Issue 1 Autumn 2013 ISSN 2052-5273 The Marine The magazine of the Biologistmarine biological community Oceans of change Prof. Callum Roberts on past and future seas

Also in this issue: Ecosystem structure in a marine heat wave Linnaean limitations The tropicalization of the Mediterranean

INE BIO R LO A G M I C

E A

H L

T

A S N S O O CIATI The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 01 Carbon credits | Declining phytoplankton | Ocean literacy | Sharing resources Editorial was to provide policy advice and the Issue 1 Summer 2013 Welcome to the first issue of The cross-over between research and policy Contents Marine Biologist, a new magazine for remains all-important. The section 02 Editorial the marine biological community, opens with a policy overview which in provided free to Marine Biological this issue highlights the need to provide 04 Around the Association Association (MBA) members. decision makers with the context that 04 News When we gaze out to sea, it’s hard turns information into ‘evidence’. Editorial Office not to wonder what’s going on under I hope this section will prove to be Science letters Editor Guy Baker the surface: where are all the fish? How useful and influential to policy advisers, 06 From the crow’s nest [email protected] close am I to a shark or an enormous NGOs and scientists, and I welcome MBA Director Colin Brownlee offers his perspective on +44 (0)1752 633244 fan mussel? How do the different parts discussion or opinion articles. the challenges and opportunities facing marine biologists. Executive editor Matt Frost of the marine environment interact? Articles on all aspects of sharing These questions spur us to dive, catch knowledge and resources appear in 08 Biological invasions and climate warming [email protected] 08 +44 (0)1752 633334 fish or study marine biology. They the section entitled ‘Sharing marine Maria Antonietta Pancucci-Papadopoulou and colleagues examine the relentless tropicalization of the Mediterranean. Editorial Board Guy Baker, also add to our internal lives; who science’. The US has its Science Educa- Kelvin Boot, Matt Frost, Paul amongst us doesn’t imagine their tor Associations, and the EU now 12 Too hot to handle? Rose, Mike Thorndyke. own, personal “Google ocean”? For has EMSEA (the European Marine Dan Smale on the impacts of a marine heatwave in Membership Alex Street all the passion people have for the sea Science Educators’ Association). Find Western Australia. [email protected] and its inhabitants, and the fact that out how this new initiative is pushing 15 Microalgae systematics +44 (0)1752 633337 marine biological research is providing for ocean literacy in school curricula El-Mahdi Bendif on ’omics and classification. www.mba.ac.uk/membership insights into how a substantial portion across the EU, and sign up for the 18 Are marine phytoplankton in decline? Correspondence of our planet works, it appears that EMSEA conference in September. Abigail McQuatters-Gollop picks over no English language magazine exists My aim is to source material The Marine Biological Association the evidence in the decline debate. Citadel Hill, Plymouth, PL1 2PB, UK purely for the broad interest of marine from the widest constituency, from 18 The Marine Biologist is published by biologists. What an opportunity! the research community to consult- Environment & Conservation the Marine Biological Association, So, by way of an introduction I’d ants, fishers, amateur naturalists, or Registered Charity No. 226063 like to offer a whistle-stop tour of The anyone who has something current 21 Policy ISSN number: 2052-5273 Marine Biologist. We dive first into and interesting to say about life in The MBA provides evidence for marine policy. Submissions the ‘Science letters’ section which the sea. Please take that as an invita- Matt Frost gives a current overview. Please contact the editor. contains a view of the marine biologi- tion to comment and contribute 22 Oceans of change Disclaimer: Views expressed cal research scene from a top researcher to future issues of the magazine. Callum Roberts takes the long view of our exploitation in The Marine Biologist are and articles on current research. In I hope you enjoy this first edition of of the marine environment. those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the this issue Professor Colin Brownlee, The Marine Biologist, please contact 27 The new face of coastal conservation? 22 Marine Biological Association. Director of the MBA, looks at the me through the website www.mba. Melissa Schiele looks at the carbon credits system. Copyright statment. Anyone wishing challenges and opportunities ahead. ac.uk/marinebiologist where you can to reproduce material published in ‘Environment & conservation’ also leave Sharing marine science The Marine Biologist must contact looks at ongoing issues such as climate comments the Marine Biological Association change, ocean acidification, noise, fish about this 30 European marine educators, unite! www.mba.ac.uk/marinebiologist stocks, marine planning/management, issue and make Géraldine Fauville introduces EMSEA, a new new legislation and conservation suc- suggestions initiative to bring ‘ocean literacy’ to Europe. cess stories. Fittingly in this first issue for the next, 32 Pooling resources for marine science 27 for marine resources demand INE BIO I am delighted to present an article on which is due Future demands R LO A G our changing seas by the thoughtful for publication better coordination between European marine M I C

E

A and erudite Callum Roberts. When in spring 2014. research laboratories. Nicolas Pade introduces the

H L T the MBA was established in 1884 it European Marine Biological Resource Centre. A S N S O 34 The view astern O C I ATI Front cover: Striking and accessible marine life: this is something that a rockpooler or An interview with BBC cameraman Hugh Miller. www.mba.ac.uk snorkeller could find from Shetland to the Mediterranean. Jewel anemones (Corynactis 34 viridis) in Sark. Back cover: The blue jellyfish,Cyanea lamarckii. Images: Fiona Crouch.

02 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 03 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist

Around the Association A B C Shark fins are regarded as tradi- tional and valuable food at Asian “The Marine Biologist” is field”. In celebration of this award have already decided they would weddings. The shark fin trade is a launched at a time when the the next issue of The Marine like to become marine biologists!). global business revolving around Association is seeing some Biologist will be a special edition Whilst the changes being imple- Hong Kong where about 50% of all of the biggest changes in its looking at the importance and mented above have taken a lot of fins end up. The trade is supplied nearly 130 year history. development of marine biology as work the MBA has continued to D E F by over 80 countries and Europe be active in supporting and giving delivers about one third of the fins. voice to the marine biological The catch and trade of shark fins, community; notices for members meat and other body parts is largely uncontrolled. This year however, are on page 35 and policy input the future of some endangered is included in the policy update and commercially important shark on page 21. In summary, this is a Photographs of microplastic debris found in surface waters of the Tamar estuary, UK. species may not be so bleak. At the very exciting time and it is impor- Fragments identified as (A) polypropylene, (B, C and D) polyethylene, (E) nylon, (F) world’s largest wildlife summit of tant that the recognition provided polystyrene. Scale bar represents 1 mm. Images: Saeed seyed Sadri. the Convention on International to the Association by the award is are now being viewed as novel has formed an affiliation with Trade in Endangered Species of used to raise ecosystems in their own right. the University of Chicago. Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), As members you will have been a discipline. We will also be pro- the profile A team of scientists from Woods Woods Hole Oceanographic 178 nations voted for strict con- trols on trading oceanic whitetip, informed the MBA has recently viding information on changes to of marine Hole, Massachusetts examined Institute faced financial pressures in porbeagle and three species of ham- been awarded a Royal Charter, the MBA’s membership structure biology and plastics from seawater samples recent years due to a considerable and found at least 1000 different drop in revenue. In the UK Port merhead sharks. This is a notable which is “reserved for bodies that with exciting developments such the marine achievement; earlier attempts to work in the public interest (such as the implementation of a new environment. types of bacterial cells, many of Erin Marine Laboratory closed in which have yet to be identified. 2006 after 114 years of research and implement trading controls failed. as professional institutions and MBA Fellows category and a new China has banned shark fin soup Dr Matt Frost The assemblage, identified by more recently it was announced charities) and which can demon- category of membership aimed scanning electron microscopy and that the Marine Biological Station from state banquets and New York strate pre-eminence, stability and at younger people (we often get recently became one of the last Find out more at gene sequencing, differed from at Millport in Scotland would no permanence in their particular enquiries from school pupils who www.mba.ac.uk/membership/FAQ those found on natural flotsam. longer operate as a university linked US states to ban shark fin sales. Tiny pits and cracks observed research centre. On 1 January Blue sharks are thought to be News on microplastic particles suggest 2014, ownership of the Station will the most frequently caught shark that microbes may be degrading pass from the University of London species in the north Atlantic, with the plastic. “When we first saw the to the Field Studies Council. population declines of up to 80% State of Nature report and Biologically Diverse Seas marine science. This review covered ‘pit formers’ we were very excited, These reports are confirmation of in some regions since the 1980s. The assessment of marine nature feeder report. Therefore the State a range of topics from funding for especially when they showed up on the fact that there are considerable in the UK State of Nature Report of Nature Report referred largely to marine science through to progress multiple pieces of plastic of different challenges being faced by marine Links to these news stories briefly covers seabirds, seals, skates CP2; its findings were still up-to- on implementation of UK Marine types of resins,” said Linda Amaral- laboratories worldwide as a result can be found on The Marine and rays, commercial fish species date and relevant and as such were Conservation Zones. The committee Zettler from the Marine Biological of the current funding climate. Biologist website. Scan the QR and plankton. This coverage reflects used as the basis for the Marine reported in March 2013 with the Laboratory (MBL), Woods Hole. Welcome to the plastisphere (2) code to view the web page. less a bias in favour of terrestrial Strategy Framework Directive government publishing its response “Now we have to figure out what and freshwater species, rather that Initial Assessment in 2012. to the report’s recommendations in A recent study of demersal and they are by sequencing them and pelagic marine fish in the English the UK’s marine environment The MBA was however pleased to June. The key outcome from the hopefully getting them into cul- already had its own comprehensive see marine included in the State of review is that a full implementation Channel revealed microplastics ture so we can do experiments.” in the gastrointestinal tracts of marine assessment in Nature Report as it may encourage plan for the UK Marine Science This vast ‘plastisphere’ raises ques- 2010 (see: more interest in the considerable Strategy will be developed with a over a third of all fish examined. tions about its effects on microbial In a recently published study of Charting challenges faced in the UK marine focus on a detailed plan for the first populations, not least how it will Progress environment. Despite being a much 18 months. A number of other rec- Hawaiian waters, 58 percent of change where microbes – includ- small-eye opah and 43 percent For the latest news from the 2: State of larger component of the UK natu- ommendations from the committee’s ing pathogens and the algae that Seas (CP2)) ral environment than the terrestrial report were accepted by UK govern- of big-eye opah had ingested UK marine science community cause harmful algal blooms – will some kind of plastic debris. subscribe to the Marine Ripple of which and freshwater parts, it suffers from ment such as the need to provide be transported in the ocean. www. the MBA being ‘out of sight – out of mind’. clarity on management measures A landmark for shark Effect or follow on Twitter whoi.edu/news-release/plastisphere @MarineRipple was lead Marine Science Review for Marine Conservation Zones. conservation Small marine labs feel the pinch author In late 2012 the UK House of Welcome to the plastisphere (1) Researchers record For marine events, see the on the Commons Science and Technology Microplastics in the sea are One of the U.S.’s most distin- damatic declines in popula- UK Marine Science Events Healthy Committee undertook a review of colonized by microorganisms and guished marine research institutions tions of pelagic sharks. Calendar at www.mba.ac.uk

04 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 05 Science letters Science letters

A leading researcher takes a look at the challenges and opportunities in marine biology. and physiologically) may be one of the most impor- In issue 1, Professor Colin Brownlee writes tant factors that will determine survival and com- munity composition in the short term. It is therefore critical to understand the roles of short-term physi- ological responses and plasticity that will determine from the crow’s nest responses of key vulnerable ecosystems to change. Changes in the genetic structure of populations Challenges – urgent and unforeseen? The problem is compounded by the need for is fundamental to longer term responses, over We are witnessing an unprecedented rate simplification in order to develop quantitative models decadal or centennial timescales, of populations of change in the global environment, the likely of ecosystem processes. How can we begin to and communities. Our knowledge of genetic consequences of which are largely unknown. integrate fragmentary information from laboratory diversity and understanding of key evolution- This statement is based on the weight of hard experiments with larger scale in situ studies of com- ary drivers is only rudimentary for most marine ... to the very large. The need to understand interactions at a wide range of scales is one of the key challenges for marine biologists. scientific evidence relating to ocean tempera- plex processes? The advent of ’omics approaches, organisms. The bulk of marine productivity is Images: Colin Brownlee. ture, acidification, destruction of habitats and coupled with detailed physical and chemical brought about by the phytoplankton. These over-exploitation of resources. Consideration metadata is increasingly allowing “who does what” microbial populations have very short generation long-standing classical taxonomy. The rapid march of challenges and opportunities must be made studies to be applied to marine ecosystems. times, massive population sizes and limited bar- of whole genome sequencing projects is heralding in the context of this changing landscape. More data than we can handle? riers to geographical spread, all of which make a new era of functional and comparative genomics Dealing with complexity Collecting large volumes of data in many differ- them likely to be more resilient to climate change studies that will substantially improve our knowledge Why are the oceans important in understanding ent forms, including physical, chemical, telemetry, in comparison with many larger organisms. of basic biological mechanisms and their evolution. climate? Heat and gas transfer between the oceans imaging and ’omics to list a few examples, has Opportunities for the future What is needed to realise the potential of marine and atmosphere play a critical role become the norm. Curating, analys- Clearly, there is important work organisms for biotechnological The advent of ’omics Marine biotechnology in climate regulation. The melting of approaches is increasingly ing and distributing vast amounts to be done, however, marine sci- is one of the EU’s target advances? A recent European Marine 1 polar ice and consequent disruption allowing “who does what” of data has itself become a major ence has already achieved much areas for development Board position paper identified target of ocean circulation patterns has studies to be applied to challenge, requiring resources in terms of fundamental scientific areas for development with a particu- the potential to cause long last- marine ecosystems that are not widely available. advances, in providing knowledge that may under- lar emphasis on biotechnological potential. Amongst ing changes in marine ecosystem Major drivers of ecosystem change pin sustainable use of marine resources, and in these are: systematic sampling and genomic structure. The huge complexity of linkages between in the seas include temperature, acidification and the discovery of new resources and products. analysis of microorganisms, algae and metazoans; organisms, processes, communities, trophic levels, hypoxia. These in turn affect a host of other param- We have made impressive advances in under- development of new technologies for culture of and ecosystems ensures that it is difficult, often eters. It is clear that stressors do not act in isolation standing the basic biology, behaviour and under- marine organisms; improvements in bioreactor tech- impossible, to study a single environmental factor and consideration of the combined impacts of lying principles that determine abundance and nology; and identification of new model organisms. in isolation. Indeed, understanding connectivity multiple stressors will be required to understand how distribution of populations. This knowledge not But without adequate investment in infrastructure, and complexity at a vast range of scales, from regimes may shift to new stable or unstable states. only helps us to understand the impacts of rapidly the foundation for these advances is at risk. Foster- viruses to multicellular organisms and their complex Identifying and monitoring key sensitive ecosystems, spreading invasive species on ecosystem biodiver- ing international networks and infrastructures is vital interactions at the ecosystem level, is arguably the such as those associated with coral reefs and polar sity, it is also vital to develop fishing strategies for to ensure that opportunities for collaboration at the most momentous challenge in marine biology. regions, and co-ordinating data through networks long term sustainability. We have the opportunity boundaries between disciplines – essential for major of observatories, including long-term time series to implement marine protected areas that will advances in technology, modelling and understanding and archives will become ever more critical. further ensure ecosystem stability and provide processes – are maximised (see article on the Euro- Responses to change nursery grounds for young fish populations. pean Marine Biological Resource Centre, page 32). We also face the problem of trying to predict From model organisms to a biotechnological Society needs the knowledge gained through impacts whilst having insufficient knowledge of basic revolution: risks and opportunities marine biology. A significant challenge for life processes. There is increasing evidence that The seas also present enormous potential for the marine biological community is to com- extreme short term events can have profound and scientific, economic and social advance. Histori- municate this with some urgency at national long lasting impacts on coastal and reef marine eco- cally, marine organisms have provided many key and international levels in order to ensure sup- systems (see article on marine heat waves, page 12). models for the study of cell biology and evolutionary port for the major undertakings required. Current evidence suggests that such extreme events processes, with many potential biomedical and Professor Colin Brownlee is the Director of the are likely to occur with increasing frequency as biotechnological applications. Examples include Marine Biological Association global temperatures increase. The ability to tolerate modern comparative biology, driven by the rich rapid extremes of temperature (both behaviourally resources of the marine biota, and underpinned by 1 Querellou, J. et al. (2010) Marine Board Position Paper From the very small ... 15. Marine Board-ESF, Belgium.

06 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 07 Net-caught native and alien fish from the shallow waters of Rhodes (July 2009). Aliens (Siganus spp., Lagocephalus Section name sceleratus and Fistularia commersonii) make up more than Science letters 70% of the total catch. Image: HCMR archives. Biological invasions and climate

Fig. 2. Long-term relationships between global and regional warming temperatures: (a) satellite derived sea surface temperature (SST) (1985–2007) for the south-eastern Aegean Sea (Rhodes Fig. 3. Long-term 5 year averaged alien species against northern Island) against northern hemisphere temperature (NHT); (b) NHT hemisphere temperature (NHT) anomalies (1929–2008). The solid anomalies (1850–2007). The solid black line corresponds to the black line represents the statistically significant shift for alien Maria Antonietta Pancucci- species ( , alien species; , NHT data). Papadopoulou and colleagues examine 5 year mean. the tropicalization of the Mediterranean As evident from the NHT, the marine temperatures. The period in the area were the seagrass Hal- temperature rise of the last 30 years, 1929 to 1980 showed a stable ophila stipulacea, and the macroalga he ever-increasing arrival of alterations with new substantial warm- encompassing the abrupt shift in the neutral trend in both temperature Hypnea cornuta, both found in alien marine organisms tropical species arrivals. ing (Figure 2a). The mid-1990s, is the warmest period and alien species arrivals. From Rhodes in 1894. Over the next Tis evident in the whole Comparison between the regional significant relationship between the since 1850. Based on the SST the 1980s until present an abrupt 50 years nine fish species and four Mediterranean Sea, but is satellite-derived sea surface tempera- Dodecanese water temperature and means, the Dodecanese temperature parallel increasing trend can be algae of Indo-Pacific origin were particularly pronounced in the tures (SST) with the whole northern that of the northern hemisphere difference between the two decades observed (Figures 2b & 3). introduced with consequent altera- eastern Mediterranean, primar- hemisphere temperatures (NHT) illustrates that this warming signal (pre-shift [1985–1997] and post- Forty-three per cent of the 239 tions to native communities and ily due to oceanic warming. dataset of the Hadley Centre since is not a regional phenomenon, but shift [1998–2007]) is 0.85ºC. known alien species in Greek seas local fisheries. Indeed, soon after its The coasts of the Dodecanese 1985, clearly revealed that the SE part of the global warming and To see if global warming has are found along the Dodecanese introduction in 1925, the marbled Islands (south-eastern (SE) Aegean Aegean Sea is going through a climate change trend (Figure 2b). influenced the rate of new alien coasts, and nearly all (98%) are spinefoot, Siganus rivulatus was Sea, Figure 1) receive westward species arrival, the NHT was of warm/tropical origin. Eighty- commercially targeted. Between flowing Levantine water masses, plotted against the local alien four per cent of these alien species 1951 and 1980 another 18 (16 and are close to the route of intense species data (Figure 3). The 80 arrived via the maritime traffic using the Suez years (1929–2008) period showed Suez Canal (see Canal. The area therefore represents a significant parallel between the Figure 4). the gateway for dispersal of Red introduction rate of alien species in The first alien Sea alien species westwards into the the SE Aegean Sea and increasing species recorded rest of the Mediterranean. Indeed, a significant increase in aliens’ diver- Suez sity along the Dodecanese coasts Gibraltar Shipping has been documented over the last Dardanelles three decades, while marine tem- Unknown perature data show that the area has Fig. 5. Temporal trend of introduction of alien species in the study undergone a remarkable warming. Fig. 4. Pathways for introduction of alien species in the study area. area (F, fish; PB, phytobenthos; ZB, zoobenthos; ZP, zooplankton; PP, Given this apparent connection, The percentage of aliens entering through the Suez Canal confirms phytoplankton; other, cyanobacteria). The unprecedented increase Fig. 1. Case study area: Dodecanese the importance of the area as a crossroad for tropical species since 1980 is particularly evident in zoobenthos (46%) and fish we attempted to link temperature Islands, Eastern Mediterranean. expansion. (32%).

08 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 09 Science letters Science letters

FURTHER READING tropical) species were recorded. as climate change, human impacts Bianchi C.N. (2007) Biodiversity issues After almost a century of gradual and alien species invasions may for the forthcoming tropical Mediter- ranean Sea. Hydrobiology 580, 7–21. DOI: colonization, the introduction rate have unexpected and irreversible 10.1007/s10750-006-0469-5. of Indo-Pacific biota assumed the consequences for native com- Fritsch C. (1895) Uber die Auffindung einer marinen Hydrocharidae im Mittelmeer. character of an invasion, with the munities and for fisheries. Owing Verhandlungen der zoologisch botanis- addition of 68 new species from to their very recent and rapid chen gesamten Wien 45, 104–106. Galil B.S. (2008) Alien species in the 1981 to date (see Figure 5). expansion, there is insufficient Mediterranean Sea—which, when, Concern about the future evidence to assess the real impact where, why? Hydrobiologia 606,105–116. tropicalization of the Mediter- of aliens on native biota; however, DOI: 10.1007/s10750-008-9342-z. Golani D. (2010) Colonization of the ranean is increasing. The Suez many instances of ecosystem Mediterranean by Red Sea fishes via Canal, until now a barrier to many changes in the study area have the Suez Canal—lessepsian migration. In Golani D. and Appelbaum-Golani B. species due to its high salinity, been observed. The observed and (eds) Fish invasions of the Mediterranean Sea: change and renewal. Sofia/Moscow: is to be widened and deepened. potential impacts of four invasive Pensoft Publishers, pp. 145–188. Furthermore, the Canal salinity species living along the Dodeca- Kalogirou S. and Corsini-Foka M. is decreasing while that of the nese coasts are presented below. Fig. 9. var Fig. 10. : juveniles in the Aquarium of the Hydrobiological Station (2012) First record of the Indo-Pacific Caulerpa racemosa . cylindracea Lagocephalus sceleratus Champsodon nudivittis (Ogilby, 1895) Eastern Mediterranean is increas- The blue cornetfish, Fistularia in Posidonia oceanica meadow. Image: of Rhodes. Image: HCMR archives. (Perciformes, Champsodontidae) in the ing. While earlier introductions commersonii (Figure 7) is considered HCMR archives. Aegean waters (eastern Mediterranean Sea). BioInvasions Records 1, 229–233. were limited to euryhaline (species one of the most successful invasive fisheries as by-catch, the com- invader is Lagocephalus sceleratus depleted through intense predation, Minos G., Ismiridou A. and Econo- tolerant of fluctuations in salinity) fish species in the Mediterranean mercially useless blue cornetfish (Figure 10), better known as the resulting in higher market prices. midis P.S. (2012) First record of Terapon theraps (Terapontidae) in the Aegean and littoral species, the door is may have serious economic and pufferfish, or fugu. The pufferfish The increase in alien species Sea (Greece). Cybium 36, 401–402. now open to deep-water species. ecological impacts, since it feeds has spread rapidly, occupying all numbers in the SE Aegean parallels Pancucci-Papadopoulou M.A., Raitsos D.E. and Corsini-Foka M. (2012) Biological The Dodecanese Islands belong mainly on several commercially Aegean coastal waters between 15 the substantial warming that began invasions and climatic warming: implications to the ‘Lessepsian Province’, the important small native fish. and 16.25 °C, and even advanc- at the beginning of the 1980s for south-eastern Aegean ecosystem function- ing. Journal of the Marine Biological Associa- sub-tropical character of which Within a few years of its intro- ing into the region limited by the and accelerated towards the end tion of the United Kingdom 92, 777–789. explains the very high percentage duction, the gastropod Strombus 14°C isotherm. Its feeding strategy, of the 1990s. Further sea warm- DOI:10.1017/S0025315411000981. Por F.D. (1978) Lessepsian migra- of warm/tropical alien species in (Conomurex) persicus (Figure 8) anti-predator adaptations (inflation ing may provide tropical invasive tion—the influx of Red Sea biota into the alien biota. Scientists predict became one of the most important of the body and toxicity) and the species with a distinct advantage the Mediterranean by way of the Suez Canal. Ecological Studies 23. Berlin/ that lessepsian immigrants will components of the epibenthic probable absence of competitors and over native Mediterranean biota Heidelberg/New York: Springer-Verlag. expand further west if the climate fauna of the Dodecanese. It predators in the invaded coastal hab- and, if the present hydrographic Por F.D. (1990) Lessepsian migration. An warms up further. Although is currently locally marketed, itats are the main factors contribut- characteristics of the south Aegean appraisal and new data. Bulletin de l’Institut Océanographique de Monaco 7, 1–10. the Indo-Pacific biota is mostly and could potentially become a ing to the success and abundance persist, significant changes in the Raitsos D.E., Beaugrand G., Geor- confined to the eastern Mediter- commercially exploited species of the pufferfish in the area. Nor composition and structure of gopoulos D., Zenetos A., Pancucci- Papadopoulou M.A., Theocharis A. and ranean, recent findings show that Fig.8. Dredging in the shallow waters throughout the Mediterranean Sea. is control by commercial exploita- the local biota are inevitable. surrounding Rhodes revealed a huge popu- Papathanassiou E. (2010) Global climate climate warming is enabling alien Since its first observation in 1993, tion an option; owing to the high The gradual tropicalization of the change amplifies the entry of tropical species lation of Strombus (Conomurex) persicus. into the Mediterranean Sea. Limnology species to spread to the western- Image: HCMR archives. the green seaweed Caulerpa rac- content of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in Mediterranean is already apparent. and Oceanography 55, 1478–1484. most part of the Mediterranean. emosa var. cylindracea (Figure 9) has its tissues, it has been declared not The accelerating rate of introduc- DOI: 10.4319/lo.2010.55.4.1478. Reinbold T. (1898) Meeresalgen von Acting together, stressors such Sea. Within just a few years of its expanded extremely rapidly along marketable by the Greek authorities. tion and spread of alien species der Insel Rhodos gesammelt von Lehrer arrival its range expanded not only all Greek coasts. It is considered a The public health danger and an leads us to believe that the tropical J. Nemetz. Hedwigia 37, 87–90. along the Levantine coasts and up marine pest as it is able to overgrow anticipated rearrangement of the alien species so apparent in the Theocharis A. (2008) Do we expect significant changes in the thermohaline to the Aegean Sea, but also west- other macroalgal species. Along food chain are exacerbated by the eastern basin will gradually colonize circulation in the Mediterranean in rela- tion to observed surface layers warming? ward, reaching the eastern coast the south-east coast of Rhodes already evident negative socio- the rest of the Mediterranean. In Briand F. (ed.) Climate warming and of the Iberian Peninsula within a Island, it makes up 30% of the total economic impacts of pufferfish: a Maria Antonietta Pancucci- related changes in Mediterranean marine biota. CIESM Workshop Monographs 35, few years. Since its first appearance macroalgal coverage. The speed of large number of fishing hauls have Papadopoulou (apan@hcmr. 25–29. [Monaco: CIESM Publisher.] in the SE Aegean Sea in 2001, it spread is alarming, as C. racemosa to be discarded, with consequent gr) is a Senior Researcher Zenetos A., Katsanevakis S., Pour- has become established on sandy- is responsible for changes in the loss of working hours, fuel, etc., at the Hellenic Centre for sanidis D., Crocetta F., Damalas D., Marine Research, Institute of Apostolopoulos G., Gravili C., Vardala- muddy bottoms and Posidonia structure and function of native and native, commercially valuable Theodorou E. and M. Malaquias (2011) Fig. 7. Fistularia commersonii dwelling Oceanography. Dionysios E. Marine alien species in Greek seas: additions along the coasts of Rhodes. Image: HCMR oceanica meadows around Rhodes. ecosystems in the Mediterranean. stocks of invertebrates (mainly Raitsos and Maria Corsini-Foka and amendments by 2010. Mediter- archives. Regularly present in Dodecanese Perhaps the most formidable cuttlefish and octopus) are being are at the same institution. ranean Marine Science 12/1, 95–120.

10 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 11 Science letters

b eat waves pose problems for a “Kelp ecosystems in other regions, human health and infrastruc- Too hot to such as California, have undergone Hture, ravage crops and rapid deforestation in recent livestock, and have wide-ranging decades due to climate variability, impacts on the natural world. handle? but these systems often recover. What is less obvious, however, is However, the oceanography of that heat waves in the sea can the region, combined with the impact marine organisms and alter Ocean heat waves, marine life histories of the most impacted c the structure of entire ecosystems. biodiversity and ecosystem structure seaweeds, suggest that this might In early 2011, the coastal waters not happen in Western Australia. off Western Australia warmed to Instead, we could be seeing a Dan Smale looks at an ocean heat wave that may have unprecedented levels, with temper- step-wise shift towards a different atures soaring to up to 5°C above long-term consequences for a regional ecosystem. ecosystem state, but only time the long-term summer average that the heat wave was caused Western Australia) and Dr Dan will tell”, Dr Smale remarked. (Figure 1). Sea surface temperature by unusually strong La Niña Smale (Marine Biological Associa- records dating back over 140 years conditions, which enhanced the tion) have investigated the ecologi- Over the edge indicated that the warming was poleward flow of warm, tropical cal effects of the extreme warming Fig. 1. The 2011 heat wave in the southeast Indian Ocean. a, Blended sea surface tempera- As well as changes in seaweed the highest-magnitude on record. water into cooler temperate regions. event. Using SCUBA divers and ture anomaly map for March 2011 (relative to a 1971–2000 baseline), indicating a warming populations, the team also anomaly of >2.5°C along the southwest coast of Australia. The key study locations are also Temperature anomalies of 2–5°C The impacted region off remotely operated technology shown (Jurien Bay, ‘JB’, and Hamelin Bay, ‘HB’). Plots show weekly temperature anomalies observed a proliferation of several persisted for more than 2 months south-west Australia is a known (e.g. autonomous underwater during 2011 (relative to means of the preceding five years) generated from in situ measure- warm-water fish species after the along over 2000 km of coastline; global biodiversity hotspot, with vehicles) the team resurveyed ments at 10m depth at the study locations, Jurien Bay (b) and Hamelin Bay (c). warming event (Figure 3), but the the heat wave was both spatially very high levels of diversity and historical sites to examine how key mechanisms underpinning this and temporally extensive (Figure endemism for seaweeds, reef- populations and assemblages of habitat-forming species (Figure 3). for the structure and function- response remain unclear. What 1). Oceanographers have shown associated fish and some inverte- seafloor organisms were impacted In the most impacted locations, ing of the seafloor ecosystem. is clear, however, is that extreme brate taxa (Figure 2). by the warming. During the event, the spatial coverage of canopy- Dr Smale said; “We’ve been events can impact a variety of The extensive abnormally high levels of coral forming seaweeds plummeted by overwhelmed by the magnitude and marine life, from seaweeds to coastline is char- bleaching were observed, as certain more than 60%. Loss of seaweed extent of the ecological impacts. fish to birds. There is mounting acterized by a large-scale coral taxa became physiologically canopies has led to large patches of Species have retracted their geo- evidence to suggest that the fre- ocean temperature gradient, stressed by the extreme tem- bare, open reef habitat which has graphical ranges by more than 100 quency and magnitude of discrete which corresponds to a shift from peratures (Figure 3). Subsequent been partially colonized by turf- km in a matter of months, whole warming events may increase as a hard coral to kelp-dominated surveys by other research groups forming ‘weedy’ algae. The loss kelp beds have been restructured, direct consequence of anthropo- The impacted region is a have indicated that coral mortality of dense seaweed canopies, which and sensitive coral reef habitats genic climate change. In fact, the known global biodiversity rates were very high along much provide complex structural habitat were hard hit too”. Understanding number of days characterized by hotspot of the Western Australia coastline. and food for a myriad of other whether kelp beds will eventually extremely high sea temperatures Crucially, cool-water seaweeds plants and animals, will likely recover towards a pre-impacted has increased along 38% of the ecosystems on submerged reefs. were severely impacted by the have far-reaching ramifications state remains a research priority. world’s coastlines in the last 30 At some locations within the warming, which resulted in Fig. 2. Benthic marine temperate–tropical transition widespread mortality, local biodiversity along the West zone, kelp beds and coral reefs extirpations and geographical Australian coastline. a; Kelp co-exist to form mosaics of highly range contractions of several key beds and hard corals co-exist diverse benthic habitat (Figure 2). in the temperate-tropical transition zone, forming highly A team of researchers led by diverse seafloor habitats. b; Dr Thomas Wernberg submerged rocky reefs off the (University of southwest coast of Australia support dense kelp forests, which provide food and habitat for a wealth of marine plants and animals. Image: Dan Smale.

12 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 13 Science letters Microalgae systematics: can we system. Here we outline a few still fit a square peg in a round recent examples that illustrate this important issue in different ways. hole when new evidence says A haptophyte culture strain assigned to Isochrysis affinis galbana it is a triangle? (Tahiti isolate, commonly known The genomic era may seriously challenge our quest to as ‘T-Iso’) is widely used in aqua- pigeonhole biological entities into species, write El-Mahdi culture due to its exceptional lipid Bendif and colleagues. content and thus high nutritional value. Despite seemingly being morphologically identical to type material of Isochrysis galbana, comparison of conservative (slowly evolving) genetic markers has demonstrated that T-Iso is clearly genetically distinct from this taxon (Figure 1), with the genetic

Fig. 1. Light micrographs of Isochrysis galbana (left) and Tisochrysis lutea (formerly Isochrysis aff. galbana or T-iso). Scale bar = 5 um.

We have an innate desire to should serve to express a great distance being equivalent to that pigeonhole life which is largely many viewpoints as to relation- commonly found between differ- due to our ability to communicate ships between taxa, i.e. systematics. ent genera within the haptophytes. in various ways, thereby neces- Like other groups of organisms, It has therefore been classified in Fig. 3. Marine organisms impacted by the warming event. a; High levels of bleaching of hard corals, such as Montipora spp., were recorded during the marine heat wave. The warming event caused local extirpations and range contractions of key habitat-forming seaweeds, sitating a system that ensures the taxonomy and systematics a new genus, Tisochrysis, as a new including the kelp Ecklonia radiata (b) and the fucoid Scytothalia dorycarpa. High mortality rates led to a decreased seaweed canopy we can define what it is we are of microalgae have historically species, T. lutea. The creation of cover and large patches of bare reef (c). The abundances of some warm-water fish species, such asLabracinus lineatus (lined dottyback, referring to. An inevitable out- been based almost exclusively on a new genus based on genetic d), increased immediately after the warming event and caused a ‘tropicalization’ of fish assemblages. Images: Dan Smale (a), Thomas come of defining an item is giving comparison of morphological data reflects the fact that this Wernberg (b, c) and Timothy Langlois (d). it a name. In biology, taxonomy criteria. Nowadays, microalgal is a fairly extreme example of unprecedented Leeuwin Current warm- years. These events will subject ing behaviours. But this marine ing in 2011. Scientific Reports 3:1277 sets out the rules defining what systematics is greatly influenced by cryptic species, but the practical organisms to acute thermal stress, heat wave has demonstrated Smale, D.A., Wernberg, T. (2012) Ecologi- makes something unique, while data derived from DNA extracted consequence is that the Linnaean which may interact with chronic how quickly species and entire cal observations associated with an anoma- nomenclature applies a set of rules from nuclei, mitochondria and lous warming event at the Houtman Abrolhos names no longer convey unique stressors such as gradual warming, ecosystems can be impacted by Islands, Western Australia. Coral Reefs 31:441 or codes for naming. For plant life, chloroplasts, leading to the discov- information on morphology eutrophication and pollution. In increased temperature. We’ve been Moore, J. et al. (2012) Unprecedented this delineation started with Carl ery of many cryptic species that and any organism identified by mass bleaching and loss of coral across consequence, organisms, popula- studying this system intensively 12° of latitude in Western Australia in Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum of demonstrate a decoupling between microscopy as fitting the mor- tions and communities may find for over 10 years, and we thought 2010–11. PLoS ONE 7:e51807 1753. To this day the fundamental morphological conservatism and phological description cannot be themselves pushed ‘over the edge’ we were beginning to understand Wernberg, T., Smale, D.A., et al. (2013) principles of Linnaeus remain—a genetic variability. On balance, assigned to one or other of the An extreme climatic event alters marine as they struggle to deal with its ecology. But we now need to ecosystem structure in a global biodiversity specimen is selected as the basis for it is our opinion that molecular- species without DNA sequencing. rapid environmental change. divide our data and understanding hotspot. Nature Climate Change 3:78-82 the description, this being referred based systematics should now be There are numerous examples of Thomas Wernberg at the into two parts; before the heat Smale, D.A., Wernberg, T. (2013) to as the ‘type’ specimen. Any considered more of an exact science less extreme, but nonetheless sig- Extreme climatic event drives range University of Western Australia wave and after the heat wave”. contraction of a habitat-forming spe- individual considered to match than the traditional morphological nificant genetic diversity occurring concluded: “It is well known that Dan Smale is a research Fellow at cies. Proceedings of the Royal Society this description is considered to be based taxonomy, but there is as yet within morphospecies. Karenia B: Biological Sciences 280: 20122829 marine life is responding to long- the Marine Biological Association. a member of the species. Linnaean no consensus on how to integrate mikimotoi (Figure 2) is a wide- [email protected] Lima, F.P., Wethey, D.S. (2012) Three term gradual climate change, in decades of high-resolution coastal sea genus and species names together this new knowledge in the most spread toxic HAB dinoflagellate Australia and elsewhere, through FURTHER READING surface temperatures reveal more than with names for other ranks (such informative yet practical manner taxon, but morphometric plasticity warming. Nature Communications 3:704. shifting distributions or chang- Feng, M. et al. (2013) La Niña forces as family, class, etc.) can and into the Linnaean nomenclatural within clonal isolates and between

14 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 15 Science letters Science letters

HAB specimens assigned to this species Symbiodinium microadriaticum years ago. Genetic studies indicate Species that cause Harmful Algal Blooms. (or to Gymnodinium nagasakiense or the prasinophyte Micromonas that they are very closely related or Gyrodinium aureolum, two spe- pusilla, for example) or ‘ecotype’ species that should at least be clas- Plasticity Morphological cies generally regarded as conspe- (for the cyanobacterium Synecho- sified in the same genus. Despite variability related to changing environment. cific with K. mikimotoi) has caused coccus) have been used. Use of its recent emergence, significant notorious taxonomic confusion. an epithet such as ‘clade’ with a genetic diversity has been detected Coccolithophore From greek: In 2011 Manal Al-Kandari and Linnaean name has the advantage within E. huxleyi using both mito- coccos or kokkos= berry, colleagues at the Marine Biological of conveying information on both chondrial and a nuclear-encoded lithos= stones, i.e., cells covered by calcium carbonate. Association applied a combination morphological similarity and marker, this diversity corresponding of nuclear and chloroplast gene genetic differentiation of cryptic to either biogeography or minor Pan genome a set of core markers to positively discriminate taxa, but does not provide a clear morphological variations in the genes plus genes distributed between isolates collected from idea of the investigator’s opinion degree of calcification of coccoliths, variably between strains. Europe, New Zealand and Japan. of where species boundaries lie. respectively. The full genome FURTHER READING Al-Kandari M., Highfield A., Hall Whilst isolates from all of these In fact, this might actually be sequence of one strain of E. huxleyi M., Hayes P. & Schroeder, D.C. 2011. geographical localities exhibited considered an advantage in light of and large-scale sequence data from Molecular tools separate Harmful Algal Bloom species, Karenia mikimotoi, similar morphologies (Figure 2), the large-scale genomic informa- 13 other strains have recently been from different geographical regions into genetic evidence indicates distinct tion that is becoming increasingly published and these data reveal that distinct sub-groups. Harmful Algae doi:10.1016/j.hal.2011.04.017 cladistic features. The European available. A key member of the members of the E. huxleyi mor- Fig. 3. Typical morphologies of Gephyrocapsa oceanica (left) and Emiliania huxleyi. They can be clearly distinguished by the resolution of scanning electron microscopy (top panel); while Bendif E.M., Probert I., Schroeder and New Zealand isolates have haptophytes is the iconic calcifying phospecies exhibit a ‘pan genome’: under light microscopy they are indistinctive. Scale bar = 1 um. D.C. & de Vargas C. 2013a. On the more in common with each other coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi reflecting extensive genome vari- description of Tisochrysis lutea gen. nov. sp. nov. and Isochrysis nuda sp. nov. in than the Japanese isolates, and that is classified in a separate genus ability (as much as 25% variability We might do well to attempt to to resistance to the adoption of the Isochrysidales, and the transfer of only the Japanese isolates were devise and code a nomenclatural new descriptions and names (let Dicrateria to the Prymnesiales ( Hapto- from another very common cocco- in gene content between different phyta ). Journal of Applied Phycology (in shown to produce harmful toxins lithophore, Gephyrocapsa oceanica, E. huxleyi strains) and different system that focuses on conveying a alone a new nomenclatural system). press):10.1007/s10811-013-0037-0 Gymnocin A & B+. Al-Kandari due to a highly visible, but structur- metabolic repertoires. Gephyrocapsa much broader range of standardized Nonetheless, taxonomy is a clas- Bendif E.M., Probert I., Carmichael C., Romac S., Hagino K. & de Vargas C. chose to distinguish the two ally extremely minor difference oceanica, as well as other Gephyro- and complementary information sification science and therefore by 2013b Genetic delineation between and genetic clades that they identified in the form of the calcite crystals capsa species, are likely genetic vari- than at present; without necessarily its very nature is subject to evolu- within the world plankton morpho-species Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa within K. mikimotoi as sub-species, making up the calcite scales (cocco- ants of the E. huxleyi pan genome. having the pretention of ring- tionary processes based on advances oceanica (Haptophyta, coccolithophores). termed K. mikimotoi mikimotoi liths) that cover the cells (Figure 3). The taxonomic implications of such fencing (and typifying) species, and in the state of knowledge about Journal of Phycology. (in review) potentially with more emphasis groups of organisms. Carefully Hagino K., Bendif E.M., Young J., Kogame, K., Takano, Y., Probert, I., on describing strains and shared defined names are and will remain Horiguchi, T., de Vargas, C. & Okada, features between strains, such as a powerful means to convey the H. 2011. New evidence for morphological and genetic variation in the cosmopolitan pan genomes. Linnaean names state-of-the-art of this knowledge. coccolithophore Emiliana huxleyi (Prymne- could obviously be an integral 1 siophyceae) from the cox1b-ATP4 genes. El-Mahdi Bendif (elmben@ Journal of Phycology 47:1164-1176 - part of such a system, for example mba.ac.uk), Manal Al-Kandari2, 3 Read B. A., Kegel J., Klute M. J., Kuo if there is general agreement that Ian Probert and Declan C A., Lefebvre S. C., Maumus F., Mayer 1 their use should be restricted to Schroeder ([email protected]) C., Miller J., Monier A., Salamov A., 1. The Marine Biological Aguilar M., Claverie J-M., Frickenhaus conveying morphological informa- Association S., Gonzalez K., Herman E.K., Lin Y-C., tion only. These examples add to Napier J., Ogata H.i, Sarno A. F., Shmutz 2. Kuwait Institute for Scientific J., Schroeder D., de Vargas C., Verret F., the ever-growing body of evidence Research von Dassow P., Valentin K., Van de Peer Y., Wheeler G., Emiliania huxleyi Annotation of molecular schemes challeng- 3. UPMC/CNRS Station Consortium, Dacks J. B.,. Delwiche C. F, ing morphological assumptions Biologique de Roscoff Dyhrman S. T., Glöckner G., John U., Rich- Fig. 2. Light micrographs of the ventral view of Karenia mikimotoi isolated from three geographical locations: United Kingdom (A), Japan (B) ards T., Worden A. Z., Young J., Zhang X. & and New Zealand (C). Scale bar = 10 um. in many different ways. But GLOSSARY Grigoriev I. V. 2013 Emiliania’s pan genome alas, change does not come easy. drives the phytoplankton’s global distribu- Microalgae Microscopic tion. Nature doi:10.1038/nature12221 and K. mikimotoi aureolum. In Emiliania huxleyi is a very young observations are not yet clear, but it Taxonomic changes impact the unicellular photosynthetic Schroeder D.C., Biggi G. F., Hall M., other cases where significant intra- morphospecies in evolutionary seems evident that as the genomic nomenclature of well-known life forms. Davy J., Martinez Martinez J., Richard- morphospecies genetic diversity terms, palaeontological evidence era progresses, our current quest to organisms that is often deeply son A., Malin G. & Wilson W.H. (2005) Morphospecies Species that are A genetic marker to separate Emiliania has been discovered, terms such suggesting a recent divergence from pigeonhole biological entities into entrenched in academic and societal morphologically almost identical huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae) morphology. as ‘clade’ (for the dinoflagellate G. oceanica around 291 thousand species will be seriously challenged. usage, a factor that tends to lead but genetically different. Journal of Phycology. 41: 874-879.

16 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 17 Science letters

five decades of PCI data show a Atlantic, PCI had increased. Post- phyll sampling became a standard The question of a global Are marine clear increase in phytoplankton 2000 most North Atlantic regions oceanographic procedure and after decline in phytoplankton biomass in both the north-east and have higher PCI than in past 1980 most of the data were from is hotly debated. north-west Atlantic basins (Figure decades, the open ocean included. chlorophyll measurements. The Abigail McQuatters- 2). The 1980s saw a rapid increase The above CPR findings contra- ‘mixed’ dataset of Boyce et al. does phytoplankton in in phytoplankton biomass in the dict the decline in phytoplankton not take into account that the Gollop weighs up the North-east Atlantic. We now know biomass described by Boyce et relationship between water trans- evidence. this dramatic change was part of al. this could be due to differ- parency and chlorophyll concentra- decline? a regime shift—a climate-driven ences in the consistency of the tion may vary geographically or stepwise change in the structure phytoplankton biomass datasets temporally, and may therefore be hytoplankton produce half of ing records of water transparency The CPR survey, coordinated by and functioning of the north-east used to estimate the long-term biased. Additionally, throughout the world’s oxygen, comprise with in situ chlorophyll concentra- the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation Atlantic marine ecosystem. Cuts trends. For the first 50 years of the the world’s oceans, even in regions Pthe base of the marine food tions to create a dataset spanning for Ocean Science (SAHFOS) in in funding resulted in the loss Boyce et al. time-series most of the with low productivity, water trans- web, and play an important role a >100 year time period. This new Plymouth, UK, has sampled the of CPR routes in the north-west phytoplankton biomass estimates parency is influenced by sediment in carbon cycling and climate time-series showed a worrying surface waters of the North Atlan- Atlantic in the 1980s but they were derived from measurements and other non-living suspended regulation. Changes in phyto- decline in global marine phyto- tic since 1931, collecting plankton were resumed in the 1990s reveal- of water transparency collected particles and by dissolved organic plankton communities impact plankton biomass of approximately with a high-speed recorder. In ing that, as in the north-east using a Secchi disc; later, chloro- matter, not only by phytoplankton climate processes and all trophic 1% per year over the last century. addition to identifying and count- chlorophyll. Therefore, water levels of marine ecosystems, from Boyce’s results, however, were ing ~500 phyto- and zooplankton transparency measurements may zooplankton to fish to whales. not in agreement with research taxa, CPR analysts also produce an not accurately reflect the amount In 2010 research scientist Daniel using data from the Con- index of chlorophyll: the Phyto- of phytoplankton biomass in the Boyce and colleagues at Dalhousie tinuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) plankton Colour Index (PCI), a water. In contrast, since 1931 the University created an index of survey—the world’s largest marine visual estimate of phytoplankton PCI has been derived for more than phytoplankton biomass by combin- macroecological dataset (Figure 1). biomass (see Box). More than 6 million nautical miles of ocean (> 250,000 analysed samples) which have been directly sampled by ships of opportunity towing the CPR. The virtually unchanged method- ology and consistent long-term time-series makes the CPR survey a robust source of plankton data. The increase in phytoplankton biomass observed by the CPR is supported by data from other long-term time-series, including the Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT), the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series (BATS), and the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) which also show increased phytoplankton biomass during the last 20–50 years. This considerable body of Fig. 1. The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) was developed by Sir Alister Hardy (left) as a way to collect information on food for fish data contrasts with the results stocks. The CPR’s current design is virtually the same as the model used in 1931, which makes the CPR dataset one of the world’s longest presented by Boyce et al., indicating and most spatially extensive macroecological time-series, with over 6 million nautical miles of ocean sampled (right—each orange dot is that there is no strong evidence for one sample). Uniquely, CPR data are collected using ships of opportunity, such as cargo vessels and ferries, rather than expensive research Fig. 2. Since the 1950s the Phytoplankton Colour Index from the Continuous Plankton vessels. The ships’ crews tow the CPRs as a greatly-appreciated gesture of goodwill which has enabled the survey to cost-effectively Recorder survey has shown a clear increase in phytoplankton biomass throughout much of a marked decline in global marine collect data for the past eight decades. the North Atlantic basin. phytoplankton. Additionally,

18 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 19 Science letters Environment & Conservation

FURTHER READING What is PCI? Boyce, D. G., Lewis, M. R. & Worm, B. A look at current policy The job of marine scientists in all of this is to (2010) Global phytoplankton decline over focus on the science: ensuring that those making the past century. Nature 466, 591-596. developments decisions have the best scientific evidence avail- Reid, P. C., Colebrook, J. M., Mat- thews, J. B. L. & Aiken, J. (2003) The Con- able and, equally important, that they understand tinuous Plankton Recorder: concepts and The UK Department for Environment Food & how to use this evidence base. In December 2012 history, from plankton indicator to undulating recorders. Prog. Oceanogr. 58, 117-173. Rural Affairs (Defra) ran a consultation from the 13th the Association gave evidence to the UK House of 1 Edwards, M., Reid, P. C. & Planque, December 2012 to 31st March 2013 on proposals Commons Science and Technology Committee B. (2001) Long-term and regional for the designation of Marine Conservation Zones. and made a plea for a realistic approach regarding variability of phytoplankton biomass in the Northeast Atlantic (1960-1995). ICES To quote Defra, the response was ‘exceptional’ evidence used to support policy. For example, it Journal of Marine Science 58, 39-49. with over 40,000 responses received (to get an has been unfortunate to see phrases such as ‘lack Head, E. J. H. & Pepin, P. Spatial idea of how exceptional this was, a consultation of evidence’ and ‘inadequate science base’ being (2010) and inter-decadal variability in plankton abundance and composition in from March to June 2012 on proposals for Good used as a reason not to implement marine pro- the Northwest Atlantic (1958-2006). Journal Environmental Status under the tected areas in UK waters which are, of Plankton Research 32, 1633-1648. Marine Strategy Framework relatively speaking, some of the best Reid, P. C., Edwards, M., Hunt, H. G. & The response to the Warner, A. J. (1998) Phytoplankton change Directive received a total of 77 known and most intensively studied The Phytoplankton Colour Index (PCI) is a visual estimate of phytoplankton biomass Marine Conservation in the North Atlantic. Nature 391, 546. responses). Even allowing for waters in the world. It will always derived from Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) samples; PCI is essentially a measure Zones consultation was of silk ‘greenness’. Chlorophyll in phytoplankton cells colour the silk, with high biomass Raitsos, D. E., Reid, P. C., Lavender, high profile campaigns boosting be the case that unless our ability S. J., Edwards, M. & Richardson, ‘exceptional’. samples stained dark green while samples with low biomass are pale in colour. Each A. J. (2005) Extending the SeaWiFS interest, it is clear that the issue of to map and understand the marine CPR sample is compared to a standard colour chart with four values ranging from ‘No chlorophyll data set back 50 years marine protected areas is one that stirs up a great environment outstrips our capacity for exploitation Green’ to ‘Green’. PCI is semi-quantitative and has been successfully intercalibrated in the northeast Atlantic. Geophysi- with measurements of both flourometric and satellite chlorophyll. Acetone extraction cal Research Letters 32, L06603. deal of passion (for a scientific perspective see (a highly unlikely scenario) the precautionary prin- experiments revealed that the PCI colour categories equate to a ratio scale, with Pale McQuatters-Gollop, A. et al. (2007) Professor Callum Roberts’ article in this issue). ciple will need to be applied in order to ensure the Green silks containing twice the amount of chlorophyll as Very Pale Green silks, while A long-term chlorophyll dataset reveals On the same day that Defra was issuing a sum- Green silks are 6.5 times richer in chlorophyll than Very Pale Green silks. regime shift in North Sea phytoplankton biomass unconnected to nutrient levels. mary of responses to the UK consultation it was Though the CPR’s mesh size of 270 µm is considered large when it comes to plankton Limnology and Oceanography 52, 635-648. sampling, the device consistently collects small cells, such as coccolithophores, on the being reported that a meeting of the Commission silk with recent work suggesting that the relative contribution of smaller size phyto- Beaugrand, G. (2004) The North Sea regime shift: Evidence, causes, mechanisms for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living plankton to the PCI is increasing in some regions. The PCI also accounts for fragile, and consequences. --> 60, 245-262. Resources (CCAMLR) had failed to reach agree- broken and fragmented cells that contribute to phytoplankton biomass but are not morphologically identifiable. McQuatters-Gollop, A. et al. (2009) ment on setting up protected areas in the Ross How well do ecosystem indicators communicate the effects of anthropo- Sea and Eastern Antarctica. Russia wanted to remote sensing data suggest that year dataset can be used for analysis genic eutrophication? Estuarine, Coastal ‘establish the scientific case’ but had blocked the and Shelf Science 82, 583–596. changes in phytoplankton biomass of North Atlantic phytoplankton proposals over various concerns including fish- Saba, V. S. et al. (2010) Challenges are not globally uniform, with community dynamics, including of modeling depth-integrated marine ing restrictions. It is these same arguments over biomass increasing in some marine changes in individual taxa and primary productivity over multiple protection versus exploitation that are being played decades: A case study at BATS and regions while remaining stable functional groups, which may HOT. Global Change Biology 24, in out in numerous situations around the world. or decreasing in others. More offer insight into observed changes press, DOI:10.1029/2009GB003655. The challenge for scientists and scientific societies Long-lived branching sponges and sea fans in the Start Point to work exploring regional changes in phytoplankton biomass. Kahru, M., Kudela, R., Manzano- such as the Marine Biological Association (MBA) Eddystone Special Area of Conservation. Image: Keith Hiscock. Sarabia, M. & Mitchell, B. G. (2009) in phytoplankton biomass, and Long-term ecological time-series Trends in primary production in the is that discussions around protected areas are not California Current detected with satellite just restricted to issues of marine science. Take the best long-term outcomes for all parties. Meanwhile, the drivers behind these changes, such as the ones mentioned here data. Geophysical Research Letters 114, is clearly needed. Investigation are crucial for filling scientific C02004, DOI:10.1029/2008JC004979. example of the Chagos Marine Protected Area in the marine biological community needs to be at into which components of the knowledge gaps about changes in Gregg, W. W. & Conkright, M. E. the Indian Ocean. This is now the world’s largest no- the forefront in providing evidence and filling gaps (2002) Decadal changes in global ocean take marine reserve and the MBA stated in its com- in knowledge with directed research, whilst at the phytoplankton are driving the our seas and for providing robust chlorophyll. Geophysical Research Letters regional increases or decreases in evidence to support decisions 29, 1730, DOI:10.1029/2002GL014689. ments to the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office same time helping decision makers understand the phytoplankton biomass could regarding the management of Batten, S. D. et al. (2003) CPR sampling: (FCO) in 2010 that from a scientific point of view the inevitable limits to understanding the > 99% (by the technical background, materials and proposal for a reserve deserved support. We were, volume) of the biosphere which is oceans and seas. provide information about future the marine environment. methods, consistency and comparabil- responses to climate change or Abigail McQuatters-Gollop ity. Prog. Oceanogr. 58, 193-215. however, well aware that the whole debate over Matt Frost ([email protected]) is MBA Deputy food web alterations. Continuous ([email protected]) is a Leterme, S. C., Seuront, L. & the Chagos proposal was taking place within the Director (Policy & Knowledge Exchange). long-term time-series of plankton Science-Policy Researcher at the Edwards, M. (2006) Differential contribu- framework of broader disputes over rights of return Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for tion of diatoms and dinoflagellates to community composition are rare, phytoplankton biomass in the NE Atlantic for Chagos Islanders and disputes over sovereignty See the Committee’s report on Marine Science at Ocean Science (SAHFOS). 1 Ocean and the North Sea. Marine Ecol- between the governments of the UK and Mauritius. www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cm- but the CPR survey’s extensive 80 ogy Progress Series 312, 57-65. sctech/727/72702.htm

20 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 21 Environment & Conservation

by Georg Engelhard of the Centre for Environment, ing productivity backward to the middle of the 19th Fisheries and Aquaculture Science proved a godsend. century. Fishermen in the 1860s landed a staggering He had forensically pieced together the changing 25 times more fish per unit of fishing power than power of bottom trawlers from the sailing vessels of today according to these numbers. Piecing together the 1880s to the hi-tech boats whose banks of blink- many statements from the 1866 enquiry on changes Oceans ing screens suck vast streams of information from the in fishing productivity, like the ones quoted above, we deep to uncover the secret haunts of fish beneath. One can push deeper into the early 19th century when sail steam trawler in 1898 was equivalent to eight sailing trawling was mostly limited to the south coast. In the trawlers, for example, while a diesel trawler in 2000 waters near the MBA’s Plymouth headquarters, gnarled could do the work of 50 sail trawlers. The records show old fishermen recalled catch rates 2 to 5 times higher in how many boats of what type were at work so we can the early 1800s compared to the 1860s. Those catches calculate a measure of total fishing power for each year. included species hardly seen in these parts today, such of When you divide landings by fishing power, ‘peak as massive skates and halibut, wolffish and ling. change fish’ shifts backwards from the late 1930s to the very From early on, fishermen also railed against the first year of data collection. In 1889, we landed 17 destructive tendencies of the trawlers, and their times more fish per unit of fishing power expended observations show that life on the seabed was also than we land today. As prolific as these figures confirm, undergoing a transformation. Accounts provide vivid the seas probed by the MBA’s first scientists were sketches of rich and varied habitats. An 1837 descrip- not pristine. Hundreds of heartfelt testimonies by tion of Ireland’s Carlingford Lough noted that ‘The

Image: Guy Baker Image: fishermen to Royal Commissions of Enquiry in the middle of the Loch is deep ... and the bottom occupied 1860s and 1880s reveal widespread bewilderment Callum Roberts takes the long view of our exploitation and anger at the falling of the marine environment productivity of fisheries. For example, a line fisher- man from the north-east he Marine Biological Association was founded in ing in old photographs and engravings suggest fish of Scotland said in 1885 1884, as many will recall given the recent 125th were larger, much more abundant, and catches of ‘[7 years ago] boats here TAnniversary celebrations. It was forged by an big species more varied than today, but it has been say they can have got influential group of scientists on the back of the hard to find data to underpin such anecdotes. half a ton, 12 cwt and as International Fisheries Exhibition held in London in The most positive outcome of the 1885 Royal high as 14 and 15 cwt 1883, at which Thomas Huxley had famously declared Commission was to initiate fisheries data collection [of haddocks], but the the great sea fisheries inexhaustible. Less strident in 1886, with nationwide rollout by 1889. Those highest catch we had voices, like those of the then 36-year old Professor Ray data offer a bracing perspective on the current state last year was 5.5 cwt, at Lankester, begged to differ, believing they had seen of UK seas as my former student Ruth Thurstan about, I may say, 6 miles signs of depletion. With precious little data on fish recently discovered. Despite 118 years of technological further off than formerly’. stocks and fisheries, neither position was easy to prove, advance, landings of bottom fish into England and A similar lament from as the contemporary Royal Com- Fish were larger, more abundant, Wales—from a largely sail powered the north-east of England mission of Enquiry into bottom and catches of big species more fleet—were five times greater in went ‘I have been going trawling concluded in 1885. The varied than today 1889 than in 2007. Landings [to sea] 34 years … and new MBA was therefore to focus peaked around the outbreak when I commenced we the lens of scientific enquiry on life beneath the waves. of World War II at an astonishing 17 times greater would get 40 to 50 stone I often wonder what we modern scientists would than today. Of course, landings crashed during of fish, and now we make of the sea if we were miraculously transported both World Wars, reminding us that relative fishing cannot get over 4 or 5’. back in time to fill the shoes of our predecessors in effort has a lot to do with these peaks and troughs. The Royal Commission their new laboratory overlooking Plymouth Sound. To gain a sharper insight into the changing nature reports also included How different might our notions of the workings of marine ecosystems, we need to account for the nuggets of data that of marine ecosystems be? Coastal scenes of fish- effects of changes in fishing power. Here a lovely study enable us to trace fish- Skate and hake or ling amongst the fish catch at Polperro, Cornwall in the 1860s.

22 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 23 Environment & Conservation Environment & Conservation

But while the ghostly hand of industry past still Would it shock them to find that people have clutches the oceans around us, it is joined today by become a dominant force shaping the sea, shifting new forces unimaginable to the people who plied the flow of currents, melting polar ice caps, greening these seas long ago. Those forces have been unleashed the sea in some places while expanding ocean deserts by the extraordinary expansion of humanity across in others, and choking life from vast tracts of seabed? the globe, coupled with our increasing technological The oceans still yield up catches to local fishermen, prowess. What would the MBA’s first scientists make but nets are filled with smaller fry. And places like the of Plymouth Sound today if they could be lifted from Irish Sea, once noted for its huge fish, have been so their graves and pressed back into service? They would raked and sieved by dredge and fine-mesh prawn trawl, find a world in the headlong grip of climate change that only prawns, scallops and small fish like dabs and and globalization. While many species familiar to red gurnard still thrive. The mice and cockroaches them would have declined or disappeared from local of the sea have usurped its elephants and lions. waters, waves of new arrivals have ridden the spread- Nobody willed it this way. Fishermen have ing tendrils of warm water welling north, or jumped not deliberately set out to destroy ocean life and ship from distant ports. Perhaps the air would seem undermine their own livelihoods. Their ingenuity and fresher to them, the stinking residues of sewage and adaptability have simply outrun societal restraint. At refuse all but gone. But mud flats and beaches have every step-shift up in power—hook and line to sail gained grains of plastics, while synthetic chemicals trawl, sail trawl to steam, steam to diesel—marine lace the waters with effects unseen and hard to dis- life has shifted downward in abundance and variety. entangle. The sea laps higher on the dockside and To keep the balance between fish and fishing, the waters turn litmus a shade brighter than before. industrial power must be fettered and commercial Record cod catch. Lossiemouth, Scotland. away…’. In view of the obvious damage being done, by an immense bed of oysters, of which vast quanti- many fishermen campaigned to have trawling banned ties are taken to Dublin and other towns’. Charles or restricted, like the men of Youghal in Ireland Shore, a visitor to the Isle of Man was taken aback in 1837, who petitioned ‘The havoc and mischief by the clarity of its waters in 1836: ‘The southern occasioned by trawling is absolutely incalculable, as coast of Man yields much seaweed which supplies it tears up the ground ... the bag of the trawl often the Island with good manure. It may be seen waving exhibiting one common mass of destruction ...’. to and fro at great depth, so extraordinary is the What different theories might we have spun, what clearness of the water; a perfect submarine forest’. alternative scientific paradigms would these seas have These habitats were progressively stripped by trawl yielded to the modern eye? If we really want to know and dredge throughout the 19th Without history, we can never how people have changed the world, and 20th centuries. One trawl make sense of the forces that the long view is essential. When I fisherman from Scarborough told govern life beneath the waves was at school, full of youthful hubris, in 1885 of how ‘[50 years ago] history seemed dull and irrelevant we used to go to the back of west rock, that is abreast to me. Fortunately, I shrugged off such foolishness later of Filey, very often, and at that time we could not in life. A few years ago, I pieced together the effects of trawl more than an hour and a half or two hours in 1000 years of exploitation on the sea (The Unnatural consequence of the shells, what we call the clam shells, History of the Sea, Island Press). Writing the book, I soon some dead ones and others alive. Those dead shells realized that the ghosts of past fishermen and hunters had at that time white and brown thusks in them, were with us everywhere, even to the greatest depths and all among these shells the soles inhabited; and we of the ocean (where nutrient shuttling between surface by this small beam net […] could get 40 and 50 pair and abyss by whales and giant fish has dwindled to a of soles in a tide […]. Well now, you could take the trickle, if you are wondering). Without history, we can same coble, the same net, the same everything, and never make sense of the forces that govern life beneath trawl over the same ground and where there are no the waves, nor understand how best to manage the shells, and I would think we would not get five pair of sea. The emerging field of historical ecology is lead- Once common around Britain, the angel shark has now virtually vanished and is considered to be extinct in the North Sea (IUCN, 2008). soles in a tide […]. They have trawled [the shell fish] ing a renaissance in our understanding of the sea. Image from A history of British fishes (Yarrell, 1836).

24 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 25 Environment & Conservation Image: Jason Flower Image: Carbon Credits: the new face of

A level seabed harbouring soft corals such as pink sea fans (Eunicella verrucosa), and sponges. Such communities are vulnerable to physical damage and may take decades to recover. Image: Keith Hiscock. coastal conservation? fervour constrained. To be fair to the many who more intensively in other places, even with trawl and have tried, it is not easy, even if your only interest dredge. And with fish more abundant, they could Melissa Schiele looks at the mechanisms behind ‘blue carbon’ trading. is in fishing. And we have only recently come to be taken at lower cost by a more efficient industry. appreciate that it simply is not possible to balance Many have battled hard to see marine reserves nature conservation, healthy ecosystem functioning established around the UK. England has a blueprint limate change is affecting of carbon dioxide released into the an industrial company from and fisheries profitability using the old regulatory for an entire network and was on the cusp of turn- nearly all biomes on the atmosphere and the idea is, that if the UK has built solar panels in toolbag of restrictions on gear and landings (some ing around the state of its seas until this Govern- Cplanet. The degradation and an entity releases 1 tonne of carbon India for a village, reducing the have yet to realize this). For that balance to be ment faltered and put forward less than a quarter deforestation of mangroves, seagrass dioxide, purchasing or creating a dependency on coal and conse- struck, we need something else: marine reserves. for implementation. They said it was too expensive beds and tidal marshes in particular carbon credit (for their own use) quently reducing the emissions Marine reserves put places off limits to fishing, and blamed scientists for lack of evidence (there is could release up to a billion tonnes will cancel out their emissions. by a certain amount per year. other exploitation and harm. They provide refuges plenty that marine reserves are sorely needed), while of carbon dioxide annually if some- The largest carbon credit trading There also exists a global vol- in which vulnerable species can thrive and habitats quietly shelving promises to apply the precaution- thing is not done soon (Pendleton, forum is the EU Emissions Trading untary market for carbon credits. can begin the decades-long journey back to vital- ary principle and use best available evidence. This is 2012). Some financiers, scientists Scheme (EU ETS), an example The voluntary market is still in its ity. By allowing big fish to return and reproduce, why 86 marine scientists recently wrote to the Prime and non-governmental organizations of a compliance market, meaning infancy and is a refuge for those they will supply surrounding fisheries with young Minister urging him to reaffirm the Government’s (NGOs) believe that conservation that credits being processed are credits which do not meet the EU fish; a point understood even in the 19th century, commitment to a full network of protected areas through carbon credit generation used by companies who are legally ETS credit prerequisites. Credit as a Sunderland fisherman noted in 1883: ‘... the and set out a clear timeline for its establishment, and sales (i.e. markets), is the answer. mandated to reduce their emissions prices are affected by a lot of factors Dogger Bank has been seriously affected by the reminding him that the costs to society of further Carbon credits are a market (such as those in the EU). The so if a company is able to create trawling going on there; and we have looked upon inaction greatly outweigh the costs of protection. driven mitigation initiative which EU ETS accepts credits generated a lot of them from a particularly the Dogger Bank as the principal reservoir of fish; Callum Roberts ([email protected] ) is encompasses the production and from projects which have shown to carbon rich site they may be able and the mischief done to the Dogger Bank we look Professor of Marine Conservation at the University sale of carbon credits, in what is reduce net emissions. An example to increase the value of the credit if upon as [done to] the fountainhead’. With well found of York, and author of Ocean of Life: How our Seas known as the carbon credit market. would be a Clean Development that site also has endangered species networks of marine reserves, fish can be exploited are Changing. Penguin 2013. A carbon credit represents a tonne Mechanism (CDM) project where on it, hence the other term, cor-

26 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 27 Environment & Conservation Environment & Conservation porate social responsibility (CSR) additionality, and without it a validated by the Verified Carbon credits. The credits that fit into project is void. The basic concept is Standard (VCS). A REDD project CSR/voluntary markets are often that deforestation must be avoided has a lot of moving parts and as those from forest projects which in order to keep the project viable the industry is relatively new, many come under the umbrella of UN environmentally and financially. carbon credit companies are still REDD credits (United Nations This model is being developed trying to figure out how to mon- Reducing Emissions from Defor- in order for mangroves and etize and even create the credits estation and Forest Degradation) seagrass beds to be conserved in under the strict policy guidelines or IFM (Improved Forest Manage- a potentially more economically Zanzibar has many seagrass beds including of UN REDD and also validating As well as storing carbon, seagrass beds (left) are home to a diverse flora and fauna. Sea ment). UN REDD has been in viable manner. It may soon be those in the rural peninsula of Fumba. bodies such as the VCS. The pro- cucumber, Fumba, Zanzibar (right). Images: Melissa Schiele. Image: Melissa Schiele. existence since the United Nation’s the case that investors begin to jected returns on some of these pro- and climate effects, a standard managers to guarantee the safety Framework Convention on Climate plough money into the companies are being created. With mangrove jects can be staggering, but whether was created, known as the CCBA of their environments in a time Change’s Kyoto Protocol. It is which are doing these projects deforestation being three times the market and demand holds up standard (The Climate, Com- where funding for regular conserva- under UN REDD where new man- specifically for mangroves and more detrimental for the environ- is yet to be seen. Governments in munity and Biodiversity Alliance). tion projects is hard to come by grove and seagrass bed conservation seagrass beds and not just forests, ment than regular deforestation, it developing countries are often keen Project developers use this standard and support from governments in projects may appear in the coming as mangroves hold more carbon is unsurprising that carbon credit to get these investors on-board; it alongside their more technical governance and enforcement may years and that is where things get and thus generate more credits that generators are trying to find ways helps to reduce the country’s overall carbon counting VCS standard to be minimal. Examples of success- interesting for the marine science can be sold. Countries where this of capitalizing on them. Defor- emissions and shows that they are quantify the good work the projects ful projects include the Kasigau and conservation community. could happen first are Indonesia estation (including coastal system actively keen on development. have done. Many local people can Corridor Project (Phases I and The success of REDD forest and Brazil, which have the largest destruction) accounts for 8–20% A carbon company (or NGO find employment through REDD II) which has created thousands projects relies heavily on the ability extent of mangroves in the world. of total global emissions. It is also in partnership with one of these projects and often schools and places of credits for sale (visit the VCS of the project to conserve forests Mangroves, seagrass beds and important to realize that mangroves companies) which wishes to set up of worship are built in remote areas. project database for more informa- and to avoid degradation and wetlands are delicate and diverse on average store at least twice as a REDD project must work closely An important issue for investors tion). REDD projects are labour deforestation. The regrowth of the ecosystems which are often subject much carbon than most tropical with the local government, policy is whether deals with local com- intensive and risky (financially and forest amasses carbon in the wood to exploitation by local people for rainforests, with certain sites in makers and stakeholders as well munities are legally binding and socioeconomically) but if carried and roots and it is this sequestra- wood collection to aquaculture. Micronesia (for example) holding as maintaining a strong and fair strong enough to last the length of out with rigour and with an inter- tion that allows carbon credits to They are at risk from rising sea around 70% of their carbon in the relationship with the local inhabit- the project, which can be decades. disciplinary team focused on good be formed. In short, as the forest levels but could also play an soils. Mangroves, seagrass beds or ants—at the end of the day, once a Of course the proper capital is governance, conservation and social grows, CO2 is locked away for important role in climate change salt marshes are found on nearly all REDD boundary is delineated, that also needed to pay for all outgoings; development then there are few good or until the tree dies in several mitigation as carbon storage non-Arctic or Antarctic coastlines forest or costal area then becomes this is often funded by investors into reasons why they should not work. hundred years or so. It is this com- facilities. The ecosystem service in some form and their carbon strictly off limits to the local people. the carbon company’s core fund. Melissa Schiele (melissa.schiele@ bination of offsets (avoided emis- of carbon storage is now being benefits are augmented by the This is where serious problems can There is a risk that if the market gmail.com) is Heritage Project sions from not cutting the forest) recognized by large NGOs and biodiversity benefits and amenities arise. The media has been quick to demand for carbon credits slides, Manager and a member of the Marine Biological Association. and sequestration that can be governments and much frantic that come with conserving such highlight the actions of so called the interest in these REDD projects converted into carbon credits. The research is going into clarifying the places, not least being protection ‘carbon cowboys’ who have entered may suffer also, with less investment FURTHER READING Kauffman J.B., Heider C., Cole project must prove that without its carbon sequestration rates of these against storms. NGOs and local an area to make a quick buck and happening and the chance of aban- T.G., Dwire K.A. Donato D.C. (2011) presence, the forests would surely not taken into account the local Ecosystem carbon stock of micronesian coastal ecosystems and conse- governments in developing nations doned projects resulting in increased mangrove forests. Wetlands 31, 343–352. be cut down, something called quently, monetization mechanisms face a difficult challenge in conser- people’s needs or situations, ending degradation and greenhouse gas Pendleton L., Donato D.C., Murray vation of coastal environments due in protests, violence and the risk of emissions. But the likelihood of B.C., Crooks S., Jenkins A.W., Sifleet S., Craft C., Fourguean J.W., Kauffmann to often poor funding and limited uprooted indigenous people losing this happening is relatively low, as J.B., Marbà N., Megonigal P., Pidgeon E., staff coupled to increasing popula- their land (and of course disgraced many companies and firms believe Herr D., Gordon D. and Baldera A. (2012) Estimating global ‘blue carbon’ emissions tions. Paper parks (and Marine politicians and governors). REDD that climate change will affect them from conversion and degradation of vege- tated coastal ecosystems. PLOS 7, e43542. Protected Areas MPAs) can also be projects require an element of negatively in some way, and whether DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0043542. a hindrance to conservation efforts. positive net benefits for the local through buying CSR credits or VCS http://v-c-s.org/ The effectiveness of the REDD communities and to help projects investing in a project, they will want UN REDD http://www.un-redd.org/ projects varies greatly, however. quantify the effectiveness of their to get their share of the market. CCBA http://www.climate-standards.org/ community engagement, as well Overall, REDD projects could be REDD Monitor (unbiased whistle blower Only a handful of projects have on REDD) http://www.redd-monitor.org/ Mangroves above and below the surface. Images: Jason Flower. generated credits which have been as biodiversity in the local area a good way for coastal conservation Mongabay http://www.mongabay.com

28 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 29 Sharing marine science we need to know about the seas as a global system in this area. At the request of the European Commis- European marine connected by shifting winds, seasonal currents and sion a group of ocean education experts will deliver migrating species. Some issues addressed are similar recommendations to the European Commission DG at European or global level. This is where EMSEA Research and Innovation on mechanisms and initiatives educators, unite! steps in. Through EMSEA, European countries to better support marine science outreach and educa- Europe’s quest for a more ocean-oriented society and economy. have the opportunity to define the purpose of tion in the Horizon 2020 Programme and beyond. ocean education for their economic and scientific It is clear that the promotion of Ocean Literacy is nowledge is an engine for sustainable growth in has much to offer in terms of valuable marine projects challenges, and find ways to collaborate on ocean still in its infancy in Europe. However, the resources the interconnected global economy and improv- and educational materials, but the efforts are often issues and stimulate a science curriculum reform. are available, and EMSEA will make sure that these K ing knowledge about the seas and oceans is a poorly visible, and thus seldom used by others. EMSEA As a pioneer in Europe, Portugal has made a con- (often local) initiatives will be highlighted and key element to achieving that growth in the European is therefore dedicated to facilitate the exchange of best certed effort to place Ocean Literacy on the map for promoted. Together these efforts will be the start of Union. practice in marine education, to provide a network- its science teachers. The Portuguese National Agency a more ocean literate Europe. Investing in Ocean A fundamental tenet of Ocean Literacy is that ing directory for marine educators and to organize for Scientific and Technological Culture, Ciência Viva, Literacy on a European and global scale will no doubt marine knowledge should reach not only young stu- annual conferences for educators throughout Europe. launched in 2011 a version of the Ocean Literacy prin- have considerable currency for many years to come. dents but all age groups. The European Commission’s While people the world over express serious ciples adapted to the Portuguese reality, linked to the If this article sparked your interest, we will be Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries concerns about the protection and the health Portuguese science curriculum: ‘Conhecer o Oceano: honoured to welcome you at the next EMSEA confer- states in its ‘Marine Knowledge 2020’ initiative that of the ocean, Europe has yet to provide a struc- Principios Essenciais e Conceitos Fundamentais’ ence which will be hosted by the Marine Biological public information is fundamentally a public good that ture to make Ocean Literacy its priority. (‘Knowing the Ocean: Essential Principles and Fun- Association on 3–5 September 2013 in Plymouth, UK. can benefit a wide body of stakeholders. By improving The position paper of the European Marine Board damental Concepts’). This effort certainly serves as an Géraldine Fauville1 ([email protected]), marine knowledge, the initiative aims to improve the ‘Navigating the Future IV’, which outlines the most example and inspiration for other European countries. Evy Copejans2 and Fiona Crouch3 quality of public decision-making at all levels. A more important marine thematic research priorities for The First Conference in Europe on Ocean Literacy 1. Sven Lovén Centre for Marine Sciences 2. Flanders Marine Institute informed and concerned public will better understand (12 October 2012, Bruges, Belgium) brought together Europe (2012–2106), clearly states the urge for a 3. Marine Biological Association the need to manage ocean resources and marine European consensus on Ocean Literacy. Questions scientists, experts, educators and policy makers to FURTHER READING ecosystems in a sustainable way, and indeed an ocean- such as what Ocean Literacy means for our conti- explore how Ocean Literacy can improve the future of Buckley P., Pinnegar J.K., Terry G., Chilvers J., Lorenzoni I, literate person is ‘able to make informed and respon- nent and what people should know of the ocean to European seas. Highlighting the lack of ocean-related Gelcich S., A. Dudek A. and Arquati A. (2011) Report on Euro- pean public awareness and perception of marine climate change sible decisions regarding the ocean and its resources’. make informed and responsible decisions need to be content in formal science education the conference risks and impacts. Deliverable 2.2. Climate Change and Marine However, the basic understanding about oceans debated. The position paper underlines the impor- emphasized how marine education projects and infor- Ecosystem Research (CLAMER), 65 pp. www.clamer.eu/ Dee T. S. (2003) Are there civic returns to education? Work- and seas seems to be insufficient in Europe. There is tance of understanding what people know, want to mal education efforts (e.g. aquaria, science centres, ing Paper 9588, National Bureau of Economic Research. still a gap between what scientists know, and what the know and should know about the museums, NGOs etc.) were by necessity paving Chawla L. (1999) Life paths into effective environmental general public understands, about the marine environ- ocean. Through public surveys and the way to more public involvement and active action The Journal of Environmental Education 31, 15–26. Commission Europe (2020) A European Strategy for smart, ment, despite the general quest for marine knowledge meetings between European ocean participation. There is no doubt the conference has sustainable and inclusive growth, 03.03.2010 COM (2010) 2020. from the public. Ocean sciences seem to be left aside in scientists and educators, the aim is to been an important milestone in developing an ocean Commission of the European Communities (2007) most high schools syllabi. Unfortunately, there are only agree upon overall essential principles, literate society in Europe. It has been critical in raising An Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union Brussels, 10.10.2007 COM (2007) 575 final. a few studies conducted on the subject of ocean knowl- based upon those prepared in the US. the profile of Ocean Literacy with European policy Commission Marine Knowledge (2020) Marine data and observa- edge and ocean education in Europe. This scarcity of A major concern is that the diversity in makers, notably with the European Commission tion for smart and sustainable growth; A better understanding of our seas and oceans to boost competitiveness and growth. Brussels, information seems to be another indication that ocean languages, educational systems and ways DG Research and Innovation. The inclusion 8.9.2010, COM(2010) 461 final, SEC(2010) 999, SEC(2010) 998. knowledge is limited in most European countries. of living with the sea across Europe will of Ocean Literacy as one of the themes for Copejans E. and De Doncker K. (2007) Mare In 2011, the College of Exploration initiated an complicate the implementation of a future greater trans-Atlantic collaboration in the incognitum. De Aardrijkskunde 31, 21–32. COSEE, National Geographic Society, NOAA, Col- international meeting at the annual National Marine European Ocean Literacy plan. National EU’s Transatlantic Galway Declaration (24 lege of Exploration (2005) Ocean Literacy: The Essential Educators Association (NMEA) conference in Boston, characteristics and issues do not tell us all May 2013) is clear evidence of major progress Principles of Ocean Sciences Grades K–12. Jointly published brochure. Available at: www.coexploration.org/oceanliteracy/ Massachusetts, attended by several European marine documents/OceanLitConcepts_10.11.05.pdf. educators. At this meeting a new network of marine Eggermont M. (2007) Upgrading basic knowledge of oceans and seas through secondary education. MSc thesis. educators was born, the ‘European Marine Science Universiteit Gent; MARELAC: Gent. 103 + 1 cd-rom pp. Educators Association’ or ‘EMSEA’. EMSEA is Europe’s Hoeberigs T. and Seys J. (2005) Wat weten we over de zee? Een own network of marine educators, a network that is onderzoek naar de kennis en informatienoden bij jongeren en senioren [What do we know about the sea? A study of what youngsters and closely affiliated with NMEA and the international senior citizens know and want to know]. De Grote Rede 14: 2-5 ocean community. EMSEA’s core business is to establish McDonough N. et al. (2013) Navigating the future V. ESF Marine Board Position Paper. European Science a platform for ocean education within Europe. Europe Foundation. Ostend: ESF Marine Board: Ostend.

30 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 31

Participants at the first European Conference on Ocean Literacy. Image: VLIZ (Hertz). Sharing marine science

pan-European marine biological are formalizing national and will be developed throughout the Pooling resources infrastructure that aims to provide European agreements, estab- infrastructure. As well as services coordinated access to ecosystems, lishing a searchable EMBRC and facilities for Europe’s Horizon data, resources and facilities for database of facilities, platforms, 2020 programme EMBRC will for marine science academic researchers and industry. organisms and services, and are provide training for technical staff, EMBRC partners recognize the taking the first steps towards early and established researchers The European Marine Biological Resource Centre critical and increasing importance standardization of databases. and platforms for R&D SMEs. by Nicolas Pade and Colin Brownlee of large scale international EMBRC will be a major collaborative efforts to A one-stop-shop for asset in making Europe marine biological research urope has a very long and reproductive systems and sensory tories have traditionally tended address the future major an attractive and highly distinguished history in and defence mechanisms. Efforts to operate rather independently challenges of marine EMBRC will provide access to ecosystems, competitive centre for Emarine biological research. to understand this biodiversity as research infrastructures (RIs), science. The primary model species, culturing and husbandry, large- marine biological research. Its coastal marine biological have led to discoveries with providing stand-alone access aim is to provide essential scale facilities and platforms as well as e-infra- Nicolas Pade laboratories are among the oldest important implications for the to marine organisms, ecosys- access beyond that which structure and bioinformatics support. ([email protected]) is in the world, with many being sustainable development of human tems and facilities for visiting will be possible through EMBRC Technical established in the 19th century. society, for example in relation and resident researchers. future infrastructure Development Officer (WP2), and Colin The rationale behind the estab- to advances in biomedicine, There is an urgent need to capabilities defined at the Brownlee is Director of lishment of the early marine biotechnology, gene technology, better coordinate these activities national level. A coordi- the Marine Biological laboratories, notably promoted food security, environmental issues at the European level in order nated system of access at Association. by A. Dohrn in Naples and T.H. and general ecosystem health—the to address future demands for the European level has CURRENT EMBRC PARTNERS Huxley in Plymouth was to Ecosystem Services Concept. marine resources, to seize the been agreed by the par- increase knowledge of the seas and A co-ordinated European marine opportunities presented by better ticipating organizations as CNRS/University of Paris life therein—vital to understand biology infrastructure understanding of marine systems the most cost-effective and Marie Curie, France; Alfred Wegner Institute the sustainability of the fishing Marine laboratories have and technological advances scientifically productive (AWI), Germany; Sven industry. There followed a pro- been pivotal in uncovering the and to meet the challenges of means of accommodating Lovén Institute, Sweden; liferation of marine laboratories the future infrastructure hidden potential of the marine increasing uncertainties about the Sars Institute, Norway; around the world including many environment through provision changing marine environment. requirements in marine Naples Zoological in the USA. These sites provided of platforms, equipment, exper- biosciences, as also What is the EMBRC? Station, Italy; Hellenic access to the sea, marine organisms tise, resources and information. demonstrated by the Centre for Marine and the facilities to collect and However, these marine labora- The EMBRC is a developing success of major European Research, Greece and study them in key ecologically RIs in related fields. University of the Algarve, important locations. The marine The provision of services by Overlap and complementarity Portugal, plus the European laboratories have hosted many EMBRC will be centred around with related programmes and Molecular Biology Laboratory scientists over the years to carry four core themes: Access to infrastructures will be addressed (EMBL) in Heidelberg and its out research much of which has Ecosystems; Aquaria & Culture; whilst working towards a single bioinformatics node at Hinxton, led to ground-breaking discoveries ’Omics technologies, and Mobility entry point to ensure that appli- UK (along with the other UK part- ners). The current UK partners in fields as diverse as biomedicine, of Researchers and User Access. cants access the most relevant are the Plymouth Marine Science evolutionary science, and chemi- The EMBRC Scientific Strategy facilities for their work. Sharing Institutes (led by the Marine cal and physical oceanography. Report (www.embrc.eu) describes of aquaria and culture expertise Biological Association (MBA) The oceans represent the how this distributed infrastructure and best practice guidelines and Plymouth Marine Labora- largest set of ecosystems on Earth will come about, the standards will be set up and disseminated tory (PML)); the University of St and harbour exceptionally high and services that it will provide, throughout the partner institutes. Andrews/Scottish Oceans Insti- biological diversity. Of the 36 rec- and how it will operate and evolve The coordination of ’omics tools tute; and the Scottish Associa- ognized phyla of living organisms, to establish a single entry point and capability throughout Europe, tion for Marine Science (SAMS). only 17 occur on land, whereas 34 to European marine research and establishment of standards EMBL will provide the link to occur in the sea. Marine organisms infrastructure. Throughout the for design and analysis will be ELIXIR (a pan-European research present an extraordinary variety preparatory and construction facilitated to provide a framework infrastructure for biological infor- mation) and the BioImaging RIs. of structures, metabolic pathways, Fig. 1 EMBRC partners phases member organizations upon which ’omics approaches

32 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 33

CoolLED_MarineBioAd13_119x85_CMYK:Layout 1 09/05/2013 12:29 Page 1

Hugh Miller is a marine biologist and cameraman with the BBC’s Natural History Film Unit. He gives: The CoolLED pE-Series the view astern PRIMER for LED Illumination The Marine Biologist: and how you compose the shot is an interpretation, Training workshop, 4 - 8 November 2013 Hugh, what first and the technology itself also interprets reality. got you interested TMB: What are you looking forward to Analysis of Multivariate Data SINGLE in marine life? in your underwater filming career? WAVELENGTH DUAL WAVELENGTH Hugh Miller: Going HM: I’d love to film in the deep sea from a sub- from Ecology & rockpooling as a mersible, that’s a real ambition. We are also on Environmental Science child on the coast of the brink of some exciting developments with Scotland and realizing ultra HD [high definition], filming in the dark, Held at THREE FOUR the world under the much more advanced camera grip and so on. Who WAVELENGTHS WAVELENGTHS sea was much stranger knows, I’d like to film giant squid one day! the Marine Biological Association, than the one above. TMB: What is your most memorable Plymouth UK TMB: The foot- marine life experience? and led by Prof Bob Clarke (PRMER-E) age under the ice in the BBC Frozen Planet HM: The first time I swam in on a sperm whale The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton find the CoolLED LED light source ideal for identifying bacterial plankton populations. programme and the story of how you got it was in the Azores back when I was a camera assistant. Contact: [email protected] fascinating. Do you think you will be seen as a We were way out at sea with the boat stood off and pioneer of filming techniques in the future? the cameraman and I were in a tiny tender with HM: No! [Laughs] Most of the techniques we use an electric motor which is quiet. I jumped in but www.CoolLED.com are modern versions of what has been done before. didn’t see anything, so I was making my way back +44 (0)1264 323040 (Worldwide) 1-800-877-0128 (USA Toll Free) Today we benefit from much better cameras and kit to the boat when all of a sudden a mother and calf but I do adapt the equipment to do what we want. appeared in front of me. When she saw me she TMB: The water clarity under the ice ranged me with her sonar and I felt my lungs shake! was astonishing. TMB: If you had to be a researcher European Marine Science Educators Association Conference HM: The water has been under the Ross Ice Shelf in what would you specialize in? 3rd - 5th September 2013 the dark for a long time and it circulates very slowly HM: Probably either fisheries as it’s important, NE BIO RI LO A G The EMSEA (www.emsea.eu) conference is a unique opportunity for M I C

E

so nothing is growing in it by the time it flows past A but I would also like to look at vision and colour H L

T

A educators, policy makers and scientists to join together in developing S N those sites. When summer comes and it’s light there and how sea creatures see their surroundings. S O O CI AT I is a big plankton bloom and the visibility crashes. TMB: Which marine scientist do you most admire? Ocean Literacy throughout Europe, to share best practice in marine There was a sense of vertigo and floating in nothing HM: That’s a hard one; I keep finding new scientists education and increase the network of marine educators across Europe. when it is that clear. On one dive, the whole water that I’m in awe of! Edie Widder would be one For more details and registration go to www.emseaplymouth2013.org column tipped below the freezing point. The water was because of her work filming giant squid. I have huge or email Fiona Crouch [email protected] twinkling with ice crystals and crystals were forming admiration for people who make machines that on the equipment. It was extraordinarily beautiful. allow us to explore the ocean in different ways so TMB: Thinking about the early Antarctic I’m going to pick the engineers, Piccard senior and Upcoming news and events for members of the Marine Biological Association explorers and their copious notes and draw- junior. Auguste designed the bathyscaphe, Trieste that ings, has technology completely removed the reached the Challenger Deep and his son designed • The MBA will be advertising for the Anne Warner need for any ‘analogue’ recording or notes? and skippered the submersible Ben Franklin that Fellowship in September 2013. HM: Notes and drawings are an interpretation of drift-dived the Gulf Stream for a whole month in Look out for job vacancies on the MBA website. what is observed, and that is true with digital tech- 1969. It was an extraordinary journey and a pioneering • The EMBO Plymouth Microscopy Course is planned for nology. What you choose to point the camera at expedition and everyone involved has my admiration. April 2014. • Bryozoan workshop 27th September 2013. For more information or to book a place on a course email: [email protected]

34 Autumn 2013 The Marine Biologist The Marine Biologist Autumn 2013 35 Issue 2 of The Marine Biologist: The Royal Charter edition TheMarine

BiologistThe magazine of the marine biological community

Spring 2014

www.mba.ac.uk/marinebiologist