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Handbook of Hans J. Deeg • Juan Antonio Belmonte Editors

Handbook of Exoplanets

With 910 Figures and 107 Tables

123 Editors Hans J. Deeg Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias La Laguna, Tenerife, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

Departamento de Astrofísica Departamento de Astrofísica Universidad de La Laguna Universidad de La Laguna La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Tenerife, Spain

ISBN 978-3-319-55332-0 ISBN 978-3-319-55333-7 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-55334-4 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950058

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword

In the search for other worlds, the last decades have probably been among the exciting over the past centuries, possibly since the of the Copernican and the discovery by Galileo of the around . The large series of breakthroughs in the search for exoworlds make this recent period a rather remarkable time in the history of which appears to be as fascinating as the one about 400 years ago when humankind started to abandon geocentrism. During the past 25 years, we have witnessed the detection of orbiting thousands of nearby and distant . Since the discovery of the first planets around in the early and the first Jupiter- around the solar-type 51 Peg in 1995, a large diversity of planetary systems, has been identified in the nearby . Efficient hunting programs have provided increasing statistical evidence that planets are very common around stars. More than 50% of the stars in our may host planetary systems and therefore, tens of billions may await discovery. The detection rate of exoplanets has only increased with time, reaching values above one discovery per . The number of known exoplanets, several thousand, will considerably increase in the coming decade thanks to the many search programs already started or planned for ground and space . The study of this extremely rich population of planetary systems will lead to a better understanding of their architecture and the involved in the formation processes. Ultimately, the ongoing search and characterization work may unveil planets with adequate conditions to sustain the development of and will pave the road to the discovery of exolife. Planets with similar to those existing in the are frequently found in other planetary systems, displaying very different physical conditions. Exoplanets appear in a large range of orbital separations around a variety of stars and therefore are subject to very different stellar irradiations. The properties of the planets depend heavily on their mass, chemical composition, stellar irradiation, and on their interaction with the host stars’ , radiation, and magnetic field. Obser- vations have revealed and will continue bringing to light an enormous diversity of planets and planetary systems conforming an exceptional set of laboratories which will challenge our knowledge on physics, chemistry, , and biology. The masses of known exoplanets span the range between the mass of the and several times the mass of Jupiter. While our Solar System provides useful

v vi Foreword guidance to establish the of a planet, observations do not offer a strong indication about the value of a maximum mass. A widely adopted criterion for such value is the burning limit (13 MJup/. However, objects with masses slightly above, generally designated as brown dwarfs, and below this limit have been found orbiting stars and could in principle form via the same mechanism of gravitational instability in protoplanetary discs, blurring a distinction. Brown dwarfs are defined as self-gravitating objects unable to sustain stable burning which according to evolutionary models have masses below 75 MJup (for solar ). Discovered in 1995, free-floating brown dwarfs are known to populate the galaxy in a comparable number to stars, but are rarely found around stars (with occurrence rate of a few percent). In 2000, free-floating objects with only a few times the mass of Jupiter were discovered in star clusters via imaging and . Subsequent searches have revealed that free-floating super- compare in number to solar-type stars and are far more common as free-floaters than orbiting stars. Establishing an upper limit to the mass of planets will have to await until an adequate understanding of the formation mechanisms of these super- Jupiters is achieved. Doppler measurements provided the first exoplanet discoveries around solar-type stars, the so-called Hot Jupiters, close-in giants domi- nated by a hydrogen- envelope with a rocky core. This type of exoplanets was also the first detected to produce of their stars. While cold Jupiter- like planets of much longer orbital periods appear to orbit around 3% of solar-type stars, their hot counterparts are present only around less than 1%. Hot Jupiters are likely formed via core at much higher separation from their host stars suffering subsequent migration to their observed . Planets with such very close orbits (P < 7 days) offer a high probability (10%) of producing eclipses, and many have been the subject of extensive atmospheric characterization via differential and spectroscopy during transits. These observing techniques have provided some initial on their atmospheric chemical composition, vertical -temperature profiles, , and circulation patterns. Among the identified new types of planets, super-, which have several times, the mass of the Earth and sizes up to twice its radius, are remarkably different to the planets in the Solar System. Besides, they are the most abundant planets with orbital periods of less than 100 days and are frequently found in compact multiple-planet systems. More than 50% of the stars seem to host a super-Earth or a smaller planet. The generation of these planets is expected to occur through the formation of a rocky core and subsequent accretion of a gas envelope. The envelopes can be massive enough to notably contribute to the total radius of the planet. However, many processes (, collisions, etc.) contribute to eroding the during evolution causing a large diversity of these envelopes, which observations are starting to unveil. Some super-Earths could in principle form a crust and host liquid , if they are located at suitable orbital separations. Several have been detected in the habitable zone of stars producing eclipses. They are very Foreword vii attractive targets for atmospheric characterization via spectroscopy with the new suite of large diameter ground and space telescopes. Evidence for the existence of terrestrial planets is compelling, and planets with similar mass, size, and physical conditions potentially similar to the Earth have already been discovered. Planet Proxima b in the nearest star to the , detected using Doppler radial velocity measurements, is the closest example of a continuously increasing family. Such rocky planets may host liquid water, and the characterization of their thin will be an extraordinary chal- lenge, even for the new generation of extremely large telescopes. Proxima b is not known to transit its parent star, and direct imaging and spectroscopy with coronographs assisted by Adaptive Optics on very large and extremely large telescopes is a promising way to obtain information on its atmospheric properties. Identifying tracers of biological activity will possibly require new technological advances. The Kepler space and other ground-based have iden- tified a large number of transiting planets, including those of Earth-size. Series of radial velocity measurements of the host stars could in principle achieve a determination of the masses for these small planets, which typically induce radial velocity semi-amplitudes of tens of cm/s in solar type stars. The advent of a new generation of ultra-stable high dispersion spectrographs at very large telescopes (ESPRESSO is the first to achieve 10 cm/s) will make possible such measurements in a fraction of the detected systems, leading to the obtainment of planet and further insight on the formation processes of terrestrial planets. In multiple transiting planet systems, transit time variability observations can also provide a determination of masses. Bright stars with transiting Earth-size planets offer an excellent opportunity to study planet atmospheric properties with JWST and the ELTs. A large effort is currently undertaken to search for transiting planets in the habitable zone of nearby stars using a series of dedicated ground-based telescopes (MEarth, SPECULOOS, etc.) and space observatories (TESS). In the future, other space telescopes like JWST, CHEOPS, and PLATO and the extremely large telescopes (EELT, TMT, GMT) will bring exceptional capacities for the characterization of the atmospheres of a large variety of exoplanets, including the new terrestrials. This Handbook of Exoplanets provides an outstanding vision on the state of the art of exoplanet research, as well as describes the historical evolution of the field from first discoveries to the most recent detections. It includes a revision of the theories of formation and evolution for the various types of planets and the on going effort to characterize both planet interiors and their atmospheric properties. Current knowledge on exoplanet properties is confronted with the detailed information provided by planets in the Solar System and by brown dwarfs. The atmospheres of nearby free-floating brown dwarfs can be studied in great detail and offer important insight and guidance for the exploration of exoplanet atmospheres in a large range of temperatures extending below the temperature of the atmosphere of the Earth. viii Foreword

This book also offers an overview of recent advances in the various techniques employed in the field and shows how progress on direct imaging, radial velocities, transit photometry and spectroscopy, microlensing, , etc., will enable the path to understanding the origin, evolution, and the physical/chemical properties of the large diversity of planets so far discovered, including those similar to Earth.

Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain Rafael Rebolo February 2018 Preface

About 25 years after the discovery of the first exoplanets by a few scattered pioneers, the field of has developed into a principal branch of astronomy, producing over a thousand scientific articles every year. The underlying central question that motivates most of its activity, “Are we alone in the Universe?” and “What are the origins of our and of other Worlds?” can now be illuminated from several angles, but a conclusive answer remains in the distance. The present work is a first attempt to summarize the current status of the science driven by these questions. The idea for it started almost like a joke during a dinner in a sympathetic Korean Restaurant during the 29th IAU General Assembly in Honolulu. Three years later, that embryo has developed into four heavy volumes, with contributions by over 200 scientists. We, as Editors-in-Chief of this project, are very proud of how our colleagues, partners, friends, and even some scientific rivals have taken a substantial part of their more than busy to make this possible. A big “Thank you” to all of them! The Handbook of Exoplanets, like other major reference works by Springer, has been organized into Sections. Each of them was developed under the supervision of one or more dedicated Section Editors. The work of these scholars has been absolutely fundamental for the success of the project. Dear Tsevi, Agustín, María Rosa, Alex, Norio, Malcolm, Roi, Hans, Nuccio, Natalie, Sara, Ralph, Pedro, Vikki, Rory, and Jean, you cannot imagine how thankful we are! The Handbook is organized along both a chronological and thematic perspective. The first section “Exoplanet Research: A History of Discovery” serves as an introduction for the Handbook. Then, two sections follow that contextualize exo- planets within the wider field of astronomy: “Solar System–Exoplanet Synergies” and “Between Planets and Stars,” devoted to the celestial bodies of our vicinity, including the Earth and objects like free-floating planets or brown dwarfs. The major part of the Handbook describes the observational efforts of the last 25 years, namely “Planet Discovery Methods,” “Ground-Based Instrumental Projects for Exoplanet Research,” “Space Missions for Exoplanet Research,” and “Exoplanet Characterization.” The central stars are fundamental for our understanding of planet systems, hence the sections devoted to: “Characterizing Planet Host Stars” and “Planets and Their Stars: Interactions.” The next section of the Handbook introduces the status of interpretative work in exoplanet science. First, the major global results

ix x Preface are given in the section “Catalogues, Planet Abundances and Statistics.” The most detailed knowledge we have about exoplanets is about their atmospheres, hence the section “Exoplanet Atmospheres.” The question about our and other worlds’ origins is directly confronted in “Formation and Evolution of Planets and Planet Systems.” One of the major observational results is our awareness of the variety of other worlds that exist in the Universe, which motivated the section named “The Diversity of Worlds: An Exoplanet Fauna.” The largest section of this book “Where Life May Arise: Habitability” is directly dedicated to the fundamental question “Are we alone?” We do not have a crystal ball suggesting what will be next in our field. However, we felt the necessity to envisage how it may develop; hence, the book concludes with “The Future: What Will Be Next?” Certainly, there will be colleagues who point out that important topics have been omitted and they will likely be correct. However, this work has been envisaged as a living document in which future developments, as well as updates of current ones, will be addressed in its electronic edition. So, it is open to suggestions and improvements, and we invite readers to provide feedback. Our ultimate hope is that sometimes in the future there will be chapters or whole sections, not devoted to remote observations and exoplanet habitability as of today, but rather to results from in situ missions and to exoplanet habitats. Future provides indeed a wide open window to our understanding of the Universe!

Tenerife, Spain Hans J. Deeg April 2018 Juan Antonio Belmonte Contents

Volume 1 Section I Exoplanet Research: A History of Discovery ...... 1 Tsevi Mazeh 1 The Discovery of the First Exoplanets ...... 3 Davide Cenadelli and Andrea Bernagozzi 2 PSR B1257+12 and the First Confirmed Planets Beyond the Solar System ...... 21 Alexander Wolszczan 3 Prehistory of Transit Searches ...... 35 Danielle Briot and Jean Schneider 4 Discovery of the First Transiting Planets ...... 51 Edward W. Dunham 5 The Way to Circumbinary Planets ...... 65 Laurance R. Doyle and Hans J. Deeg 6 The Naming of Extrasolar Planets ...... 85 Frederic V. Hessman 7 Impact of Exoplanet Science in the Early Twenty-First Century ...... 95 Hans J. Deeg and Juan Antonio Belmonte

SectionII SolarSystem–ExoplanetSynergies...... 115 Agustín Sánchez Lavega 8 The Solar System: A Panorama ...... 117 Katherine de Kleer and Imke de Pater 9 Interiors and Surfaces of Terrestrial Planets and Major ...... 141 Alberto G. Fairén

xi xii Contents

10 Internal Structure of Giant and Icy Planets: Importance of Heavy Elements and Mixing ...... 167 Ravit Helled and Tristan Guillot 11 Composition and Chemistry of the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Planets: , the Earth, , and ...... 187 Thérèse Encrenaz and 12 Tenuous Atmospheres in the Solar System ...... 215 Emmanuel Lellouch 13 Temperature, , and Aerosols in the Terrestrial Bodies of the Solar System ...... 235 F. Montmessin and A. Määttänen 14 Temperature, Clouds, and Aerosols in Giant and Icy Planets .... 265 Robert A. West 15 Atmospheric Dynamics of Terrestrial Planets ...... 285 Peter L. Read, Stephen R. Lewis, and Geoffrey K. Vallis 16 Atmospheric Dynamics of Giants and Icy Planets ...... 317 A. Sánchez-Lavega and M. Heimpel 17 Upper Atmospheres and Ionospheres of Planets and Satellites ... 349 Antonio García Muñoz, Tommi T. Koskinen, and Panayotis Lavvas 18 Rings in the Solar System: A Short Review ...... 375 Sébastien Charnoz, Aurélien Crida, and Ryuki Hyodo 19 The Diverse Population of Small Bodies of the Solar System ..... 395 Julia de León, Javier Licandro, and Noemí Pinilla-Alonso 20 The Solar System as a Benchmark for Exoplanet Systems Interpretation ...... 421 Pilar Montañés-Rodríguez and Enric Pallé

SectionIII BetweenPlanetsandStars...... 445 María Rosa Zapatero-Osorio 21 Formation: Theory ...... 447 Anthony P. Whitworth 22 Brown Dwarfs and Free-Floating Planets in Young Stellar Clusters ...... 469 V. J. S. Béjar and Eduardo L. Martín 23 Large-Scale Searches for Brown Dwarfs and Free-Floating Planets ...... 503 Ben Burningham Contents xiii

24 Spectral Properties of Brown Dwarfs and Unbound Objects ...... 531 Jacqueline K. Faherty 25 Y Dwarfs: The Challenge of Discovering the Coldest Substellar Population in the Solar Neighborhood ...... 543 Sandy K. Leggett 26 Variability of Brown Dwarfs ...... 555 Étienne Artigau 27 Metal-Depleted Brown Dwarfs ...... 575 Nicolas Lodieu 28 Radio Emission from Ultracool Dwarfs ...... 589 Peter K. G. Williams 29 Definition of Exoplanets and Brown Dwarfs ...... 611 Jean Schneider

SectionIV PlanetDiscoveryMethods...... 617 Alexander Wolszczan 30 Radial Velocities as an Exoplanet Discovery Method...... 619 Jason T. Wright 31 Transit Photometry as an Exoplanet Discovery Method ...... 633 Hans J. Deeg and Roi Alonso 32 Finding Planets via Gravitational Microlensing ...... 659 Virginie Batista 33 Astrometry as an Exoplanet Discovery Method ...... 689 Fabien Malbet and Alessandro Sozzetti 34 Direct Imaging as a Detection Technique for Exoplanets ...... 705 Laurent Pueyo 35 Timing as an Exoplanet Discovery Method...... 767 Michael Kramer 36 Timing by Stellar Pulsations as an Exoplanet Discovery Method ...... 787 J. J. Hermes 37 Transit-Timing and Duration Variations for the Discovery and Characterization of Exoplanets ...... 797 and Daniel C. Fabrycky 38 Radio Observations as an Exoplanet Discovery Method ...... 817 T. Joseph W. Lazio xiv Contents

39 Detecting and Characterizing and Exorings ...... 835 René Heller

Volume 2 Section V Ground-Based Instrumental Projects for Exoplanet Research ...... 853 Norio Narita

40 High-Precision Spectrographs for Exoplanet Research: CORAVEL, ELODIE, CORALIE, SOPHIE, and HARPS ...... 855 Francesco Pepe, François Bouchy, , and Stéphane Udry

41 ESPRESSO on VLT: An Instrument for Exoplanet Research .... 883 Jonay I. González Hernández, Francesco Pepe, Paolo Molaro, and Nuno C. Santos

42 SPIRou: A NIR Spectropolarimeter/High-Precision Velocimeter for the CFHT ...... 903 Jean-François Donati, D. Kouach, M. Lacombe, S. Baratchart, R. Doyon, X. Delfosse, Étienne Artigau, Claire Moutou, G. Hébrard, François Bouchy, J. Bouvier, S. Alencar, L. Saddlemyer, L. Parès, P. Rabou, Y. Micheau, F. Dolon, G. Barrick, O. Hernandez, S. Y. Wang, V. Reshetov, N. Striebig, Z. Challita, A. Carmona, S. Tibault, E. Martioli, P. Figueira, I. Boisse, Francesco Pepe, and the SPIRou Teams

43 HiCIAO and IRD: Two Exoplanet Instruments for the Subaru 8.2 m ...... 931 Motohide Tamura

44 Imaging with Adaptive Optics and Coronographs for Exoplanet Research ...... 937 Olivier Guyon

45 The HATNet and HATSouth Exoplanet Surveys ...... 957 Gáspár Á. Bakos

46 KELT: The Kilodegree Extremely Little Telescope, a Survey for Exoplanets Transiting Bright, Hot Stars ...... 969 Joshua Pepper, Keivan G. Stassun, and B. S. Gaudi

47 Small Telescope Exoplanet Transit Surveys: XO ...... 981 Nicolas Crouzet Contents xv

48 SPECULOOS Exoplanet Search and Its Prototype on TRAPPIST ...... 1007 Artem Burdanov, Laetitia Delrez, Michaël Gillon, Emmanuël Jehin, and the SPECULOOS and TRAPPIST Teams 49 Microlensing Surveys for Exoplanet Research (OGLE Survey Perspective) ...... 1025 Andrzej Udalski 50 Microlensing Surveys for Exoplanet Research (MOA) ...... 1045 Philip Yock and Yasushi Muraki 51 Korea Microlensing Telescope Network ...... 1065 Byeong-Gon Park, Andrew P. Gould, Chung-Uk Lee, and Seung-Lee Kim 52 Exoplanet Research with the Stratospheric Observatory for Astronomy (SOFIA) ...... 1085 Daniel Angerhausen 53 Exoplanet Research in the Era of the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) ...... 1105 Florian Rodler

Section VI Space Missions for Exoplanet Research ...... 1121 Malcolm Fridlund 54 Space Missions for Exoplanet Research: Overview and Introduction ...... 1123 Malcolm Fridlund 55 CoRoT: The First Space-Based Transit Survey to Explore the Close-in Planet Population ...... 1135 Magali Deleuil and Malcolm Fridlund 56 Space Missions for Exoplanet Science: Kepler/K2 ...... 1159 William J. Borucki 57 Observing Exoplanets with the ...... 1179 Charles A. Beichman and Drake Deming 58 Space Astrometry Missions for Exoplanet Science: and the Legacy of Hipparcos ...... 1205 Alessandro Sozzetti and Jos de Bruijne 59 Interferometric Space Missions for Exoplanet Science: Legacy of /TPF ...... 1229 Denis Defrère, Olivier Absil, and Charles A. Beichman xvi Contents

60 CHEOPS: CHaracterizing ExOPlanets ...... 1257 Willy Benz, David Ehrenreich, and Kate Isaak 61 Observing Exoplanets with the James Webb Space Telescope .... 1283 Charles A. Beichman and Thomas P. Greene 62 Space Missions for Exoplanet Science: PLATO ...... 1309 Heike Rauer and Ana M. Heras 63 Future Astrometric Space Missions for Exoplanet Science ...... 1331 Markus Janson, Alexis Brandeker, Celine Boehm, and Alberto Krone Martins 64 Future Exoplanet Space Missions: Spectroscopy and Coronographic Imaging ...... 1343 Artie P. Hatzes and René Liseau

Section VII Exoplanet Characterization ...... 1355 Roi Alonso 65 Mass-Radius Relations of Giant Planets: The Radius Anomaly and Interior Models ...... 1357 Gregory Laughlin 66 The Rossiter–McLaughlin Effect in Exoplanet Research ...... 1375 Amaury H. M. J. Triaud 67 Stellar Limb Darkening’s Effects on Exoplanet Characterization ...... 1403 Szilárd Csizmadia 68 Exoplanet Phase Curves: Observations and Theory ...... 1419 Vivien Parmentier and Ian J. M. Crossfield 69 Characterization of Exoplanets: Secondary Eclipses ...... 1441 Roi Alonso 70 Mapping Exoplanets ...... 1469 Nicolas B. Cowan and Yuka Fujii 71 Spectroscopic Direct Detection of Exoplanets ...... 1485 Jayne L. Birkby 72 Characterizing Evaporating Atmospheres of Exoplanets ...... 1509 Vincent Bourrier and Alain Lecavelier des Etangs 73 Disintegrating Rocky Exoplanets ...... 1527 Rik van Lieshout and Saul A. Rappaport Contents xvii

74 Characterizing the Chemistry of Planetary Materials Around Stars ...... 1545 B. Zuckerman and E. D. Young 75 Bayesian Methods for Exoplanet Science ...... 1567 Hannu Parviainen 76 Tools for Transit and Radial Velocity Modeling and Analysis .... 1591 Hans J. Deeg

Section VIII Characterizing Planet Host Stars ...... 1613 Hans Kjeldsen 77 Characterizing Planet Host Stars: Introduction ...... 1615 Hans Kjeldsen 78 Accurate Stellar Parameters for Radial Velocity Surveys ...... 1623 Nuno C. Santos and Lars A. Buchhave 79 The Combined System of Microlensing Exoplanets and Their Host Stars ...... 1641 Uffe Gråe Jørgensen and Markus Hundertmark 80 Characterizing Host Stars Using ...... 1655 Mia Sloth Lundkvist, Daniel Huber, Víctor Silva Aguirre, and William J. Chaplin 81 Ages for Exoplanet Host Stars ...... 1679 Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard and Víctor Silva Aguirre

Volume 3 Section IX Planets and Their Stars: Interactions ...... 1697 Antonino F. Lanza 82 Planet and Star Interactions: Introduction ...... 1699 Antonino F. Lanza 83 Rotation of Planet-Hosting Stars ...... 1705 Pierre F. L. Maxted 84 Stellar Coronal Activity and Its Impact on Planets ...... 1723 Giuseppina Micela 85 Signatures of Star-Planet Interactions ...... 1737 Evgenya L. Shkolnik and Joe Llama 86 Magnetic Fields in Planet-Hosting Stars ...... 1755 Claire Moutou, Rim Fares, and Jean-François Donati xviii Contents

87 Star-Planet Interactions in the Radio Domain: Prospect for Their Detection ...... 1775 Philippe Zarka 88 The Impact of Stellar Activity on the Detection and Characterization of Exoplanets ...... 1791 89 Tidal Star-Planet Interactions: A Stellar and Planetary Perspective ...... 1801 Stéphane Mathis 90 Models of Star-Planet Magnetic Interaction ...... 1833 Antoine Strugarek 91 Stellar Coronal and Wind Models: Impact on Exoplanets ...... 1857 Aline A. Vidotto 92 Electromagnetic Coupling in Star-Planet Systems ...... 1877 Joachim Saur 93 Accretion of Planetary Material onto Host Stars ...... 1895 Brian Jackson and Joleen Carlberg 94 Planetary Evaporation Through Evolution ...... 1913 Travis S. Barman

Section X Exoplanet Catalogs, Abundances, and Statistics ...... 1931 Natalie Batalha 95 Exoplanet Catalogs ...... 1933 96 Planet Occurrence: Doppler and Transit Surveys ...... 1949 Joshua N. Winn 97 Occurrence Rates from Direct Imaging Surveys ...... 1967 Brendan P. Bowler and Eric L. Nielsen 98 Populations of Extrasolar Giant Planets from Transit and Radial Velocity Surveys ...... 1985 Alexandre Santerne 99 Planet Populations as a Function of Stellar Properties ...... 2009 Gijs D. Mulders 100 Populations of Planets in Multiple Star Systems ...... 2035 David V. Martin Contents xix

Section XI Exoplanet Atmospheres ...... 2061 101 The “Spectral Zoo” of Exoplanet Atmospheres ...... 2063 Aki Roberge and Sara Seager 102 Exoplanet Atmosphere Measurements from Transmission Spectroscopy and Other Planet Star Combined Light Observations ...... 2083 Laura Kreidberg 103 Exoplanet Atmosphere Measurements from Direct Imaging ..... 2107 Beth A. Biller and Mickaël Bonnefoy 104 Radiative Transfer for Exoplanet Atmospheres ...... 2137 Kevin Heng and Mark S. Marley 105 Atmospheric Retrieval of Exoplanets ...... 2153 Nikku Madhusudhan

Section XII Formation and Evolution of Planets and Planetary Systems ...... 2183 Ralph E. Pudritz 106 A Brief Overview of Planet Formation ...... 2185 Philip J. Armitage 107 Dust Evolution in Protoplanetary Disks ...... 2205 Sean M. Andrews and Tilman Birnstiel 108 Chemistry During the Gas-Rich Stage of Planet Formation...... 2221 Edwin A. Bergin and L. Ilsedore Cleeves 109 Instabilities and Flow Structures in Protoplanetary Disks: Setting the Stage for Formation ...... 2251 Hubert Klahr, Thomas Pfeil, and Andreas Schreiber 110 in Protoplanetary Disks ...... 2287 Richard P. Nelson 111 Formation of Giant Planets ...... 2319 Gennaro D’Angelo and Jack J. Lissauer 112 Formation of Super-Earths ...... 2345 Hilke E. Schlichting 113 Formation of Terrestrial Planets ...... 2365 André Izidoro and Sean N. Raymond 114 Planetary Population Synthesis ...... 2425 Christoph Mordasini xx Contents

115 Connecting Planetary Composition with Formation ...... 2475 Ralph E. Pudritz, Alex J. Cridland, and Matthew Alessi 116 Dynamical Evolution of Planetary Systems ...... 2523 Alessandro Morbidelli 117 Debris Disks: Probing Planet Formation ...... 2543 Mark C. Wyatt

Volume 4 Section XIII The Diversity of Worlds: An Exoplanet Fauna ...... 2569 Pedro Figueira 118 HD189733b: The Transiting That Revealed a Hazy and Cloudy Atmosphere ...... 2571 François Bouchy 119 WASP-12b: A Mass-Losing Extremely Hot Jupiter ...... 2585 Carole A. Haswell 120 Transiting Disintegrating Planetary Debris Around WD 1145+017 ...... 2603 Andrew Vanderburg and Saul A. Rappaport 121 Proxima b: The Detection of the Earth-Type Planet Candidate Orbiting Our Closest Neighbor ...... 2627 Guillem Anglada-Escudé, Mikko Tuomi, Ignasi Ribas, Ansgar Reiners, Pedro J. Amado, and Guillem Anglada 122 HR8799: Imaging a System of Exoplanets ...... 2645 Quinn M. Konopacky and Travis S. Barman 123 ’s Dusty Debris Belt and Eccentric Planet ...... 2669 Paul G. Kalas 124 (Copernicus): A Multi-planet System with a Hot Super-Earth and a Jupiter Analogue ...... 2677 Debra A. Fischer 125 Planets in Mean-Motion Resonances and the System Around HD45364 ...... 2693 Alexandre C. M. Correia, Jean-Baptiste Delisle, and Jacques Laskar 126 Tightly Packed Planetary Systems ...... 2713 Rebekah I. Dawson 127 Circumbinary Planets Around Evolved Stars ...... 2731 T. R. Marsh Contents xxi

128 Two in the Sky: The Kepler Circumbinary Planets ...... 2749 William F. Welsh and Jerome A. Orosz

Section XIV Where Life May Arise: Habitability ...... 2769 Victoria Meadows, Rory Barnes 129 Factors Affecting Exoplanet Habitability ...... 2771 Victoria S. Meadows and Rory K. Barnes 130 Life’s Requirements ...... 2795 Tori M. Hoehler, Sanjoy M. Som, and Nancy Y. Kiang 131 Earth: Atmospheric Evolution of a Habitable Planet ...... 2817 Stephanie L. Olson, Edward W. Schwieterman, Christopher T. Reinhard, and Timothy W. Lyons 132 The Habitability of Icy Worlds in the Solar System ...... 2855 Steven D. Vance 133 Planet Formation, Migration, and Habitability ...... 2879 Yann Alibert, Sareh Ataiee, and Julia Venturini 134 Volcanic-Tectonic Modes and Planetary Life Potential ...... 2897 A. Lenardic 135 Planetary Interiors, Magnetic Fields, and Habitability ...... 2917 Peter E. Driscoll 136 Planetary Interior-Atmosphere Interaction and Habitability .... 2937 Norman H. Sleep 137 Stellar Composition, Structure, and Evolution: Impact on Habitability ...... 2959 Patrick A. Young 138 The Habitable Zone: The Climatic Limits of Habitability ...... 2981 Ravi Kumar Kopparapu 139 Star-Planet Interactions and Habitability: Radiative Effects ..... 2995 Antígona Segura 140 Gravitational Interactions and Habitability ...... 3019 Rory K. Barnes and Russell Deitrick 141 Habitability of Planets in Systems ...... 3041 Siegfried Eggl 142 Habitability in Brown Dwarf Systems ...... 3069 Emeline Bolmont 143 Galactic Effects on Habitability ...... 3091 Nathan A. Kaib xxii Contents

144 Assessing the Interior Structure of Terrestrial Exoplanets with Implications for Habitability ...... 3111 Caroline Dorn, Dan J. Bower, and Antoine Rozel 145 Characterizing Exoplanet Habitability ...... 3137 Tyler D. Robinson 146 Atmospheric ...... 3159 John Lee Grenfell 147 Surface and Temporal Biosignatures ...... 3173 Edward W. Schwieterman 148 False Positives ...... 3203 Chester E. Harman and Shawn Domagal-Goldman 149 The Detectability of Earth’s Biosignatures Across Time ...... 3225 Enric Pallé

Section XV The Future: What Will Be Next? ...... 3243 Jean Schneider 150 Future Exoplanet Research: Science Questions and How to Address Them ...... 3245 Jean Schneider 151 Future Exoplanet Research: Radio Detection and Characterization ...... 3269 J.-M. Griessmeier 152 Future Exoplanet Research: High-Contrast Imaging Techniques ...... 3285 Pierre Baudoz 153 Future Exoplanet Research: XUV (EUV and X-Ray) Detection and Characterization ...... 3301 Graziella Branduardi-Raymont, William R. Dunn, and Salvatore Sciortino 154 Circumstellar Discs: What Will Be Next? ...... 3321 Quentin Kral, , and Mark C. Wyatt 155 Solid Exoplanet Surfaces and Relief ...... 3353 Jean-Loup Bertaux 156 Exotic Forms of Life on Other Worlds ...... 3375 Louis N. Irwin 157 Multi-Pixel Imaging of Exoplanets with a Hypertelescope in Space ...... 3389 Antoine Labeyrie Contents xxiii

158 Exoplanets and SETI ...... 3405 Jason T. Wright 159 Direct Exoplanet Investigation Using Interstellar Space Probes ...... 3413 Ian A. Crawford 160 Special Cases: Moons, Rings, , and Trojans ...... 3433 Juan Cabrera, María Fernández Jiménez, Antonio García Muñoz, and Jean Schneider

Index ...... 3451 About the Editors

Hans J. Deeg is staff at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC) in Tenerife, Spain. Born in Würzburg, , he obtained a Master’s in Physics from SUNY Buffalo, USA, in 1986 and a Ph.D. from the University of New Mexico, USA, in 1993. Previously, he held posts at the Rochester Institute of Technology; the SETI Institute (both USA); the Centro de Astrobiología, Madrid; and the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (both Spain). Deeg’s principal interests are the detection and characterization of exo- planets, for which he has been working since 1994 on a wide range of ground- and space-based projects. He was the principal Spanish investigator for the exoplanet detection with the CoRoT space mission (2006–2014) and is currently coordinating several tasks for ESA’s next-generation PLATO space mission. He is also a habitual user of the large telescopes installed at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma. During his career, he has authored over 300 sci- entific articles mostly related to exoplanets, organized several conferences on this topic, and been member on several review panels for funding agencies or telescope time allocation. Deeg has also supervised several Ph.D. theses and is currently teaching a Master-level course on exoplanets at the University of La Laguna, Tenerife.

xxv xxvi About the Editors

Juan Antonio Belmonte is Research Professor at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (Tenerife, Spain) where he investigates exoplanets, stellar physics, and . He has published or edited a dozen books and authored more than 200 publications on those subjects. He has been the Director of the Science and Museum of Tenerife from 1995 to 2000 and President of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC) from 2005 to 2011 and of the Span- ish Time Allocation Committee (CAT) of the Canarian observatories from 2003 to 2012. In 2012, he received the “” Award of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture for his contributions to that discipline. He has been editor of two sections and the author of 12 contributions in the previous Springer’s Handbook of and Ethnoastronomy. In the early 2000s, he got involved in exoplanet research being one of the founders of the TrES Network and co-Director of one of the first international schools in the field in 2004. He has supervised three Ph.D. stu- dents in Exoplanets, including that of Roi Alonso, one of the Section Editors of this Handbook of Exoplanets. A member of the Exoplanet Project at the IAC, he is currently teaching a master-level course on extrasolar planets at the University of La Laguna. He is now Presi- dent of the International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture and Advisory Editor of the Journal for the . Born in Murcia (Spain) in 1962, he studied physics and got his master thesis in 1986 at Barcelona University and obtained his Ph.D. in from La Laguna University in 1989. Section Editors

Exoplanet Research: A History of Discovery Tsevi Mazeh School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Solar System–Exoplanet Synergies Agustín Sánchez Lavega Escuela de Ingeniería de Bilbao, Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain

Between Planets and Stars María Rosa Zapatero-Osorio Centro de Astrobiología, Madrid, Spain

Planet Discovery Methods Alexander Wolszczan Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Ground-Based Instrumental Projects for Exoplanet Research Norio Narita Department of Astronomy, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, .

Space Missions for Exoplanet Research Malcolm Fridlund Leiden Observatory, Leiden, The Netherlands Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala,

Exoplanet Characterization Roi Alonso Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, La Laguna, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

xxvii xxviii Section Editors

Characterizing Planet Host Stars Hans Kjeldsen Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Planets and Their Stars: Interactions Antonino F. Lanza INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy

Exoplanet Catalogs, Abundances, and Statistics Natalie Batalha NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA

Exoplanet Atmospheres Sara Seager Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA

Formation and Evolution of Planets and Planetary Systems Ralph E. Pudritz Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1,

The Diversity of Worlds: An Exoplanet Fauna Pedro Figueira European Southern Observatory, Santiago,

Where Life May Arise: Habitability Victoria Meadows Astronomy Department, , Seattle, WA, USA Rory Barnes Astronomy Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

The Future: What Will Be Next? Jean Schneider , LUTh Departement, Meudon, Contributors

Olivier Absil F.R.S.-FNRS Research Associate, Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Liege, Liege, Eric Agol Department of Astronomy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA S. Alencar UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Matthew Alessi Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Yann Alibert and Planetary Sciences, Physikalisches Institut, Universitaet Bern, Bern, Switzerland Roi Alonso Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Pedro J. Amado Glorieta de la Astronomía S/N, Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía – CSIC, Granada, Spain Sean M. Andrews Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Daniel Angerhausen Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Guillem Anglada Glorieta de la Astronomía S/N, Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía – CSIC, Granada, Spain Guillem Anglada-Escudé School of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary Uni- versity of London, London, UK Philip J. Armitage JILA, University of Colorado and NIST, Boulder, CO, USA Étienne Artigau Institut de Recherche sur les Exoplanètes, Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada Sareh Ataiee Physikalisches Institut, Universitaet Bern, Bern, Switzerland

xxix xxx Contributors

Gáspár Á. Bakos Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA S. Baratchart IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Travis S. Barman Lunar and Planetary Lab, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA Rory K. Barnes Astronomy Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA G. Barrick CFHT, Waimea, HI, USA Virginie Batista Institut d’astrophysique de Paris, Paris, France Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, Paris Cedex 1, France Pierre Baudoz LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, PSL Research University, CNRS, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Universitié Paris 06, Universitié Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France Charles A. Beichman NASA Exoplanet Science Institute, Institute of Technology and Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA V. J. S . B é j a r Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, C. Vía Láctea S/N, Tenerife, Spain Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Willy Benz Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bern, Bern, Switzerland Edwin A. Bergin Department of Astronomy, , Ann Arbor, MI, USA Andrea Bernagozzi Scuola di Scienze e Tecnologia, Sezione di Geologia, UNICAMearth Working Group, Università degli Studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy Osservatorio Astronomico della Regione Autonoma Valle d’Aosta, Nus (Aosta), Italy Jean-Loup Bertaux CNRS/LATMOS/UVSQ, Paris, France Laboratory for Atmospheres of Planets and Exo-Planets, IKI-RAS, Moscow, Russia Beth A. Biller Institute of Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Jayne L. Birkby Anton Pannekoek Institute of Astronomy, University of Amster- dam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Contributors xxxi

Tilman Birnstiel Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, University Observatory, Munich, Germany Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany Celine Boehm Department of Physics, Institute for Particle Physics Phenomenol- ogy, Durham University, Durham, UK I. Boisse LAM/OHP, , France Emeline Bolmont IRFU, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France Université Paris Diderot, AIM, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France Mickaël Bonnefoy IPAG, University Alpes, Grenoble, France William J. Borucki NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA François Bouchy Département d’Astronomie, Université de Genève, Versoix, GE, Switzerland Observatoire astronomique de l’Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland LAM/OHP, Marseille, France Vincent Bourrier Observatoire de l’Université de Genève, Sauverny, Switzerland J. Bouvier IPAG, Paris, France Dan J. Bower University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Brendan P. Bowler Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Alexis Brandeker Department of Astronomy, Institutionen för astronomi, Stock- holm University, AlbaNova University Center, Stockholm, Sweden Graziella Branduardi-Raymont Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey, UK Danielle Briot GEPI, UMR 8111, Observatoire de Paris, 61 avenue de l’Observatoire, Paris, France Lars A. Buchhave Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Natural History Museum of Denmark and Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen K, Denmark Artem Burdanov Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium Ben Burningham Centre for Astrophysics Research, School of Physics, Astron- omy and Mathematics, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK xxxii Contributors

Juan Cabrera Institut für Planetenforschung, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft – und Raumfahrt, Berlin, Germany Andrew Collier Cameron Centre for Exoplanet Science, SUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK Joleen Carlberg Instruments Division, Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA A. Carmona IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Davide Cenadelli Osservatorio Astronomico della Regione Autonoma Valle d’Aosta, Nus (Aosta), Italy Z. Challita IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France William J. Chaplin School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Sébastien Charnoz Université Paris Diderot/Institut de Physique du Globe, Paris, France Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Jessie Christiansen IPAC, Pasadena, CA, USA Cathie Clarke Institute of Astronomy, , Cambridge, UK L. Ilsedore Cleeves Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Alexandre C. M. Correia CIDMA, Departamento de Física, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal Athena Coustenis LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, PSL Universities, UPMC, UPD, Meudon, France Nicolas B. Cowan McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada Ian A. Crawford Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, UK Aurélien Crida Université Côte d’Azur/Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Lagrange, Nice, France Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France Alex J. Cridland Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands IanJ.M.Crossfield Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy, Cambridge, MA, USA Nicolas Crouzet Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain Contributors xxxiii

Szilárd Csizmadia Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany DLR, Berlin, Germany Gennaro D’Angelo Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA Rebekah I. Dawson Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The Pennsylva- nia State University, University Park, PA, USA Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Hans J. Deeg Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Denis Defrère Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium Russell Deitrick Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland Magali Deleuil LAM (Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille), CNRS, CNES, UMR 7326, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France X. Delfosse IAP/IdF, Paris, France Jean-Baptiste Delisle Observatoire de l’Université de Genève, Sauverny, Switzer- Laetitia Delrez Astrophysics Group, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, UK Jos de Bruijne (ESA-ESTEC), Noordwijk, The Nether- Katherine de Kleer Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Julia de León Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Imke de Pater Department of Astronomy, The University of California at Berke- ley, Berkeley, CA, USA Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands Drake Deming Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA F. Dolon LAM/OHP, Marseille, France xxxiv Contributors

Shawn Domagal-Goldman Planetary Systems Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA NASA Institute–Virtual Planetary Laboratory, Seattle, USA Sellers Exoplanets Environments Collaboration, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Jean-François Donati CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Plané- tologie, Toulouse, France Caroline Dorn University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland Laurance R. Doyle Institute for the Metaphysics of Physics, One Maybeck Place, Principia College, Elsah, IL, USA Carl Sagan Center, SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA, USA R. Doyon UdeM/UL, Montréal, QC, Canada Peter E. Driscoll Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA Edward W. Dunham , Flagstaff, AZ, USA William R. Dunn Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey, UK Siegfried Eggl Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA David Ehrenreich Astronomical Observatory of the , Sauverny, Switzerland Thérèse Encrenaz LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, PSL Universities, UPMC, UPD, Meudon, France Daniel C. Fabrycky Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, , Chicago, IL, USA Jacqueline K. Faherty Department of Astrophysics, American Museum of Natu- ral History, New York, NY, USA Alberto G. Fairén Department of Planetology and Habitability, Centro de Astro- biologia (CSIC-INTA), Madrid, Spain Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Rim Fares INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy María Fernández Jiménez Institut für Planetenforschung, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft – und Raumfahrt, Berlin, Germany P. Figueira CAUP, Porto, Portugal Debra A. Fischer Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Contributors xxxv

Malcolm Fridlund Leiden Observatory, Leiden, RA, The Netherlands Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala, Sweden Yuka Fujii Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan Antonio García Muñoz Zentrum für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Berlin, TU, Germany Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany B. S. Gaudi Department of Astronomy, The , Columbus, OH, USA Michaël Gillon Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium Jonay I. González Hernández Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Andrew P. Gould Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Thomas P. Greene NASA Ames Research Center, Space Science and Astrobiol- ogy Division, Moffett Field, CA, USA John Lee Grenfell Department of Extrasolar Planets and Atmospheres (EPA), German Aerospace Centre (DLR), Berlin Adlershof, Germany J.-M. Griessmeier LPC2E-Université d’Orléans/CNRS, Orléans, France Station de Radioastronomie de Nançay, Observatoire de Paris, PSL Research University, CNRS, University of Orléans, OSUC, Nançay, France Tristan Guillot Observatoire de la Cote dAzur, Nice Cedex 4, France Olivier Guyon Astrobiology Center, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Mitaka, Japan Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, , National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Hilo, HI, USA Chester E. Harman Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA NASA Astrobiology Institute–Virtual Planetary Laboratory, Seattle, USA NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, NY, USA Carole A. Haswell School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK xxxvi Contributors

Artie P. Hatzes Thüringer Landessternwarte, Tautenburg, Germany G. Hébrard IAP/IdF, Paris, France M. Heimpel Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Ravit Helled Institute for Computational Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland René Heller Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Göttingen, Germany Kevin Heng Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzer- land Ana M. Heras Science Support Office, Directorate of Science, European Space Agency, ESTEC/SCI-S, Noordwijk, The Netherlands J. J. Hermes Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA O. Hernandez UdeM/UL, Montréal, QC, Canada Frederic V. Hessman Institut für Astrophysik, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Tori M. Hoehler Space Sciences and Astrobiology Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA Daniel Huber Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, HI, USA Sydney Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics, , Sydney, NSW, Australia Markus Hundertmark Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg (ZAH), Heidelberg, Germany Ryuki Hyodo Earth-Life Science Institute/Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan Louis N. Irwin University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Kate Isaak Science Support Office, European Space Agency - ESTEC, AZ, Noordwijk, The Netherlands André Izidoro UNESP, Universidade Estadual Paulista – Grupo de Dinâmica Orbital Planetologia, São Paulo, Brazil Brian Jackson Department of Physics, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA Markus Janson Department of Astronomy, Institutionen för astronomi, Stock- holm University, AlbaNova University Center, Stockholm, Sweden Emmanuël Jehin Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium Contributors xxxvii

Uffe Gråe Jørgensen Centre for Star and Planet Formation, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Nathan A. Kaib HL Dodge Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA Paul G. Kalas Astronomy Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA, USA Nancy Y. Kiang NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, NY, USA Seung-Lee Kim Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), Daejeon, Republic of Korea Hans Kjeldsen Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Department of Physics and Astron- omy, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Hubert Klahr Max Planck Institut for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany Quinn M. Konopacky Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA Ravi Kumar Kopparapu NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Tommi T. Koskinen Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA D. Kouach IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Quentin Kral Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Michael Kramer MPI für Radioastrononomie, Bonn, Germany Laura Kreidberg Harvard Society of Fellows, Cambridge, MA, USA Antoine Labeyrie Collège de France and Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, Caus- sols, France M. Lacombe IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Antonino F. Lanza INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy Jacques Laskar ASD, IMCCE-CNRS UMR8028, Paris, France Gregory Laughlin Department of Astronomy, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Panayotis Lavvas GSMA, UMR 7331, CNRS, Université de Reims, Champagne- Ardenne, Reims, France xxxviii Contributors

T. Joseph W. Lazio Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Alain Lecavelier des Etangs CNRS, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, Paris, France Chung-Uk Lee Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), Daejeon, Republic of Korea Sandy K. Leggett Observatory, Northern Operations Center, Hilo, HI, USA Emmanuel Lellouch Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France A. Lenardic Department of Earth Science, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA Stephen R. Lewis School of Physical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Javier Licandro Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain René Liseau Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Onsala Space Observatory, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala, Sweden Jack J. Lissauer Space Science and Astrobiology Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA Joe Llama Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, AZ, USA Nicolas Lodieu Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain Mia Sloth Lundkvist Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Heidel- berg, Germany Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Timothy W. Lyons NASA Astrobiology Institute and Department of Earth Sci- ences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA A. Määttänen LATMOS/IPSL, UVSQ Université Paris-Saclay, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Guyancourt, France Nikku Madhusudhan Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cam- bridge, UK Fabien Malbet University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, Grenoble, France Mark S. Marley NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA T. R. Marsh Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK Alberto Krone Martins CENTRA/SIM, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Contributors xxxix

Eduardo L. Martín CSIC-INTA Centro de Astrobiología, Madrid, Spain David V. Martin Swiss National Science Foundation, University of Chicago, Chicago, USA E. Martioli LNA, Itajubá, Brazil Stéphane Mathis Laboratoire AIM Paris-Saclay, IRFU/DAp Centre de Saclay, CEA/DRF – CNRS – Université Paris Diderot, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, PSL Research University, CNRS, Sorbonne Univer- sités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, Univ. Paris Diderot, Meudon, France Pierre F. L. Maxted Astrophysics Group, Keele University, Keele, UK Michel Mayor Département d’Astronomie, Université de Genève, Versoix, GE, Switzerland Victoria S. Meadows Astronomy Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Giuseppina Micela Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica – Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo Giuseppe S. Vaiana, Palermo, Italy Y. Micheau IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Paolo Molaro INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Trieste, Italy Pilar Montañés-Rodríguez Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain F. Montmessin LATMOS/IPSL, UVSQ Université Paris-Saclay, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Guyancourt, France Alessandro Morbidelli Observatoire de la Côte d’ Azur, Boulevard de l’ Observa- toire, Université Côte d’ Azur, CNRS, Nice, France Christoph Mordasini Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzer- land Claire Moutou CNRS/CFHT, Kamuela, HI, USA CNRS, LAM, Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille, Aix Marseille University, Marseille, France UdeM/UL, Montréal, QC, Canada Gijs D. Mulders Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA Yasushi Muraki Institute for Space-Earth Environment Research, Nagoya Univer- sity, Nagoya, Japan Richard P. Nelson Astronomy Unit, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK xl Contributors

Eric L. Nielsen Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and , Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Stephanie L. Olson NASA Astrobiology Institute and Department of Earth Sci- ences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA Jerome A. Orosz Astronomy Department, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA Enric Pallé Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain L. Parès IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Byeong-Gon Park Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), Dae- jeon, Republic of Korea Vivien Parmentier Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tuc- son, AZ, USA Hannu Parviainen Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain Francesco Pepe Département d’Astronomie, Observatoire de l’Université de Genéve, Versoix, GE, Switzerland Joshua Pepper Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA Thomas Pfeil Max Planck Institut for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany Noemí Pinilla-Alonso Florida Space Institute, UCF, Orlando, FL, USA Ralph E. Pudritz Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Laurent Pueyo STScI, Baltimore, MD, USA P. Rabou IPAG, Paris, France Saul A. Rappaport Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Heike Rauer Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Berlin University of Technology, Berlin, Germany Sean N. Raymond Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, University of Bor- deaux, CNRS, Bordeaux, France Peter L. Read Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Clarendon Labora- tory, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Contributors xli

Ansgar Reiners Institut für Astrophysik, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Christopher T. Reinhard School of Earth and , Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA V. Reshetov NRC-H, Victoria, Canada Ignasi Ribas C/Can Magrans, Institut de Ciències de l’Espai – IEEC/CSIC, Bellaterra, Spain Aki Roberge Exoplanets and Stellar Astrophysics Lab, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Tyler D. Robinson Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA Florian Rodler European Southern Observatory, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile Antoine Rozel ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland L. Saddlemyer NRC-H, Victoria, Canada A. Sánchez-Lavega Departamento Física Aplicada I, Escuela de Ingeniería de Bilbao, Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain Alexandre Santerne Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France Nuno C. Santos Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal Departamento de Física e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal Joachim Saur Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany Hilke E. Schlichting University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Jean Schneider LUTh, UMR 8102, Observatoire de Paris, 5 place Jules Janssen, F-92195 Meudon Cedex, France LUTH, Observatoire de Paris, PSL Research University, CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Meudon, France Andreas Schreiber Max Planck Institut for Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany Edward W. Schwieterman Department of Earth Sciences, University of Califor- nia, Riverside, CA, USA Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, USA Salvatore Sciortino INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo “Giuseppe S. Vaiana”, Piazza del Parlamento, 1, Palermo, Italy xlii Contributors

Sara Seager Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Antígona Segura Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Ciudad de México, México Evgenya L. Shkolnik ASU School of Earth and , Tempe, AZ, USA Víctor Silva Aguirre Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Norman H. Sleep Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Sanjoy M. Som Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, USA Alessandro Sozzetti INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese, Italy Keivan G. Stassun Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA N. Striebig IRAP/OMP, Toulouse, France Antoine Strugarek Laboratoire AIM, DRF/IRFU/DAp, CEA Saclay, Gif-sur- Yvette Cedex, France Département de Physique, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada Motohide Tamura University of Tokyo and Astrobiology Center, Tokyo, Japan theSPIRouTeam the SPECULOOS and TRAPPIST Teams S. Tibault UdeM/UL, Montréal, QC, Canada Amaury H. M. J. Triaud School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Mikko Tuomi Centre for Astrophysics Research, Science and Technology Research Institute, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK Andrzej Udalski Warsaw University Observatory, Warszawa, Stéphane Udry Département d’Astronomie, Université de Genève, Versoix, GE, Switzerland Geoffrey K. Vallis College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK Contributors xliii

Rik van Lieshout Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Steven D. Vance Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Andrew Vanderburg Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Julia Venturini Physikalisches Institut, Universitaet Bern, Bern, Switzerland University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Aline A. Vidotto School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin-2, Ireland S. Y. Wang ASIAA, Taipei, Taiwan William F. Welsh Astronomy Department, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA Robert A. West Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Anthony P. Whitworth School of Physics and Astronomy, Cardiff University, Wales, UK Peter K. G. Williams Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Joshua N. Winn Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Alexander Wolszczan Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, and Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Jason T. Wright Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Center for Exoplan- ets and Habitable Worlds, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Laboratory, Department of Astronomy, University of Califor- nia, Berkeley, CA, USA Mark C. Wyatt Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Philip Yock Department of Physics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand E. D. Young Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA xliv Contributors

Patrick A. Young School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State Univer- sity, Tempe, AZ, USA Philippe Zarka LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, PSL, UPMC/SU, UPD, Meudon, France Station de Radioastronomie de Nançay, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, PSL, Univ. Orléans, Nançay, France B. Zuckerman Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA