating about half of have been cases where these pressures of these reserves and exploration for the oxygen on earth as well as playing a have led to the abandonment of large new reserves is continuing. Activities critical role in nitrogen cycling (see Figure areas of aquaculture infrastructure that associated with extraction and exploration CES2.4) and providing a food source for were no longer viable207, indicating the of minerals in marine environments can larger animals. Phytoplankton also act importance of monitoring the effect of disturb marine habitats and organisms. as a global carbon sink, without which interconnectedness with surrounding Oil and gas platforms and drilling the scale of the effect on the atmosphere marine systems. operations directly disturb benthic habitats of the current rate of carbon dioxide emissions would be far more severe (see In addition to the sea-based facilities, in areas immediately adjacent to drilling Part 4.1: Atmosphere, Climate Change). there are six land-based abalone operations. The use of seismic equipment aquaculture facilities. All are open for mineral exploration may interfere with In comparison to terrestrial species, there systems; that is, water is pumped from the cetaceans. Exploration and extraction of is generally a lower level of understanding sea to be used in the facility and, following mineral resources in marine environments and a different approach to the decline some treatment, is discharged back also increases the risk of spills of drilling in marine biodiversity. For many marine into the marine environment. Although fluids and hydrocarbons. issues, it is a case of out of sight, out of physical disturbance to the seafloor Climate change mind. The degree of interdependence that and marine waters is reduced with exists between the marine environment land-based facilities, potential impacts The impacts of climate change on marine and other ecological and climatic systems such as increased delivery of nutrients biodiversity are discussed in detail in is extensive, making modelling of future and pathogens, and the opportunity for CES4 Climate Change. Likely impacts scenarios difficult. Nevertheless, there is escapees to mix with wild populations still include sea level rise, increased sea strong evidence that a reduction in marine exist. surface temperature, altered ocean biodiversity, particularly in populations of currents, storm surges and flooding, as certain ecological keystone species would Dredging well as changes in ocean salinity and have implications on a global scale208. Dredging of channels has occurred for pH. Sea level rise and flooding directly Furthermore, it is likely that some of the many years in Victoria, and is required to threaten coastal vegetation, especially changes that are occurring will constitute allow access by private and commercial given the extent of coastal development, permanent and irrevocable modification vessels to bays and inlets along the which constrains retreat of coastal of marine ecosystems, including further Victorian coast. Dredging operations ecosystems. Acidification of oceans species extinctions209. For example, many directly disturb benthic habitats and threatens coral and shelled organisms top level predators play an important often temporarily reduce water quality by by reducing the availability of carbonate, role in managing the abundance of other increasing concentrations of suspended from which shells and coral structures are species in the ocean. Recent information sediments in the water column. Benthic composed. Other likely effects of climate shows that the unsustainable fishing of organisms are vulnerable to direct change on marine and coastal biodiversity sharks will have worldwide ‘cascading’ disturbance from dredging operations. include changes in habitat distribution, effects on marine ecosystems210. Marine macroalgae and seagrass are also changes in population and ecosystem vulnerable because their photosynthetic dynamics and increases in the range and capacity is reduced due to low light levels incidence of diseases (see CES4 Climate caused by high turbidity (see CES2 Water Change). Quality).

Figure CES3.6 The implications of a decline in marine biodiversity

Economic Utilitarian values Implications Cultural }

Environmental

479 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 In addition, the interactions between a Cultural and economic implications are Management responses reduction in keystone species and other representative of what are typically known Response Name stressors such as climate change could as utilitarian values (see Figure CES3.7), in Land & Biodiversity in a Time of Climate give rise to cumulative effects; that is, that they describe the practical uses that Change White Paper effects greater than either stressor alone humans derive from marine biodiversity. would create211. Because of the lack of Utilitarian values also include the intrinsic Responsible Authority understanding concerning such issues, it values that humans ascribe to marine Department of Sustainability & has been argued that marine biodiversity biodiversity and their sense of wonder Environment should be managed according to the for the sea. Concern has been raised Response Type 212 precautionary principle . by divers and other users of Port Phillip Policy/Strategy Bay over the impact that the incursion of Cultural and economic implications refers marine pests has had on such species The Land and Biodiversity in a Time of to the effects that humans will experience as the Weedy Sea Dragon (Victorian Climate Change White Paper, due for as a result of environmental changes Marine Emblem). The intrinsic value of release in 2009, will set the environmental and directly as a result of depauperate other species is also noted by people policy and investment direction for natural marine environments. Currently Victoria’s who report spiritual experiences when resource management, land health and economy gains great benefit from healthy swimming with the Bottlenose Dolphins biodiversity, including marine biodiversity, marine biodiversity. For example, the in Port Phillip Bay or sighting migrating for the next two decades. The process Victorian abalone industry, worth $60 Humpback Whales off the coast at for developing the White Paper has million per year, is threatened by the Warrnambool. commenced, with the key themes outlined naturally occurring Ganglioneuritis virus, in the preceding Green Paper, released in 4 thought to be exacerbated by common Due to the connectivity of all oceans, early 2008. The Green Paper discusses Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 213 aquaculture procedures . and the interdependence between various management options relating to marine, terrestrial and atmospheric In Victoria, approximately 8000 people marine biodiversity, including options for systems, the implications of a decline in are dependent on seafood landed improving catchment management, better marine biodiversity may be far-reaching, or produced here for the bulk of their managing aquatic ecosystems, improving especially under the additional pressure employment. About $180 million of our management of pests and expanding of a changing climate. Because of seafood product is landed at Victorian our knowledge base. A renewal of the this interdependence, while protecting ports. Approximately $130 million is from Victorian Biodiversity Strategy was also marine biodiversity in Victoria is essential, Victorian managed fisheries, while the rest announced as part of Our Environment, Victoria also has an important role to play is from a combination of Commonwealth Our Future and will be considered in the in advocating the protection of marine and Tasmanian fisheries. With Victoria’s context of the outcomes of the White biodiversity and ecological process in 4.4 clean unpolluted waters, our commercial Paper (see Part 4.2 Land & Biodiversity for Australian and in international waters. fish catch is keenly sought by both the further details). Quite apart from protecting the important domestic and overseas markets214. role that local marine biodiversity plays Response Name While fish stocks have declined, Port in the Victorian economy and culture, Fisheries Act 1995 Phillip Bay still supports socially and protecting marine biodiversity on a global Responsible Authority economically valuable finfish fisheries. scale will enable ecosystems, including Department of Primary Industries These include stocks of snapper, which those that Victorians directly depend upon, Response Type have recently increased because of to better adapt to climate change. reduced commercial fishing activity in the Legislation bay215. Examples of economic implications The Fisheries Act 1995 provides the of degraded marine biodiversity include legislative framework for the regulation, a reduction in fish stocks, negatively management and conservation of affecting industries and towns that rely Victoria’s fisheries. The objectives of on fishing to make a living. The historic the Act set a basis for the ecologically decline in economically valuable species sustainable management of Victoria’s such as abalone and rock lobster are fisheries and aquaculture industries. examples of this. Fisheries Management Plans have been Similarly, ‘ecotourism’ businesses can developed under the Act to manage a be affected by a reduction in marine region (e.g. Mallacoota Inlet Fisheries biodiversity. A reduction in Fairy Penguin Reserve Management Plan) or species numbers, for example, could have severe (e.g. Victorian Rock Lobster Management implications for tourist operators at Phillip Plan) and set indicators, targets and Island. This is of particular concern for monitoring methods. Current reviews and Victoria, as the livelihood of towns such as development of Fisheries Management Lake Entrance, Warrnambool and others Plans use ecosystem-based fisheries depends upon fishing and therefore on the management principles to ensure health of local marine biodiversity. environmental factors are considered in management decision making. Fisheries Management Plans are only as successful as the information available, so further consideration should be given to ensure critical knowledge gaps are bridged.

| 480 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Aquaculture Management Plans Response Name Response Name developed under the Fisheries Act provide Interim Victorian Protocol for Managing Waste Management Policy (Ships’ operational rules for the management Exotic Marine Organism Incursions Ballast Water) of specific aquaculture reserves. Plans (1999) Responsible Authority include environmental performance Responsible Authority Environment Protection Authority indicators and management triggers Department of Sustainability & use to manage the impact on the marine Response Type Environment environment. Guidelines for Environment Policy/Strategy Response Type Baseline Surveys & Ongoing Monitoring The Port Phillip Bay Environmental Process of Aquaculture Fisheries Reserves in Port Management Plan identifies the risks of Phillip Bay were established by the DPI The Interim Victorian Protocol for Managing nutrients and marine pests as priorities in 2006 to provide detailed guidance on Exotic Marine Organism Incursions (the to be addressed in the management of the environmental monitoring required for Protocol) was established in 1999 to the bay. In response, the EPA established aquaculture licence holders. The strategic minimise the adverse effects of future the Waste Management Policy (Ships’ planning and regulation established under incursions of exotic marine organisms Ballast Water) in July 2004 to protect the Act provide a basis for the aquaculture into Victorian waters. The protocol Victoria’s environment from marine industries to operate in an ecologically outlines the response processes and pests from domestic ballast. The policy sustainable manner. responsibilities of other agencies, establishes a control for vessels entering Despite the Fisheries Management Plans, primarily the Department of Sustainability Victorian waters with ballast water that several fisheries in Victoria are believed & Environment, Environment Protection originates from an Australian port or to be fully exploited and sustainable at Authority, Australian Quarantine and within the territorial seas of Australia. The current levels and within current ecological Inspection Services, CSIRO and the Environment Protection (Ships’ Ballast conditions, which may be changing216 relevant port authority. Water) Regulations 2006 support the policy and provide a mechanism for the EPA to (see CES4 Climate Change). As such it is In late 2003, a Northern Pacific Seastar establish reporting and fee requirements likely that their resilience to compounding (Asterias amurensis) was found at for vessels, including penalties for exogenous pressures has been reduced. Andersons Inlet at Inverloch, Victoria. The non-compliance. Any fees charged are All Victorian export fisheries must be seastar was already common in Port Phillip returned into the management system to accredited by the Commonwealth Bay and was identified as an introduced ensure the ongoing implementation of the Government under the Environment species that was potentially damaging to program. Protection and Biodiversity Conservation native marine communities and species. Act 1999 and meet Commonwealth The Protocol provided the management The Australian Quarantine and Inspection guidelines to demonstrate ecologically structure to successfully eradicate the Service (AQIS) manage the risks of sustainable practices. seastar from the area. In the debrief report international ballast water under the to the emergency response at Andersons Australian Ballast Water Management 217 Recommendation Inlet , it was highlighted that the Protocol Requirements (2007). These requirements should be updated in 2005 to ensure are established with the legislative backing CES3.3 Ensure Fisheries Victoria is consistency with the national arrangements of the Quarantine Act 1908. The EPA provided with sufficient resources and being developed at the time. The policy for domestic ballast water was financial support to properly research Intergovernmental Agreement on a National developed to complement the regulations and monitor fisheries stocks. Where System for the Prevention and Management administered by AQIS. fisheries are depleted, ensure that of Marine Pests Incursions was signed If a marine pest incursion from ballast Fisheries Management Plans allow for in April 2005. The agreement outlines water does occur in Victorian waters, the the recovery of populations such that a national framework for a coordinated Interim Victorian Protocol for Managing their resilience to known environmental approach to the protection of Australia’s Exotic Marine Organism Incursions pressures, such as the effects of marine environment from invasive marine provides the response protocol to climate change, as well as to unknown pests. To date, the protocol for Victoria eradicate the pest from the incursion pressures, is rebuilt. remains an interim arrangement and should area. However, eradication may not be be finalised in accordance with the national possible if the incursion is not detected framework. Furthermore, eradication of early and the pest has had an opportunity marine pests may not be possible if the to establish. To avoid this, a monitoring incursion is not detected early and the program should be established to pest has had an opportunity to establish. determine the existing distribution of Therefore, there should be a strong marine pests and routinely monitor for new emphasis on identification, prevention and incursions. rapid response to incursions in the final Protocol. Recommendation Recommendation CES3.5 Establish monitoring program for marine pest distribution and routinely CES3.4 Update and finalise the Interim monitor for new marine pest incursions Victorian Protocol for Managing Exotic in Victorian marine waters, particularly Marine Organism Incursions for marine focusing on marine pest distribution in pest management in Victorian waters, Port Phillip Bay. with greater emphasis on identification, prevention and rapid response to incursions.

481 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Response Name

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$0-0634 Parks Act 1975

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 1.4
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$0-0634 and Environment Response Type Legislation1.4
 1.4
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In 2002, a system of marine protected areas was1.4
 1.4
set 1.4
aside1.4
 in1.4
 Victorian1.4
 1.4
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 waters.1.4
 1.4
 1.4
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 Thirteen Marine National Parks and 11 Marine Sanctuaries218 now protect over 5% of Victoria’s coastal waters to the State limits, 5.5 km offshore. In addition, several marine and coastal parks provide a level of protection and public access to a further 6.6% of the Victorian marine environment. The area of the Victorian marine environment that falls under these protected areas is shown in Table CES3.4 4

and their locations are shown in Figure Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea CES3.7.

Table CES3.4 Area and percentage of total Victorian waters protected along Victoria’s coast by type, 1997 and 2008 Source: DSE219

Public Land Type Area (ha) Area Totals (ha) % of Vic. Waters 1997 2008 1997 2008 Marine Reserve 6,626.1 Marine & Coastal 65,898.0 0 68,956 0 6.6% Park 4.4 Marine National Park 52,014.8 Marine Sanctuary 558.1 0 52,573 0 5.1% Total Marine Parks 121,529 11.7%

Figure CES3.7 The location of Victorian marine reserves by type 2008 Source: DSE220

Western Victoria Marine Parks and Reserves Marine National Parks & Sanctuaries

Central Victoria Marine Parks and Reserves Marine National Parks & Sanctuaries N

0 50 100

kilometres N

0 50 100

kilometres Eastern Victoria Marine Parks and Reserves Marine National Parks & Sanctuaries

N

0 50 100

kilometres

| 482 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

In addition to the marine parks described above, six of the 11 Victorian wetlands Box CES8 Asset-based Recommendation approach for land and listed under the international convention CES3.6 Examine opportunities for biodiversity management222 on wetlands, the Ramsar Convention, are applying an asset-based approach to located on or near the coast (See Part 4.3, An asset-based approach to land and managing the marine environment. Inland Waters). biodiversity management prioritises funding and research towards increased The Strategy for Marine National Parks Knowledge of Victoria’s marine understanding of risks to assets, rather & Marine Sanctuaries 2003-10 provides environment is sufficient to conclude that than collecting information on a species the scope and direction of management Victoria’s marine biodiversity is unique or system for academic value, or plans for these areas. A management and diverse. A significant pressure on delaying decision making until a depth plan has been established for each of maintaining this biodiversity is the impact of knowledge is held on all elements the marine national parks and marine of introduced species on the marine of a system. This approach has value sanctuaries that provides a consistent and environment. A number of management in land and biodiversity management Statewide approach to managing these responses have been established to as it can be used as a basis to protect, reserves. As the parks and sanctuaries manage the risk of marine pests; however, rehabilitate and manage natural are established under the National species introductions still occur, and, resources without requiring that all Parks Act 1975, a number of activities once established, are extremely difficult elements of a system are understood are prohibited to ensure the protection to eradicate. The most effective way of before taking action. of the marine environment within the controlling marine pests is to stop them reserve. Compliance arrangements There are several key elements to asset- entering the marine environment in the first require ongoing cooperation between based management. These include: place. This is why effective ballast water Parks Victoria and Fisheries Victoria to • Asset Identification - Identification legislation and programs are important. ensure compliance with the legislation and of entities within a region that are protection of marine biodiversity within the The EPA’s domestic ballast water program considered assets and examining the reserve. provides a framework for managing ecosystem services they provide. the risk of marine pests that may be Evaluation of marine biodiversity • Asset Valuation – Assessing the introduced into Victorian waters via responses range of values associated with the ships’ ballast water. The development It is acknowledged that in many cases asset, including the importance of the of a national program for managing understanding of Victoria’s marine asset on the national, state and local domestic ballast water within Australian communities is relatively limited221. community level. Asset valuation can waters is currently being discussed at While continuing to study and increase be used to compare the importance a national level and this initiative should understanding of the marine environment, of the asset against other assets. be encouraged. It is also important that a gap in knowledge of Victoria’s marine the Australian Quarantine and Inspection • Assessing Threats and Risks – environment should not be seen as a Service continue to develop appropriate Consider the rate of change in asset reason to limit the management of the legislation and guidelines to manage the condition, as well as the nature, State’s marine biodiversity. As outlined as risk of marine pest incursions from ballast magnitude, trend and probability of a suggested approach in the Land and water. threats to an asset. Biodiversity at a time of Climate Change • Planning and Investment – Use Green Paper, examining an asset-based Recommendation approach to the management of the information to prioritise future actions marine environment may provide a and investment. CES3.7 Continue to support and implement state, national and useful framework for marine biodiversity Asset-based management holds international ballast water programs management (Box CES8). Using this particular value for marine ecosystems. to minimise the risk of marine pest approach provides a mechanism to While little is known about the incursions in Victorian waters. set management priorities and provide requirements and life histories of a direction for research and monitoring in broad range of species and systems, the absence of data for all systems. management decisions are still required to ensure the ongoing protection of marine ecosystems. By identifying the key marine and coastal assets and their values, and identifying the risks posed to them by a range of natural and human-induced processes, planning and investment can be directed in a sustainable way in the absence of deep scientific knowledge on all elements of the asset in question.

483 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 If a marine pest does become Areas of the marine environment are Continuing research and investigation, established in an area, it is important protected through Victoria’s Marine in particular continuing marine habitat that its movement is restricted to avoid National Park and Marine Sanctuary mapping, is important in order to provide colonisation of new areas. Although network. Marine National Parks and Marine a basis for assessing the adequacy of the marine pests may naturally migrate, Sanctuaries not only provide protection for current protected marine areas. The fifth recreational activities such as boating can areas of the marine environment, they are IUCN World Parks Congress held in South accelerate the rates of spread. Awareness also used to raise community awareness Africa in 2003 called upon the international and education campaigns targeting and educate the community about marine community to establish a system of marine recreational boaters (e.g. Aquatic Pests biodiversity issues. and coastal protected areas, aiming for – Treat ‘em mean, keep your boat clean at least 20-30% of each habitat by 2012. Regulation and protection of Marine campaign) should continue. Increasing the A better understanding of the marine National Parks and Sanctuaries to ensure understanding of marine pest distribution habitats along the Victorian coast will compliance with the National Parks Act (in particular within Port Phillip Bay) and provide valuable information for a review 1975 requires ongoing cooperation the development of a monitoring program of the current representation of marine between Parks Victoria and Fisheries will improve the effectiveness of Victoria’s protected areas. Victoria. Whilst the Act provides ‘legislative current management responses to the protection’ for highly valued areas along issue. the Victorian coast, the protection of Recommendation marine biodiversity in these areas through CES3.10 Continue marine habitat Recommendation policing and enforcement is critical. mapping program and use information Research has highlighted illegal activities CES3.8 Continue awareness to determine adequacy of Victoria’s 4

decreasing and marine species recovering Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea campaigns on the risk of spreading protected marine areas and examine with the level of enforcement increasing in marine pests by recreational boaters. opportunities to expand marine areas marine reserves223. With the current level under protection. of policing of marine reserves restricted by resource availability, further support is required to allow Parks Victoria and Fisheries Victoria to adequately police For further information Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. Museum Victoria Enforcement of recreational activities http://museumvictoria.com.au/ should focus on marine reserve areas Parks Victoria close to major urban centres224. http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au/1bays.cfm 4.4

Recommendation CES3.9 Determine gaps in current capacity to ensure effective compliance of Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. At the conclusion of the review, State Government should fund and resource any critical recommendations.

| 484 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

CES4 Impacts of Climate Change on Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Key findings Objectives The effects of atmospheric and oceanic changes due to climate change are • The climate change factors of altered • To reduce the vulnerability of Victoria’s expected to be detrimental to biodiversity. ocean currents and increasing sea coastal and marine systems to the Coastal ecological communities, many of surface temperature will affect coastal effects of projected climate change which are already threatened by habitat and marine systems via increased through mitigation and adaptation loss due to urban growth and farming, storminess and rising sea levels • To foster further government and are particularly at risk. Similarly, as a respectively. community resilience to the effects of consequence of complex interactions • Increasing oceanic acidification, climate change on Victoria’s coastal between temperature, currents, salinity resulting directly from increased and marine systems and acidity levels, the full effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and Description climate change on marine systems are oceanic stratification will both impact not well understood. However, there is marine biodiversity and, in turn, the The effects of climate change are already evidence that increased sea industries and communities that depend starting to become apparent. As well as temperatures are affecting the breeding upon it. the phenomena described in Part 4.1 patterns, abundance and distribution of a • The effects of increasing atmospheric Atmosphere: Climate Change, global range of species, from plankton to marine climate change is characterised by mammals such as dolphins. CO2 concentrations on the carbonate system in seawater are not reversible in increasing sea surface temperature and As well as the effect on residential areas, human time scales. altered ocean currents. These in turn climate change will affect the economy affect weather patterns, sea levels and • Coastal settlements and biodiversity through businesses that rely on marine other marine and coastal conditions. are already affected and will continue and coastal environments. Fishing Certain effects, such as storm surges and to be affected by storm surges, which industries that rely on marine species flooding, are considered very likely in the will intensify with rising sea level and vulnerable to changing currents and sea short term (≈50 years). Due to the complex localised land subsidence. Models temperatures are likely to be affected. inter-relationships that exist between show that storm surges of up to 2.3 Similarly, coastal communities that oceanic and atmospheric systems, and metres above sea level could be are dependent upon tourism are also incomplete understanding of marine expected by 2070. vulnerable. Climate change is also likely to systems, the full, long-term effects of inflict significant economic cost on coastal • Coastal settlements are likely to be climate change on coasts, estuaries and communities through the need to repair or subject to flooding and inundation, marine systems are not known, making the replace infrastructure after storm damage which could damage infrastructure and use of traditional environmental indicators and to adapt existing infrastructure to the put residents’ health and safety at risk. less useful in describing the issues. changing conditions. Nevertheless, given that characteristics • Biodiversity in coastal environments is of climate change (specifically sea level already under threat from a number of State rise) are tracking on the upper limit of environmental pressures. The effects of For a complete description of the broad recent projections225, it is widely thought climate change represent an additional mechanisms and effects of anthropogenic that the coastal and marine ecological pressure under which certain coastal climate change refer to Part 4.1 systems upon which Victoria was founded ecosystems are unlikely to persist. Atmosphere, Climate Change. will be subject to significant change. • In regard to existing marine systems, Without immediate mitigation and adaptive The causal relationships between aspects there are likely to be numerous, measures, these changes are likely to be of climate change most important to interdependent climate change-related increasingly difficult for human and other marine and coastal systems are complex. factors causing pressure on populations biological systems to adapt to. They are represented in a simplified and altering breeding patterns and manner in Figure CES4.1. A large proportion of Victorians live in distribution. coastal settlements, including Melbourne, and there is a persistent trend of ‘sea change’, the phenomenon that sees increased migration towards coastal regions (see Part 2 Driving Forces). Climate change will affect these communities through sea level rise and an increase in storm surges. In the short term, an increase in erosion rates, periodic flooding and, in the longer term, permanent inundation and altered coastlines, are likely to be the result. It is expected that all Victorian coastal communities will be affected to some extent, with low lying areas clearly the most vulnerable.

485 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Figure CES 4.1 Simplified representation of climate change–associated phenomena on coastal and marine systems Source: Poloczanska et al226. HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Increased greenhouse Change in UV gas concentration radiation levels

Warmer air temperatures

Altered storm Altered atmospheric regimes/rainfall circulation (winds)

Alter ed runoff Rise in sea-level

Altered nutrient Altered oceanic supply and circulation Increased 4 dissolved CO2

stratification (currents) Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea (mixed layer depth)

Ocean acidification Warmer sea temperatures

4.4 In many cases the relationships illustrated Altered currents The East Australian (ocean) Current (EAC) above are not well understood, with is of particular significance as it brings A fundamental feature of climate change modelling becoming increasingly warm water south along the east coast is altered ocean currents. This occurs via uncertain the further into the future of Australia from the tropics. The EAC is a number of mechanisms, one of which projections are made. In addition to this important for migratory fish species and is the addition of fresh water to the sea level of uncertainty, it is also expected that is therefore also important for fisheries from melting glacial and polar ice. It is as climate change progresses, compound and the industries that depend on them228. thought that the subsequent decrease in effects will occur, in some cases further As a feature of worldwide average ocean density of surface water could slow or stop exacerbating pressures on coastal and temperature increases, the EAC is global oceanic (thermohaline)HUMAN ACTIVITIES circulation, marine systems. currently exhibiting signs of intensification currents important for predictable weather (see Box CES9). This intensification of Two phenomena, altered currents and patterns.Increased There greenhouse is a large amount of Change in UV the EAC (also partly caused by ozone increasing ocean temperatures, are the uncertaintygas concentration as to the likelihood, severity radiation levels depletion)229 means that warmer water is most significant factors that account for and timeframe over which this may occur being brought further south230. Projections the effects of climate change on coastal but it is generally thought that such an indicate that the greatest temperature and marine systems227. Also of importance Warmereffect would air temperatures be extremely difficult to changes in the southern hemisphere will are changes in ocean chemistry, in reverse. This uncertainty is illustrative of occur in South East Australia and are due particular acidification, an issue that is the complexity of most climate systems to this effect. This change could have a directly caused by increasing atmospheric and the limitations of predictive modelling. Altered storm Altered atmospheric number of effects on marine biodiversity carbon dioxide. regimes/rainfall circulation (winds) (see Implications).

Alter ed runoff Rise in sea-level

Altered nutrient Altered oceanic supply and circulation Increased dissolved CO stratification (currents) 2 (mixed layer depth)

Ocean acidification Warmer sea temperatures

| 486 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Figure CES4.2 Pattern of observed linear sea surface warming 1950-2006 (°C) Box CES9 The affect of Data source: CSIRO232 stratospheric ozone depletion on the East Australian (ocean) Current Ozone absorbs UV and sunlight. As ozone is depleted, less UV is absorbed, leading to a stratospheric cooling trend which is stronger closer to the south pole. The temperature gradient between this cool air and warmer air generates stronger westerlies near the pole, intensifying the polar vortex. This leads to the entire westerly system shifting polewards, intensifying in the high and polar latitudes. As the energy is confined more and more to high latitudes, mid-latitude winds decrease slightly. These wind changes start in the stratosphere, and the maximum changes reach the surface some three months later, in summer, when the EAC happens to be strongest and penetrates furthest to the south. There has been significant warming in Pressures the seas off south-western and south- The two characteristics of climate change Under historic conditions, the EAC is eastern Australia, the latter associated that are described above, as well as mostly driven by wind. When winds shift with changes to the East Australian others described in Part 4.1 Atmosphere: and strengthen polewards due to the Current (EAC) (see Altered currents). Climate Change (for example, increased changes described above, the EAC also Under conditions of projected accelerated 231 carbon dioxide concentrations and intensifies and shifts polewards (see climate change, sea surface temperatures increasing air temperature), interact to also Part 4.1 Atmosphere, Stratospheric will further increase, particularly in south alter natural systems. Ocean acidification, Ozone). east Australia, where projections suggest sea level rise and altered weather patterns the greatest change in the southern are three phenomena attributable to hemisphere233. Altered ocean currents lead to changes climate change that are of significance to in weather patterns. The combination of Globally, one effect of sea surface Victorian marine and coastal systems. altered currents, particularly the changing temperature increase is thermal Ocean acidification EAC, and sea level rise is likely to have expansion, a contributing factor in sea implications for Victorian marine and level rise (see Sea level rise, and Part Carbon dioxide is constantly being coastal systems, both human settlements 4.1 Atmosphere: Climate Change). absorbed by the oceans. This absorption and biodiversity. These are covered in More locally, increasing sea surface rate increases under conditions of Pressures. temperatures have impacts for local increased atmospheric concentrations Increasing sea surface temperature weather systems and can affect of carbon dioxide, up to a point of biodiversity (See Implications). saturation234. It is estimated that the Sea surface temperature increase is world’s oceans have absorbed half of all also one of the fundamental features of human-emitted carbon dioxide, providing climate change. Worldwide observed sea some buffer from the effect of carbon surface temperature changes range from dioxide on atmospheric temperatures. -0.9°C to +1.5°C over the last 56 years and, on average, show a gradual increase Carbon dioxide in the ocean combines (Figure CES 4.2). However, it is not known with water to create weak carbonic acid. whether this observed change is due to However, as more carbon dioxide is greenhouse gas-induced global warming absorbed, the ocean becomes more or natural variability resulting from El Niño acidic. For many thousands of years the and the Southern Oscillation Index (see ocean has had a slightly alkaline pH level 235 Part 4.1 Atmosphere, Climate Change). of between 8 and 8.3 . It is estimated that the average pH of the oceans has dropped 0.1 units in the period 1700-1994 and will drop a further 0.3-0.5 units by 2100, reaching a pH as low as 7.78 at the surface with variation depending upon depth, rates of emission and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (Figure CES4.3)236.

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Greenhouse gas 20 emissions in Emissions 10 gigatonnes of CO2 per year 0 2000 Atmospheric carbon dioxide 1000 in parts per million pCO2 0 Ocean depth ΔpH in kilometres -0.8 1 -0.7 -0.6 2 Shading represents -0.5 projected change -0.4 in pH by depth, 3 -0.3 over time. -0.2 4 4

ΔpH -0.1 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000

Year Although apparently slight, this increase While ocean acidification is a significant Sea level rise in ocean acidification is sufficient to issue attributable to anthropogenic carbon Increased temperature, itself one of the reduce the availability of aragonite, a dioxide emissions, the capacity of the fundamental characteristics of climate form of carbonate from which corals oceans to continue absorbing carbon change, leads to sea level rise via thermal and other marine organisms (such as dioxide and to provide a buffer against expansion of the upper layer of the sea 241 molluscs) make their shells. The result climate change is starting to decrease . in the short term. In the longer term, of ocean acidification could be a decline This is because other anthropogenic increased temperature is also likely to add 4.4 in populations of such species as well climate change factors (specifically sea to sea level rise via the addition of water as those that feed on them, leading surface temperature and stratification, from melting glacial and polar ice. Due to a resultant modification of marine covered below) may reduce the carbon to the complexity of interactions between ecosystems. This would have flow-on dioxide saturation level of oceans. The aspects of climate change, there is effects, putting pressure on communities full effect of this feedback mechanism significant uncertainty about the extent of that rely on marine environments for is unknown, yet it may have serious glacial and polar melting243. tourism, recreation and fishing238. implications for climate modelling242. This level of uncertainty exemplifies the Since 1961 there has been a global It has been suggested that oceanic complex interactions between climate average sea level rise of approximately 10 absorption of anthropogenic carbon change factors. As the unknown effects cm. However, since 1961 the average rate dioxide over the next several centuries of climate change (such as acidification) of increase changed from 1.8 mm per year may lead to a pH decrease greater than become apparent and climate models are between 1961 and 1992, to 3.1 mm per that which has occurred during the last updated, these factors can significantly year since 1993244. The IPCC projects that 300 million years239. It has also been alter future climate scenarios. However, it global sea levels will rise between 18 and posed that the effects of increasing is believed that for many climate change- 79 cm above the 1990 baseline levels by atmospheric CO concentrations on the 2 related issues, to wait for the effects to 2100, and increases on the east coast of carbonate system in seawater are not become apparent would be to allow Australia may be greater than the global reversible on human time scales240. irreversible damage to occur. mean sea level rise245. Global sea level rise may be higher still if there is significant increase in the melting rate of the ice caps246. Sea level rise is now tracking on the upper limit of recent projections, indicating that both existing and new policy must be more responsive to the most recent data247. This issue is covered in more detail in Part 4.1 Atmosphere, Climate Change.

| 488 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

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$0-0634Port Phillip Bay has a slow rate of water water, the bay may become even more flow-through (approximately one year CES4.1 Ensure that all Victorian coastal saline. Saline water is denser than fresh from Yarra mouth to The Heads) driven and marine climate change policy is water, so further increases in the bay’s 1.4
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Oceanic stratification Figure CES4.4 Historical average conditions of mixing in the bay (A) and Under historic conditions, as warm mechanism by which possible future effects of climate change on surface waters of the EAC that are low in salinity may be affected (B). Note: vertical scale exaggerated 251 nutrients move south along the east coast Data source: Adapted from EPA of Australia, they cool, sink to depth and A - Historically average conditions are exchanged with deeper water richer in nutrients. This exchange allows water that is depleted of nutrients to be recharged248. Denser, more saline water than Bass Strait Under expected conditions of climate change, the warm surface waters of the EAC remain warm for longer, with a reduced density that will slow ‘down- River Yarra

welling’ and exchange with deep Phillip Heads Port Sea Bed water, creating an intensification of the existing layering effect. This is known as stratification249. The main factor in the B - Possible condition under climate change degree of stratification is water density, which, apart from temperature, is also Increased salinity affected by salinity. In the short to medium and density term, increasing sea surface temperature will be the primary factor in stratification. However, under conditions of expected River Yarra Sea Bed

climate change, the addition of fresh water Phillip Heads Port (which is less dense than sea water), due to glacial and polar melt, is expected to further contribute to ocean stratification in some regions.

489 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Altered weather patterns Increased storm surges & flooding Storm tides are the combination of storm Climate theory and climate modelling Storm surges and flooding are perhaps surge with lunar tides. In Victoria, the show that increased sea surface the most significant and direct impacts of highest storm tides occur in Western temperature and altered currents have an climate change for coastal ecosystems Port, owing to the greater amplification of effect on weather. The degree to which and settlements and are expected to storm surges and the high tidal range. The Victoria’s weather will change is not become more severe under conditions of predicted severity of future storm surges known, but models predict an increased future climate change256. Sea level rise and varies according to the climate model that incidence of severe thunderstorms and increased wind speeds are both important is used. In Victoria, the open coast east of local low pressure systems. Features of contributing factors to the expected Port Philip Bay and Western Port is most severe weather include strong winds, with increase in storm surge activity attributable at risk due to the higher storm surges that best estimates predicting an increase to climate change, with sea level rise occur along this coastline. By 2070, under in wind speed of between 2% and 5% playing the greater role257. The patterns conditions of projected worst-case mean by 2030, and up to 14% in Bass Strait that are most commonly responsible for sea level rise and projected worst-case by 2070252. While average annual rainfall 4&$5*0/
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$0-0634 pattern, coastal form and climate change 4 of severe weather will be felt mostly on Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea the coast, especially under a scenario characteristics, particularly sea level rise 260 of higher sea levels253. Severe weather is and wind speed . Several low-lying towns 1.4
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Turbidity, the level of cloudiness of 1.4
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| 490 State of the Environment Part 4 Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea

Implications Figure CES4.6 Level of likely inundation in metres around the Gippsland Lakes during a 2070, 1 in 100-year stormtide event, under modelled conditions of In isolation, each of the above aspects high wind speed and high mean sea level rise of climate change can have significant Data source: CSIRO 266 implications for coastal, estuarine and marine systems. However, in real scenarios, the interaction between the different aspects of climate change is likely to have compounding effects. For example, the interaction between sea level rise and extreme weather events is likely to increase the incidence and severity of storm surges. For other interactions, however, the effects are largely unknown. The following section looks at some of the conditions under which coastal, estuarine and marine systems are likely to exist in the future as a result of climate change. Coastal systems By 2070, under climate change scenarios of high wind speeds and sea level rise, large areas in coastal towns in eastern Victoria as well as the surrounding land are expected to experience inundation during extreme weather events263. For In addition, sea water intrusion into Damage to buildings and other example, under the worst case climate freshwater aquifers on the coast has infrastructure will occur in cases where scenario for 2070, models show that been considered a likely implication of coastal settlements are not protected large magnitude events, which under the depletion of inland aquifers such from likely storm surges. Both the depth current climate conditions are anticipated as is occurring to the Latrobe Group269. and the pressure of flood waters can to occur approximately once every 100 Recent research also suggests that the damage infrastructure and property, with years (a ‘1 in 100-year event’), may occur added climatic effects of storm surges the extent of damage dependent upon as often as every five years264. Under that break natural barriers between marine the degree of erosion and the severity of such conditions, models show that 66 and freshwater systems and sea level rise inundation, winds and water retention274. km2 of land surrounding the Gippsland are likely to exacerbate this problem270. The impact of coincident extreme rainfall Lakes will be inundated. Additionally, The intrusion of saline sea water into and storm surges could further exacerbate as a result of storm surges, breaching aquifers on the coast will affect coastal flooding and have serious implications for of the dune barrier that separates the communities which currently rely on bore settlements. As described above, climate Lakes from the sea could occur. This water271. change may also affect the availability of would result in permanent alteration to water in coastal settlements if aquifers the biophysical features of the Lakes, Settlements and rivers become subject to seawater features that currently make it a popular It is estimated that about 6.0% of intrusion. and economically valuable region of Australian addresses are situated within 3 Victoria265. The extent of inundation around The costs of repairing erosion and km of shorelines in areas with elevations the Gippsland Lakes as a result of a 2070 damage, of insuring property in below 5 m272. It is estimated that up to storm surge is shown in Figure CES4.6. vulnerable areas, and of ensuring 90% of Victorians live on or within 120 km that services such as fresh water and Inundation risk along the Gippsland coast of the coast273 and there is a continuing electricity are maintained is likely to be a may be further increased under conditions trend toward development in coastal significant economic burden on coastal of land subsidence due to depletion of regions (see CES 1 Coastal Modification). communities275. For some existing towns supporting aquifers, caused by oil and gas An increasing coastal population means and settlements, particularly those extraction. Subsidence of up to 2.3 m has that more Victorians and their assets are established prior to awareness of the most already occurred around the coal mines in exposed to the ways in which climate recent climate projection data, relocation the Latrobe Valley (see Part 3.1 Energy), change is affecting the coast. may be the best long-term option (see with the potential for further subsidence Responses). For coastal towns currently identified as a risk by the CSIRO267. experiencing growth and therefore Borehole measurements show that subject to statutory planning decisions, groundwater levels in the Latrobe Group the absence of clear policy has created aquifer have been in decline since 1975 uncertainty (See Box CES12). Current and and there is some concern that the coastal all future coastal urban planning, including land surface will subside as a result. Some provision of emergency services, in areas estimates suggest that parts of the coast vulnerable to storm surges and flooding could subside by up to 1.2 metres by must take into account the likely effects of 2056, but these results are uncertain268. climate change and associated damaging weather.

491 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Box CES12 Sea level rise and to grant permits to construct dwellings on Recommendations coastal planning - the Toora each of six small (2-4 hectare) allotments CES4.2 Ensure that all new and VCAT case276 in the Grip Road area, south of Toora. upgraded coastal infrastructure is The area is open farmland, in a Farming The township of Toora is located resilient to a modelled 2070 1-in-100- Zone (FZ). It is low-lying, prone to the approximately 2.5 kilometres from the year (or similar appropriate engineering effects of a high water table and water- coast on the northern side of Corner standard) storm event, using the most logging and falls under both the Land Inlet in Victoria. In January 2008, the recent sea level and storm surge Subject to Inundation overlay (LSIO) and Gippsland Coastal Board successfully projections. the Environmental Significance Overlay sought leave for VCAT to review the (ESO3). CES4.3 Ensure that coastal land use South Gippsland Shire Council’s decision and community planning is performed with consideration to the long term Figure CES4.7 Location of Toora in South Gippsland and proximity of the properties impacts of climate change and in under consideration to the township of Toora and the LSIO Adapted from Department of Planning and Community Development consultation with all relevant service providers, including local councils and emergency services. CES4.4 Government should provide guidelines and regional projections using the most recent sea level and storm surge projections, with due 4 consideration for the precautionary Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea principle, and incorporate these into the Victorian Planning Provisions, to assist local governments to make more informed planning decisions on coastal land subject to the impacts of climate change, and to provide the community While a local structure plan has not In doing so, VCAT also referred to a with greater certainty in regard to these been developed for Toora, VCAT ruled 2006 CSIRO report278 on climate change matters. that approval of such developments in and sea level rise. While explicitly not such a location, i.e. outside the existing adopting the findings of this report, VCAT 4.4 urban zoned land, would be contrary determined that the additional risk of to the purpose of the Farming Zone. inundation from sea level rise and coastal It would reduce the agricultural utility subsidence was also grounds to refuse and therefore productivity of farming the applications. land in the area and set a precedent for The case sets an important precedent further development, also contrary to the for decisions on coastal development purpose of the Farming Zone. and climate change, but also highlights In addition to these reasons, the process the need for the policy gap to be filled. highlighted a gap in definitive policy In the absence of clear guidance from relating to climate change, specifically the State, local councils are applying sea level rise and the risk of inundation. planning assessment criteria on a case- Due to this gap, VCAT made reference by-case basis, devising their own climate to general precautionary principles, change considerations. So far there has as stipulated under Section 60 of The been inconsistency of application across Planning and Environment Act (1987): Victoria, and questions have been raised over the level of responsibility being taken 60(1) Before deciding on an application, on by local governments. the responsible authority must consider - (e) any significant effects which the responsible authority considers the use or development may have on the environment or which the responsible authority considers the environment may have on the use or development (VCAT’s emphasis) 277.

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Coastal biodiversity For example, of 103 EVCs in the greater Marine systems Because of the trend towards coastal East Gippsland region, 59 are vulnerable, Marine biodiversity development (See Part 2 Driving Forces), rare or endangered and 13 of these Due to its tourism and other economic as well as other factors such as altered are affiliated with coastal or estuarine 281 implications, coral bleaching, fire regimes and pests, many natural environments . Without comprehensive predominantly an issue for tropical coastal systems are already under threat. intervention, coastal recession attributable coastal regions, is the best known effect Climate change represents an additional to a long-term sea level rise of one metre of climate change on marine biodiversity. threat to coastal ecosystems. Coastal or higher will eliminate many of these However, ocean and atmospheric and estuarine ecosystems could adapt ecosystems entirely. temperature increases are also expected to changing conditions, particularly sea In the short term, these coastal to have as significant an impact on the level rise, by moving inland or laterally. ecosystems are also vulnerable to storm distribution and abundance of temperate However, in conjunction with the added surges and other coastal expressions of and polar marine species. In particular, pressure of urban development and other intensifying weather, just as are coastal the implications for marine biodiversity land uses adjacent to the coast, many human settlements. Erosion during storm in Victorian temperate waters are coastal ecosystems may be ‘squeezed surges can remove stretches of beach significant284 and are likely to have a out’ and eliminated altogether279 (see and alter the conditions upon which flow-on effect for coastal industries and also Part 4.2 Land and Biodiversity). This coastal EVCs depend. For example, in fisheries. These include: of particular concern for Victoria, as its the Gippsland Lakes region there is the east-west coastline prevents polewards potential for rising sea levels to increase Altered distribution: For some species, migration. rates of erosion along the Ninety Mile particularly those that are highly mobile, adaptation to a changing climate is an The nature of coastal regions means that Beach, which could eventually lead to option. As habitats shift southwards with there is often a high level of biological breaches in the barrier separating the 282 warming temperatures, southerly migration diversity within a small area. In some Lakes from the sea . has been observed in certain species of cases, ecological vegetation classes As with settlements, the impact of seabirds and marine mammals. (EVCs) that provide habitat for rare and coincident extreme rainfall with storm endangered animals occupy small areas surges could further exacerbate flooding Shifting ocean ecology: Plankton, in close proximity to other EVCs and and have serious implications for coastal the microscopic marine organisms to areas of human settlement. Of over biodiversity, particularly in estuarine upon which much of the life of the 300 EVCs in Victoria, many are found in systems. Sediment transport and oceans depends, is highly sensitive to coastal bioregions, and of these, a large deposition following heavy rainfall can temperature and nutrient changes. Shifting proportion is endangered or vulnerable280. smother extensive areas of estuarine oceanic temperatures and other effects habitat, killing plants and resulting in loss such as stratification can modify oceanic of breeding habitat essential to many conditions under which these organisms Table CES4.1 Conservation status coastal fish and bird species283. Within the have evolved. Species that are adaptable of coastal* EVCs by context of existing pressures on marine to different combinations of conditions bioregion in Victoria fauna populations (see CES 3 Marine exist, and population shifts in response Data source: DSE Biodiversity), there are likely to be impacts to changing climate may occur. However, on commercially important coastal such shifts could bring about other effects, Condition Number fisheries, although the economic impacts such as changes in populations of larger Endangered 35 are unclear. marine mammals that feed on plankton. Vulnerable 39 Depleted 16 Recommendation Rare 17 CES4.5 That government continue to Least concern 10 fund research on the likely implications Total 117 of climate change for coastal and estuarine biodiversity, and that coastal policy decisions take into account the expected impacts and their relative regions of influence.

493 | State of the Environment Report - Victoria 2008 Impacts on population dynamics: The Management responses Response Name: range of the Long-spined Sea Urchin Future Coasts Response Name: (Centrostephanus rodgersii), for example, Climate Change Implications for the Responsible Authority: has extended further south into Tasmanian Gippsland coast Department of Sustainability and waters as a result of the increased Environment intensity of the EAC. The urchin feeds on Responsible Authority: kelp and other seaweeds that are also Gippsland Coastal Board (GCB) Response Type: Process home to the valuable abalone and rock Response Type: lobster fisheries. In its new extended Process The Future Coasts project was initiated range, the urchin feeds unchecked and under the climate change actions outlined In 2003, the Gippsland Coastal Board has formed extensive seaweed-free areas in Our Environment, Our Future (see Part (GCB) initiated a two-phase study of the or ‘barrens’. This may have an impact 4.2 Land & Biodiversity). Future Coasts effect of sea level rise on the Gippsland on local fisheries and their associated will assess the vulnerability of Victoria’s 285 coast in partnership with the CSIRO and industries (see also CES3 Marine coastline to climate change and develop with funding from the National Heritage Biodiversity). strategies and planning tools for local Trust. Phases 1 of the project was government and coastal managers. A tightening of habitats suitable for completed in 2006 and involved identifying certain species: Species that rely on some of the key factors influencing climate Stage 1 of the project involves collecting particular combinations of conditions, and weather events along the Gippsland the quantitative information required to such as corals, mangroves, kelp and coast286. assess risks to the coastal environment, fishes, may be at risk. Corals, many communities and infrastructure from 4 The study predicted more frequent of which rely on a limited temperature climate change. This involves using an Coasts, Estuaries and the Sea and more extreme storm events for the range and a rocky substrate upon which airborne laser system to capture a high Gippsland coast and identified a range to fasten, may be unable to extend their resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of sea level rise implications (see Figure range southwards as their northern extent of Victoria’s entire coastline288. Two thirds CES4.6). The Gippsland Coastal Board recedes. In effect, their range may be of the terrestrial coast has been captured, has now completed Phase 2 which squeezed between increasing temperature with the seafloor mapping (bathymetric examines the vulnerabilities of human to the north and habitat which is unsuitable DEM) to follow once the terrestrial and natural assets along the Gippsland for other reasons in the south. mapping is complete289. The DEM will coast287. An increase in the incidence and map the coastal terrain 10 metres above range of diseases: As the temperature This study has provided Government and the seafloor 10 metres below sea agencies and the Gippsland community level to very high resolution, a level and of marine animals’ habitats increases, 4.4 temperature-related physiological stress with a better understanding of the scale never previously achieved along the can reduce the effectiveness of the vulnerability of the Victorian coastal Australian coast. and marine environment to the effects immune response. There is also a strong In the 2008-09 State Budget, $8 million of climate change at a local level. The likelihood that with shifts in warmer ocean was allocated to Future Coasts to methods initiated by the GCB and used temperatures polewards, specifically the complete Stage 1 of the project. An by CSIRO to develop sea level rise and EAC, the geographic range of tropical additional $1.8 million was allocated to storm surge predictions set an important disease and tropical toxic algal bloom develop a coastal asset management precedent and are now being applied in species may also shift. database for all public assets along the Future Coasts project (below) across the Victorian coast (i.e. local port These examples make up a small the entire Victorian coast. proportion of all the changes to coastal infrastructure, seawalls, groynes)290. This and marine biodiversity that it has been initiative will provide valuable information postulated may occur under climate to incorporate in the Future Coasts project change scenarios. Other effects are and provide greater clarity concerning the also likely to occur, but the full extent of vulnerability of coastal infrastructure to the effects is unknown. Again, this illustrates impacts of climate change. the considerable uncertainty due to the Stage 2 of the Future Coasts project complexity of biophysical interactions involves using projected sea levels associated with climate change. and weather patterns to develop wave and coastal processes modelling and Recommendation assessing the erodibility of the coastline. These outputs will be combined with the CES4.6 That government continue to coastal terrain and seafloor mapping to fund research on the likely implications determine the vulnerability of the coastline. of climate change for marine Stage 2 will also start to look at adaptation biodiversity, assess adaptation capacity options, such as retreat, accommodation and make marine policy decisions that and protection (see Figure CES 4.8). take into account the expected impacts. Stage 2 is not expected to be complete before the end of 2009. It is likely that Future Coasts will require a higher level of government funding, depending upon these findings and on the most recent sea level projection data.

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Retreat CES4.7 Ensure that the Victorian Coastal Strategy provides clear policy to address the coastal impacts of climate change. sea level rise CES4.8 Continue the implementation of the Future Coasts project with appropriate resource and funding support to ensure adaptation measures can be implemented along the Victorian Accommodate coast. Update the Victorian Coastal Strategy as outcomes of the Future Coasts project become known.

sea level rise At a local level, further work and financial support is required to develop specific adaptation responses and strategies by a range of agencies and decision Protect makers (i.e. local government, Coastal Committees of Management). The Future Coasts project is anticipated to provide valuable information to identify specific sea level rise areas of risk along the Victorian coast, but the urgency of this threat to the Victorian coast means that in some instances regional and local action will need to occur now. Appropriate targets and monitoring Evaluation of climate change responses Modelling the effects of climate requirements should be considered to change on a local and regional scale ensure the adaptation strategies are Dealing with the impacts of climate is an important priority for the State appropriate. change presents one of the biggest Government. However, it is now vital to challenges for the future management of begin development of new policies and Recommendation Victoria’s coastal and marine environment. programs that focus on coastal resilience As a first world country, Australia has to climate change at a more regional and CES4.9 Ensure mechanisms are a leading role to play internationally in integrated level. The Victorian Coastal established to provide information to mitigating climate change by reducing Strategy 2007 provides a number of new local governments to assist in planning emissions (see Part 3.1 Energy & Part 4.1 actions to better understand and adapt to decisions that may be impacted by Atmosphere, Climate Change). However, climate change in the coastal and marine climate change on the coast. atmospheric temperature and sea level environment and these should be adopted rises are now tracking to the higher and implemented by government. Future limit of recent IPCC projections and so Coasts will also develop some strategies For further information the implementation of local adaptive and decision support tools which will Gippsland Coastal Board strategies is also urgent. Reducing the underpin the process of adaptation, but http://www.gcb.vic.gov.au/ vulnerability of Victoria’s coast to the sea this work is unlikely to be completed Land use Planning level rise and increasing numbers of storm before the Victorian Coastal Strategy is http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/ surges is a high priority. In order to do this, revised in late 2008. Therefore, given the dse/nrenpl.nsf/Home+Page/ it is vital that local and regional information fact that new information on the rate of DSE+Planning~Home+Page?open is gathered and used to aid robust climate change continues to become adaptation. The Future Coasts project has available, it is important that the planning Sea level rise models for Lakes Entrance the potential to be an important initiative tools now available are used to plan for http://sahultime.monash.edu.au/ for enabling localised responses to climate the likely upper limit of climate change LakesEntrance/ change, provided that it is well funded and scenarios. Where there is immediate need uses the best and most recent data. for planning certainty, the use of interim tools should also be considered.

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