Multiculturalism and Museums in

Keun Young Kim University of Michigan

University of Michigan Working Papers in Museum Studies Number 7 (2011) Museum Studies Program Charles H. Sawyer Center for Museum Studies University of Michigan Museum of Art 525 South State Street Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1354

Office phone: 734-936-6678 Fax: 734-786-0064 www.ummsp.lsa.umich.edu [email protected]

© 2011 University of Michigan All rights reserved

The University of Michigan Museum Studies Program’s series of “Working Papers in Museum Studies” presents emerging re- search from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, all focused on the multiple concerns of the modern museum and heritage stud- ies field. Contributions from scholars, members of the museum profession and graduate students are represented. Many of these papers have their origins in public presentations made under the auspices of the Museum Studies Program. We gratefully thank the authors published herein for their participation.

This paper was first presented as part of the University of Michigan Museum Studies Program’s “Issues in Museum Studies” lecture series on October 26, 2010. This paper would not have been possible without the help of Professor James Lee, Professor Pan Shouyong and interviewees, whose names must remain anonymous. I am very grateful to Professor Raymond Silverman and Dr. Bradley Taylor for their constant support and encouragement. I also thank Professor Jennifer Robertson and Professor Eric Mueggler for their advice. This research was made possible by the generous support of the Fellowship for the Doctoral Research in Museums, Grant for Dissertation Research in Anthropology, PRC Chinese Government Fellowship, Rackham International Research Award, and the Peking-American School Doctoral Fellowship. [email protected] Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

KeunYoung Kim Contributing to an explanation of this inconsistent situation University of Michigan are reports found in the foreign press which reveal that the performance by the ethnic minorities during the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games was not authentic.6 In these reports the foreign press alleges that National Minorities and Chinese Society the participants dressed in 55 different ethnic costumes were not actually from the ethnic groups they represented Many people will recall this scene at the 2008 Beijing despite the fact that the official guide to the opening Olympic Games: a group of children represented China’s 55 ceremony indicated that they were. In fact, the children minority groups by wearing regional costumes and holding were performers from the Galaxy Children’s Art Troupe, their country’s flag during the opening ceremony [fig. 1]. an artistic group comprised of children drawn entirely from Such symbolic performances representing diverse ethnic the dominant Han nationality (who make up more than groups in China are not restricted to international audiences 90% of the country’s 1.3 billion people). In other words, but have been long-observed traditions in state level events the performance functioned simply as a living display of as well. Since the time of Mao Zedong, minority cultures 55 different ethnic costumes instead of as an event that have been made a central part of symbolic national events. allowed members of the shaoshu minzu to participate in the For example, at the ceremony for the 60th anniversary of Olympic Games. the National Foundation of People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 2009, ethnic minority issues were such an This event symbolically shows the status of nationality important theme that the chairman of the PRC joined in to issues in China. The organizing committee of the Beijing dance with the minority dancers by holding hands with a Olympic Games was more interested in the presentation 1 Tibetan dancer. of its colorful and exotic ethnic cultures than in enhancing its core values of equality and diversity by giving shaoshu 2 The issue of shaoshu minzu (ethnic minorities) has minzu the opportunity to participate in the ceremony. been a complicated one for Chinese leadership since It was reported that the Olympic Games Vice President the formation of the PRC in 1949. The founding leaders Wang Wei answered that he did not know exactly where of the PRC were aware of such concerns in China and these children were from and added that it is very typical established their government by acknowledging the for Chinese performers to wear traditional apparel from equality of different minority groups who had been the different ethnic groups. He added that “they will wear discriminated against throughout Chinese history. For different apparel to signify people are friendly and happy this reason, shortly after its founding in 1949 the PRC together.”7 government began the task of officially defining minority groups and establishing administrative regulation of them. In this paper, I will provide general background information on ethnic diversity in China and analyze Interestingly, however, while I was staying in Beijing in the China’s official discourse of being a “unified country of spring of 2008 I read a newspaper article outlining the need diverse nationalities” in the context of museums. I will to build a ’s ethnic minorities conduct two distinct analyses. First, I will present the noting that a desire to accelerate the project had been history, development and current situation of the minzu conveyed at the recent meeting of the Chinese People’s museum in China. Second, I will discuss the assertion that Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC). Because China “China has no national level minzu museum.”8 often trundles out minority groups in costumes to represent the unity of the nation and the harmony among the various shaoshu minzu,3 and since China has a long history Background Information on Chinese National of using museums at the national level for propaganda Ethnic Groups purposes, the lack of a museum for shaoshu minzu does not seem consistent: “although Beijing already has hundreds of China consists of a large number of diverse ethnic groups. different types of museums, there is not any national level As shown in figure 2, the PRC officially recognizes 56 minzu museum4 which has the capacity to fully display the distinct ethnic groups. However, the proportions of the colorful culture of the Chinese shaoshu minzu.”5 different shaoshu minzu are very unbalanced. According to data collected in 2000, the largest ethnic nationality

1 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM the establishing play could in of roleaware the museums 1911, in dynasty Qing acutely have to been seem imperial the overthrew that regime political the Era, Republican of the leaders one. not The afford could government Qing the museum, anational of establishing importance the on overseas. powers of imperial pressure the against China imperial empower and how modernize to awaylearn to as countries traveledto European who officials ranking by high century mid-nineteenth the in introduced was of museum idea the the history, Chinese in reign imperial last the marked which dynasty, Qing late the During introduced. it was time first the from characteristics nationalistic with laden been has society Chinese in of museum the concept The ofA Brief Museums History in China people. minority ethnic orconsider with interact to chances not do have many nationality of people Han most the and countrymen Han their than educated less and poorer socially.and Overall, geographically both territory, of Chinese margins the on located regions autonomous and provinces in concentrated particular, In municipalities. and regions autonomous live together,comprising nationality peopleof same the cases, many In over areas. vast scattered society. multiethnic and aharmonious as self-image country’s the to of silently contributing objects curiosity, as them presents ofcelebration China’s 55 different among inequality the ( state multinational aunitary China It unity. declares and diversity both emphasizes Officially,the PRC government development. of state theories evolutionary on founded policy national Leninist Stalinist- the comprises which psychological character, common and base, economic common territory, common language, common namely criteria, four on based is control. state under manageable them make to in order criteria by “scientific” people classify to intended but is identities ethnic reported minzu shaoshu (about 0.7%) [fig. 2]. population) followed by the the is of population terms in group nationality minority largest called officially are which groups, 8% (or people) 104 of about 55 million consists different (or 1.3 people), billion the is population 92% about of total the comprises which group, tongyi de duo minzu guojia minzu duo de tongyi Zhuang 13 Shaoshu minzu Shaoshu

14 However, despite the imperial officers’ position officers’ However, imperial the despite (representing about 1.2% about (representing of total the is not based on self-determined orself- self-determined on notis based 10 9 The determination of ethnicity of ethnicity determination The 11 However, the categorization of However, the categorization the shaoshu minzu shaoshu

, though small in population, are are population, in small , though shaoshu minzu shaoshu Man ), which easily conceals conceals ), easily which Han shaoshu minzu shaoshu (about 0.8%) and nationality. The remaining remaining The nationality. shaoshu minzu shaoshu shaoshu minzu shaoshu are regarded to be be to regarded are in pageants often often pageants in

. 12 tend to be be to tend The The . The . The Hui

commemorate the centennial of the Nantong Museum’s of Nantong the centennial the commemorate to published held were books and conferences many China; in questioned not was China of museum first the is Museum Nantong the that idea This territory. Chinese in established being despite museums,” “Chinese considered constructed, was Museum Nantong the missionaries and by foreigners founded museums modernization. patriotic Chinese realize to for effort its praised highly been has museum This changes. historical rapid undergoing was China when reformer, social and entrepreneur industrial famous (1853—1926), Jian by Zhang founded was Museum a Nantong The days. those in important not politically was but city acommercialized was which province, 1905 in in established Museum Nantong the was museum textbooks, Chinese to According 1933. ( Museum Central the namely China, in levelnational museum first the establish to made were efforts Great powers. of ruling the legitimacy announced that that announced of Culture 1951, In patrimony. of Ministry the head the of cultural ownership their work to legitimizing on began 1949, in leadership Party the Communist Chinese by the of PRC the foundation the government after Likewise, of Republicof the China. founding of the anniversary 1925 in fourteenth the on opened It was officially China. in levelnational museum first the Forbidden the City, in residence became imperial the as function former its from transformed was which Museum, power. their legitimize to public patrimony as collections Imperial the reinterpreted leaders its China, Imperial subverted Party Nationalist 1911, of regime’s the In foundation. anniversary the when the celebrating aceremony with combined regime, each for was, museum of anational ceremony opening the since legitimacy national establishing in role of museums of important aware were the Party of Socialist and the Party of Republican the leaders the both that argued be could It museum. governed of state the that mainly is China in of museums history the Museum, Nantong the from Apart museums. of Chinese history the in mentioned museum non-government only the is this that fact the given notable privately, is which run was museum This establishment. production. economic for the passion the and determination political promoting while wholeheartedly country love their will they that so culture, and history their about more know to people the educate must museum the therefore and revolution, of the education patriotic the promote to is endeavors of museum responsibility entire The 21

Zhongyang Bowuyuan Zhongyang 19 The National Peiping Palace Peiping Palace National The 15 16 the first Chinese Chinese first the While there were were there While 20

18 they were not were they ) beginning in in ) beginning 17 before before 2 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums The first Council of Museum Work was held in 1956 had 143 museums, including a diverse range of museums to clarify that museums are institutions to be used “for like the National Museum of China, the National Palace propaganda and educational purposes of both the Party and Museum, the Capital Museum, and even the Museum of the the state,” as well as “for scientific research and to store Watermelon.30 important cultural materials and natural specimens.”22 In the following four years, three national museums were opened in Beijing. They were the Museum of Chinese The History and Current State of the Minzu History, the Museum of Chinese Revolution and the Museums People’s Revolutionary Military Museum. In addition, the Exhibition Hall of Agriculture and the Cultural Palace of The History of the Minzu Museums 23 Nationalities were built. Altogether, these comprised five What is a minzu museum (minzu bowuguan)? When one of the most important ten historical buildings from the early goes through Chinese articles and books on museums, one days of the PRC. Above all, it is notable that the opening can find such terms asminzu bowuguan (minzu museum), ceremonies of these national level museums were held on minzu lei bowuguan (museums related to Chinese shaoshu 24 the tenth anniversary of the foundation of the PRC. This minzu), or even minzu bowuguan xue (studies of minzu example shows how the museum was used politically in museums).31 These terms refer to specialized museums China and how important its symbolic role was to the PRC focusing on the theme of minzu issues. In Chinese museum leadership. studies, however, the topic of minzu issues is barely dealt with. In the earliest museology textbook in China32 no As a result of the impact of the policies of the Cultural discussion of shaoshu minzu is mentioned in the list of Revolution, which began in the late 1960s, museums were examples of different specialized museums. Another list not fully operational during that period. In fact, in the of museums made in 198333 includes natural science early 1970s when the Cultural Revolution was at its most museums, history and archaeology museum (including extreme, all the museums were closed nationwide for more memorials), university museums, societies of museum than five years. During this time, museum personnel were studies, and associations or universities offering museum 25 sent to the countryside to perform physical labor. education, but does not include any mention of the minzu museum. The book Zhongguo Bowuguanxue Jichu (The Beginning in the 1980s, museums and cultural institutions Basis of Chinese Museology 1990/2004), which is the only reopened and government works and policies relating to nationwide museum studies textbook issued by the State museums were resumed. From this point on, the number Administration of Cultural Heritage, also does not mention of museums increased almost explosively. The Memorial the minzu museum as a subcategory. It is only in the The Museum of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance to Japan Yearbook of Museums in Beijing 1995-199834 where a is a representative museum established during this Reform subcategory of museums on minzu issues and on religion 26 Period. This period also marked the beginning of the appears on the same level as the categories like history and reconstruction and renovation of provincial museums like archaeology museums, natural history museums, etc. the Museum. The number of museums nationwide was 349 immediately following the Cultural Revolution in This term minzu bowuguan is mostly used by scholars who 27 1978 and grew to 1,392 by the year 2000 [fig. 3]. specialize in ethnic studies and by curators working at the minzu museums or the universities of nationalities (minzu In 2008 the total number of museums in China was more universities). Although different ways of categorizing than 2,300, which ranks China as having the seventh largest museums are introduced in museum studies textbooks, number of museums worldwide. In less than thirty years, in official terms prior to 1988 museums in China were between 1978 and 2008, the number of museums in China categorized as either specialized (zhuanyexing) museums, increased seven times over. One paper reports that in 1984, memorial (jinianxing) museums, or comprehensive the year the growth rate was highest, 151 new museums (zonghexing) museums. According to the encyclopedia were built. This is equivalent to one museum being built Dabaike Quanshu published in 1995, China has since 28 every 2.4 days. Because the Chinese government aims changed its official categorization of museums into four to increase the number of museums to the same level as groups, namely historical, fine art, science and technology, the most internationally developed states, which have on and comprehensive (zonghelei) museums, after consulting average one museum per two hundred thousand people, the international standard.35 Yet this categorization did not China was determined to increase the number of museums become a nationwide standard, and the specific category 29 to 6,500. In Beijing, the rate of museum construction and of minzu museum still does not have a proper position in renovation was even higher; the number of museums was the discipline of museum studies despite its importance in two in 1949 and it increased to 15 in 1965. In 2007, Beijing contemporary Chinese society.

3 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM Region Museum, Autonomous Uigur the regions: autonomous the in Before 1959, museums three were there (1958—1963). Forward (1950s Campaign 1960s) Leap early and Great the and Anti-Rightist the developments as such political to due However, not realistic regions. was plan autonomous this central minzu Chinese on project “twenty-year the step, anext As change. name for this reason the to clues as more public, not find Icould the to documents and archives internal their not do open which organizations government are China in of museums Palace Nationalities.” Because “Cultural the to changed was of institution the name of Nationalities.”Museum However, 1958 in official the of the name intended the PRC’sthe a including founding, of anniversary tenth the Beijing celebrating in museums several 1956, construct In to PRC decided the government of Palace Nationalities. Cultural the for Nationalities) University and (Central University Minzu of of Museum the collections main the became period this during collected Objects them. categorize and identify to minzu of objects the who collected scholars sponsored 1954,in 1950. in minorities” national of brother the each from relics cultural of collecting scope “the on notice Relics of Cultural Bureau State the and established was of Nationalities Museum of Central the committee of PRC. the preparation founding the The after development of the systematic The crafts). and arts different from objects display in specialize with deal to museums Museum) of one earliest is (Central the the academia, in of museums of several cultures the from objects displaying hall antiquities an it included museum, history minzu well-known of one first the became museum university this collections, extensive its and research academic level(formerly high University). of its to Due minzu shaoshu with dealt that museum first the that Itpolitics. seems to than academia to closely more was linked museums of of PRC, the Before foundation history the the of history the general, in museums of Chinese history the to contrast In minzu museums” was enacted, including plans to build a build to plans including enacted, was museums” research cultural and political conducting while museums. minzu minzu shibie minzu issues. shaoshu minzu shaoshu museum in Beijing and five museums in the in five Beijing and in museums museum minzu issues was the museum of Huaxi University University of Huaxi museum the was issues 36 37 Built in 1914 in Built of natural akind as museums is not well established. not is well established. museums Although the museum did not did museum the Although (The Ethnic Classification Project) Classification Ethnic (The 42

minzu themes exclusively, themes it did Zhongyang Bowuyuan Zhongyang shaoshu minzu shaoshu museum was the “Central “Central the was museum minzu 38 minzu 41 shaoshu minzu shaoshu decided to send out a send to decided

museum. In 1956, In museum. museum began began museum 39 Beginning (including shaoshu shaoshu minzu . Outside . Outside

40

Ethnology 2004), the Museum of Ethnology of Ethnology Museum Guangxi 2004), the Ethnology of Mongolian Museum (Inner Museum Keerxin 7], the (1986), (1995) of Ethnology Museum the [fig. (1985) of [figs.Ethnology Museum 6a, Hainan the b], 1985, of Ethnology Museum the namely (atlevel) since of built provincial ethnology have the been 1984. in museums Six established was of China Museum Minzu for the committee Revolution, aplanning Cultural the during enterprises cultural in long recession the After ( the on focusing specifically institution cultural first it the Beijing, making in built was of Palace Nationalities 1959in Cultural the Finally, province. in Museum Minzu Prefectures 1957, Autonomous Tujia the namely Minzu Miao and specialized one only was There issues. nationality on focus not specifically did and only name in museums were museums However, three these Region Mongolian Museum. Autonomous Inner the and Region Museum, Autonomous Zhuangzu Guangxi the the Chinese government. Chinese the from guidance the with scholars and officials government out by carried being is regions minority of national each the museum. one have to than more groups of 56each nationality the of each museums folklore of number the increase to plans it that announced state the 2008, (ICOM). In Museums of Committee help of the International the with China of eco-museum first the established province of department heritage 1997, In cultural the institutions. eco-museum-type for building setting efficient a highly minzu Chinese most Because development and ofwelfare communities. local the enhance to aims and participation, local on based is of aplace, identity the on focuses of museum type This Varine. de Hugues and Rivière developed Henri by George in France, originated first Eco-museums projects. museum regions in eco-museums movement ofThe establishing Museums. of Chinese Society Academic the at established was of China Museum of Minzu the board for Nationalities. University Central the and University Yunnan as such atinstitutions established have been museums university several museums, these (1985). of Palace Nationalities to addition Cultural In Guizhou the inside of(2008), Ethnology Museum the and quanguoxing group to form a small community, this provides provides this community, asmall form to group 44 45 is a recent boom in the enterprise of Chinese of Chinese enterprise the in boom arecent is In addition, a project to build eco-museums in in eco-museums build to aproject addition, In ) institution. minzu shaoshu minzu shaoshu people live together with their own own their with live people together 46 shaoshu minzu shaoshu

as a national level anational as minzu minzu eco-museums and and eco-museums museum built in in built museum 43 In 2006, the the 2006, In in order to allow to order in minzu

4 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums The Current State of Minzu Museums populations themselves, not individuals of the Han ethnic groups nor the other shaoshu minzu.52 This implies that Along with the minimal academic discussion on minzu museums focusing on the shaoshu minzu are not built 47 museums, the number of museums related to the to educate and promote an understanding of the diverse subject of shaoshu minzu is very small. Just seven out cultures inside the boundaries of China to the people of the of 33 provinces (including autonomous regions and majority ethnic group who do not have many opportunities 48 municipalities) have a provincial level minzu museum. to explore and understand other ethnic people. According to a 2008 report by the State Nationalities Affairs Commission, the overall number of museums in In 2008, the Chinese government established a rating minzu regions is now as many as 286, which comprises system53 for museums and distinguished a total of 83 49 12.4% of the total number of museums nationwide. The first tier museums. In 2009, 171 second and 288 third tier total number of minzu museums which are under the museums were also distinguished. Five museums of the 83 control of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of the PRC first tier museums are located in the autonomous regions, is 163, which comprise only 7% of the more than 2,300 yet only one, the Yunnan Minzu Museum, is a museum 50 museums nationwide. This proportion is far lower than focusing on shaoshu minzu issues. The same situation can would be expected given the relative size and population be found in the list of the 171 second tier museums since of the autonomous regions. Moreover, more than half of the Heilongjiang Minzu Museum was the only minzu those museums have only “hanging doorplates” (guapai), museum included. Of the 288 third tier museums, five which means they have only small, simple exhibit spaces minzu museums are included, yielding a total of only seven that are not regularly open to the public as only a few museums recognized in the rating system out of the 163 non-specialist employees work there. These museums are total minzu museums. In other words, 156 minzu museums not fully operational, as they usually lack storage space, are acknowledged by the state as not having sufficient collections, museum experts, academic research and new resources, staff, or collections to be considered full-fledged 51 exhibitions and as a result have almost no visitors. Barely museums and are instead described as just “having door- half of the minority groups have museums representing plates.” It is noteworthy that none of the national level their own ethnic group, even at the level of autonomous museums specializing in shaoshu minzu, that is to say, the prefectures or counties. In addition, as shown in figure 4, Cultural Palace of the Nationalities and the National Minzu except for the Cultural Palace of Nationalities (if it can be Museum of China, are included in the museum ratings list; called a museum), all of the other minzu museums above this will be the subject of the next part of this paper. the provincial level were established after the 1980s. Despite the fact that the districts where these minzu The geographical distribution of the minzu museums is museums are located have, on the whole, worse economic also skewed. As seen in figure 4, seven out of 33 provinces situations than those of other districts, minzu museums have minzu museums. There are two in the autonomous are deprived of opportunities to get governmental support regions, two in municipalities and three in the provinces. intended for the recent museum boom. First, the nature Beijing, the capital of China, has two minzu museums. of the collections of the minzu museum differs from Two autonomous regions, namely the and that of the collections of the mainstream museums. Even the Guangxi Zhuang autonomous regions, have minzu the definition of the minzu wenwu (cultural relics of the museums, although China has five other autonomous ethnic minority groups) is not clearly delineated. This regions with no minzu museums. The three provinces reflects the fact that the majority of museums in China Guizhou, Yunnan and Heilongjiang have the highest are focused on the topics of archaeology and history. The concentration of minority population. As can easily be criteria suggested by the government for financial support seen in figure 5, museums focusing on shaoshu minzu are based on those more prevalent types of museums and, are mostly located in minzu areas where ethnic minority as such, make it difficult for the minzu museums to meet people have roles as the authorities and where national the required standards. In other words, archaeological and minorities live together. No other big municipalities, except historical objects are regarded as scarce, old, symbolizing Beijing, have a similar museum. Even the two minzu high class, artistically beautiful and showing evidence of museums in Beijing, namely the Cultural Palace and the technical skill, while the collections of the minzu museums National Minzu Museum of China, are neither influential are mostly dated after the nineteenth century and have nor highly equipped. With the exception of the museums folkloric characteristics which are thought to have less built in the autonomous regions, all of the provincial level cultural or even economic value both in popular perception museums are found in provinces where they have large and according to professional appraisals. Because of this minority audiences. In sum, these statistics show that the tendency, the collections of the minzu museums cannot be target audiences of the minzu museums are the minority appraised by the same standard as the collections held by

5 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM groups. ethnic different these of diversity of cultural the orencouragement acceptance active as seen be hardly can and groups minority these of of government’s the recognition gesture symbolic alargely is museums of these existence the sum, In employees. permanent 300 out of approximately the rank middle and of high personnel of 87 museum level, atotal has provincial same Beijing, the at is which in Museum Capital For the example, museums. of other those to compared of the status inferior the research). academic conduct to able who are two 20 only employees about (but has China of Museum Minzu National 26 employeesthe has and Palace of Cultural the department museum The museums. employees. rank entry ten and rank middle six rank, high two including 24 employees, only has Museum Minzu Provincial ranked. highly are of two them only and employees permanent are 20 ofemployees. these Only has 37 Museum Minzu Inner-Mongolian the 8, figure in seen be can As museums. atother those than quality the at resources Human reputations. improve their to opportunity of this deprived are museums society, the Chinese in authority important an as governments state by acknowledged are ratings official the Because system. of outside tier the remain museums ranking, museum for national of standard the part are institution by each owned relics cultural grade of high relics. cultural tier first become cannot of the objects. of these appraisal anationwide conducted already has and collections archaeological and historical on focuses which relics for cultural developed of aset has criteria Heritage of Cultural Administration State The established. tier first for the standard governmental the archaeological, and historical are which of folkloric characteristics the between differences the despite Second, museums. other minzu 54 However this standard is not is applicable most to However standard this 57 minzu objects and thus most of most the thus and objects This situation is no better at national level atnational no better is situation This objects and other museum collections collections museum other and objects minzu minzu minzu museums are also of also lower are museums 58 museums’ circumstances museums’ circumstances objects have objects not yet been These numbers reflect reflect numbers These 55 56 As the numbers numbers the As minzu The Hainan Hainan The objects objects minzu minzu

(cultural entertainment hall). The institution has been been has institution hall). The entertainment (cultural the and 1997), in library, the “museum” to 1978 in hall” again and “exhibition the to changed was (the name museum the divisions: distinct three included it built, it was When not exclusively building. amuseum [fig. hall exhibition 10].central is However,institution the north the to stretching hallways by additional surrounded are west wings building’s and The east high. 67 meters rises a13-floortower includes which building Itsmain meters. It square afloor ahuge is complexplan of with 32,000 of PRC the fivemuseums. founding alongthe with other of anniversary tenth Beijing the on in opened was museum of Palace Nationalities. Cultural of the Museum China the as translated sometimes is title was no institution called The Minzu Museum of China. of China. Museum Minzu The called no institution was there told methat they museums, atother personnel asked I When museum. the about ever heard had area the in one no that Ifound museum, for the address able get an was to I nor phone After number. yet no address provided, were organization the about information basic and establishment of institution’s year website, one the the On message. error an with apage meto yet it given, directed was address available. was Ahomepage information limited very Even internet, books. the on guide museum any or in the museums of the yearbook of records the in it not find Icould of list one museums, on of China Museum Minzu or National Museum Nationalities Chinese name the find to For able Iwas while example, of China. Museum Minzu the available on of information inconsistency by the puzzled been had I fieldworkin 2008, full-scale Before Ibegan Museum” Level aNational China of Lacks Capital “The China of Museum ProjectThe of Building aNational Level English name for name English popular more the is of Palace Nationalities Cultural The Institution Cultural ASymbolic Nationalities: of Palace Cultural The situation. true the understand to Ibegan that November 2008 in China in Museum Minzu of the Meeting Annual the to invited Iwas when only level national no actual was there that Iconcluded over titles time, different use people [figs. museums 9a, Chinese many b].As by most park theme cultural aprivate as regarded is which of China) Museum Minzu orNational Museum Ethnic the title, a similar under institution an Ifound addition, public. the In to open exhibition not have did apermanent ofPalace Nationalities However, of Palace Nationalities. Cultural the Cultural the it would be museum, such any was there if that said They Minzu Wenhuagong Minzu Zhonghua Minzu Bowuyuan Minzu Zhonghua minzu museum in China. It was China. in museum As I have stated earlier, IhaveAs stated , but the official official , but the wenwuguan (China (China Minzu Minzu

60

61 the the

59

6 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums called “the first national level organization”62 which stabilize the motherland’s unification and enhance the focuses primarily on the activities of the shaoshu minzu minzu’s solidarity; and to establish socialist education, (minzu huodong). It currently has a museum, a library, and thus elevate the assertiveness of the shaoshu minzu an art institute, an office for the Society of the Annals of in participating in the construction of the great socialist Nationalities Issues, an exhibition hall, a performance hall, motherland.63 a friendship store for shaoshu minzu products (minzu youyi Today, government and political meetings involving shangchang), and a hotel with an attached restaurant which shaoshu minzu issues are held at the Cultural Palace, and are intended to support functions related to shaoshu minzu leaders of minority groups must stay there when they make issues [figs. 11a, b, 12]. official visits to Beijing.64 In particular, certain spaces are used as residential houses for the Dalai Lama and Banchan Museums focused on the topic of minzu or minzu Lama of Tibet when they stay in Beijing. By requiring bowuguan are directly controlled by the Minwei, a Chinese leaders of minority groups to stay at the Cultural Palace, acronym of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of the the institution provides a stage where the movements of PRC, which is different from other types of museums that minority group leaders can be monitored or tracked—thus are under the absolute control of the State Administration serving a kind of surveillance function. of Cultural Heritage. However, minzu museums still have to follow the State Administration of Cultural Heritage Before 1981, the exclusive role of this institution was to with regard to work regulations (yewu), issues related to propagate the Party’s and the government’s policy on the policy, while financial support and human resources are shaoshu minzu and promote the development and progress administrated by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission. of the national minorities after the foundation of the PRC.65 This implies that minzu museums are frequently affected As this institution was highly important politically, the by political decisions made by the State Ethnic Affairs highest leaders of the PRC participated in 1959 in the Commission of the PRC. opening ceremony of the museum and its new exhibition on the tenth anniversary of the nation’s foundation.66 The As it is controlled by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission opening exhibition of the Cultural Palace was “Ten Years and was built to focus on shaoshu minzu issues exclusively, of Accomplishments on Minzu Issues” which was designed the Cultural Palace of Nationalities has been administered to show evidence of successful minzu policies led by the in an overtly political way. Although it often calls itself a Communist Party and the PRC government. Political use minzu museum, the most important element of this title of the museum lasted even after the Reform Era; many of the Cultural Palace is “nationalities” (minzu) rather different types of political exhibitions were installed, than “museum.” This is the first reason that its status as including a photo exhibit entitled “The Chairman Mao Is a national level minzu museum was easily denied by the Alive in My Heart Forever,” and visits by political leaders leaders of the Minzu Museum of China and by government to this exhibit were frequently broadcast as television news officers. As can be seen in the “Notice on Collecting of events. Objects of the Cultural Palace for Nationalities and Library by the Central People’s Government,” it is clear that the Both the nature of its exhibits and the other uses of the Cultural Palace for Nationalities was created for political Cultural Palace of Nationalities show that its primary purposes: function is not that of a museum. In reality, it is an The main responsibility is to propagate the glorious assemblage of institutions that works in and provides space victory of the Communist Party’s minzu policy for shaoshu minzu-related cultural sectors. Based on the and the successful accomplishments of the ten-year interviews I conducted in 2008, it appears that the Cultural minzu campaign; to reflect the political and economic Palace’s multiple departments mentioned above seldom accomplishments of the shaoshu minzu under the interact or collaborate, despite sharing a focus on minzu Communist Party’s leadership, particularly the great issues. achievements following the Great Leap Forward; to introduce the superior tradition of the minzu people’s Strictly speaking, the Cultural Palace of Nationalities labor, braveness and great wisdom, as well as their is an institution that includes an exhibition hall rather contribution to the motherland’s history and culture, than a museum, despite the change in the official title of to the revolutionary struggle, and to the construction the organization. The institution was called the Cultural of socialism; to broaden the provision of research and Palace of Nationalities when it was established in 1959, reference materials on minzu matters to all workers in but this was changed to the Exhibition Hall of the Cultural the minzu sector and related divisions; to educate the Palace of Nationalities in 1979, and then to the Museum people of each minzu with patriotism and internationalism of the Cultural Palace of Nationalities in 1997.67 This through collections, displays, exhibits and books; to name change implies that the museum was not the main

7 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM of director the and nationwide museums minzu over other control has that level not is museum anational Nationalities of Palace of Cultural the museum the Thus, rank. national of level institution an same as atthe operate cannot museum the Palace, of Cultural the asub-department only level museums). lower from collections appropriate even or entirely borrow easily can museums ranked (whereby higher museums over it other has control the and institution for the support financial influences then factor rank itwhich belongs. This to department of government the rank the to linked directly is of a museum rank the organization, stratified highly a is government Chinese the and institutions state-run are Moreover, museums relationships. because political power its in determines of institution an rank the where society Chinese in important extremely is This institution. level anational be to considered is which Palace, Cultural of the department museum nor the itself museum the not of Palace Nationalities, Finally, Cultural it the is not were emphasized. ofPalace Nationalities of Cultural the exhibits the exhibitions, blockbuster-type and treasures national displayed level museums national other when Olympic Games, 2008 the Even during knowledge. share to is goal main whose museums most than different is which creations, of artistic distribution the is purpose its that implies of Palace Nationalities Cultural By using “performance.” and “exhibition” offerings. word the uses often Nationalities of Palace Cultural the offerings, public museum describe While regions. minority in produced mostly goods —specialty furs and silks as such buy products might they where aspace only it was peoplethat Chinese many to gave impression the thus Palace of Cultural the operations of carelessness. aresult as of collections many its losing including amuseum, as responsibilities its neglected arguably and events commercial such through institution a“profit-driven” of becoming case extreme an illustrate to seemed of Palace Nationalities Cultural the interviews, shortages. forup financial awaymake to as used also museums other which a method the government, from support of financial discontinuation the of overcoming ameans as seen be can This question. in of items the “exhibitions” displays), as marketed (without educational products of sale regional the including uses— out forcommercial or profitable rented often was space the because of museum anon-profit not that was 1997, Even of institution fact. after the operation this the 1980s before the exhibition only the “Tenthat Years on of Accomplishments 1997. until atleast fact The of organization the department zhanlan Zhanyan (exhibition) is the word used most often to to (exhibition) often most word the used is 71 As the museum at the Cultural Palace is is Palace Cultural atthe museum the As represents a combination of words the acombination represents 69 However, my on 2008 based zhanyan 68 is more evidence of evidence more is Minzu to describe its its describe to zhanyan Issues” was was Issues” 70 The The , the , the the Cultural Palace of Nationalities does not have the title of not havetitle does the of Palace Nationalities Cultural the of PRC. the hierarchy Although entire the within authority of PRC the Commission wouldits promote Affairs Ethnic of State the management the under level organization national another creating because government Chinese the of powerand structure rank the closelyaction reflects This action. political ahighly is which control, its under level institution national of PRC the another build to Commission Affairs Ethnic the State for justification provided point This authority. any with institution museum a as regarded it not is popularly level and museum” of “national rank the not deserving as criticized often it is amuseum, as Annals Museum the in listed is and minorities national the represent symbolically to institution level 1950s the anational in as established was Nationalities for Palace Cultural the although IhaveAs discussed, Level National Authoritative China: An of Minzu National Museum The of China. Museum Minzu of National the director the does as not have much authority does as museum the employees. It is difficult to describe it as an actual actual an as it describe to employees. It difficult is administrative several and seven directors curators, two with space of office only an consists now institution the level central a national of status administrative the it has Although 20 years. for than more committee aplanning as only it remained 1984. in However, established was of China Museum Minzu National for the Revolution), committee aplanning (following Cultural the reinstated was sector policy cultural the after earlier, Idiscussed As project. easy not an was level of national anew establishment The government. the from support financial receivemore power more and accumulate to Commission allow the will which level institution, national another with expand to Commission allow the to excuse aconvenient provided has China in boom museum of China Museum Minzu National the to functions museum its relinquish would of Palace Nationalities Cultural the words, other In are. they as remain will departments other the while organization independent an become will of institution the functions museum the that insists Commission the instead, of Palace Nationalities; Cultural the eliminate notis to Commission’s the Thus, of proposal own. its organization level national another maintaining and building justify to move Commission by the intentional role, an was museological its strengthen or refine to working than rather of Palace Nationalities, of Cultural the status museum the Annals. Museum the in and museums of list Chinese the in included always been it has exclusively, amuseum as not operate does and “museum” Minzu 73 upon its construction. its upon Museum Museum minzu 72 In other words, denying denying words, other In museum of China, even of China, museum 74 minzu The current current The museum museum 8 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums “museum” as there are neither exhibit spaces nor controlled Representatives of many different museums related to storage spaces. This institution conducts limited scientific minzu issues participated in this meeting along with a research and collection activities, while most of its work is few representatives from other types of museums. As of centered on traveling exhibits and loaning collections. The September 2009, 23 museums had signed a contract to reasons for this national level museum’s underdevelopment participate in the collaboration network, representing a are not publicized. However, through my interviews and collection of over 120,000 objects.77 Since then, seven extensive conversations with museum personnel from 2008, more museums have signed up to participate. I learned that the museum faced many political struggles and in many cases the interests of the Minzu Museum were This new Minzu Museum of China’s operating system is an subordinate to other endeavors. For example, the project invention of the leadership of the Minzu Museum of China of merging two museums, namely the Chinese Museum and the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of the PRC. In a of History and the Chinese Museum of Revolution, into nutshell, the goal of this system is to build a hierarchical the National Museum of China in 2003 was given higher structure among minzu museums in which the Minzu priority than the building of the Chinese Museum of Museum of China sits at the center and holds the highest Nationality, namely the National Minzu Museum of China. position. Collections will be shared among the museums This example demonstrates the underdevelopment of the participating in the network, which will relieve the national level minzu museum in two ways: “diversity,” participating museums from struggling to obtain pieces for which can be represented through the minzu issue, does their collections. Through this system, the Minzu Museum not have priority compared to the “unification” of Chinese of China attempts to “connect different minzu museums history, and the power of the Ministry of Culture is stronger nationwide, to increase the capacity of support from the than that of the Minwei. state to minzu -related cultural enterprises, to properly allocate collections, exhibition spaces, human resources One of the reasons for the slowed progress on the museum and information, and to raise the standard of the culture of can be gleaned from the substance of the petition of the the Chinese minzu for international exchange.”78 National Minzu Museum of China Project, in which the members of the project committee had to explain This system is intended to overcome the limitations faced how the Minzu Museum of China will be different from by the Minzu Museum of China in two ways. First, it the National Museum of China. Chinese government’s is intended to supplement the limited collections of the emphasis on unification detracts from the importance of National Museum.79 Second, since the quality as well as building a minzu museum, compared to the earlier days the quantity of collections is an important indicator for of the PRC when assuring shaoshu minzu rights was museum ranking, the system allows the Minzu Museum of considered more important. In addition, because museums China to inherit authority over the important and widely are seen as displaying Chinese history, the National Minzu authorized collections of other established museums. This Museum of China intends to display a historical exhibition idea of sharing collections, which is a way to overcome the related to shaoshu minzu.75 The official late-starter status of the national level minzu museum, is a is the story of the amalgamation of different shaoshu uniquely Chinese solution because it illustrates the power minzu and since this story is already told in the National relationship among the hierarchy of museums controlled Museum of China the exhibit at the Minzu Museum of by the government. Finally, in 2009, 25 years after the China may well be seen as redundant by non-specialists. commencement of the planning committee, the Minzu Moreover, it is not clear how the museum will link the Museum of China received permission from the state to history of the different ethnic groups with the newly build actual museum facilities (though no completion date invented categorization of 56 official ethnic groups in the has yet been set for this project).80 contemporary PRC.

In 2008, the Minzu Museum of China held a national level Conclusion conference to initiate new museum alliances and to gain This case study on Chinese minzu museums shows that a foothold in completing the establishment of a Minzu the issue of shaoshu minzu is an important subject; yet Museum of China [fig. 13]. The purpose of this meeting Chinese unity is consistently emphasized over ethnic was primarily to obtain official consent and perform a diversity. Diversity, according to existing minzu museums, kind of symbolic ceremony, constructing a collaborative is reduced to a display of “varieties of colorfulness.” As museum by obtaining the loyalty of other national level seen in the rhetorically meaningful description of China as minzu museums. This new system is called a “collaborative a “unified country of diverse nationalities (ethnic groups),” network among the minzu museums in China” (zhongguo museums controlled by the government promote the idea of minzu bowuguan hezuowang) and was proposed in 2003.76

9 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM community. museum international the by embraced currently trend multicultural the to responsive more grow also will museums Chinese that I expect of globalization, stream the in participate to efforts made of aware and become successfully has China considering Nevertheless, museums. ofimprovement existing qualitative the than rather increase quantitative on centered therefore is museums more building in level interest state result of The amplified. significantly is departments relevant the to power allotted political and support of financial amount the means of museums number increased the state-run, are China in museums Since China. in boom museum current the even accelerate and worked support to has power structure government the which way one in illustrates study case this addition, In identities. minorities’ reinforcing and of value the multiculturalism promoting institutions of independent assortment an as than ideals government minzu of existence The characteristics.” Chinese with socialism of building cause great the to support, of intellectual by way cohesivecontribute, and and force, confidence nation’s the increase to self- is of museums responsibility primary “The museums: of mission Chinese the on statement government official by the role well is supported ofmuseum idea diversity. the This suppress so doing in and groups ethnic thediverse idea over of country unified the museums is therefore intended more as a display of adisplay as more intended therefore is museums 10 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

Figure 1. Children representing China’s 55 minority groups by wearing costumes and holding China’s flag during opening ceremony of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. (Source: Reuters)

Figure 2. Proportions of Chinese ethnic groups. (Chart created by Steven Weathers@sdweathers)

11 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM Museum Nationalities Guangxi Museum) Nationalities Mongolia (Inner Museum Keerxin Museum Yunnan Nationalities Museum Hainan Nationalities Museum Nationalities Heilongjiang Minzu Nationalities the of Palace Cultural Institution Reported Museums of Number Year (Source: Zhongguo Bowuguan Xeuhi, Xeuhi, Bowuguan Tongjizhaoyao Zhongguo (Source: Office. Statistical National Chinese the in by China museums accredited of Numbers 3. Figure (Source: Pan et al. et Pan (Source: for statistics Comparative 4. Figure Museum of China 10 1929

2008).

Minzu Diqu Bowuguan Shiye Fazhan De Lishi He Xianzhuang Lishi He Baogao, De Fazhan Shiye Minzu Diqu Bowuguan 72 1939 2004 1995 1988 1985 1984 1959 Foundation 2008 21 1949 40 1952 minzu Zhongguo Bowuguan Zhi Bowuguan Zhongguo Beijing Location Tongliao Kunming Wuzhishan Haerbin Beijing museums in China. in museums 72 1957 349 1978 32,000 (m Dimension 40,000 20,000 35,675 3,772 5,674 N/A 2 365 1980 ) 1995 and Zhongguo Tongjiju, Tongjiju, Zhongguo and 1995 711 1985 3,000 (5 exhibi (5 3,000 (mdimension hall Exhibition N/A N/A 7,000 2,000 1,180 N/A halls)tion 1,013 1990 1,194 1995 2 ) -

2008) Over 40,000 Over objects) (numbers of size Collection Museum Region omous Auton Guangxi the by ferred 10,000 (trans 10,000 36,168 30,000 3,000 3,000 Over Zhongguo Zhongguo 1,392 2000 1,581 2005 - - 12 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

Figure 5. Provinces where minzu museums are located (circled by author).

13 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM Figures 6a, b. The Heilongjiang Provincial Nationalities Museum. Museum. Nationalities Provincial Heilongjiang b. The 6a, Figures (Photos taken by the author) the by taken (Photos 14 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

Figure 7. The Yunnan Nationalities Museum (Photo taken by the author)

Figure 7. The Yunnan Nationalities Museum. (Photo taken by the author)

Museum Name High Rank Middle Rank Entry Rank Total Employees

Inner-Mongolian Nationalities Museum 2 18 0 37

Hainan Nationalities Museum 2 6 10 24

Figure 8. Numbers of employees working at the nationalities museums. (Source: Tang, “Zhongguo minzu bowuguan lishi huigu yu xianzhuang fenxi,” in Zhongguo MinzuBowuguan, Lun Minzu Bowuguan Jianshe, 2007)

15 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM the China Ethnic Museum. Museum. Ethnic China the b. The 9a, Figures Zhonghua Minzuyan Zhonghua (Photos taken by the author) the by taken (Photos , also called the China Nationalities Museum or Museum China the Nationalities called , also 16 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

Figure 10. The Cultural Palace of Nationalities in 1959. (Source: http://www.chinese.cn)

17 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM taken by the author) the by taken in 2008. Nationalities of Palace Cultural Hall the of Exhibition b. The 11a, Figures (Photos (Photos 18 Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums

Nationalities Museum un- 1985 Guizhou 7,000 N/A Burned in 2000, der the Guizhou Cultural not open to the Palace public

Figure 12. The Performance Hall of the Cultural Palace of Nationalities in 2008. (Photo taken by the author)

Figure 13. At the annual meeting of the Minzu Museum of China in 2008, partici- pants line up to sign the Hezuowang banner. (Photo taken by the author)

19 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM Children China’s ‘Ethnic’ as Scandal, Fakery “New Reuters opening,” Games at children faked “Ethnic Goldsmith, Majority,” Han from Came in Children Ethnic Costume “Chinese and Chao Leow, such as articles newspaper See 6. author.the by Chinese from translated was text original 2008.). The Kaifang,” Jiancheng Zaori Guojia (Qian, JiMinzuBowuguan 2008 “Rang held in March (CPPCC) Conference Consultative Political People’s Chinese made the at was statement This 5. the on focuses that “ term the use Iwill 4. groups. ethnic other the than in status higher suits, western wore who leaders political the of form in the present Han were the effect, In groups. unlike minority other the garb, in traditional group ethnic did display Han not the celebrations anniversary 60th Similarly, the group. Han ethnic the by representation without appeared, groups 55 minority Games, Olympic 2008 the openingof ceremonies the For presented. not is usually Han ethnicity the groups, ethnic different of existence which intend harmonious to the show in such that performances, interesting is highly It 3. including group. Han ethnic the groups, to all to refer “ethnic groups” terminology the use I will whereas group, Han ethnic China majority the excluding I employ bowuguan minzu and live, ethnic of minorities population a significant example, For means “ethnic usually it minorities.” any adjectives, term if the speaking, of translation lexical or simple primary the because minorities” “national or nationalities” “minority as translated isit usually minzu nation.”is “Chinese terminology, Chinese In minzu and “nation.” example, For group,” “nationality” “ethnic terms English the of conceptual range the term, one single China, 2. In Riots.” 14 “3 in the China as known unrest, Tibetan of episodes 2008 the after a half years one and held just was event the leadership, because PRC the of gesture symbolic ahighly was This 1. Notes is used to mean “ethnic minorities,” although to mean “ethnic although is minorities,” used group,” ethnic whereas is “Han , August 15, 2008; McCartney and Fletcher, and Fletcher, McCartney 2008; 15, , August shaosu minzu shaosu The Wall Street Journal Street Wall The minzu diqu minzu means “museum of ethnic minorities.” ethnic of means “museum shaoshu minzu shaoshu Zhongguo Minzubao Zhongguo minzu minzu minzu to refer to the ethnic minorities of of minorities ethnic to the to refer refers to any district where where to any district refers is “nationality.” Contextually is “nationality.” Contextually is accompanied not by museum” to refer museums museums to refer museum” minzu , August 16, 2008; 16,2008; , August , is used to convey to convey , is used in China. China. in zhonghua minzu zhonghua , March 11, 11, , March shaoshu shaoshu Han Han

Leninist national policy, namely common language, common namely language, national policy, Leninist Stalinist- the of criteria four the followed it because research scientific accomplished through achievements China’s one of as praised unique andwas creative ( Project Ethnic Identification 10. The Donaldand9. Benewick, due to paper space limitations. in aseparate discuss whichIwill subject, is another museums comprehensive issues in topic nationalities of orthe exhibits museum in narratives the analysis either of The 8. Reuters 7. Faked Children Opening,” Games at “Ethnic Goldsmith, Ceremony,” Fakes in as Opening Exposed Children ‘Ethnic’ Olympics: false,” rings Olympics the at else “Something Moraes, 16, 2008; Han Majority,” Come from Actually Identification in China,” in Identification China,” in andMinorities National “Modernization Fei, 11. examination. specific without theHan nationality to belonging as classified are “unidentified”) as categorized are who (except those people the of rest the whereby default, of akind as Han is used category the Instead, established. not was group ethnicHan for determining of criteria identification in the Interestingly, 1995: 240-273. Brown, Melissa by Modernization in and Century Guizhou,” in Southeast Identities Ge of and Negotiation Integration Twentieth Studies the Minorities: Asian of China’s Journal The Identities,” Majority/Minority in China: Refiguring Nationality Gladney, (see “Representing categories criteria four the across similarities without together grouped remain they groups, accepted the of minority number total the to increase want not does government the nationalities.”Because identified to “not-yet 749,341 many as as 1990, to said belong were people Even until groups. nationality placed innot the any of were some communities and four criteria, the satisfied accepted are having despite not groups known the of several – identifications these affected decisions clearly political cases some In problems. further caused and “creatively,”which flexibly applied rather was and “scientific” strictly not was criteria of application this top-down in this project, involved were scholars many although However, character. psychological common and base, economic common territory, common Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan and China in Ethnicities Negotiating , August 15, 2008. 15, , August Occasional Papers Occasional The Telegraphs The The Washington Post Washington The , 1994; Cheung, “Representation “Representation , 1994; Cheung, Social Sciences in China in Sciences Social The State of China Atlas China of State The 6, 1979; Fei, “Ethnic 1979;“Ethnic 6, Fei, , August 16,2008. , August 53.1, 1994; Mecherras. 1994; Mecherras. 53.1, ; Spencer, “Beijing The Times The minzu shibie minzu minzu , August , August , edited , edited

1, 1980. 1, ) , 2005. , 20 12. Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional and Warring State Periods (770 – 256 B.C.). Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums National Autonomy. 20. Zhongguo Bowuguan Xuehui, Zhongguo Bowuguan 13. Many of my Han nationality friends have told Zhi, 1995. Discussions on the Nationalist Party and me that they have had very few minority nationality the transformation of the Forbidden City to the Palace friends and rarely speak about this topic. Friends from Museum can be found in Hamlish. “Preserving the Minzu University (the former Central University for Palace: Museums and the Making of Nationalism(s) Nationalities), a university specialized in educating in Twentieth-Century China,” Museum Anthropology individuals of various minority nationalities to become 19.2, 1995: 20-30. Watson also discusses the cultural leaders in their communities, tell me that inside Minzu politics of the Taiwan Nationalist Party in relation to the University is the only space with a multi-national collection of the National Museum of History in Taipei presence in all of Beijing. (Watson, “Tales of Two Chinese History Museums: Taipei and Hong Kong,” Curator 41.3, 1998: 167-77). 14. The museum concept was brought to China in 1847 from the United States by Lin, and again in 1848, 21. Translated from Chinese by the author. Xu introduced the model of the European museum institution. The first Chinese governmental officer 22. Zhongguo Bowuguan Xuehui, Zhongguo Bowuguan officially sent to Europe in 1866 also returned to China Zhi, 1995; Beijing Bowuguan Xuehui. Beijing Bowuguan excited about the museums he had seen. See Wang, Nianjian, 1989; The Central People’s Government of Zhongguo Bowuguan Xue Jichu, 1990. the People’s Republic of China, The Ordinance of the Museums in China. 15. Wang, Zhongguo Bowuguan Xue Jichu, 1990. Jing, Bowuguanxue, 1983; Wenhuabu Wenwuju Jiaoyuchu and 23. This is called Minzu Wenhuagong in Chinese. Nankai Daxue Lishi Xi, Bowuguan Cankao Ziliao, 1986. Sometimes it is translated as the “China Museum of the National Cultural Palace.” 16. A more detailed discussion of Zhang Jian and his project of creating “the first modernized museum 24. For a detailed analysis on the construction of the of China” can be found in Claypool, “Zhang Jian and National Museum of Revolution, see Hung, “The Red China’s First Museum,” The Journal of Asian Studies Line: Creating a Museum of the Chinese Revolution,” The 64.3, 2005: 567-604; Shao, Culturing Modernity: The China Quarterly 183, 2005: 914-933. Nantong Model, 1890-1930, 2004. 25. Based on my interviews in 2009. Interviewees 17. In 1868, a French Catholic priest named Pierre worked more than 30 years at different museums Heude built Xujiahui Museum (Sikowei Museum), which established in the earlier days of the PRC. later became the National History Museum (Shanghai Ziran Lishi Bowuyuan) in the Shanghai 26. Mitter, “Behind the Scenes at the Museum: Xujiahui area. This museum was followed by a museum Nationalism, History and Memory in the Beijing War of built by the North China Branch of the British Royal Resistance Museum, 1987-1997,” The China Quarterly 16, Asiatic Society in 1872. See Pao, A History of Chinese 2000: 279-93. Museums, 1966. It is also known that in 1904 Huabei Museum was established in by foreigners. Most 27. Beijing Bowuguan Xuehui, Beijing Bowuguan of the museums built by foreigners and missionaries Nianjian, 1989. However, according to a study done were natural history museums; see Jimin, Zhongguo by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, only Bowuguanshilun, 2004. 80% of museums had basic equipment and exhibitions and are able to open to the public. The remaining 20% 18. Wang, Zhongguo Bowuguan Xue Jichu, 1990. are museums with names but sparse resources and functions (Tang, “Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan Lishi Huigu Yu Xianzhuang Fenxi,” in Lun Minzu Bowuguan 19. Chinese dynasties have a longstanding tradition of Jianshe, edited by Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan, 2007: owning and passing down royal collections from dynasty 162-184). to dynasty, beginning with the extensively mounted and documented collection of the Song dynasty (960-1270 28. Su, “Zhongguo Bowuguan Shiye De Fazhan.” A.D.). This tradition was supposedly adapted from an Zhongguo Wenhua Yichan 4, 2005: 30-41. ancient practice in use during the Spring and Autumn

21 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM Xuehui, Bowuguan Zhongguo 36. Museum. Louvre orthe Art of Museum Metropolitan the such as examples concrete give also museums,” and sometimes renowned tend to cite “internationally they to it, refer they when this standard about curators if Iask example, For experts. made so-called by discourse assembled an as explained be can standard This government. the place auspices takes underof the and books journals of since publication the in academic papers, also but documents orgovernmental in political only not used inand China, is and value authority has phrase type” Yet standard. this “ideal this international of nature the detailing document written no is usually there in China, used is frequently standard” “international Jing, 35. years. five published every is document the though or “Annals” in English, “Yearbook” translated is variously term Chinese The 34. Bowuguanxue Lishi Xi, Daxue Wenhuabu and Nankai Jiaoyuchu Wenwuju 33. Jing, 32. countries. other from groups include not ethnic does in China. It groups) minority just cases most (in groups ethnic the on focuses only that characteristics” “Chinese with is amuseum museum of meanings multiple the of because museum or nationalities a to describe museum,” used is also “ethnology Sometimes 31. Online Daily 7Billion Yuan to Invest “Beijing Museums,” on People’s dollars; Daily, million U.S. 144 (approximately million Yuan 1,200 is over Museum Capital the for the investment Specifically, 2015. by museum functional have amodern will city medium-sized Chinese every According report, to the years. six of aperiod over museums six of orreconstruction construction in the billion Yuan dollars) million 846 (approximately U.S. seven announced Beijing invest in that will 2003 Heritage Cultural of Beijing Administration The government. Chinese made the by investment of amount the by witnessed also be can boom This 30. Bobuguan De Shidai 1-3. 2005: Cao, Bingwu Wemen Diantang: in “Introduction,” 29. Ma, Bowuguanxue Bowuguanxue , August 16,2008.). , August minzu , 1983. Bowuguan Cankao Ziliao Cankao Bowuguan minzuxue bowuguan minzuxue . However, this type of of this type . However, , 1983. Although the expression expression the Although , 1983. , 1983. Jiyi Xianchang Yu Wenhua Wenhua Yu Xianchang Jiyi Zhongguo Bowuguan Bowuguan Zhongguo , whichmeans , edited by by , edited , 1986; Jing, minzu People’s People’s

minzu

state even tried to change the translation of of translation to change the tried even state and the internationally, popular had become heritage” “cultural term the that fact the of aware increasingly China time became that At to 2003. prior Relics” Cultural Wenwuju of translation English official is the This 38. Museum. the as known became PRC, the of establishment Guomingdang the of government the by established museum level national first the was 37. Museum Central This Zhi Kim, “Intangible Cultural Heritage and Materiality - The -The and Materiality Heritage Cultural “Intangible Kim, embedded materiality-focused the from and history culture concept Chinese for the to shift effort this on discussion More heritage. concept cultural of terminology, different despite having heritage,” to “cultural relics” “cultural Nationalities was changed to Minzu University although although to MinzuUniversity changed was Nationalities for University the Central English nameof official The 43. starvation. by deaths of numbers and massive shortages grain in catastrophic ended whichfinally and industrialization, agriculturalization collective of process the through communist society into amodern economy an agrarian from country the transform to rapidly China’s population to use vast aimed Campaign This Communist Chinese Party. the of an economic and campaign social was Forward Leap Great The 1960s. 1950s the to early from collectivization and critiqued capitalism favored who intellectuals for aterm “rightists,” the of persecution political systematic to the refers Movement Anti-Rightist The 42. Baogao Xianzhuang He Lishi al., et Pan 41. communities. minority recognized officially the be whichwould to determine PRC in the provinces diverse ethnically most to the and traveled project the in participated cadres and Party linguists, ethnologists, of group A project. state - Communist scientific social a joint was Project 1954Ethnic Classification 40. The Shijian Yu Lilun 39. MinzuWenhuagong Bowuguan, 2009. in December Scienceof and Technology Kong Hong University the at Asia” inCommunities East and Local Heritage Cultural “Intangible on a conference People’s in the at Republic China,” of Case given apaper , 1995. , which was translated as the “State Bureau of of Bureau “State the as translated , whichwas wenhua yichan wenhua (Nationalist Party) in 1933, and after the the and after in 1933, Party) (Nationalist Minzu Diqu Bowuguan Shiye Fazhan De De Fazhan Shiye Bowuguan Diqu Minzu , 1999. wenhua yichan wenhua is provided in Keun Young is provided , 2008. , wenwu Minzu Bowuguan De De Bowuguan Minzu to the intangibility intangibility the to , to refer to the to the , to refer Guojia Guojia wenwu from from 22 the Chinese title remains the same. I could not get an Lishi He Xianzhuang Baogao, 2008. Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums answer as to why they changed the official title, but it seems logical to attribute this to the highly totalitarian, 50. Ibid. The paper explains that the data is based on hierarchical and nationalistic connotation of terms like resources provided by the Department of the Cultural “central” and “nationalities.” By using the Chinese term Propaganda at the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of minzu, people who do not know Chinese will have no the PRC. presumptions about the nature of the museum, and people who know Chinese will imagine a broader range 51. Based on the conversations in 2008 with museum of meaning. scholars the staff of several minzu museums.

44. “Minzu region” refers to the territories of the 52. My discussion is based on the intended audience autonomous regions, the autonomous prefectures, the of these museums, because I was unable to attain any autonomous counties, the autonomous banners, the data on the actual proportions of the museum visitors. ethnic townships and the ethnic sumu. Here I reason that if individuals of the Han nationality were the target audience, those museums should have 45. See Wang and Zhou, “Guojia Wenwuhu Huzhang been built more extensively outside of the minzu area. Dan JiXiang: Ge Minzu Dou Jiang You Bowuguan,” In terms of actual visitor counts, Chinese museums tend Jinghuashibao, March 6, 2008. As seen in the minorities’ to record raw numbers of visitors, but do not seem to identification project, minority groups share a strong conduct surveys on the proportions of people of various identity and culture, while the culture of the Han ethnic groups who visit the museum. Although not in Chinese is officially described as having absorbed a minzu museum, when I had the chance to develop a and amalgamated a variety of different cultures. This survey questionnaire for museum visitors in one of the weakness of common identity or cultures associated museums in Beijing, a museum staff member quickly with the Han Chinese has facilitated close links between eliminated the question asking visitors to identify their Chinese eco-museums and museums focusing on minzu ethnic group. The staff member, who held a PhD degree, issues. told me that this information was not meaningful in Beijing. 46. This project of building eco-museums is also led by the government as a campaign to increase the number 53. Chinese society places great value on rankings, and of the museums and increase the index of cultural both museums and museum collections are appraised facilities in minority areas. What caught Chinese by official state-created ranking criteria. The standards officials’ attention is the fact that the eco-museum is for the first tier wenwu (cultural and historical relics) the most “updated” or contemporary form of museum, and first tier museums are established by the state, though they often ignore the fact that eco-museums are and museums and museum collections nationwide particularly distinguished by their community-based are evaluated by these standards. For the standards of characteristics. the first tier museum, see Guojia Wenwuju, Guojia Yiji Bowuguan Yunxing Pinggu Zhipiao Tixi (The Scale of 47. The discussion of museums of nationalities takes the Numeric Values for Evaluating the Operation of the place almost entirely within a political arena, rather National Level First Tier Museum), 2008. than an academic or cultural studies context. That said, even compared to political discussions surrounding 54. The results of this appraisal of the first tier cultural archaeological and historical museums, minzu issues relics are published in Guojia Wenwuju, Quanguo are quite a minor concern. Guanchang Yi Ji Wenwu Cong Mulu, 2005. 55. For example, the established standard employs this 48. The number and rank of museum institutions categorization for Han ethnicity-centered archaeological cannot be used exclusively as criteria for these kinds of and historical objects such as jade, bronze, ceramics, conclusions. However, in China, the rank and number calligraphy and painting. In contrast, minzu objects are of institutions are the most important criteria as they assigned a more folkloric classification, namely cloth, provide symbolic scientific data. State-led propaganda, household, musical instrument, etc. policy, and achievements are similarly expressed according to quantity, without much consideration of 56. As museums belong to the government, the staff individual differences. system inside the museums also follows the hierarchy of other governmental offices – a system which assigns 49. Pan et al., Minzu Diqu Bowuguan Shiye Fazhan De rank to employees based on number of years employed,

23 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011) Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7(2011) Number Studies, in Museum Papers Working UM in the is mentioned architecture museums’ the that proud very are personnel Museum Architecture. Chinese century 20th of works best the one of as in 1999,is it regarded Nationalities of Palace Cultural the of 50 year anniversary the published to commemorate 61. According to acatalogue amuseum. as count it Association Museum Chinese and the Beijing the Museum of Yet amuseum. not Annals but the place to visit, a fun as it regarded Ispoke with whom Chinese the objects, authentic with is it amuseum insist that personnel museum its Although Chinese. overseas of organization an built by museum is aprivate This to this institution. to refer used is also Museum Nationalities or Chinese China of MinzuMuseum National yet Ethnic Museum, Chinais title the of translation official in China. The nationalities dance, different of musicas and shows such performances andcultural architecture on focused Cun Minzuyuan Minzu Bowuyuan Minzu Zhonghua Zhonghua similar The and have both meanings. sounds culture) zhongguo to Bowuyuan Museum). China of Nationalities orChinese Museum the Bowuyuan is museum the of title The 60. U.S. to the imported been yet not this has Xuehui),but Bowuguan (Zhongguo Association Museum Chinese published the by was China in the museums of yearbook nationwide official 2010 Xuehui).In first the (BeijingBowuguan Association Beijing the Museum by 5years Museums every and then period, Beijing of published in for first 1989 which was Yearbook A year book. aWestern-style of characteristics in China museums and of many shares record is asynthesized Xuehui).This Bowuguan (Zhongguo Museums Association Museum Chinese published the by 1995) Chinese of Record yearbooks. of kinds to two here 59. Irefer in 2009. interviews my on Based 58. 162-184. 2007: MinzuBowuguan, Zhongguo by edited in Fenxi,” Xianzhuang Yu 57. Lishi Huigu MinzuBowuguan Tang. “Zhongguo exams. promotion on earned and grades obtained, degrees bowuguan Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan Minzu Zhongguo (a group of people sharing the same Chinese Chinese same the sharing people of (a group (garden / park) looks and sounds very similar very and sounds looks /park) (garden (nationalities village), which is a theme park (nationalities village), park whichis atheme , which is only two syllables different from from different syllables two , whichis only (museum). International History of Architecture of History International (Chinese Ethnic Culture Park) or as oras Park) (Chinese Ethnic Culture Lun Minzu Bowuguan Jianshe Bowuguan Minzu Lun Zhonghua is known to the public as public to as the is known (Huaxia Chubanshe, Chubanshe, (Huaxia Zhonghua Minzu Minzu Zhonghua (Yanshan Chubanshe), (Yanshan (National Minzu (National (the state) and (the state) the 1912-1987 1912-1987 the One is the isOne the The other is other The ,

museum’s opening MinzuWenhuagong ceremony. See in the part Enlai andtook Zhou Xioaqi andopening, Liu its before museum’s the visited exhibition Qingling and Song Xioaping Deng ZhuDe, Enlai, Zhou Premier 66. 1999: MinzuWenhuagong, by 1-9. edited Gaihuang,” in Shi Wenhuagong “Minzu andBowuguan Qin, 65. government. provincial the of and recommendation permission the without could Chinese travel no Period, Reform the Before 64. author). Shijian Yu Lilun 63. MinzuWenhuagong Bowuguan, Shijian Yu Lilun 62. MinzuWenhuagong Bowuguan, Kingdom. published United in the county level museums to give their collections to the to the collections their to give museums level county the force can Culture of Ministry provincial the built, is museum provincial if anew example, For practices. their adjust dramatically to departments ranking lower require can departments ranking higher and structure hierarchical ahighly has government Chinese The 71. that institution. to financial support to give reluctant tends to be government the practices, or unprofessional non-specialist and other this carelessness of Because members. staff by certain caused was which a flood by damaged were Palace Cultural the at collections the many of that in Beijing,Ilearned museum the one of in acurator with aconversation during 2009, 70. In 1999. al., et Qin found in canbe Examples display. space profit-driven for whichis a similar asense has to it “exposition”) but zhanlanguan the between differences the have debated Nationalities of Palace Cultural the of employees various by written articles Many 69. period. time that during did operate not basically institution place and took this in 1960s, late Revolution Cultural the before Palace Cultural in the installed was that exhibit only the this was According interview, to my 68. 67. and Qi Dong, Bowuguan. Minzu Bowuguan De Lilun Yu Shijian Yu Lilun De Bowuguan Minzu (literally “display hall” hall” or“exhibition (literally Minzu Bowuguan De Lilun Yu Shijian Yu Lilun De Bowuguan Minzu , 1999: 3 (translated from Chinese by the the by Chinese from , 1999: 3(translated , 1999. Minzu Wenhuagong Minzu bowuguan (museum) and and (museum) Minzu Bowuguan De De Bowuguan Minzu Minzu Bowuguan De De Bowuguan Minzu , 2006. , . 1999. , 24 new provincial level museum. The Shanrong Wenhua Multiculturalism and Chinese Museums Chenlieguan, which is one of the museums under Beijng’s municipal jurisdiction, also had to transfer their collections to the newly built, higher ranking museum by the order of the city government, replacing the authentic pieces (including archaeologically excavated artifacts) with replicas instead.

72. Beijing Bowuguan Xuehui, Beijing Bowuguan Nianjian, [A Yearbook of Beijing Museums].

73. In many (if not all) cases the official title in English is the National Minzu Museum of China, or China Nationalities Museum. As I explained earlier, one of the Chinese “Wikipedias” translates Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan as “the National Museum of China” which has a totally different meaning. (See http://www. hudong.com/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6% B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9 %A6%86)

74. Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan, Minbo Jianyishu, 2009.

75. Ibid.

76. Zhang, “Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan,” in Lun Zhongguo Bowuguan Jianshe, edited by Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan, 2007: 1-22.

77. Zhongguo Minzu Bowuguan, Minbo Jianyishu, 2009.

78. Ibid. Many Chinese policy decisions and rhetorical choices are still based on the evolutionary perspectives outlined in forms of Marxism.

79. The number of objects owned by the National Minzu Museum of China is 10,000, including what they have collected for 20 years and what has been transferred from other institutions. The Cultural Palace of Nationalities has a collection of over 50,000 objects, which will be transferred to the National Minzu Museum of China when it completes the construction of storage spaces.

80. Museum building completion dates are also frequently ignored - The National Museum of China, which was scheduled to reopen in 2008 in preparation for the Olympic Games, was in fact not able to open even by 2010.

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27 UM Working Papers in Museum Studies, Number 7 (2011)