Scientific American Mind November December 2014

CELEBRATING OUR 10TH ANNIVERSARY!

LIGHTING UP NEURONS to change behavior ELECTRIC BEHAVIOR • BRAIN SCIENCE • INSIGHTS PHARMACY MNovember/DecemberI 2014 ND Next-generation Mind.ScientificAmerican.com treatments

SPECIAL ISSUE BRAIN-TO-BRAIN COMMUNICATION A direct link THE HUMAN CYBORGS reveal how FUTURE we learn USING BRAIN YOU: WAVES to fly a plane What’s DIGITAL SOS How to help Next in a friend SILENCING Brain CYBERBULLIES We all play Health a role PLUS: SMARTPHONE THERAPY apps 10 to try

©www.diako.ir 2014 Scientific American ADVERTISEMENT

What issue are you looking for? We discovered a lot in our long history. Now our award-winning Archives are available for purchase in digital format. Browse and download any single issue from any year—1845 to the present. www.scientificamerican.com/archives THE ARCHIVES

SA_Archives_What_Issue.inddSA_Archives_FullAd_Aug14.indd 1 1 8/27/148/6/14 12:53 5:02 PM FROM THE EDITOR

™

MBEHAVIOR • BRAININD SCIENCE • I N S I G H T S

EDITOR IN CHIEF AND SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT: Mariette DiChristina MANAGING EDITOR: Sandra Upson SENIOR EDITOR: Ingrid Wickelgren ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Daisy Yuhas ART DIRECTOR: Patricia Nemoto ASSISTANT ART DIRECTOR, IPAD: Bernard Lee PHOTO RESEARCHER: Liz Tormes CONTRIBUTING EDITORS: Gareth Cook, Robert Epstein, Ferris Jabr, Emily Laber-Warren, Karen Schrock Simring, Victoria Stern, Gary Stix COPY DIRECTOR: Maria-Christina Keller SENIOR COPY EDITOR: Daniel C. Schlenoff COPY EDITOR: Aaron Shattuck MANAGING PRODUCTION EDITOR: Richard Hunt SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR: Michelle Wright Happy Birthday to Us SENIOR EDITORIAL PRODUCT MANAGER: Angela Cesaro A little more than a decade ago the editorial and business executives at Scientific PRODUCT MANAGER: Kerrissa Lynch American noticed a curious trend. Readers always snapped up issues that featured EDITORIAL ADMINISTRATOR: Avonelle Wing SENIOR SECRETARY: Maya Harty the brain. A German sister publication had picked up on this enthusiasm as well and SENIOR PRODUCTION MANAGER: had recently launched a magazine on the brain sciences, called Gehirn & Geist. Christina Hippeli The team at Scientific American decided to release its own test issue on the mind ADVERTISING PRODUCTION MANAGER: Carl Cherebin and brain in early 2004. To everyone’s astonishment, newsstands sold out of near- PREPRESS AND QUALITY MANAGER: ly every copy. The data suggested that people hungered to learn more about the way Silvia De Santis CUSTOM PUBLISHING MANAGER: they think. By the end of the year Scientific American Mind had officially launched. Madelyn Keyes-Milch PRODUCTION COORDINATOR: Lisa Headley Ten years on, the magazine now has its own stable of seven international editions, BOARD OF ADVISERS: as well as a tablet edition and a thriving Web presence. The issues still come out every ) HAL ARKOWITZ: Associate Professor two months, but new articles appear online daily. As we reflected recently on our own of Psychology, University of Arizona evolution, we decided to also look forward to what the next 10 years might bring. In

Upson STEPHEN J. CECI: Professor of Developmental Psychology, Cornell University this issue’s special report,“The Future of the Brain,” starting on page 28, we describe R. DOUGLAS FIELDS: Chief, Nervous System

CABE ( the trends that intrigued us most. The common theme in all of them is technology, c Development and Plasticity Section, National Institutes of Health, National Institute which is opening up new frontiers in mental health and cognitive enhancement. of Child Health and Human Development A key reason is that brains and computers communicate in dialects of the same S. ALEXANDER HASLAM: Professor ; SEAN M ) of Social and Organizational Psychology, language. They both transmit information using electricity. So it is only natural that University of Queensland emerging technologies are harnessing that shared lexicon to tease out the roots of CHRISTOF KOCH: Chief Scientific Officer, Allen Institute for Brain Science disease, the building blocks of learning and the neural representations of thoughts. photography

( SCOTT O. LILIENFELD: Professor of Psychology, Scientists are also making use of the brain’s electrical nature to tinker with it—to Emory University overcome illness and boost select abilities. STEPHEN L. MACKNIK: Professor of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate The power of technology is evident not only inside the brain but also outside Medical Center it, in the ways we maintain relationships. For example, the impoverished social SUSANA MARTINEZ-CONDE: Professor of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate cues that often accompany interactions on social media are giving rise to new Medical Center behaviors—some that bring us closer together and others that cause harm. Psychol- JOHN H. MORRISON: Chairman, AND AARON GOODMAN

) Department of Neuroscience, and Director, ogists are just beginning to make sense of our partly digital psyches. Neurobiology of Aging Laboratories, We believe that the themes highlighted in this special issue will resonate for Mount Sinai School of Medicine VILAYANUR S. RAMACHANDRAN: Director, years to come. What do you think? Drop us a note at the e-mail address below or Center for the Brain and Cognition, University reach out to us on Twitter (@sciammind) or through our Facebook page. What- of California, San Diego, and Adjunct Professor,

photoillustration ever your preferred technology, we’d love to stay connected.

( Salk Institute for Biological Studies

DIANE ROGERS-RAMACHANDRAN: Research Associate, Center for the Brain and Cognition, University of California, San Diego STEPHEN D. REICHER: Professor of Psychology, University of St. Andrews Some of the articles in Scientific American Mind are adapted from articles originally appearing Sandra Upson in Gehirn & Geist. Managing Editor SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND IS A TRADEMARK

COVER IMAGE BY 49 VAULT OF SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC., USED WITH PERMISSION [email protected]

28 The Future of the Brain What’s next in brain health and enhancement. MBY THEIND EDITORS CONTENTS FEATURES

THE NEURAL CODE 30 Cyborg Confidential Hooking the brain up to a computer can do more than let the severely disabled move artificial limbs. It is also unveilingFEATURES the secrets of how we learn. BY SANDRA UPSON

36 When Two Brains Connect The dawn of human brain-to-brain communication has arrived. BY RAJESH P. N. RAO AND ANDREA STOCCO

40 Decoding the Brain Scientists can now extract what we have learned, seen or dreamed from our brains. Some of that data could even fly a plane. BY LARRY GREENEMEIER

THE SOCIAL WEB 46 Virtual Assault Cyberbullies use the psychology of online communities to hurt others. Here is what makes trolls tick—and how to stop them. BY ELIZABETH SVOBODA

52 A Digital Safety Net People are increasingly broadcasting symptoms of mental illness on social media. We should listen. BY RONI JACOBSON

THE HEALING TOUCH 56 Your Electric Pharmacy Future medications for brain disorders could be delivered through electrodes rather than pills. BY MAROM BIKSON AND PETER TOSHEV

62 Let There Be Light By switching neurons on or off with light, scientists are unlocking the mysteries of the mind and crafting new remedies for it. BY EDWARD S. BOYDEN

21 24 70

7 72 75 76

1 From the Editor 21 Illusions 72 Reviews and The power of perceiving red. Recommendations 4 Letters BY SUSANA MARTINEZ-CONDE Mobile apps to help you manage your 7 Head Lines AND STEPHEN L. MACKNIK, mental health. Also: Apps to avoid. WITH LEANDRO L. DI STASI The future of brain treatments. 74 Ask the Brains Consciousness Redux Narcissism on the rise. 24 Why do we want to bite adorable How a thin, enigmatic layer of nerve babies? Why is the human brain When 10,000 hours isn’t enough. cells generates consciousness. shrinking? Schizophrenia genes revealed. BY CHRISTOF KOCH 75 Head Games How to use technology wisely. 70 Facts and Fictions Match wits with the Mensa puzzlers. People prefer shocks to quiet time. in Mental Health 76 Mind in Pictures Visions comfort the dying. Get-tough tactics may worsen rates of juvenile delinquency. Turing’s Test. Tanning addiction’s roots. BY SCOTT O. LILIENFELD AND BY DWAYNE GODWIN AND The ascent of antidepressants. HAL ARKOWITZ JORGE CHAM

Scientific American Mind (ISSN 1555-2284), Volume 25, Number 6, November/December 2014, published bimonthly by Scientific American, a trading name of Nature America, Inc., 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10013-1917. Periodicals postage paid at New York, N.Y., and additional mailing offices. Canada Post International Publications Mail (Canadian Distribution) Sales Agreement No. 40012504. Canadian BN No. 127387652RT; TVQ1218059275 TQ0001. Publication Mail Agreement #40012504. Canada Post: Return undeliverables to 2835 Kew Dr., Windsor, ON N8T 3B7. Subscription rates: one year (six issues), $19.95; elsewhere, $30 USD. Postmaster: Send address changes to Scientific Americ‑an Mind, P.O. Box 3187, Harlan, Iowa 51537. To purchase additional quantities: U.S., $10.95 each; elsewhere, $13.95 each. Send payment to SA Mind, P.O. Box 4002812, Des Moines, Iowa 50340. For subscription inquiries, call (888) 262-5144. To purchase back issues, call (800) 925-0788. Printed in U.S.A. Copyright © 2014 by Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Heighten your sense of curiosity MBEHAVIOR • BRAININD SCIENCE • I N S I G H T S and discovery. 4. Know that mistakes are part of PRESIDENT: Keith McAllister the process and that they will EXECUTIVE VICE PRESIDENT: Michael Florek teach you valuable lessons. VICE PRESIDENT AND ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER, MARKETING AND BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT: Michael Voss DIRECTOR, INTEGRATED MEDIA SALES: Perhaps our experience of creating Stan Schmidt “Bees” and the intriguing issue that sur- ASSOCIATE VICE PRESIDENT, BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT: Diane McGarvey faced can provide insights for people VICE PRESIDENT, GLOBAL MEDIA ALLIANCES: who want to become more creative. Jeremy A. Abbate Bob Hambly VICE PRESIDENT, CONSUMER MARKETING: Christian Dorbandt Toronto DIRECTOR, INTERNATIONAL DIGITAL DEVELOPMENT: Richard Zinken UNRELENTING AROUSAL DIRECTOR, E-COMMERCE: Scott Rademaker As one who suffered from restless genital ASSOCIATE CONSUMER MARKETING DIRECTOR: Catherine Bussey syndrome (ReGS) for six years, I appre- E-COMMERCE MARKETING MANAGER: Evelyn Veras ciate your publishing Cat Bohannon’s ONLINE MARKETING ASSOCIATE: Alexandra Egan comprehensive coverage of Sally’s case MARKETING AND CUSTOMER SERVICE COORDINATOR: in “When Arousal Is Agony.” Christine Kaelin SALES DEVELOPMENT MANAGER: David Tirpack CURIOUS AND CREATIVE The symptoms described were very PROMOTION MANAGER: Diane Schube I just finished reading “Creativity Is Col- similar to my own, lasting for hours with- PROMOTION ART DIRECTOR: Maria Cruz-Lord lective,” by S. Alexander Haslam, Im- out respite, often leading to bouts with MARKETING RESEARCH DIRECTOR: Rick Simone maculada Adarves-Yorno and Tom depression. I appreciated Bohannon’s re- ONLINE MARKETING PRODUCT MANAGER: Zoya Lysak Postmes, and enjoyed it very much. I am porting on what little research has been CORPORATE PR MANAGER: Rachel Scheer a partner and creative director at a To- done on the causes of this syndrome and SENIOR INTEGRATED SALES MANAGER: Jay Berfas ronto-based graphic design firm and al- her listing many of the treatments that are SALES REPRESENTATIVE: Chantel Arroyo INTEGRATED MEDIA SALES: Nate Murray ways look forward to anything you available. She accurately states that it is SENIOR ADMINISTRATOR, EXECUTIVE SERVICES: publish on the subject of creativity. still not certain whether the very expen- May Jung After spending many years partici- sive surgically placed transmitter perma- CUSTOM PUBLISHING EDITOR: Lisa Pallatroni pating in and observing the creative pro- nently cures people. RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS MANAGER: Karin M. Tucker cess, I found myself searching for expla- I have taken a different course of

HOW TO CONTACT US nations as to what makes for a success- treatments, including unsuccessfully try- FOR ADVERTISING INQUIRIES: ful and gratifying collaboration. That ing many drugs, hormones and supple- Scientific American Mind search led me to a close examination of ments that seemed to help others. In ad- 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor New York, NY 10013 curiosity and its importance in creativi- dition, my physician tried about a dozen 212-451-8893 ty. Over the past few years I’ve lectured different homeopathic remedies with fax: 212-754-1138 to designers and students throughout me. That seemed to make the difference, FOR SUBSCRIPTION INQUIRIES: U.S. and Canada: 888-262-5144 North America about curiosity and and I’m happy to say I am about 90 per- Outside North America: Scientific American Mind written several articles on the subject. cent better, or 90 percent ReGS-free. PO Box 5715, Harlan, IA 51593 Last year I noticed an unusual dy- It has been a long, arduous journey, 515-248-7684 www.ScientificAmerican.com/Mind namic while our studio was producing like a roller coaster ride. Because I had TO ORDER REPRINTS: “Bees,” an issue of Wayward Arts mag- ReGS for so long, I often thought I might Reprint Department azine. The younger designers on our never get better. I’m very thankful today Scientific American Mind 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor team did not contribute nearly the qual- for my doctor and his persistence. I have New York, NY 10013 ity of ideas and energy as our senior de- a lot of compassion for those who strug- 212-451-8877 fax: 212-451-8252 signers. In trying to understand why, I gle with it and hope they can find relief [email protected] isolated several areas where I believe like I did. FOR PERMISSION TO COPY OR REUSE MATERIAL FROM SCIAMMIND: these young designers had difficulties— Cheryl Iantorno Permissions Department areas of the creative process that they via e-mail Scientific American Mind 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor will need to strengthen: New York, NY 10013 It was a bit startling to read the following 212-451-8546 www.ScientificAmerican.com/permissions 1. Have a tolerance for ambiguity. at the start of Bohannon’s article: “A Please allow three to six weeks 2. Feel confident in sharing ideas, woman we’ll call Sally lived in a small for processing. even bad ideas. town deep in the heart of Texas hill

4 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014

www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American The Neuroscience of Everyday Life Taught by Professor Sam Wang TIME ED O T FF I E IM R 1. What Is Neuroscience? L 2. How Do Neuroscientists Study the Brain? 3. Evolution, Energetics, and the 10% Myth

70% 0 O 4. Neurons and Synapses 3 R 5. Neurotransmitters and Drugs D off R E E 6. Juicing the Brain R B M BY DECE 7. Coming to Your Senses 8. Perception and Your Brain’s Little Lies 9. Pain—All in Your Head? 10. Decisions—Your Brain’s Secret Ballot 11. Reward, Adaptation, and Addiction 12. The Many Forms of Memory 13. Quirks of Memory 14. Learning, Studying, and Sleep 15. Willpower and Mental Work 16. Work, Play, and Stress 17. Biological Timekeepers and Jet Lag 18. The Hidden Talents of Infants 19. The Mozart Myth and Active Learning 20. Childhood and Adolescence 21. Handedness—Sports, Speech, and Presidents 22. Reaching the Top of the Mountain—Aging 23. “Brain Exercise” and Real Exercise 24. Animal and Human Personality 25. Intelligence, Genes, and Environment 26. The Weather in Your Brain—Emotions 27. Fear, Loathing, and Anger 28. From Weather to Climate—Mood 29. The Social Brain, Empathy, and Autism 30. Mars and Venus—Men’s and Women’s Brains 31. Sex, Love, and Bonds for Life 32. Math and Other Evolutionary Curiosities 33. Consciousness and Free Will Discover the Neuroscience 34. Near-Death and Other Extreme Experiences 35. Spirituality and Religion of Everyday Life 36. Happiness and Other Research Opportunities All of your thoughts, perceptions, moods, passions, and dreams are the work of your brain and your nervous system. And thanks to the The Neuroscience of Everyday Life exciting field of neuroscience, we can, with remarkable detail, explain Course no. 1540 | 36 lectures (30 minutes/lecture) how neurons, synapses, neurotransmitters, and other biological processes produce all the experiences of your daily life. Open your eyes to how neuroscience explains such phenomena as SAVE $275 making decisions, learning skills, falling in love, forgetting names, and more with The Neuroscience of Everyday Life. Covering a remarkable range of subjects in 36 lectures, acclaimed neuroscientist DVD $374.95 NOW $99.95 +$15 Shipping, Processing, and Lifetime Satisfaction Guarantee and professor Sam Wang of Princeton University brings you up to Priority Code: 95717 date on the latest discoveries in the field and sheds light on the science behind love, humor, memory, consciousness, sleep, free will, and more. His course is your chance to delve inside an intriguing scientific For 24 years, The Great Courses has brought the discipline whose subject is the most important subject of all: you. world’s foremost educators to millions who want to go deeper into the subjects that matter most. No O± er expires 12/30/14 exams. No homework. Just a world of knowledge available anytime, anywhere. Download or stream T³G´C . µ/8µ¶ to your laptop or PC, or use our free mobile apps for iPad, iPhone, or Android. Over 500 courses 1-800-832-2412 available at www.TheGreatCourses.com.

www.diako.ir CLARIFICATION Because of a misunderstanding by the editors, “Posers and Fakers,” by Susana Mar tinez-Conde and Stephen L. Macknik [Illu sions], printed only two of the three images necessary to see artist Heather Spears’s “baby head” illusion. The full illusion is at the left. Spears noticed that when she sketched from a photograph faithfully (center), the result did not look as much like the real baby as when she drew intuitively (right).

country.... It’s mostly middle class, most- “normal” sleepers may be unable to re- you’ve developed instincts for potential ly Christian, the sort of place where you call dreams that end before they wake dangers over the years, it’s pretty dumb don’t have to lock your doors because you up, it is possible that light sleepers or to rationalize them away by channeling already know all your nosy neighbors.” those with other sleep problems can. your younger, dumber self. The implication is clear: Areas where Such people would make an interesting “methos1999” Christians live are safe. Areas with population to study and may reveal some commenting at “others,” not so much. The writer may novel findings not just about sleep but Mind.ScientificAmerican.com have meant to write about homogeneity, about consciousness as well. not religion, and this kind of bias is often Jo Saunders Having traveled extensively as a teenager, I introduced unconsciously—but this is University of Strathclyde, Glasgow get a laugh out of the comment from journalism. One has to be accurate. Being “methos1999.” I traveled the globe by “Christian,” throughout the movement’s So much in our biology is not random, and hitching rides, taking trains and hiking long history, has not always or universal- so it goes with our dreams. When we do on foot through some of the worst slums ly been equated with “supernice, super remember them, there is probably a rea- in the world. I visited countless people’s caring, always ethical, never violent.” son. The way I see it, we are often work- homes and shared and enjoyed many a It’s a particular shame to see this kind ing on problems in dreams that we meal. Of course, I was traveling in the of bias in a magazine that reports on sci- couldn’t solve in waking life. As a clini- early 1970s, with a buddy, when flower entific findings. I hope future articles al- cian, I assume that when a client recalls power was the code of the young genera- low for the possibility of violence by and a dream, he or she probably wanted to tion, but I still had my share of run-ins among people who are Christian and of bring its topic into our session for discus- with seedy people and their evil doings. peaceful relations by and among people sion. As we talk, the client usually figures Somehow I survived encounters with who are not Christian. out what the reverie was about (that is, drug addicts, pedophiles, drunk drivers, Rachel Adelson what problem he or she is working on). grifters, gypsies, felony criminals of ev- via e-mail I generally ask clients how they felt ery sort and even some of the meanest when they awoke—were they startled, cops in America. DREAMS REMEMBERED depressed, fearful, quizzical? These I not only survived but gained wis- I found both the answers to the questions emotional states can also provide infor- dom and insight that only those kinds of in Ask the Brains fascinating. But in the mation about the meaning of a dream. encounters could give me. I would do it all response to “What processes in the brain “lynnoc” over again with even fewer inhibitions if allow you to remember dreams?” I was commenting at I could. The worst that can happen is you rather surprised to see the claim that if a Mind.ScientificAmerican.com can die, and that consequence is a real dream ends before you wake, you will possibility no matter what you do in life. not remember it. I do not think that this SAFE TRAVELS “singing flea” claim is true for everyone. I am a chron- “Channel your younger self,” the third tip commenting at ic insomniac, and when I do sleep I have in “How to be a Better Traveler,” by Mind.ScientificAmerican.com the feeling of still being partly conscious. Sunny Sea Gold [Head Lines], sounds

Thus, I tend to be aware that I am asleep like horrible advice to me. For most of HOW TO CONTACT US FOR GENERAL INQUIRIES in my bed, dreaming. When I wake up, I us, our younger selves were fairly stupid OR TO SEND A LETTER TO THE EDITOR: have found that sometimes I not only re- and never thought about consequences. Scientific American Mind 75 Varick Street, 9th Floor member the dream I have just experi- A good example is when my wife trav- New York, NY 10013 enced but also the one before and, on oc- eled to Italy in college and was essential- 212-451-8200 [email protected] casion, the one before that! So although ly held captive by a Naples taxi driver. If

6 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014

www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American Your Brain-Upgrade Wishes 8 • A Map of Selfishness 11 • The 10,000-Hours Myth 12 • Genetics of Schizophrenia 13 • Dreams before Death 18 • Sick? Try This Antidepressant 20

HeadEXPLORING HOW LinesWE ARE WIRED EXPLORING HOW WE ARE WIRED

Your Brain, Enhanced ILLUSTRATIONS BY RADIO > M NEWS FROM OUR WEB SITE l New evidence finds that dogs experience jealousy, an emotion long believed to be unique to humans.

Upgrading the Brain >> This technology focus may explain why the most popular Technology is shaping our thinking about mental abilities and their improvement upgrade was memory, with a whopping 25 percent of the total votes. Our data-packed devices remind us routinely If you could enhance just one aspect of your brain, what would of the value of enhanced access to information. Yet the you choose? We recently asked online readers this question growing prevalence of dementia, which affects 35.6 million and received a bevy of creative responses. As we sifted through people worldwide, might also make memory especially your 215 specific suggestions, we noticed a trend. Many of you salient. Fortunately, scientists are developing ways to help used the language of technology—random-access memory, SD combat its loss. One novel approach employs ultrasound to cards—to describe the brain’s features and abilities. Clearly, strengthen the power of drug treatments [see “The Sound the prevalence of smartphones and computers has shaped the of Healing,” below]. way we think about mental abilities. Another highly rated desire was to learn better—often to

Cracking Cognition Hacking the Body Readers wanted to master: Many respondents wanted to radically 52 (40%) Memory redefine biological limits by altering 25 (19%) Learning 61% their brain’s architecture, motor con- 14% 21 (16%) Rationality 131/215 trol, sensation or pain. 30/215 20 (15%) Focus 13 (10%) Creativity and problem solving Control Much more involuntary Flawless energy. bodily func- The ability to see I’d love to memory. To totally I could be tions such as far beyond the upload books You’d never focus for a another white blood human scope; to straight to need to study fairly long Marie Curie if cell count see in infrared and my brain. again! time—no I wasn’t tired and appetite. ultraviolet, dark- — Rana Matared —Elaine Chan distractions. all the time! —Eric Erwin ness, and more. —John Brothers —Marilyn Miller —Syona Fie

The Sound of Healing and allowing the medication to infiltrate the usually benign condition of rhythmic shaking— Focused ultrasound may help deliver brain. Hynynen and his colleagues are currently was published in the New England Journal of drugs and other treatments testing whether they can use the method to Medicine last year and found that ultrasonic deliver chemotherapy to patients with brain lesioning of part of the thalamus decreased The brain is protected by tumors. They and other groups are planning tremor. The group is expanding the trial and formidable defenses. In similar trials for patients with other brain launching other pilot studies to explore several addition to the skull, the disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease. symptoms of Parkinson’s. cells that make up the Physicians are also considering high-intensity The benefits of focused ultrasound might blood-brain barrier keep focused ultrasound as an alternative to brain extend well beyond restoring mobility and de pathogens and toxic sub surgery. Patients with movement disorders such livering drugs. Other groups are exploring its stances from reaching as Parkinson’s disease and dystonia are in use in treating neuropathic pain and obsessive- the central nervous sys creasingly being treated with implanted elec compulsive disorder, too. —Bret Stetka tem. The protection is a trodes, which can interrupt problematic brain boon, except when we need to deliver drugs to activity. A team at the University of Virginia hopes Hitting Just the Right Neurons treat illnesses. Now researchers are testing a to use focused ultrasound to deliver thermal way to penetrate these bastions: sound waves. lesions deep into the brain without having Noninvasive fields zap specific areas Kullervo Hynynen, a medical physicist at patients go under the knife. Electric and magnetic fields have Sunnybrook Research Institute in Toronto, and “Using ultrasound to make lesions in the been gaining ground as brain ther- a team of physicians are trying out a technique body is not a new concept; however, it’s been apies because they can exert that involves giving patients a drug followed by limited for the brain because of the contours, force on charged objects, such as an injection of microscopic gas-filled bubbles. density and thickness of the skull,” says neurons. Yet they typically affect Next patients don a cap that directs sound neurologist and study investigator Binit Shah. cells indiscriminately, including waves to specific brain locations, an approach The new technique overcomes that hurdle by healthy ones. Now researchers called high-intensity focused ultrasound. The training more than 1,000 beams onto a target are looking to aim the fields more waves cause the bubbles to vibrate, temporarily area. Shah and his colleagues’ pilot study of precisely to treat brain cancer and forcing apart the cells of the blood-brain barrier patients with essential tremor—a common, major depression.

M MPeople with dyslexia can exhibit certain visual talents not seen in people without the disorder. l When people with asthma believe they smell an irritant, their

8 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American © 2014 Scientific American master a subject such as mathematics, music, science corders to play back their inner monologues. Others or foreign languages. Research already hints that stra suggested neural links to the Web for faster information tegically altering the firing patterns of neurons can enhance browsing. Another reader wished for a switch that could learning. For now such approaches are gaining the most unite all people’s minds in cosmic consciousness to avert ground in medical uses [see “Hitting Just the Right Neu humanitarian crises. Such notions may seem farfetched, but rons,” below], but similar techniques could also rev up real-world research continues to astound us with strange creativity and focus. To learn more about this topic, turn but true technology. For instance, tongue stimulation is to page 56 for “Your Electric Pharmacy.” restoring mobility to patients with neural damage [see “A Finally, no survey of brain-upgrade fantasies would be Shock to the Tongue,” below]. We can only stay tuned to complete without a few proposals that draw inspiration see what mental plug-ins and power-ups come next. from science fiction. Two readers requested thought re —The Editors

Building Going for Curing Character Broke Disease Several propos- Visions of Some readers 6% als were high- 11% cyborgs, tele- 9% requested treat- minded, such as 23/215 pathic com- 19/215 ments for mental 12/215 conquering vice munication, illness and brain or boosting grit and science- diseases. and social graces. fiction-inspired implants were Change some of the darker frequent entries. aspects of the brain. Midnight Revitalize receptors in snacking, addiction to TV, the Wire me into the iCloud to Alzheimer’s, sociopathy and oth- Internet and some other selectively access huge er conditions. I imagine a more nastier things! amounts of information. peaceful world as a result. —Ambarish Ghatpande —Ernie Birge —Carmen Bailey

In 2011 the U.S. Food and Drug Administra- loss and other bad side effects as the seizures Engineering and Rehabilitation, Wisconsin tion approved a portable cap that delivers low- spread through the brain. Researchers hope the neuroscientist Yuri Danilov and his team applied intensity, alternating electric fields to tumors in more localized MST will one day replace ECT. painless electrical impulses to the tip of the adults with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme, —Julia Calderone tongue of MS patients during physical therapy. the most common and stubborn form of brain Over a 14-week trial, patients who got tongue cancer. Rapidly dividing cancer cells have a stimulation improved twice as much on variables unique electrical charge and shape, which allows A Shock to the Tongue such as balance and fluidity as did the electric fields to single them out. By disman- Electrically stimulating a control group who did the same tling cell-copying machinery, the fields ultimately the tongue may help regimen without stimulation. goad tumor cells into suicide. The technology is The tongue has extensive motor now being tested on other types of tumors, repair neural damage and sensory integration with the including those that appear in meningioma (can- A little-known fact: the tongue brain, Danilov explains. The nerves cer of the brain’s lining) and lung cancer. is directly connected to the on the tip of the tongue are directly Another emerging technique also seeks to brain stem. This anatomical connected to the brain stem, a crucial hit only desired targets, this time to treat major feature is now being harnessed hub that directs basic bodily pro depression. Still highly experimental, magnetic by scientists to improve cesses. Previous research showed seizure therapy (MST) showers certain brain rehabilitation. that sending electrical pulses through the areas with strong, rapidly alternating magnetic A team at the University of Wisconsin– tongue activated the neural network for bal fields, provoking chemical changes in neurons Madison recently found that electrically ance; such activation may shore up the cir that cause them to fire simultaneously and stimulating the tongue can help patients with cuitry weakened by MS. induce a seizure. The goal is the same as with multiple sclerosis (MS) improve their gait. MS The team is also using tongue stimulation to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), colloquially is an incurable disease in which the insulation treat patients with vision loss, stroke damage known as shock therapy; for unknown reasons, around the nerves becomes damaged, disrupt and Parkinson’s. “We have probably discovered sparking electrical activity in the cortex relieves ing the communication between body and brain. a new way for the neurorehabilitation of many symptoms of depression. ECT, however, hits a One symptom is loss of muscle control. neurological disorders,” Danilov says. larger swath of tissue and may cause memory In a study published in the Journal of Neuro —Esther Hsieh

airways become inflamed, even when the odor is harmless. l Allowing children to act out the meaning of sentences can double reading comprehension.

Kids These Days Really Are More Egocentric But coming of age during a recession could temper that rising trend

Each generation thinks the next one is more self-cen- tered. A recent study published in Personality and Individual Differences supports this perception: American society has steadily become more egocentric since the nation’s beginnings. An overall rise in economic prosperity may play a role in this egotism, according to a different study: people who were young adults during hard times are less narcissistic than those who came of age during economic booms. To measure trends in egocentrism, researchers at the University of Michigan analyzed the text of State of the Union Addresses from 1790 to 2012. They cal- culated an “egocentricity index” for each speech by comparing the number of words that indicated self- interest (such as “me,” “we” or “mother”) with the number of words that showed high levels of interest in others (such as “he,” “neighbor” or “friend”). Not only did they find a steady increase in the use of self- interest words in the annual speeches over time, their analysis also revealed that before 1900, the speeches pensation relative to other executives. “It’s a well-validated almost always used more other-interest words. After 1920, indicator of narcissism,” Bianchi explains. “A CEO has con- nearly every speech used more self-interest words. trol over how much the second most senior person gets paid.” To see if a president’s speeches reflect egotism in Ameri- Using data from 2,095 CEOs, she found that those who were can society at large, the team compared its results to studies emerging adults during economic booms had a compensation of egotism in other cultural products, such as 20th-century that was 2.3 times higher than their second top executive, books and songs. The researchers found rising egotism across versus a difference of 1.7 for those who came of age in less the board. “This result tells me it’s bigger than just a presi- prosperous times. As such, she believes the recent recession dent,” says Sara Konrath, a co-author of the paper and a proof 2008 and 2009 and its lasting effects on the job market fessor at the Institute for Social Research at Michigan. will probably temper narcissistic tendencies in today’s young

In a related but independent study published in July in Psy- adults—a dip in an overall rising trend. —Esther Hsieh MÁGOZ chological Science, Emily Bianchi, a professor at Emory Uni- versity’s Goizueta Business School, looked at how the state of the nation’s economy affected individual levels of narcissism. Bianchi used two types of personality tests to measure the nar- Holistic Thinking from Rice Farming cissism of 32,632 participants aged 18 to 83. She found that Historical agriculture practices predict people who were between 18 and 25 years old during hard modern mentalities economic times, as measured by unemployment rates, were less narcissistic later in life than those who came of age during Often we view Chinese culture through an East versus West lens. economic booms. The same was not true for other age groups. But joint research from the U.S. and China indicates that northern Bianchi reasons that the difference exists because early adult- Chinese may have a mind-set closer to individualistic Americans hood is formative. Inexperienced employees are the most vul- than their southern compatriots. And the reason is rice. The Yangtze River splits China into north and south and serves nerable during a recession; how much one struggles to estab- as an agricultural and cultural divide, explains University of Virginia lish a professional identity has a lasting impact. doctoral candidate Thomas Talhelm, first author of the study, which In the final part of her study, Bianchi looked at CEO com-

M M In people with dementia, music can reawaken memories and soothe agitation. Incorporating music into therapy might allow patients to avoid

drugs. antipsychotic for need the AND GERARD ROLAND. WORKING PAPER 16368. NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH, SEPTEMBER 2010 found that holistic thought and loyalty were higher in provinces with with provinces in higher were loyalty and thought holistic that found researchers the expected, As loyalty. and individualism implicit thought, holistic for China in provinces 28 from 1,162 students Talhelm’s theory,” tested team “rice his To investigate south. the in thinking of way Eastern, or holistic, more the with compared north the in found he mind-set Western, or individualistic, more the one’s on neighbors. reliance less much with managed be can it so patterns, rainfall on more depends and labor the half requires wheat Growing irrigate. and plant to cooperate to have Communities es. resourc sharing requires therefore it and water-intensive, and labor- very is rice Cultivating rice. grow south the to those and wheat, grow in appears tough problems at work at problems tough competence demonstrate to Americans Latin than likely more were European-Americans that found orators collab his and He status. of notions on collectivism and dualism indivi of influence the compared Minnesota, of University the at Decision Processes, Human in paper arecent In values. those embody to have you ladder, social the climb to and values, different have cultures Different everywhere. true not is that But second. status earn do they what at good are who those that U.S., agiven is it the In societies collectivist in Warmth, not ability, professional earns status Some Nice Guys Finish First MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM Talhelm wondered if agricultural practices could help explain explain help could practices agricultural if Talhelm wondered Science. Science. — respect, prestige, admiration. Being nice comes comes nice Being admiration. prestige, respect, No data No Farmers north of the Yangtze predominantly predominantly Yangtze the of north Farmers — as a strategy for earning professional professional earning for astrategy as l

Carlos Torelli, a marketing professor professor Torelli, amarketing Carlos Less individualistic Less Childhood stress can decrease the size of brain structures involved in learning, memory and emotional processing. emotional and memory learning, in involved structures brain of size the decrease can stress Childhood Organizational Behavior and — for instance, solving Where the Selfish PeopleAre www.diako.ir © 2014 Scientific American

- influence on its modern citizens’ mind-set. mind-set. citizens’ modern its on influence alasting have may history agricultural region’s a that understanding growing our to add results new The occupation). (an independent herders than holistic more much were occupation) interdependent (an Turkey, in farmers that found Nisbett example, For study. the in involved not was who Michigan, of University the at psychology of professor a Nisbett, Richard explains thinking, influences culture Talhelm says. regions,” rice than a50 had regions “Wheat individualism. of indicator another rates, divorce provincial at looked also researchers the students, beyond applied theory rice To the if see areas. farming rice cultivation and that individualism was more common in wheat- Salvador Allende or Hugo Chávez.” Hugo or Allende Salvador people their of well-being the for care genuinely who factors bene selfless as idealized often are leaders “populist observes, he America, Latin in But mold. this fit Bloomberg Michael and Romney chops business their on run often U.S., candidates the In U.S.,” the and Torelli says. America Latin in politicians in differences performance. your judge to metrics different using are superior your and you instance, if, for appointment dis and conflict create can differences cultural these ognize rec to Failing status. with competence not but warmth associate collectivist are who people whereas warmth, not but competence co-workers. help to volunteering by perhaps warmth, demonstrate to likely more were Americans Latin whereas respect, The rice theory jibes with other cultural research into how agri how into research cultural other with jibes theory rice The “This stream of research is rooted in my observations about about observations my in rooted is research of stream “This of asign as status see individualist are who people Further, More individualistic SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC percent higher divorce rate rate divorce higher percent — Matthew Hutson Matthew — Esther Hsieh Esther — — Mitt Mitt think think -

11 >> Exercise Counteracts in modern times we are now Genetic Risk for Alzheimer’s seeing the negative effect of Regular physical activity may correct the the high-risk gene more often than its benefit. brain’s metabolism to stave off dementia Although these studies If you carried a gene that dou- found that exercising at least suggest that exercise is excep- bled your likelihood of getting twice a week in midlife lowers tionally protective for those at Alzheimer’s disease, would you one’s chance of getting demen- highest risk, some findings want to know? What if there tia more than 20 years later, buck the trend. One large- was a simple lifestyle change and this protective effect is scale study reported that high that virtually abolished that ele- stronger in people with the levels of leisure-time activity vated risk? People with a gene APOE e4 gene. Several others reduced risk of dementia five known as APOE e4 have a high- reported that frequent exer- This link to metabolism may years later but only in those er risk of cognitive impairment cise—at least three times a help explain why exercise pro- who did not carry the high-risk and dementia in old age. Even week in some studies; up to tects APOE e4 carriers. Accord- APOE e4 gene. These inconsis- before behavioral symptoms more than an hour a day in ing to a theory proposed in May tencies suggest the interac- appear, their brains show others—can slow cognitive by anthropologist David tion may be complex, although reduced metabolism, altered decline only in those carrying Raichlen and psychologist most of the evidence still indi- activity and more deterioration the high-risk gene. Further- Gene Alexander, both at the cates that an active lifestyle than those without the high- more, for those who carry the University of Arizona, the has great value. risk gene. Yet accumulating gene, being sedentary is asso- answer lies in our evolutionary Exercise is important for research is showing that carry- ciated with increased brain past. Two million years ago, healthy aging, regardless of ing this gene is not necessarily accumulation of the toxic pro- when our ancestors were much genetics, but Raichlen empha- a sentence for memory loss tein beta-amyloid, a hallmark of more physically active—for sizes that “for individuals that and confusion—if you know Alzheimer’s. example, perhaps running long are APOE e4 carriers, studies how to work it to your advan- More recent studies, includ- distances to hunt prey—only certainly underline the impor- tage with exercise. ing a 2012 paper published in the high-risk gene variant exist- tance of maintaining physical Scientists have long known Alzheimer’s & Dementia and a ed, they argue. The gene activity across the life span.” that exercise can help stave off 2011 paper in NeuroImage, allowed for better metabolism And with further research, he cognitive decline. Over the past found that high-risk individuals during intense activity, and its suggests, “a better under- decade evidence has mounted who exercise have greater downside, faster cognitive standing of the evolutionary suggesting that this benefit is brain activity and glucose decline, was counteracted by origins of genotype-lifestyle even greater for those at higher uptake during a memory task our ancestors’ active way of interactions will help identify genetic risk for Alzheimer’s. For compared with their less active life. As humans adopted more populations that may particu- example, two studies by a counterparts or with those at sedentary habits, other vari- larly benefit from behavioral team in Finland and Sweden low genetic risk. ants of the gene appeared, and changes.” —Emilie Reas

>> Practice Doesn’t Always Make Perfect Science does not bear out the popular idea that nearly anyone can succeed with enough practice It takes many thousands of hours of hard Brooke N. Macnamara of work to get to the top—yet time alone is Princeton University and not enough if you lack the other attri- her colleagues reviewed butes necessary in your discipline, ac 157 experimental results connecting total experts evaluate their performance—the ) cording to a study published online in time spent practicing to ability in sports, less total practice time mattered.

July in Psychological Science. music, education and other areas. On Although the authors wrote that they batter In 1993 psychologist K. Anders Erics- average, practice time accounted for just could not yet be sure what other factors son and his colleagues argued that suc- 12 percent of the variation in perfor- contribute to high-level ability besides cess was not a matter of talent but rather mance. Practice had the biggest effect practice, they thought natural talent, what they termed deliberate practice, an on games such as chess—it explained

general intelligence and working memory JASON); LEE ( idea that Malcolm Gladwell popularized 26 percent of the differences in perfor- most likely play important roles. And suc- as the “10,000-hour rule” in his book Out mance—but it had almost nothing to do cess, of course, does not always scale hoop user hoop liers. Still, the role of deliberate practice— with ability in academic classes or profes- with performance—getting to the top activities designed with the goal of improv- sions, such as computer programming. also depends on personality, determina- ing performance—remained controver- The more rigorously each study judged tion and simply being in the right place at sial. To try to sort things out, psychologist its subjects’ ability—such as by having the right time. —Nathan Collins THINKSTOCK ( THINKSTOCK

M A brain rhythm called a gamma wave may underpin our ability to identify and become curious about new things. l Sleep-deprived individuals

>> Schizophrenia’s Genetic Roots The largest-ever genetic study of mental illness reveals a complex set of factors

Schizophrenia is a distressing dis- Treatments for schizophrenia order involving hallucinations, The genetic results have not advanced in more than help to explain why delusions, paranoia and agita- dopamine-blocking 50 years, since the discovery of tion. It affects around one in drugs such as drugs that reduce the activity of 100 people in the U.S., with Thorazine (below) the chemical messenger dopa- symptoms usually first appear are effective. mine. A leading theory has there- ing between the ages of 16 and fore focused on overactive dopa- 30. Its causes have long been mine signaling. Sure enough, one debated, particularly regarding of the identified regions contains whether genetics plays a role. a gene that produces the type of It is known to be highly heritable, dopamine receptor that is but small sample sizes and other blocked by antipsychotic drugs. methodology hurdles stymied Another of the brain’s chemi- early attempts to discern a genet- cals, glutamate, has also received ic link. attention, but drugs that target it Now the biggest-ever genetic have not fared well in clinical tri- study of mental illness has found als. The new study implicated 128 gene variants associated with several glutamate-related genes. schizophrenia, in 108 distinct “This is important confirmatory locations in the human genome. evidence that glutamate is rele- The vast majority of them had vant to schizophrenia,” O’Dono never before been linked to the van says. “Exactly how is another disorder. This finding lays to rest question.” Past drugs may have any argument that genetics plays no role. failed because, for instance, they targeted the wrong kind of The study, published in July in Nature, is the result of a glutamate receptor; the genetic results will help drug devel- collaboration among more than 300 scientists from 35 coun- opers focus their efforts. tries, named the Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psy- The meaning of some of the other findings is less clear. chiatric Genomics Consortium. The researchers compared Immune system genes were implicated, as were genes previ- the whole genomes of nearly 37,000 people with schizophre- ously associated with smoking. These findings do not neces- nia with more than 113,000 people without the disorder, in sarily mean that schizophrenia is related to immunity or a so-called genome-wide association study (GWAS). Genetic that smoking causes schizophrenia. The area of the genome material, or DNA, is made up of a sequence of molecular related to immunity contains hundreds of genes, some of pairs, thousands of which string together to form genes. The which affect other aspects of biology. Genes can also per- GWAS involves tallying known common mutations in these form distinct roles in various tissues. “A lot of immune sys- pairs, in people with and without a condition. Variants that tem proteins probably have different functions in the brain,” show up significantly more often in people with the condi- O’Donovan says. The link with smoking is similarly opaque. tion are said to be “associated” with it. The GWAS “poten- For instance, one genetic variant might both predispose peo- tially provides a more comprehensive view of the biological ple to smoking and increase the risk of schizophrenia, with- players in disease than previous genetic studies,” says Benja- out one causing the other. min Neale of the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Mass., one An important overall conclusion is that schizophrenia is of the study’s lead authors. a complex trait like any other, but its complexity does not The technique cannot identify the exact mutations that mean it will remain mysterious. Past GWAS research has led

cause illness or even pinpoint specific genes. Rather it flags to breakthroughs for other health conditions with tangled areas of the genome that contribute to risk. Genes in these genetic and environmental roots, such as diabetes and regions warrant further investigation to uncover the biologi- Crohn’s disease, and experts believe that this study will do cal processes underlying the condition. “We’ve prised open the same for schizophrenia. “That there are lots of small, Science Source lots of windows for people to climb in and attack the biology common genetic effects, scattered across the genome, is of schizophrenia,” says Michael O’Donovan of Cardiff Uni- itself an important finding,” Neale says. “There are many

PASIEKA versity in Wales, another lead author. different biological processes involved.” —Simon Makin

are more likely to form false memories than the well rested. l Western scrub jays are capable of metacognition, or thinking about thinking.

For information on more trips like this, please visit www.ScientificAmerican.com/Travel

Unwind amidst the natural and right over our heads. Learn about strange cultural landmarks of the Maya discharge phenomena dubbed sprites, elves, trolls, pixies, and gnomes, and other amazing world. Join Bright Horizons 24 as atmospheric curiosities. we mingle contemporary science Lightning Safety and the many cultures, past and Lightning strikes our planet about 4 million times present, of Mexico, Honduras, every day, causing billions of dollars in property and Guatemala. Explore the damage and killing or injuring many people each year. Despite the dangers, many people don’t beautiful and compelling monu- know how to be safe during thunderstorms. ments of the ancient Maya world, Lightning Learn about the harmful effects of lightning, along with lightning protection and safety. and meet the modern Maya Speaker: Joseph R. Dwyer, Ph.D. people. Experience Central The Mysteries of Lightning America’s Afro-Caribbean culture. While lightning is one of the most widely rec- While aboard ship, we’ll discuss ognized natural phenomena, it remains poorly the latest discoveries and wonders understood. Learn what we do and don’t know about lightning, including the recent discov- of science. Relax with water sports ery that lightning emits bursts of x-rays and and encounter the UNESCO gamma-rays. By measuring these high-energy emissions, researchers are gaining a better World Heritage Site Quirigua. understanding of this fascinating phenomenon. Special memories, great lifelong learning, and the simple plea- Ball Lightning Ball lightning has been reported by eyewit- The Maya sures of a warm, sunny getaway nesses as a grapefruit-sized glowing sphere as Speaker: Joel Palka, Ph.D. await you on Bright Horizons 24. bright as a 60-watt light bulb, often seen along Make your reservation today! with thunderstorms. Yet little is known about Archaeological Highlights ball lightning, and it has never been replicated of Maya Civilization in the lab. We’ll discuss amazing reports of ball lightning and some of the latest explanations. From over a century of excavations in Mexico and Central America, we understand Sprites, Pixies, and Other when Maya society formed, how their cities Atmospheric Phenomena flourished in the tropical forests, and how they lived their daily lives, yet some myster- Although we spend our entire lives inside ies of the Maya remain. We’ll overview this our atmosphere, there are surprisingly many fascinating civilization and some of the things that we don’t know about the air questions we still have.

TAMPA Maya Hieroglyphic Writing for Everyone Cruise prices vary from $769 for an Interior State- Maya hieroglyphs present exciting details on room to $5,699 for a Pinnacle Suite, per person (pp) Key West ancient Maya life including religion, politics, based on double occupancy. For those attending our trade, and the organization of society. We’ll SEMINARS, there is a $1,475 fee. Add’l pp fees: gov’t cover the deciphering of Maya writing, the taxes and fees ($123), booking service fee ($99), structure of the texts, and basic knowledge Scientific American, Inc. TM cruiseline gratuities ($11.50 per day), and Tour Lead- of Maya culture through their hieroglyphs. er gratuities ($65). The Program, cruise pricing, and Costa Maya Native Maya Perspectives of the Sea options are subject to change. For more information Banana Coast email us at [email protected]. Santo Tomás For many of us the sea represents beauty and de Castilla wonder, but how did indigenous Maya people CST# 2065380-40 For more info please email [email protected] or visit ScientificAmerican.com/travel

www.diako.ir sa24_2-pg_ad_v-cc2014.indd 2 9/17/14 10:57 AM view the sea? We’ll focus on Maya culture and the biological origins of disease to under- cause of dementia. Learn how the brain the sea as seen in painted pottery, monumen- stand why the brain is vulnerable to a distinc- changes in normal aging and in Alzheimer’s tal sculpture, and colonial-era narratives. tive constellation of disorders as we age. disease, how Alzheimer’s emerges and BRIGHT spreads within the brain, and why it is so Maya Pilgrimage Scratching Sheep, Mad Cows, di cult to stop. to Ritual Landscapes and Laughing Death Recent archaeological and anthropologi- Follow the incredible scienti c odyssey that Alzheimer’s Therapies: HORIZONS 24 cal ndings have shed new light on ancient began in the 18th century with a mysterious Hype and Hope Maya travel, religion, and views of the land- disease of sheep and, in the 20th century, bore No current treatment can stop the relentless scape. Islands, mountains, caves, and lakes two Nobel Prizes. Learn about the prion, an progression of Alzheimer’s disease. We’ll made up sacred places to them. This session infectious protein and possibly the most con- explore the history of rational therapeutic looks at the latest interpretations of ancient troversial molecule in the history of medicine. approaches to Alzheimer’s and take a frank Maya pilgrimage, their ritual landscapes, and look at the bene ts and shortcomings of ex- how these were central to Maya society. Why Old Brains Falter isting treatments. Finally, we’ll consider how One of the most feared diseases of old age our growing knowledge of brain aging o ers is Alzheimer’s disease, the most frequent hope that an e ective therapy is possible.

OUTER SPACE AND HIGHLIGHTS OPEN SPACE IN FLORIDA For information on more trips like this, please visit www.Scientiﬁ cAmerican.com/Travel BOK TOWER GARDENS: Sunday, March 22, 11am – 4pm KENNEDY SPACE CENTER (KSC): Our Solar System Monday, March 23, 8am – 7:30pm Speaker: Adriana C. Ocampo, Ph.D. Continue the Bright Horizons fun with a two-day exploration of two very di erent Cosmic Collision: central Florida gems: Bok Tower Gardens and The Search for the Dinosaur Killer Kennedy Space Center. Around 65 million years ago a massive Bok Tower Gardens — a National Historic space rock hit Central America, setting o a Landmark botanical garden and bird sanctu- biospheric disaster that wiped out the dino- ary — is an opportunity to relax amidst saurs. Take a voyage back in time, via Belize subtropical landscape gardens which help and neighboring Mexico, to explore the preserve 64 rare Central and North Florida impact site of the ancient asteroid that dras- plant species. We’ll also hear the Garden’s tically altered the balance of life on Earth. 60-bell carillon play. Our Neighborhood in Reconnect with the spirit and substance of the Solar System space exploration on our visit to Kennedy Space Center. Guided by tour specialists, In this extraordinary time for planetary explore the world’s largest launch facility. science we are beginning to understand planetary formation processes that were First stop: Launch Control Center. Journey wholly unknown to us just a short time ago. inside the ring room where the last 21 Guided by the latest scienti c insights, we’ll shuttle launches were controlled. Pass by discuss how planets form, why asteroids and the computer consoles at which engineers comets are important, and whether habit- constantly monitored the launch controls. able environments exist beyond Earth. See the launch countdown clock and large video monitors on the walls. Enter the Exploring our Solar System bubble room with its wall of interior win- NASA’s robots have now taken us out to 180 dows through which the management team astronomical units (AU), or about 180 times viewed all of the proceedings below. Re-live the distance from Earth to the Sun. We’ll the last shuttle launch, Atlantis mission delve into some of their fascinating discover- STS-135 (see takeo photo, below), while ies, such as the similarities and di erences watching the launch footage in the room between the gas giant planets and the key where the launch became part of history. role Jupiter plays for Earth. Get the right stu at lunch as we meet a veteran member of NASA’s Astronaut Corps, have a hot bu et lunch, and participate in a 30-minute interactive Q&A during “Lunch with an Astronaut.” Onward to the Space Shuttle Atlantis, along with the interactive exhibits that bring to life the complex story of the shuttle and the thousands of people who created and maintained it. Join us for a memorable look at KSC’s role in Neuroscience the endeavor of exploration. Price: $899 per person, based on double occupancy; $1,399 Speaker: Lary C. Walker, Ph.D. for a single. Kennedy Space Center launch facilities are transitioning to commercial missions and are under con- Life and its Discontents struction. Therefore the structures and vantage points we experience and the entire sequence of our day are subject Disease is an inescapable fact of life, but our to change. Regardless of our tour route, we will have an very existence is shaped by our relationship excellent tour of KSC! with potential disease agents. We’ll explore For more info please email [email protected] or visit Scientiﬁ cAmerican.com/travel

www.diako.ir

sa24_2-pg_ad.indd 3 5/7/14 7:41 AM Head Lines STERING A Y M O O U T R

E W

I O

U R L

G >>

D Afraid of Solitude A How to Many people prefer any activity to simply sitting quietly—even an electric shock “All of humanity’s problems stem from man’s inability to sit Be a Better quietly in a room alone,” said French philosopher and mathe- matician Blaise Pascal in the mid-17th century. The sentiment may be truer today than ever, according to a paper pub- digital native lished July 4 in Science. Researchers asked participants to The other morning I found myself rate how much they enjoyed being in a room with nothing to getting really agitated. Not because do. Of 409 participants, nearly half said that they did not like my three-year-old was whining or the experience. When asked to do the same at home for six because I was behind on a dead to 15 minutes, a third said that they had cheated. In one telling experiment, each of 55 participants was line—no, I was antsy because there seated alone in a quiet, empty room with nothing to do— were no new posts in my Facebook except they had access to a button that would deliver an elec- feed. I had been constantly checking tric shock to their ankle which they had previously described my phone during a rare stretch of free as “unpleasant.” In their 15 minutes of solitude, 67 percent of time and found myself jonesing for the men and 25 percent of the women chose to shock them-

another “hit” of digital input. Dislike. selves instead of simply sitting quietly. Lead author Timothy I want digital technologies to take Wilson, a University of Virginia psychologist, says that with stress and brain strain out of my life, smartphones, tablets and TVs within reach anytime, many of not add more. You, too? Here’s how us may not know what to do when we have time to ponder age fotostock age — psychology and neuroscience experts without distraction but the electric shock results were still surprising. He suggests we could make our downtime—even say we can use tech to improve our traffic jams and waiting rooms—more relaxing and interest-

mental health rather than allowing ecchini c ing by learning how to be alone with our thoughts. its ubiquity to mess with our minds. “I suspect that practice helps, as does finding topics Stare at some nature on-screen. that you enjoy thinking about in detail and can return to #1 It’s pretty well established that time and again, so that you don’t have to start from scratch being in nature is invigorating for mind and Margherita each time,” Wilson says. —Susan Cosier body. Even just seeing nature out of a window has been found to help people in hospitals heal better from surgery. “What recent studies are showing us is that if you don’t have access to the outdoors but need to boost your mood or drop your level become better at playing video games—it business psychology at University College of stress, you can get a quick fix by looking translates to other skills that we don’t typi- London, who studies media and consumer at digital nature—a movie or photos,” says cally think would be related,” Bavelier says. preferences. “Studies show there is a fir- Jenny Fremlin, a media psychologist and “Video games have been totally trivialized, ing up of dopamine-related neurotransmit- Circuit training app developer in Douglas, Alaska. There but they clearly have effects that are not ters. That means your brain is experiencing are a ton of free “nature” wallpapers for trivial.” For increasing attention and vision, the interaction as highly pleasurable and your phone or computer desktop out there; Bavelier has found that the best regimen is responds with an intense need to do it,” plenty are probably built into your comput- about 35 to 50 minutes a day. If you’re like for your brain. Chamorro-Premuzic says.

er or smartphone’s operating system, and me and blasting bloody holes in virtual ) National Geographic has some beauties at enemy soldiers isn’t really your thing, stay Practice purposeful moderation. (In just a few minutes a day.) photography.nationalgeographic.com. tuned: Bavelier and other researchers are Mobile technology is like anything

#4 swimmer hard at work developing nonviolent games else, it seems: fine in moderation. “If you Research suggests that the more you exercise your brain, Trade in your Scrabble app for that challenge the same brain pathways. are habitually checking e-mail or picking up the better. Rosetta Stone Fit Brains is a suite of fun, award- Call of Duty. The idea that doing your phone looking for alerts that haven’t ); MÁGOZ); ( #2 crossword puzzles or Sudoku can keep Realize phone fun is like a drug. sounded, you’ll feel drained,” Fremlin says. winning games designed to target six key areas of your your mind sharp as you age has been #3 Seventy-one percent of all social “Pay attention to what you’re doing, how brain—Memory, Logic, Concentration, Speed, Language, and mostly debunked. What can improve cogni- networking takes place on mobile phones it affects you and how it relates to other globe icon globe

tion? First-person shooter video games these days, as does 86 percent of gaming things in your life. Make your technology ( Visual Recognition—with a personalized training program such as Halo or Modern Warfare. Seminal and 90 percent of instant messaging, use and online interactions purposeful.” studies by cognitive neuroscientist Daphné according to the analytics experts at Com- To keep myself in that moderate zone, I’ve that gets harder as you get sharper. Just a few minutes a day Bavelier of the University of Geneva and Score. And there’s a good reason why so moved Facebook off my phone’s home

iStockphoto is all you need to engage your brain and unlock your mind. her colleagues have found that playing many of us are constantly tapping on our screen. It now takes a swipe and two taps fast-paced action games can improve cell-phone screens. Research suggests to fire it up, and so far that’s enough of a vision, increase attention, sharpen multi- that using social media, video games and barrier to slow down the mindless check- tasking abilities and speed decision mak- other digital technologies may provide a ing. If I find myself jonesing again, I’ll lay Train your brain with Rosetta Stone Fit Brains. ing. “As a brain scientist, I’m most sur- druglike hit of pleasure for users, says down the law and make Facebook a once-

prised by the fact that players don’t just Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic, a professor of or twice-a-day treat. —Sunny Sea Gold PAUL PANTAZESCU Get started with your free trial today. Rosetta Stone® M Having someone convince you that you got a good night’s rest, when you in fact did not, can ward off the negative effects of lost sleep. RosettaStone.com/FitBrains fit brains

16 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 ©2014 Rosetta Stone Ltd. All rights reserved. Rosetta Stone and other trademarks used herein are the property of Rosetta Stone Ltd. and are used and/or registered in the United States and other countries. www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American © 2014 Scientific American

miq614News3p.inddUntitled-1 1 17 9/10/149/17/14 6:311:12 PM >> Afraid of Solitude Many people prefer any activity to simply sitting quietly—even an electric shock “All of humanity’s problems stem from man’s inability to sit quietly in a room alone,” said French philosopher and mathe- matician Blaise Pascal in the mid-17th century. The sentiment may be truer today than ever, according to a paper published July 4 in Science. Researchers asked participants to rate how much they enjoyed being in a room with nothing to do. Of 409 participants, nearly half said that they did not like the experience. When asked to do the same at home for six to 15 minutes, a third said that they had cheated. In one telling experiment, each of 55 participants was seated alone in a quiet, empty room with nothing to do— except they had access to a button that would deliver an electric shock to their ankle which they had previously described as “unpleasant.” In their 15 minutes of solitude, 67 percent of the men and 25 percent of the women chose to shock them-

selves instead of simply sitting quietly. Lead author Timothy Wilson, a University of Virginia psychologist, says that with smartphones, tablets and TVs within reach anytime, many of us may not know what to do when we have time to ponder age fotostock age without distraction—but the electric shock results were still surprising. He suggests we could make our downtime—even traffic jams and waiting rooms—more relaxing and interest- ecchini

c ing by learning how to be alone with our thoughts. “I suspect that practice helps, as does finding topics that you enjoy thinking about in detail and can return to time and again, so that you don’t have to start from scratch

Margherita Margherita each time,” Wilson says. —Susan Cosier

Circuit training for your brain. (In just a few minutes a day.) Research suggests that the more you exercise your brain, the better. Rosetta Stone Fit Brains is a suite of fun, award- winning games designed to target six key areas of your brain—Memory, Logic, Concentration, Speed, Language, and Visual Recognition—with a personalized training program that gets harder as you get sharper. Just a few minutes a day is all you need to engage your brain and unlock your mind.

Train your brain with Rosetta Stone Fit Brains.

Get started with your free trial today. Rosetta Stone® RosettaStone.com/FitBrains fit brains

©2014 Rosetta Stone Ltd. All rights reserved. Rosetta Stone and other trademarks used herein are the property of Rosetta Stone Ltd. and are used and/or registered in the United States and other countries. © 2014 Scientific American www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American

miq614News3p.inddUntitled-1 1 17 9/10/149/17/14 6:311:12 PM BRIGHT TM NORWAY & ICELAND, AUGUST 1 – 15, 2015 HORIZONS 26

For information on more trips like this, please visit www.ScientificAmerican.com/Travel

Experience lands of fire, ice, and The Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Deep sea on Bright Horizons 26. Absorb Water, and the Global Heat Conveyor Belt the shared Viking/Nordic heritage Three basic ingredients control the ocean’s that lives on in distinctively different movement: temperature, salinity, and the spin ways in our Shetland Islands, Faroe of the Earth on its axis. We’ll examine how and why water moves in established cycles Islands, Iceland, and Norway ports ranging from years to millennia, and how of call. Enjoy vibrant cultures, tra- these currents and flows control the climate ditional hospitality, natural beauty, of the planet as a whole. and outdoor adventure. The Global Ocean, Climate Change, Keep up on science with Oceanography and Sea Level Rise seminars and discussions aboard Speaker: Harold Tobin, Ph.D. Sea level is rising at an accelerating pace, but, Holland America’s Ryndam while Dynamics of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge surprisingly, not at the same rate everywhere. We’ll explore the science behind sea level, past we’re at sea. Consider the nu- Iceland sits astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ances of neuroscience. Engineer a and present, sea ice, ocean ecosystems, and past where we can literally see Earth’s crust form- and future climate change. new understanding of architecture. ing. We’ll discuss how the deep ocean basins Gather new findings on geologic have formed and evolved throughout Earth’s hazards. Deepen your knowledge history and place Iceland’s young and volcanic geology in that context. You’ll also learn of Viking anthropology. Explore how plate tectonics and the evolution of life oceanography and the tectonics are inextricably linked. of the North Atlantic. Exploring Undersea Earthquakes, Chase Iceland’s rainbows or Landslides, and Tsunami soak in the Blue Lagoon. Hike In the past decade, the world has witnessed Norway’s fjordlands with a friend. two enormously destructive tsunamis that Spot Arctic birds! Come along with have led to a mini-revolution in how we us and celebrate the moment by understand subduction zones, where the Earth Science charting new territory. seafloor is consumed and returns to the Speaker: Bill McGuire, Ph.D. Earth’s mantle. We’ll explore the nature and causes of submarine movement, from The End of the World: Everything sediment flows to the largest landslides and You Never Wanted to Know earthquakes. How long can the human race survive? A major asteroid impact wiped out more than half of all life 65 million years ago, while a volcanic super-eruption 74,000 years ago Ísafjörður ÍSAFJARÐARDJÚP Akureyri may have brought our species to the brink Reykjavík of extinction. Learn about the prospects for ICELAND EYJAFJÖRÐUR Heimaey similar threats in the future, along with giant tsunamis, megaquakes, and climatic mayhem. Eskifjörður NORWAY Cruise prices vary from $2,539 for an Interior Tórshavn, Faroe Islands Ålesund Stateroom to $7,349 for a Pinnacle Suite, per person The Biggest Bangs Since the Big One Lerwick, Shetland Islands Bergen Volcanic eruptions are arguably the most (pp) based on double occupancy. For those attending Eidfjord our SEMINARS, there is a $1,575 fee. Add’l. pp fees: HARDANGERFJORD spectacular of all geophysical phenomena.

Scientific American, Inc. They also have the potential to be the most

TM gov’t. taxes and fees ($255), booking service fee UNITED ($100), cruiseline gratuities ($11.50 per day), and KINGDOM devastating. Learn about recent mayhem- Tour Leader gratuities ($129). The Program, cruise HARWICH generating eruptions, such as the 2010 blast pricing, and options are subject to change. For more (LONDON) of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull, and find out which information email us at [email protected]. volcanoes might be the next to go bang. CST# 2065380-40 For more info please email [email protected] or visit ScientificAmerican.com/travel www.diako.ir

sa26(Iceland)_2-pg_ad7_25_14.indd 2 7/25/14 9:58 AM How a Changing Climate Triggers Hollywood for sensationalism, it is remark- Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Volcanoes able how well some examples have recre- ated the spirit of the Viking Age. BRIGHT An astonishing transformation over the last 20,000 years has seen our planet flip from a frigid wasteland into the temperate world. Now there are signs that human-induced climate change is causing another turnaround. HORIZONS 26 Could we bequeath to future generations not only a far hotter world, but also a more geologically fractious one? Surviving Armageddon: Solutions Anthropology For a Threatened Planet Speaker: Kenneth Harl, Ph.D. Our world is constantly under threat, both from geological processes and from the Why Was There a Viking Age? cosmic forces that rage beyond our atmo- Learn how the harsh climate and daunting Neuroscience sphere. Can we use our scientific under- geography of Scandinavia shaped the unique Speaker: Martha J. Farah, Ph.D.. standing and our technology to make the culture and religion of the Nordic peoples of world a safer place? We’ll discuss volcano the Viking Age. The Scandinavians produced Cognitive Enhancement: the Neuro- superb ships, excelled in warfare, celebrated For information on more trips like this, please visit www.ScientificAmerican.com/Travel monitoring, earthquake prediction, asteroid science of Boosting Your Brainpower spotting and other efforts underway. ancestral heroes and worshiped frightening Can a pill make you smarter? Hear the gods. We’ll look at how the many strands of latest on the neural bases of intelligence Viking life tied together. and methods for enhancing it, including Viking Voyages of Discovery psychopharmacology, transcranial brain stimulation and “brain-training” programs. Learn how Vikings braved the North Atlantic We’ll also consider the ethical, legal, and in spectacular voyages of discovery that societal impact of these practices. led to the colonization of the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland. Hear Wellbeing and the Brain about the exploits of Erik the Red, Leif Eriks- Whatever wellbeing means to you, chances son and other Nordic explorers, their remark- are the brain plays an important role in at- able ships and seamanship, and the peculiar taining and maintaining it. Learn about the legacy of faked Viking artifacts from this time. neural bases of mood and resilience, and Architecture & Engineering The Icelandic Republic: how exercise, sleep, social connectedness and meditation can improve these functions Speaker: Stephen J. Ressler, P.E., Ph.D. A Frontier Society and the brain systems that support them. Learn how Icelanders created the first A Field Guide to Great Structures overseas European colonial society and Neurolaw Many of the world’s greatest works of archi- established a remarkably successful form “Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, do not tecture have been profoundly influenced of government and a rich literary tradition. condemn my client for his actions. He had no by the principles of engineering mechanics We’ll examine records of family sagas to learn choice in the matter; events set in motion at that underlie their design. Learn how to see, about the lives, loves and disputes of ordinary the time of the big bang resulted in his brain analyze, and understand the many fascinat- men and women in Viking Age Iceland. functioning as it did on that fateful day.” ing structures we will encounter during our Would you be persuaded by this lawyer’s cruise, from the Hallgrímskirkj in Reykjavik to Poetry and Saga of the Viking Age the great bridges of the Norwegian fjords. defense? We’ll explore the fascinating inter- Viking Age Icelanders developed a genius section of ethics, law and neuroscience. The Norwegian Stave Church for reciting poetry and storytelling—skills prized for entertainment during the long How Genes and Experience The stave church is a medieval building that winters. We’ll read poems replete with Make Us Who We Are was once common throughout north- subtle metaphors and composed in an array western Europe. Today the few surviving of alliterative verses, as well as prose narra- From prenatal processes of cell creation and examples are found almost exclusively in tives that stand among the finest vernacular migration in the fetal brain to the sculpt- Norway. Learn to see the stave church not literature of Medieval Europe. ing of neural connections in adolescence, just as an iconic architectural form, but as a human brain development is a complex and sophisticated technological system as well. Vikings in Hollywood prolonged process. We’ll discuss genetic We’ll take an entertaining look at novels, influences on intelligence, personality and Saint Paul’s Cathedral: Evolution of comics and movies that have popularized other reflections of brain function, and how the First Modern Dome the image of barbaric Vikings sporting each individual’s life experiences influence Learn about the development of the dome as horned helmets. While it is easy to dismiss the development and function of the brain. a structural and architectural element from the Classical Era through the 18th century. We’ll focus on the extraordinary structural innovations devised by Sir Christopher Wren LONDON for the dome of Saint Paul’s, and we’ll see HIGHLIGHTS (HARWICH) how these innovations overcame the inher- ent structural limitations of earlier domes. Saturday, August 1st A Structural Retrospective Find your own version of London amidst its many layers and We’ll examine interesting structures photo- neighborhoods. Museums and graphed by Bright Horizons participants during parks, tradition and innovation, our trip, analyzing the structural system, discerning the underlying engineering principles, urban vitality and peaceful and assessing how structural considerations corners are all up for your influenced the architectural design. Learn how exploration. your appreciation of great architectural works can be enriched through an understanding of basic structural mechanics principles. For more info please email [email protected] or visit ScientificAmerican.com/travel www.diako.ir

sa26(Iceland)_2-pg_ad7_25_14.indd 3 7/25/14 9:58 AM Head Lines

>> Vivid Dreams Comfort the Dying Memorable visions at the end of life are more than just delirium

Right before dying, many people experience vivid and meaningful dreams and visions, according to accounts across cultures and throughout history. Yet little scientific research has investigated the phenomenon. A new study in the American Journal of Hospice & Pallia- tive Care, the first study to focus pri- marily on the patient’s perspective, found that most of these dreams are a source of personal comfort. They bring about a sense of peace, a change in perspective or an accep- tance of death, suggesting that medical professionals should recognize dreams and visions as a positive part of the dying process. Researchers at Daemen College and at Hospice Buffalo, an agency of the Center for Hospice & Pal- patients to review their life, process feelings about death and liative Care, studied 63 patients admitted to the hospice over a come to terms with past experiences. “Just being there and listen- period of 18 months. Investigators interviewed patients daily, asking—that’s really what the patient wants,” Grant says. Acknowl- ing them about any dreams and visions and taking down detailed edging the personal significance of these end-of-life experiences descriptions of them. Most participants reported experiencing at may help patients and families through the difficult transition from least one dream or vision, memorable in much more clarity than dying to death. —Emma Badgery other dreams or delirious episodes and characterized by an impression of realism and emotional significance. The researchers’ analysis revealed six categories that encompassed all the dreams—often participants saw Visions of Lost Loved Ones deceased loved ones waiting for them, for example [see As patients approach death, they often have realistic and memorable box at right]. As patients approached death, they tend- dreams in one or more of these six categories, according to the new study: ed to transition from dreaming about living people to ■■ 1. Comforting presence: A loved one—often deceased but dreaming about the dead, which the patients described sometimes living—offers solace. as more comforting. ■■ 2. Preparing to go: Patients ready themselves for a journey. In The overarching theme that emerged from the study was that end-of-life dreams and visions are a source of one patient’s dream, she boarded a plane with her (living) son comfort. Previous studies have come to similar conclu- and felt comforted. sions: a survey of hospice nurses in 2013 found that ■■ 3. Watching or engaging with the dead: Deceased friends and 89 percent believed these experiences were associat- relatives play a significant role, which patients overwhelmingly ed with calm and peaceful deaths. Yet medical profes- reported as being comforting. sionals tend to discount predeath dreams and visions, according to physician Christopher W. Kerr, one of the ■■ 4. Loved ones waiting: Deceased friends often seem to be study’s co-authors. He says that most doctors offhand- “waiting.” Three days before her death, one woman reported edly attribute these incidents to delirium or the side both visions and dreams of being at the top of a staircase with effects of medication. her (predeceased) husband waiting for her at the bottom. The researchers believe that such a dismissive atti- ■■ 5. Distressing life experiences: Patients may revisit traumatic tude toward dying patients’ experiences can be detrimental to their mental health. “We need to treat the life experiences, such as war, childhood abuse, or difficult patient, not only the disease; overall quality of life at situations or relationships. the end of life is important,” says Pei C. Grant, director ■■ 6. Unfinished business: A few patients report distressing dreams of research at Hospice Buffalo. She and her colleagues that center on fears of being unable to accomplish important suggest that families and practitioners talk about tasks. Two young mothers recount dreaming about caring for dreams with patients—who are often excited to share their dreams when asked about them. Doing so allows their children. —E.B. ALAMY

M Limiting children’s screen time has been observed to have long-lasting effects on sleep, weight gain and performance in school.

Romano Cagnoni Getty Images DFGF_ScientificAm_8.125x4.75_bleed.pdf 110/23/123:06PM mind.s a took they when symptoms drawal with showed tanners frequent one, in opioid system; to the pointed have also studies Other protein. same the from originate melanin pigment skin the and beta-endorphin that found earlier had researchers the because heroin, as such pathway hi reward the opioid system the scrutinized Hospital light. ultraviolet under skin by the made opioid molecule adruglike phin, beta-endor on dependent become mice that showed It addictive. is tanning Cell in study a Now withdrawal. and dependence of have symptoms buffs tanning some vanity just not is motivation the that suggest studies Past cancer. of skin risk known the despite regularly tan people why many wondered have long Experts in the brain as drugs such as heroin lightUV may the same reward trigger pathway >> A team at Massachusetts General General at Massachusetts A team gorillafund.org/adopt-a-gorilla | And changemyworld Adopt Me Addicted to Tanning to Addicted C ientifi adds more evidence that that evidence more adds C ame R i C an. jacked by drugs bydrugs jacked Give AGifttoYourself or to SomeoneYou Love Together we cansavethem. gorillas leftontheplanet. than 800mountain There are fewer C om om

— - - , tan but burn not tan to enough long light of UV dose daily receptors. opioid blocked that drug even modified their behavior to avoid behavior their modified even mice The teeth. chattering and paws shaking as such symptoms drawal with showed they and to normal, ed revert threshold pain their blocker, oid role. akey played endorphin the suggesting tolerance, pain did so rose, of beta-endorphin levels As tanned. not had that mice than higher times three up to threshold apain had mice UV The touch. and heat using dependence, of opioid amarker tolerance, pain ed rat researchers the Then blood. mice’s the in rose of beta-endorphin levels days, afew After human. fair-skinned a for sun Florida midday in minutes 30 In the new study, shaved mice got a a got mice study, shaved new the In When the UV mice received an opi an received mice UV the When www.diako.ir © 2014 Scientific American — on a par with 20 to to 20 with apar on

1(800)851 0203 . . - - - - peutic target. target. peutic thera anew providing order, possibly dis affective seasonal in way involved is path this whether to investigate hopes Fisher Next General. at Mass program melanoma of the director and study the of aco-author Fisher, David explains D, vitamin we need because brain to the rewarding be may sun Getting people. in addiction cause may beta-endorphin believe researchers the so processes, ical darkness. for penchant natural rodents’ despite box, awhite in time spend to box preferred adark in blockers opioid received that those withdrawal: Humans and mice share these chem these share mice and Humans s C ientifi C ame — R Esther Hsieh i C an mind an

- - 19 - - 9/10/14 6:329/17/143:29 PM Head Lines

( PHARMA WATCH ) ALL-PURPOSE ANTIDEPRESSANTS Doctors are increasingly prescribing SSRIs to treat more than just depression Antidepressant use among Americans is skyrocketing. Adults in dominant class of depression drug, for a variety of disorders—the the U.S. consumed four times more antidepressants in the late timeline below shows the rapid expansion of fda-approved uses. 2000s than they did in the early 1990s. As the third most fre- As the drugs’ patents expired, companies stopped funding quently taken medication in the U.S., researchers estimate that 8 studies for official approval. Yet doctors have continued to pre- to 10 percent of the population is taking an antidepressant. But scribe them for more ailments. One motivating factor is that SSRIs this spike does not necessarily signify a depression epidemic. are a fairly safe option for altering brain chemistry. Because we Through the early 2000s pharmaceutical companies were aggres- know so little about mental illness, many clinicians reason, we sively testing selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), the might as well try the pills already on the shelf. —Julia Calderone

An Expanding Repertoire Below are the five SSRIs approved in the U.S. and the dates the fda approved each to treat various disorders. fluoxetine (prozac)

citalopram (celexa)

escitalopram (lexapro)

paroxetine (paxil)

sertraline (zoloft)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1985 1995 2005

Major depressive Obsessive-compulsive Generalized 1 4 6 Panic disorder 10 disorder disorder anxiety disorder Post-traumatic 7 Depression Generalized stress disorder 12 anxiety disorder Major depressive Social phobia (social Premenstrual 2 Bulimia nervosa 8 disorder 5 anxiety disorder) dysphoric disorder Obsessive-compulsive Post-traumatic Panic disorder 11 Social anxiety disorder stress disorder Premenstrual disorder Panic disorder dysphoric disorder Major depressive Obsessive-compulsive Premenstrual Major depressive 3 9 disorder disorder dysphoric disorder disorder

Common Off-Label Uses Investigational Uses Doctors commonly use antidepressants to treat many maladies they are not SSRIs have shown promise in clinical trials for many more disorders, approved for. In fact, studies show that between 25 and 60 percent of pre- and some doctors report using them successfully to treat these ailments: scribed antidepressants are actually used to treat nonpsychological conditions. The most common and well-supported off-label uses of SSRIs include: •• Arthritis •• Irritable bowel •• Post-traumatic •• Deficits caused syndrome stress disorder ) •• Abuse and •• Autism (in children) •• Obsessive- pills

by stroke •• Migraine •• Premature ( dependence •• Bipolar disorder compulsive ejaculation •• ADHD (in children •• Eating disorders disorder •• Diabetic •• Neurocardiogenic and adolescents) •• Fibromyalgia •• Premenstrual neuropathy syncope (fainting) •• Anxiety disorders •• Neuropathic pain dysphoric disorder •• Hot flashes •• Panic disorder ISTOCKPHOTO

MM Volunteering often gives people a “helper’s high,” or a boost in happiness. l For full stories: ScientificAmerican.com/Mind/nov2014/stories

Seeing Red

The facts and fictions of crimson perception

Red is a powerful color. It’s the color of Cupid and the Devil, the color of love and hate. It brings to mind hot-blooded anger and Scarlet Letter shame. It means luck in China, where bridal wear is red, mourning in parts of Africa and sex in Amsterdam’s red-light district. Some of the hue’s significance has a biological basis. Many humans get red in the face from increased blood flow when they are angry. A similar process activates a flush of embarrassment or a more flirtatious blush. Seeing red also triggers some surprising behaviors. For )

BY SUSANA MARTINEZ-CONDE AND STEPHEN L. MACKNIK Martinez-Conde and Susana Martinez-Conde and Stephen L. Macknik are profes- THE WOMAN IN RED sors of ophthalmology at SUNY Macknik Downstate Medical Center in From the iconic scarlet soles on Christian Louboutin shoes to the gowns of starlets at the Brooklyn, N.Y. They serve on

Oscars, wearing red turns heads. Psychologists Andrew J. Elliot and Daniela Niesta Kayser, CABE ( Scientific American Mind’s board both then at the University of Rochester, found that male experimental participants per- C of advisers and have authored ceived women as more attractive and sexually desirable when wearing red, as compared Sleights of Mind, with Sandra with seeing the same women in other colors or achromatic hues. Somehow red causes a Blakeslee (http://sleightsofmind. SEAN); M viewer to favor one candidate over another. com), and the forthcoming Champions of Illusion, which will be In a different look at the color’s allure, Nicolas Guéguen of the University of South Brittany published by Scientific American/ in France asked female confederates to wear red, pink or brown lipstick, or none at all, while Farrar, Straus and Giroux. sitting at a bar. Men approached women in red lipstick fastest and most often. Heightened woman in red

contrast between eyes, lips and other facial features may make faces appear more feminine. (

With special contributor Leandro L. Di Stasi, a Talentia/Marie Curie fellow at the University instance, drivers blocked in traffic by a perception. For hundreds of years mata- of Granada in Spain. He works in the field of red car react faster and more aggressive- dors have taunted bulls by flashing a red Getty Images neuroergonomics. ly than drivers barred by vehicles of oth- cape. According to bullfighting lore, the er colors. color choice is said to help hide blood-

Send suggestions for column topics to Perhaps the most famous example of stains, but it may have other advantag-

[email protected] the pigment’s power comes from animal es. Whereas humans are trichromats— MARTIN BARRAUD

meaning that we have three types of ret- ry greater force when directed against nucleus, an area involved in voluntary inal cones sensitive to long (red), medium warm colors such as red. motion, failed, he would pay the ultimate (green) and short (blue) wavelengths— In the 1960s the late Spanish-born price. The bull charged—¡Olé!— but Del- cattle are dichromats: they possess only neuroscientist José M. R. Delgado, then gado remembered to mash the remote’s two kinds of cones. at Yale University, pitted the lure of the button in the nick of time, stopping the Perceptual measurements indicate red matador’s cape against the power of toro mid-charge. Even if red has the pow- that cattle can discriminate red from direct brain stimulation by testing er to lure a bull to attack, little, if any- green and blue but not green and blue whether electronic brain implants could thing, can beat direct brain stimulation. from each other. Moreover, researchers stop a charging bull in its tracks. With As the examples that follow illustrate, have found that cattle are more active the implants linked to a remote control, red regularly sways behavior. Charged and aroused in red light than in blue or Delgado climbed into an arena in Córdo- with social and cultural meanings, it is green light. Another study reported that ba, Spain, and enraged the bull with his a powerful enhancer, sending signals although fighting bulls may charge all cape. His move was a bold one: if Delga- that may not really reflect an entity’s sorts of moving objects, the charges car- do’s idea to directly stimulate the caudate true nature. M

RED BADGE OF COMPETITION

In some species, red coloration signals testosterone-driven dominance. Evolutionary anthropologists Russell A. Hill and Robert A. Barton, both at Durham University in England, thus reasoned that red might confer a competitive edge in humans. They analyzed the outcomes among contestants, based on attire, in four combat sports in the 2004 Summer Olympic Games: boxing, tae kwon do, Greco-Roman wrestling and freestyle wrestling. ) Throughout the games, red and blue outfits and protective gear were assigned randomly to the athletes. If color had exerted no influence, there should have been an approximately equal number of wins and losses for the two hues. This was not the case, however. In all four sports, contestants wearing red won more fights than those in blue. The advantage was most pronounced when the participants were well matched. A few possible explanations for this result are that the referees favored red fighters, that crimson-clad combatants felt more powerful or that the color made opponents cower. Whatever the reason, the red athletes had a critical advantage over Sonoran mountain king snakes king mountain Sonoran

— ( rivals even if the edge was illusory. Hill and Barton found similar results in an inter national soccer tournament, suggesting that the color of sportswear may affect a

variety of sporting outcomes. Corbis ; DANIEL HEUCLIN )

FALSE ADVERTISING

In the animal kingdom, a flash of crimson can be a warning sign. Cristiano Ronaldo Cristiano (

As the venomous Sonoran coral snake of western North America reveals, the color is often code for poison, keeping predators away. But other creatures can exploit this signal to their advantage. The

Sonoran mountain king snake (shown at left), for example, is safer AP Photo prey but is covered in red stripes that may trick other animals into thinking it is toxic. Biologists call this kind of resemblance Batesian mimicry, named after the naturalist, Henry Walter Bates, who first described the adaptation in the mid-19th century. FRANCISCO SECO FRANCISCO SECO

THE MOST VISIBLE FIRE TRUCK

Stop signs, danger warnings, fire extinguishers— people commonly assume that they are colored red because the hue is intrinsically more attention- grabbing. But ruby’s reputation may be oversold. When one of us (Macknik) worked as a firefighter at what was then the University of California, Santa Cruz, Fire Department as an undergraduate student, he was initially disappointed to find out that its trucks were painted lime yellow. At the end of his first day on the job, he asked then fire captain Paul Babb why. “Because they’re not ripe yet,” Babb deadpanned. In fact, public safety department records show that the probability of a visibility-related accident is higher for a red or red-and-white pumper than for a lime-yellow fire truck. Lime yellow, which falls in the middle of the color spectrum, is easy to see during the day, when we rely on our trichromatic cone vision, and is the most visible wavelength at night, ) when human vision is dominated by achromatic rods rather than cones. Red may mean fire, but lime yellow is the real eye-catcher. fire truck fire (

Corbis COLOR OF PAIN ; HENRY DILTZ ) arm images ( IRTUAL ARM MODULATES PAIN THRESHOLD,” OL. JULY 31, 2013 7;

, V Red may intensify the experience of pain, according to recent re search. Neuroscientist Maria Victoria Sanchez-Vives and her colleagues at the University of FURTHER READING Barcelona in Spain applied heat ■■Fire Truck Visibility: Red May Not Be the Most Visible to the wrists of experimental Color, Considering the Rate of Accident Involvement HUMAN NEUROSCIENCE HUMAN subjects experiencing a virtual with Fire Trucks. Stephen S. Solomon and James G. environment through a head- King in Ergonomics in Design, V ol. 5, No. 2, pages 4–10; mounted display. April 1997. As the intensity of the heat ■■Sporting Contests: Seeing Red? Putting Sportswear

FRONTIERS IN FRONTIERS rose, participants saw virtual in Context. Candy Rowe, Julie M. Harris and S. Craig arms become increasingly red Roberts in Nature, V ol. 437, page E10; October 27, 2005. (top right), blue (top left) or green (top center) and pressed a button ■■ whenever the sensation became painful. In an additional experimental Romantic Red: Red Enhances Men’s Attraction to condition (bottom), a gray dot close to the virtual arm turned red as Women. Andrew J. Elliot and Daniela Niesta in Journal the temperature increased, but the color of the arm itself remained of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 95, No. 5, unaltered. Of all four conditions, subjects experienced pain earliest pages 1150–1164; November 2008. (that is, at the lowest temperatures) when the virtual arm was red. ■■Does Red Lipstick Really Attract Men? An Evaluation So much for looking at life through rose-colored glasses! in a Bar. Nicolas Guéguen in International Journal of Psychological Studies, V ol. 4, No. 2, pages 206–209;

FROM “WHAT COLOR IS MY ARM? CHANGES IN SKIN COLOR OF AN EMBODIED V BY MATTEO MARTINI ET AL., IN June 2012.

HUB OF SENTIENCE A Brain Structure Looking for a Function

Could a thin, enigmatic layer of nerve cells be a key component of the networks generating conscious experience?

Point to any one organ in the body, and doctors can tell you something about what it does and what happens if that organ is injured by accident or disease or is removed by surgery—whether it be the pituitary gland, the kidney or the inner ear. Yet like the blank spots on maps of Central Africa from the mid-19th century, there are structures whose functions remain unknown despite whole-brain imaging, electroencephalographic re cordings that monitor the brain’s ca cophony of electrical signals and other advanced tools of the 21st century. Consider the claustrum. It is a thin, irregular sheet of cells, tucked below the neocortex, the gray matter that by white matter—the tracts, or wire reveal that it is a neural Grand Central allows us to see, hear, reason, think and bundles, that interconnect cortical re Station. Almost every region of the cor- remember. It is surrounded on all sides gions with one another and with other tex sends fibers to the claustrum. These brain regions. The claustra—for there connections are reciprocated by other ) are two of them, one on the left side of fibers that extend back from the claus- the brain and one on the right—lie below trum to the originating cortical region. Koch

BY CHRISTOF KOCH E ( the general region of the insular cortex, Neuroanatomical studies in mice and B CA c Christof Koch is chief underneath the temples, just above the rats reveal a unique asymmetry—each scientific officer at the Allen ears. They assume a long, thin wisp of a claustrum receives input from both cor- Institute for Brain Science SEAN M shape that is easily overlooked when tical hemispheres but only projects back ); in Seattle. He serves on Scientific American Mind’s inspecting the topography of a brain to the overlying cortex on the same side. board of advisers. image. Whether or not this is true in people is illustration Advanced brain-imaging techniques not known. Curiouser and curiouser, as (

Send suggestions for column topics to that look at the white matter fibers Alice would have said. N HAN O

[email protected] coursing to and from the claustrum Unlike most other parts of the brain, J

there are no reliable case studies of pa all agree that one of the defining proper- but a fleeting moment until the next neu- tients with selective destruction of one ties of any subjective experience is that ronal assembly comes into being and a or both claustra from stroke, viral infec- it is unified. No experience can be re new experience supersedes the old one. tion or other calamity. Lesioning the duced to independent components. Looking at the far-flung two-way structure in laboratory animals is chal- Every experience is irreducible. When I connections between the claustrum and lenging given its thin and elongated look at my wife’s face, I do not see two the cortex, Crick and I—for at that time nature. For the same reason, brain imag- eyes in a black-and-white picture with a in 2004, I was working closely with him ing has not been very useful: the small- disembodied layer of blue superimposed and had been for 16 years—hypothe- est spatial features distinguishable on top. No, I perceive her blue eyes as sized that this superhub of neuronal through positron-emission tomography one integral and seamless whole. Nor do activity could be pivotal for conscious- or functional MRI, two of the most I experience my Bernese mountain dog ness. Because every region of cortex pro- widely used imaging techniques, are two doing funny things with her snout while jected to its associated claustral target area, and this neural communications hub reciprocated the connection, the claustrum could serve as an integrator FRANCIS CRICK AND I HYPOTHESIZED THAT for crisscrossing electrical signals, pro- vided that all of this information could THIS SUPERHUB OF NEURONAL ACTIVITY be freely admixed within the structure. COULD BE PIVOTAL FOR CONSCIOUSNESS. We endlessly discussed various neuroanatomical and biophysical means for the claustrum to achieve this integration and wrote a manuscript. to three millimeters across, bigger than a loud noise fills the room; no, I hear her Francis knew that he only had a lim- the claustrum’s width. And because it is bark. The experience of seeing the word ited amount of time left; he had end- embedded within white matter and “honeymoon” is not reducible to the stage colon cancer. He called me on the sandwiched between two very active experience of seeing “honey” on the left way to the hospital, calmly telling me neuronal tissues—below the neocortex and “moon” on the right. not to worry about the manuscript fol- and above the putamen, part of a larger We know that different groups of lowing our last brainstorming session region, the basal ganglia, lodged deep neurons become active in response to because he was going to make correc- within the brain—it is problematic to such commonly encountered features as tions to it (which he did, dictating them unambiguously pinpoint changes in colors and motion, faces and dogs, to his secretary from the clinic). Two blood flow to the claustrum and not to words, sounds, and so on. These cells are days later, on his deathbed, Francis hal- these nearby, large structures. dispersed among the 16 billion neurons lucinated a debate with me about the making up the cerebral cortex. Together role of the claustrum’s connection to Enter the Dragon the active and inactive cells give rise to consciousness, a scientist to the very In biology, a reliable guide to under- a conscious experience. Furthermore, end. The paper was published a year lat- standing function is to study structure. we know from introspection that what er in the world’s oldest scientific journal, Francis Crick and James Watson proved we are conscious of is in constant flux. the Philosophical Transactions of the this idea spectacularly in 1953. They Distracted by the sight of a passing Royal Society. inferred the key function of DNA, the motorboat on the lake outside my house, molecule of heredity—that is to say, stor- I am about to turn back to writing my Enter the Electrodes ing and copying genetic information— article when I suddenly recall that I In the intervening years, a handful of from its double-helical chemical structure. promised to pick up dog food, and then studies further delineated the molecular Half a century later Crick, by then biolo- my attention shifts without warning to neuroanatomy of the claustrum in ro gy’s most respected sage, tried his hand at Richard Wagner’s “Liebestod” playing dents and a crude map of its connections the same game, linking a structure—the on the radio. Each of these sights, in people. One investigation focused on claustrum—to a function—the emergence sounds, memories or thoughts requires the role of the claustrum in integrating of integrated, conscious experience. that the underlying electrical and chem- visual and auditory stimuli. Using micro Whereas scholars of consciousness ical activity of a privileged set of neurons electrodes that recorded the electrical disagree about many aspects of this is rapidly bound to give rise to an inte- activity in awake monkeys, the investiga- most mysterious phenomenon, virtually grated conscious experience that lasts tors confirmed that part of the claustrum

A possible nexus of consciousness, the claustrum reveals itself through high-definition fiber tractography as a locus at which connections arrive from—and extend outward to—distinct regions of the cerebral cortex. tended to respond more to visual stimu- versity, the clinical team made a remark- stimulation started—behaviors such as li, whereas one of its nearby regions was able observation: electrically stimulat- making repetitive tongue or hand move- sensitive to tones. But no individual neu- ing a single site with a fairly large cur- ments or repeating a word. Koubeissi rons responded to both visual and audi- rent abruptly impaired consciousness in was careful to monitor electrical activi- tory events, arguing against a multisen- 10 out of 10 trials—the patient stared ty throughout her brain to confirm that sory role for the claustrum, thereby leav- blankly ahead, became unresponsive to episodes of loss of consciousness did not ing it bereft of any obvious function. commands and stopped reading. As accompany a seizure. This seeming impasse may have soon as the stimulation stopped, con- Two aspects of this patient’s case had changed with a single dramatic case sciousness returned, without the patient never been seen before. First, no abrupt report. A 54-year-old woman who had recalling any events during the period and specific cessation and resumption of uncontrollable epileptic seizures had electrodes implanted deep within her brain to help pinpoint the exact origin of her seizures. During this procedure, ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF A SINGLE SITE University Pittsburgh of electrodes can triangulate the focal area where the seizure originates so that it IN THE BRAIN IMPAIRED CONSCIOUSNESS IN can be surgically removed. They can EVERY ONE OF 10 EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS. also inject electric current to help map the brain, identifying areas responsible for important functions such as speech or movement and thus sparing them dur- when she was out. Note that she did not consciousness have previously been ing the surgery. become unconscious in the usual sense, reported, despite decades of electrically F JUAN C. FERNANDEZ-MIRANDA Led by Mohamad Z. Koubeissi, an because she could still continue to car- stimulating the forebrain of awake associate professor in the department of ry out simple behaviors for a few sec- patients in the operating room. Depend- URTESY O O neurology at George Washington Uni- onds if these were initiated before the ing on the location of the stimulating C

A switch that toggles consciousness off and on consists of a simple elec-

trode (red circle) near the claustrum (yellow). Stimulation by the electrode at that location—shown from three perspectives—abruptly curtailed all conscious activity until the current flow stopped. USNESS,” O NSCI

O electrode, patients usually do not feel Unfortunately, this tantalizing case role in generating conscious experiences, anything in particular. Less frequently, a report cannot easily be followed up with we will find out and take another small patient may report flashes of light, smells more experiments, because the patient’s step toward the ultimate goal of iden or some difficult-to-verbalize body feel- electrodes were subsequently removed. tifying the footprints of consciousness LY DISRUPTSLY C

B ings, or perhaps even a specific memory We do not have the luxury of waiting in highly excitable matter. Per claustra L. 37; AUGUSTL. 37; 2014

ERSI from long ago that the electric current for an analogous finding, perhaps as long ad astra! M V VO evokes. Or the patient will twitch a finger as a century hence, so it is important to or a muscle. But this case was different. devise experiments to confirm the exis- Here consciousness as a whole appeared tence and properties of any claustrum on/ FURTHER READING RAIN AREA RE to be turned off and then on again. Sec- off switch. The most promising idea ■■What Is the Function of the Claustrum? ond, it happened only at a single place, in would take advantage of proteins specif- Francis C. Crick and Christof Koch in

EPILEPSY & BEHAVIOR, BEHAVIOR, & EPILEPSY the white matter close to the claustrum ically expressed in cells in the claustrum Philosophical Transactions of the Royal F A SMALL B and the cortex. Because electrical stimu- but not in other brain structures. Knowl- Society B, Vol. 360, No. 1458, pages 1271– N O 1279; June 29, 2005. O lation of the nearby insula is not known edge of these cells’ molecular zip code can ■■The Claustrum: Structural, Functional, to elicit a loss of consciousness, the then be exploited by tools of molecular and Clinical Neuroscience. Edited by EISSI ET AL., IN

B researchers implicated the claustrum. biology to quickly and transiently turn John R. Smythies, Lawrence R. Edelstein U O It is difficult to be confident of the the electrical activity of neurons in the and Vilayanur S. Ramachandran. Academic actual causal mechanisms—the stimula- claustrum off and on with beams of col- Press, 2014. ■■ tion may have triggered electrical dis- ored light and to observe the effects on Electrical Stimulation of a Small Brain

HAMAD Z. K Area Reversibly Disrupts Consciousness. O M “ELECTRICAL STIMULATI charges from neurons’ wirelike exten- the behavior of lab mice. Mohamad Z. Koubeissi et al. in Epilepsy & Be O Y M

FR B sions to exert effects at another site. If the claustrum truly plays a critical havior, Vol. 37, pages 32–35; August 2014.

E X T E R N A L CONNECTIONS

28 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014

www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN THE NEURAL CODE More than 2,300 years ago Aristotle famously wrote that we are more than the sum of our parts. This nugget of wisdom still resonates today, for CYBORG CONFIDENTIAL at least one simple reason: connections. In the past two decades technology has Hooking brains up to computers can unveil the secrets of learning. transformed our understanding of what it means to be truly connected. Easy ac- page 30 cess to centuries of knowledge, and to like-minded thinkers worldwide, allows WHEN TWO BRAINS new ideas to coalesce at a startling speed. CONNECT The dawn of human brain-to-brain communication has arrived. In this special issue of Scientific American as humble as asking a friend for advice or as am- page 36 Mind, we take stock of key advances that are al- bitious as banding together to build a better DECODING THE BRAIN tering the way we think about connectivity and smartphone. Tapping into human connections Scientists can extract your brain data in surprising detail. the human brain. Through technology, inven- has never been easier, and in our report’s second page 40 tions that until recently were considered pure section, “The Social Web,” we examine how in- fantasy—a direct link between brains, ma- terpersonal relationships manifest online. Love chines that can reconstruct dreams, tiny solar and hate persist—but with a digital twist. THE panels embedded in neurons—are now facts of To make the most of our networked noggins, SOCIAL WEB life. Welcome to the future. we still need to address a critical issue: the toll of At a cellular level, technology is revealing mental illness, a leading cause of disability how a person’s neurons update themselves to worldwide. Here, too, our collective brain trust VIRTUAL ASSAULT Here is what makes cyberbullies generate a living library of experience. This may at last be making headway. The final chap- tick—and how to stop them. page 46 plasticity—fodder for the marketing campaigns ter, “The Healing Touch,” explores advances in of countless self-help guides—makes us adap- modifying the brain, both to tweak problemat- A DIGITAL SAFETY NET What to do when people broad- tive, creative and intelligent. Yet its mechanisms ic circuitry and to answer urgent questions cast their mental illness online. have long bedeviled scientists. In the first part about what causes dysfunction. The approach- page 52 of the report, “The Neural Code,” we explore es described in this section are helping psychia- how emerging techniques are letting us hack the try become tech-savvy. brain, to lay bare its secrets and extend our in- Technology is reshaping the brain sciences THE HEALING fluence past the boundaries of flesh and bone. as well as brains themselves. By connecting our- TOUCH A single brain is a computing marvel, but it selves to computers in numerous ingenious pales in comparison to the powers of the net- ways, we are pushing the limits of what we can YOUR ELECTRIC worked mind. Social ties also permit us to sur- each accomplish. Aristotle would be proud—or PHARMACY — Drugs might soon be delivered pass limitations, whether it be through an act at least astounded. The Editors through electrodes, not pills. page 56

LET THERE BE LIGHT Neurons that react to light will let scientists craft new remedies. page 62

Illustration by VAULT 49

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 29

CYBORG CONFIDENTIAL Hooking the brain up to a computer can do more than let the severely disabled move artificial limbs. It is also revealing the secrets of how we learn By Sandra Upson

At 9:15 in the morning two or three times a week, Jan Scheuermann ma- neuvers her electric wheelchair into a research laboratory at the Univer- sity of Pittsburgh, where she plugs her head into a highly sophisticated piece of equipment. Two ports in her scalp connect to a prosthetic limb, a sleek, black anthropomorphic arm that extends from a metal scaffold in the lab. She is one of a dozen or so volunteers worldwide who have received brain implants as part of multiyear experiments on how to manipulate objects with their thoughts alone. More than any other user of brain-controlled prostheses, Scheuermann has learned to wield the arm with exquisite dexterity, articulating individual fingers to shake hands and rearrange objects at a wide range of speeds. “Every day I go to work, I think, this is the coolest thing,” she says. Scheuermann began losing control of her muscles in 1996. As her genetic disorder—spinocerebellar degeneration—took its toll, she gave up her successful business as a planner of murder-mystery-themed events. By 2002

Illustration by VAULT 49

30 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 31 © 2014www.diako.ir SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE NEURAL CODE her disease had confined her to a wheelchair, which she now operates by flexing her chin up and down. She retains control of the muscles only in her head and neck. “The signals are not getting from my brain to my nerves,” she explains. “My brain is saying, ‘Lift up!’ to my arm, and my arm is saying, ‘I caaaan’t heeeear you.’” Yet technology now exists to extract those brain commands and shuttle them directly to a robotic arm, bypassing the spinal cord and limbs. Inside Scheuermann’s brain are two grids of electrodes roughly the size of a pinhead that were surgically implanted in her motor cortex, a band of tissue on the surface of the brain that controls movement. The electrodes detect the rate at which about 150 of her neurons fire. Thick cables plugged into her scalp relay their electrical activity to a lab computer. In 2012 Jan Scheuermann used her brain implant to maneuver As she thinks about moving the arm, she produces patterns a robotic arm toward a bar of chocolate, grasp it in its fingers, of electrical oscillations that software on the computer can in- and move it to her mouth to take a bite. terpret and translate into digital commands to position the robotic limb. Maneuvering the arm and hand, she can clasp a bar Forming Machine Memories of chocolate or a piece of string cheese before bringing the food When neuroscientists first set out to develop brain- to her mouth. When she succeeds in performing a task with a controlled prostheses, they assumed they would simply re- new level of fluency, the researchers in the room break into ap- cord neural activity passively, as if taping a speech at a con- plause. “Any time I did something faster we’d all say, “Ah, a ference. The transcript produced by the monitored neurons new world record!’” she says. would then be translated readily into digital commands to Scheuermann calls herself a “guinea pig extraordinaire.” manipulate a prosthetic arm or leg. “Early on there was this Her story—and that of other paraplegics fitted with brain- thought that you could really decode the mind,” says neuro- activated prostheses—often gets featured on television news scientist Karunesh Ganguly of the University of California, shows or in the science pages of popular magazines. Once San Francisco. perfected, these fledgling technologies hold obvious appeal Yet the brain is not static. This extraordinarily complex for letting the wheelchair-bound reach for an object or even organ evolved to let its owner react swiftly to changing con- get up and walk. ditions related to food, mates and predators. The electrical Less attention has gone to another critical contribution activity whirring inside an animal’s head morphs constantly made by Scheuermann and others fitted with paraphernalia to integrate new information as the external milieu shifts. that jack into the brain—and by the primates and rodents that Ganguly’s postdoctoral adviser, neuroscientist Jose M. also participate in these experiments. This select group has Carmena of the University of California, Berkeley, wondered given neuroscientists an unprecedented view of how the brain whether the brain might adapt to a prosthetic device as well. proceeds from thought to action and how it develops a new That an implant could induce immediate changes in brain ac- skill. Numerous experiments with this group are now docu- tivity—what scientists call neuroplasticity—was apparent even menting how brain circuits rewire as a neophyte evolves from in 1969, when Eberhard Fetz, a young neuroscientist at the bumbling ineptitude to fluid proficiency. Implants that eaves- University of Washington, reported on an electrode placed in drop on dozens of neurons provide scientists a window a monkey’s brain to record a single neuron. Fetz decided to re- through which to watch how practice breeds mastery at the ward the animal with a banana-flavored pellet every time that level of an individual brain cell—not only in a paraplegic but neuron revved up. To his surprise, the creature quickly learned in anyone honing a new ability. how to earn itself more bites of fake banana. This revelation— that a monkey could be trained to control the firing rate of an

arbitrary neuron in its brain—is what Stanford University neu- URGH MEDICAL CENTER B FAST FACTS roscientist Krishna Shenoy calls the “Nobel Prize moment” in

PROSTHETIC LEARNING the field of brain-computer interfaces. F PITTS nnBrain-computer interfaces are being developed to assist people Of course, neurons adjust their behavior any time a person with physical handicaps. Yet scientists are also using these tools learns, whether it is a student becoming fluent in French or a ERSITY O to gain insight into the cellular mechanisms of learning. skater finally landing a triple Axel. Yet by training an animal V Recordings of neural activity reveal how neurons adjust their firing oo to control a particular cell or set of cells, scientists can observe F UNI patterns as an individual becomes more proficient at a task. the process unfolding in those exact neurons. Specifically, re- ppNeurons rely on different techniques when they attempt a task searchers monitor the bespoke firing pattern, or tuning, of each

for the first time, correct mistakes to improve and ultimately lock URTESY O O

in memories. neuron under surveillance in an implantee’s motor cortex. C

32 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN She would tell the experimenters jokes or regale them with stories of her family while she directed the prosthetic limb to stack cups or move blocks.

A neuron’s tuning contributes a bread crumb of informa- formed better when she was relaxed or slightly distracted, so tion on how to execute a movement. One neuron might fire she would tell the experimenters jokes or regale them with sto- lethargically to command a movement upward, for example. ries of her family while she directed the prosthetic arm to stack That same cell firing at its maximum rate might signal a left- cups or move blocks. Biomedical engineer Jennifer Collinger ward tilt. This pattern of activity is called a neuron’s pre- of Pittsburgh and her colleagues, in their first major paper on ferred direction. Engineers developed software that aggre- Scheuermann’s work with the robotic arm, published in 2013, gates all the preferred directions of the recorded neurons fir- documented how the neurons in her motor cortex coordinat- ing at a given moment to produce an individual’s intended ed themselves to better reach the target. “Because of the feed- bearing. Later, when someone imagines a movement, the back she was getting about her errors, her neurons appeared software knows which way to move the robotic limb. to be changing their tuning,” Collinger says. Scientists were beginning to discover, however, that neurons can adjust their tuning in response to the software. In a Learning from Mistakes 2009 study Carmena and Ganguly detailed two key ways As Scheuermann observed the arm and the ways in which that neurons begin to learn. Two monkeys spent several days it missed its mark, she made mental adjustments. Somehow practicing with a robotic arm. As their dexterity improved, her brain could identify the specific neurons that contribut- their neurons changed their preferred direction (to point ed to her errors. Correcting mistakes in perception or ac- down rather than to the right, for example) and broadened tion—the neural equivalent of software bug fixes—is one of the range of firing rates they were capable of emitting. These the reasons the brain needs to be so readily changeable.

More Activity A person can learn to control a computer cursor with a neuron or two, but the rest of the brain also contributes. In one study, people with implanted electrodes initially recruited neurons in many regions to try to move a cursor (far left). On mastery (near left), areas involved in learning were less active, which suggests that subjects’ control had grown automatic.

Less Early Learning Late Learning Activity

tuning adjustments gave the neurons the ability to issue more Learning itself is nothing more than repeated error correc- precise commands when they dispatched their missives. tion. Here, too, the brain-computer interface can help. The neuroscientists then pushed their experiments a step In work published in 2012 neuroscientist Steven M. further, testing just how far neuroplasticity could be extend- Chase of Carnegie Mellon University and his colleagues im- ed. They scrambled the computer software’s control scheme planted electrodes next to neurons in the motor cortex of two so that the arm now reacted differently to the same inputs of monkeys. They trained them to use the recorded neurons to neural data—cells that previously swung the arm to the left control a cursor on a computer screen. Software identified the now might send it soaring upward. The monkeys had no preferred direction of each recorded cell, as is typical. This trouble learning the new rules, and their neurons even react- time, however, the neuroscientists forced the monkeys to ed by adopting a new firing scheme. In fact, they could make small mistakes.

University Washington of switch easily between these firing schemes to control the arm They split each monkey’s controlling neurons into two in either mode. “The brain can form something that looks groups. The scientists then tweaked the software so that when like a natural motor memory for a disembodied device,” Car- mena says. “To me, that is pretty remarkable.” Back in the Pittsburgh lab, Scheuermann, too, has helped THE AUTHOR

JEREMIAH WANDER JEREMIAH WANDER shed light on neuroplasticity. She discovered that she per- SANDRA UPSON is managing editor of Scientific American Mind.

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 33 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE NEURAL CODE one group of neurons fired, the directions they moved the cur- that solidify motor learning. The new firing patterns become sor were rotated (say, 30 or 60 degrees). The remaining neu- locked into place through alterations in the connection points rons were left alone. Now when the monkey tried to reach a between neurons, called synapses. Over the course of sever- target on the screen, the cursor came up short. Think of push- al days, new synapses grow or old ones weaken, a process ing a shopping cart with a bum wheel that steers to the right that brings about microscopic but lasting shifts to the brain’s when you want to go straight ahead. To compensate, you networks. These subtle tweaks represent the physical basis of push the cart to the left to cancel the rightward bias. a new skill at the level of individual cells and molecules. The monkeys’ neurons performed a similar realignment when they fired. The animals oversteered by recruiting neu- Opening a Window rons that pointed past the target. In a crude overcorrection, Learning takes place in stages, during which a new task they also dampened all the neurons that earlier had fired to becomes gradually integrated with existing memories. Sleep, point directly at the target, including the cells that had not in fact, may be crucial in the formation of memories. It has been digitally rotated. In addition, a small number of neurons long been noted that people perform better and faster on a changed their tuning to point in a different direction, a more wide range of tasks after slumber—whether they are solving permanent shift akin to remodeling the wheel. differential equations or playing Bach études. Yet what hap- In follow-up work, Chase and his colleagues have found pens during sleep has remained largely guesswork. that when the monkeys spend weeks practicing with rotated Brain-computer interfaces provide a means to follow neurons, their brains more aggressively pursue the latter what happens as sleep helps to solidify recall. In one experi- adaptation. Chase suggests that this might occur because ment published in July, Ganguly and his colleagues trained permanent retuning simply takes longer. “It requires the net- rats to use a brain implant in their motor cortex to move a work to restructure,” he says, whereas a technique such as mechanical tube that dispensed drops of water. oversteering uses neurons’ existing capabilities and can hap- Many of the animals first discovered that they could pen immediately. control the tube after they twitched and saw it move. Soon Chase’s work provides insight into the changes in tuning the twitches died down as most of the rodents figured out that they could activate their motor neurons and trigger a drink with- How a Motor Skill Takes Shape out moving a hair. To do so, the Electrodes implanted in the motor cortex (purple) of humans, monkeys and rodents are reveal- animals had to perform an impres- ing the ways the brain changes as it learns a new skill. At first, it rallies many neurons. With sive feat of neuronal detective practice and sleep, it winnows down to a core set of cells. Although this process has only been work. The scientists had config- observed in several dozen neurons at a time, it is likely to be indicative of learning in general. ured the neuron-reading software to make the tube harder to move Practicing Sleeping Mastering whenever one subset of cells fired. At first,Practicing many neurons Key cellsSleeping fire in synchrony; OnlyMastering critical cells a Skillfire activateMan yto neu learnrons a skill others areCr iticalless coordinatedcells to performOnly critical the actioncells To earn a drop of water, the ro- are activated are reactivated are required dents had to sort out which neurons helped them to get a sip and which ones worked against them. After the rats fell asleep at the end of a day of practice, their implants continued recording from Motor neurons. When the rodents that cortex had aced the task reached deep sleep—characterized by extremely slow, synchronized waves of electrical activity—the neurons that controlled the mechanical tube fired in lockstep. If the rats had performed poorly, these same neurons were slightly out of sync. The neural processing taking place during the animals’ repose appeared to be reinforcing the firing abilities of the mission-critical O LPA

neurons. Moreover, the longer the T TAMI

34 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN rodents spent in deep sleep, the more their performance sub- “Some voluntary process is reaching up into the sensory sequently improved. part of the brain and making it spike,” Feldman says. Impuls- Another study, published in June, also explored how the es specific to movement, it seems, may not be all that vital to brain winnows down the neurons it needs to the most criti- prosthetic control. Carmena’s team is now investigating neu- cal players during learning. Carmena and his colleagues de- rons in other parts of the brain and finding that rodents can veloped a new technique that allows them to visually survey learn to control them with ease. neurons rather than recording them, as with implanted elec- These discoveries imply that the brain is perhaps more pli- trodes. The researchers worked with genetically altered mice able than anyone may have realized. They raise the question Out of the millions of neurons in their brains, the rats could identify the couple of cells that stood between them and their coveted drink. whose neurons glowed green when they fired. The scientists of whether any neuron, with the right kind of feedback, might installed a glass plate into the rodents’ skull through which be trained to do an animal’s bidding. “For brain-machine in- they could observe neural activity using a microscope. terfaces, you just want cells you can volitionally control,” “You’re watching live as these cells flash on and off,” ex- Fetz says. “And I’m thinking they’re all over the place, not plains neuroscientist Daniel Feldman, one of the co-authors just in motor areas. You could open up a lot of territory for of the paper. gaining control.” The researchers could assign any neurons in their field of That would be good news for stroke patients or others view to controlling some aspect of the outside environment— who have lost mobility because of a damaged motor cortex. in this case, the pitch of an auditory tone. The experiment- Brain areas that were spared when blood flow was interrupt- ers played a tone, and the animals could learn to activate ed might be able to pick up the slack. their neurons to make it rise or fall. In one part of this study, Fully implantable devices that restore movement to par- the scientists picked two small groups of neurons. When the alyzed patients probably are still a couple of decades away. first group fired, the pitch rose. When the second set came Scheuermann, for one, is well aware that she is unlikely to on, it dropped. The rats were rewarded with a drop of water ever get her own personal robotic limb. Her interest in the whenever they managed to hit a high-pitch target. “It project stems more from the altruistic streak that tends to couldn’t be more abstract for the rat. It has no idea what you emerge as a natural consequence of illness or disability. “It’s want it to do,” Carmena says. “Getting a rat to increase the given me such a sense of purpose,” she says. Although her firing rate in one ensemble and decrease the other—that is an goal is to eventually help other people with disabilities, she extremely abstract thing to learn.” has also come to appreciate the contribution her brain can As each rat practiced modulating the pitch, the neuroscien- make in revealing the inner workings of the mind. She even tists watched through the glass window in the animal’s head. nicknamed the ports in her scalp Lewis and Clark, for their Early in training, neighboring neurons glowed alongside the vital role in exploring the brain’s cryptic landscape. M ones that controlled pitch. Yet within an hour the firing pattern became more precise, and these adjacent cells had gone dim. The rodents seemed to be picking the individual cells that FURTHER READING really mattered to form a concise and well-organized memo- ■■Inference from Populations: Going beyond Models. Steven M. ry of their new skill. Out of the millions of neurons in their Chase and Andrew B. Schwartz in Progress in Brain Research, brains, the rats could identify the couple of cells that stood Vol. 192, pages 103–112; 2011. between them and their coveted drink. ■■Creating New Functional Circuits for Action via Brain-Machine Interfaces. Amy L. Orsborn and Jose M. Carmena in Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience. Published online November 5, 2013. Your Pliant Brain ■■Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Powerful Tool for Scientific Inquiry. Carmena and Feldman continued their experiments by Jeremiah D. Wander and Rajesh P. N. Rao in Current Opinion in adding yet another twist. They and their colleagues not only Neurobiology, Vol. 25, pages 70–75; April 2014. granted rats control over neurons in the motor cortex, as most From Our Archives studies on brain-computer interfaces do. They also grafted ■■Controlling Robots with the Mind. Miguel Nicolelis and John K. Chapin; Scientific American, October 2002. windows into a chunk of the somatosensory cortex, an area ■■Minding Mistakes. Markus Ullsperger; Scientific American Mind, nestled behind the motor cortex that typically handles senso- August/September 2008. ry information. The rats aced the same pitch-control test with ■■How to Build a Better Learner. Gary Stix; Scientific American, cells in this region, too. August 2011.

WHEN  TWO BRAINS CONNECT

“Mr. Watson, come here!” Alexander Graham Bell uttered these first words over a telephone 138 years ago. With that statement he ushered in the telecommunica- tions revolution that would ultimately bring us mobile phones, the Internet, and near-instantaneous exchanges of speech, text and video across continents. Yet speech can be limiting. Some abstract concepts and emotions can be difficult to convey with words. And certain disabilities rob people of their full communicative powers even as their minds remain otherwise intact. Neural engineers have spent several decades developing ways to overcome such impairments. Technologies known as brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are now beginning to allow paralyzed individuals to control, say, a computer cursor or a prosthetic limb with their brain signals. BCIs rely on data-processing techniques to extract a person’s intention to move and then relay that information to the device he or she wishes to control. In 2010 one of us (Rao) had a realization: perhaps we could use this same principle to beam thoughts from one human brain to another. Imagine if a teacher could convey a mathematical proof directly to your brain, nonverbally. Or perhaps a medical student could learn a complex surgical skill straight from a mentor’s mind. Such ideas have been a staple of science fiction, from the Vulcan mind meld of Star Trek to the control of an avatar by a paraplegic human in the movie Avatar. In conversations at the University of Washington, where we both work, we realized that we had all the equipment we needed to build a rudimentary version of this technology. Along with other scientists, we are now learning to bypass traditional modes of communication and swap thoughts directly between brains.

Mind Melds Made Real The gist of our strategy was to use electrodes arranged on one person’s scalp to pick up brain waves, a technique known as electroencephalography. Hidden in that neural hubbub are signals that indicate what a person is thinking. We would focus on extracting one such pattern and then send it over the Internet to a second person. The signal would dictate how to electrically stimulate the recipient’s brain. Because neurons communicate electrically, we can strategically “influence their messaging by applying electric current or a magnetic field, among

36 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The dawn of human brain-to-brain communication has arrived By Rajesh P. N. Rao WHEN TWO BRAINS CONNECT and Andrea Stocco

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 37 © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE NEURAL CODE league Chantel Prat were investigating transcranial magnetic FAST FACTS stimulation (TMS), a technology approved by the Food and CONNECTED BRAINS Drug Administration for the treatment of major depression. nnTwo humans have transmitted thoughts directly between their This method relies on pulses of a magnetic field to induce neu- brains in a recent experiment. rons in a specific area of the recipient’s brain to fire. ooScientists used electroencephalography to decode the neural To deliver the pulses, you place an insulated metal coil chatter in a sender’s brain and transcranial magnetic stimulation to induce neurons to fire in a recipient’s brain. next to a person’s head. When electricity discharges into the ppDirect brain-to-brain communication may one day offer a funda- coil, a magnetic field forms around the neurons in the area mentally different way for people to share and transfer knowledge. near the coil. When the electricity stops running, the magnetic field disappears. The sudden rise and fall of the magnetic other tricks. In short, we would use one person’s brain data field induces a tiny electric current in the neurons that had to produce a specific pattern of neural activity in another been engulfed by that field, making them more likely to fire. individual. When they do, a chain of connected neurons also activates. By the time we finally tried out our design, two other teams Depending on how you position the coil and configure the of neuroscientists had also transmitted signals directly be- magnetic field, you can also induce involuntary movements. tween brains, though not between two humans. The experi- We realized we could use this generally unwanted aspect of ments so far, including ours, have been simple proofs of con- the technology to generate crude motions in a recipient. In our cept: one participant is designated the sender, and the other setup, Stocco would sit with a TMS coil over his left motor cor- subject is the receiver. Ultimately we want to send and receive tex, the brain area that controls the movement of his right information in both directions, but we believe the challenges hand. After some fiddling with parameters, we found the ar- of that next step will be surmountable. rangement needed to stimulate the neurons that control Stoc- Miguel Nicolelis of Duke University and his team were the co’s wrist, making his hand twitch. first to demonstrate brain-to-brain messaging. In early 2013 We decided to test our brain-to-brain interface by seeing they published an experiment in which simple communiqués if we could play a simple two-player video game. After stu- were transmitted between two rats on different continents. dents in our labs spent months writing computer code and in- Later that year another experiment was published that integrating the technologies, on August 12 of last year we final- volved humans as the senders. In it, six people wearing an EEG ly tried out our setup. Rao took on the role of the sender of in- headset were each paired with an anesthetized rat. Seung- formation, and Stocco assumed the part of the receiver. Schik Yoo of Harvard Medical School and his collaborators In the game, a pirate ship is shooting rockets at a city. The made use of an emerging technique that delivers highly focused goal is to fire a cannon to intercept each rocket. Rao alone ultrasonic energy through the skull to specific regions of the could see the screen displaying the game. But only Stocco could brain. When a participant decided to move the rat’s tail, that press the button to fire the cannon. At just the right moment, person’s corresponding brain activity triggered an ultrasonic Rao had to form the intention to shoot, and a few seconds lat- pulse that entered the rodent’s brain. The 350-kilohertz burst er Stocco would receive the intention and press the button. of acoustic pressure was aimed at the rat’s motor cortex, which Rao donned a tight-fitting cap studded with 32 electrodes, controls movement. About two seconds later the rodent’s tail which measure fluctuations in electrical activity at different lifted and then fell. locations across the head. At any given time, distinct populations of neurons may be oscillating at many different frequen- Firing Cannons with Neurons cies. When he imagined moving a hand, the EEG electrodes Similar to Yoo’s effort, our experiment also used EEG to registered a telltale signature that our software could detect. identify the control signal. The Rao laboratory has many The giveaway was a drop in the low-frequency oscillations in years of experience extracting intentions from EEG signals, Rao’s brain. We used that signature as our cue to send a com- so it was a natural place to start. Once a computer decodes a mand over the Internet to stimulate Stocco’s brain. neural message, the main question becomes how to deliver it. Stocco did not register the impulse consciously, but his Getty Images

Somewhat serendipitously, one of us (Stocco) and our col- right hand moved anyway. The stimulation caused his hand N to lift, and when it fell it hit a keyboard and fired the cannon. O Success! For the first time, a human brain had communicated THE AUTHORS an intention directly to another human brain, allowing the LIN ANDERS RAJESH P. N. RAO is a professor of computer science two brains to jointly complete a task. As we played the game, O and engineering and director of the Center for Sensorimotor we got better and better, to the point where in our last run, we Neural Engineering at the University of Washington. intercepted the pirate rockets with almost 100 percent accu- ANDREA STOCCO is a research assistant professor in the racy. Rao learned how to imagine moving his hand in a con- department of psychology and the Institute for Learning and sistent manner, giving the computer a chance to make sense of

Brain Sciences at the University of Washington. his EEG brain data. Stocco found that he did not know his PRECEDING PAGES: C

38 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Recording the Brain Stimulating the Brain To play a computer Recording the Brain (EEG) Stimulating the Brain (TMS) game with brain EEG waves alone, one electrodes TMS coil person imagines making a move. An EEG cap registers that neural activity. A computer triggers stimulation of a second player’s Internet motor cortex, which causes one hand to lift and hit a key. Sender Receiver

wrist was moving until he felt or saw his hand in motion. ings directly to loved ones. As brain-to-brain technologies de- We have now replicated our findings with several other velop, people may adopt them to solve the challenges facing pairs of humans. Not every trial went perfectly in these ex- humanity by literally putting their heads together. periments, but in all cases, whenever an intention was cor- Enhancing the brain’s abilities with technology is itself rectly detected by the EEG system, the information was com- not new, of course. We have augmented our physical abilities municated directly to the receiver’s brain using TMS. using automobiles and airplanes, our memories using books Throughout the experiment, both subjects were conscious of and the Internet, and our analytic and communicative abili- each other’s roles and willingly cooperated to solve a mutu- ties using computers and smartphones. Brain-to-brain com- ally agreed-on task. When a pirate rocket gets hit, the send- munication might amplify the social side of our nature—our er knows that his or her partner’s brain enacted a movement core tendency to share thoughts with one another. in response to the sender’s own brain activity. We believe this If scientists and engineers eventually achieve true brain- conscious cooperation between subjects is the ultimate goal to-brain communication, the ethical implications will be of true brain-to-brain communication, something that may enormous. All technologies, from the humble kitchen knife to be hard to achieve with animal studies. sophisticated genetic engineering, can be used to do good or One weakness of our pilot study is that the receiver is pas- abused to cause harm. Brain-to-brain communication is no sive, essentially lending a hand to the sender’s brain. Our next exception. Many a science-fiction plot has benefited from set of experiments will explore targeting other brain regions larger than life villains abusing brain implants for nefarious to produce a conscious thought. For example, we believe we purposes. Security and privacy, already of paramount impor- can send visual, as opposed to motor, information from one tance in today’s world of highly connected devices, will also brain to another—imagine a recipient suddenly seeing the col- be critical factors in any future era of linked-up brains. Neuro or green and knowing that the hue means he or she should security researchers will need to minimize the risks of brain- perform a certain action. Indeed, in August one group of sci- to-brain technology by developing highly secure communica- entists used the same technologies as we did to send a crude tions protocols, and policy makers will need to pass laws to visual message from one human to another. minimize any possibility of abuse. Such simple experiments might seem a long way from the Ultimately we must ask ourselves: Do the benefits of brain- complex thought sharing of a Vulcan mind meld, but we be- to-brain communication outweigh its risks? How will it shape lieve it is important to begin with a good understanding of the evolution of humans? Will it transform society for the bet- how sensory and motor information can be shared. We know ter? As our little experiment demonstrates, we need to begin much more about how the brain represents sensory and mo- debating these questions now. M tor signals than about how it encodes complex ideas, such as how to solve differential equations or which city is the capital FURTHER READING of Latvia. In addition, many scientists now believe that sensory and motor information are the building blocks of more ■■Brain-Computer Interfacing: An Introduction. Rajesh P. N. Rao. Cambridge University Press, 2013. complex knowledge. We can only venture into transferring ■■A Brain-to-Brain Interface for Real-Time Sharing of Sensori bigger concepts after we have mastered simpler forms. motor Information. Miguel Pais-Vieira et al. in Scientific Reports, Vol. 3, Article No. 1319; February 28, 2013. What the Future Holds ■■A Direct Brain-to-Brain Interface in Humans. Rajesh P. N. Rao We envision several scenarios in which such technology et al. University of Washington Computer Science and Engineering Technical Report No. UW-CSE-14-07-01; July 2014. might one day be used. People undergoing rehabilitation, for http://homes.cs.washington.edu/~rao/brain2brain example, could receive direct guidance from a therapist to

O LPA From Our Archives speed up their recovery. Those who are paralyzed and unable ■■Mind out of Body. Miguel A. L. Nicolelis; Scientific American,

TAMI T TAMI to speak could use it to communicate their thoughts and feel- February 2011.

NG THE BRA IN New technologies are extracting detailed data from our brains that reveal what we know, have seen or have dreamed. Some of the signals could even fly a plane By Larry Greenemeier

Illustration by VAULT 49 DECOD DECODING

40 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 41 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE NEURAL CODE

A pilot sits in the cockpit of a Diamond DA42 light aircraft, men- In one experiment, test pilots wore caps tally working through the steps needed studded with elec- to safely land on the runway ahead. trodes that picked Moments later he touches down with- up their brain waves. out having laid a hand on the controls So outfitted, these volunteers learned or stepped on the aircraft’s pedals. He to adeptly fly—and is no ordinary pilot—in fact, he is not a land—simulated pilot at all, and he has just landed his aircraft using their aircraft using brain waves. thoughts instead of their hands. In a series of experiments earlier this year, seven people with varying degrees of cockpit experience—including none— craft in dense, albeit digital, fog. Test heads at different frequencies as our successfully flew and landed a simulat- subjects stayed on course with enough brain cells communicate. As with all ed DA42. Instead of developing the nor- accuracy to, in part, fulfill the require- brain-scanning technologies, EEG relies mal hand and foot coordination through ments needed for a pilot’s license. on software to interpret brain waves. hours of training and cockpit experi- Other brain-decoding projects rely Not all brains behave alike, so the soft- ence, these pilots relied on an electrode- on a different technology, magnetic res- ware must process reams of neural data laden cap that collects their neural im- onance imaging, which researchers before it can identify patterns in brain pulses and flight-control algorithms that have used to reconstruct images of fac- activity, a process known as machine convert them into commands for a vir- es a person has seen and to probe the learning. Once the system is up to speed tual twin-engine aircraft. content of sleepers’ dreams. Although on a particular person’s neural patterns, Experiments such as this one, EEG excels at detecting the timing of it can convert them into useful control which was led by aerospace engineer brain signals down to milliseconds, it commands—say, turning a virtual air- Tim Fricke of the Technical University falls short in discerning their origins. craft left or right or moving a computer of Munich in Germany, are pushing the Functional MRI systems, on the other mouse. As these algorithms’ ability to limits of electroencephalography and hand, pinpoint the location of neural interpret neural signals improves, scien- other scanning technologies’ ability to activity by registering the relatively tists can wield brain waves in new ways. detect, decode and harness the brain’s slow changes in brain blood flow. By The German researchers began their neural impulses. Where once EEG sim- combining these systems, as scientists simulated flights of fancy in January ply measured the brain’s electrical sig- are now beginning to do, we can better 2014. The experiments, published this nals as detected on the surface of the understand what is happening in our past fall, were part of a European project skull, the latest EEG headsets and com- brains when we process images, store called Brainflight, the goal of which was puter algorithms can translate neuro- memories, or make a snap decision such to determine whether neuroscience and nal signals into specific actions that as swinging a bat at a fastball. neuroengineering could deliver an air- control a variety of mechanical devic- craft flown solely by signals emitted by es, including wheelchairs, prostheses Brainflight the human brain. This extreme goal was and now flight simulators. Such devic- In a typical EEG setup, scientists po- made in the service of a few more practi- es promise to take human performance sition dozens to hundreds of small elec- cal ones: simplifying cockpit instrumen- to new levels. trodes at various locations on a person’s tation by using a brain-computer inter- Some of the EEG-connected pilots, skull. These electrodes pick up the elec- face (BCI) to replace dozens of buttons for example, landed their simulated air- trical signals that pulse through our and levers; reducing the time and cost it takes to train pilots; and opening up pi- Technical University of Munich

loting as a possible career path for peo- TT FAST FACTS ple with physical disabilities. O SCANNING OUR THOUGHTS During virtual flights, the simulator nnThe latest computer algorithms can translate neuronal signals into actions that control periodically instructed test pilots to mechanical devices, including wheelchairs, prostheses and now flight simulators.

mentally direct their aircraft toward a F A. HEDDERG ooMagnetic resonance imaging has enabled researchers to reconstruct images of faces a person has seen and to probe the content of people’s dreams. given heading, much the way an actual pilot must repeatedly make course cor-

ppCombining functional MRI with electroencephalography holds enormous promise for URTESY O O

revealing clues to the processing of cognition and emotion in the human brain. rections en route to a destination. The C

42 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EEG setup determined within a fraction PIN code, month of birth, bank loca- fusion in a person with Alzheimer’s dis- of a second what each pilot wanted to tion and the type of debit card he or she ease and send a signal to a head-mount- do and sent those commands to the used. The accuracy of these predictions ed display resembling Google Glass. flight-control system. “We hope that by varied—the correct answer was found The display would respond with images using BCIs, flying can one day become on the first guess 20 to 30 percent of the or information related to whatever the like hands-free bicycling, where you time in the case of the PIN code, debit- user is viewing. For a less impaired indi- still have to concentrate on where you card type and bank location. The soft- vidual, Ros suggests, such a device want to go [and] on the surrounding ware guessed the right birth month for might detect a tip-of-the tongue moment traffic but not on controlling your vehi- nearly 60 percent of the participants. and offer up the missing information. cle,” Fricke adds. The point of these experiments was Such flight simulations have ad- to study possible nefarious BCI use, yet Facial Reconstruction vanced the development of BCIs, which the work also highlights the technolo- The signals that EEG electrodes de- enable the brain to communicate with gy’s potential for extracting information tect represent the brain’s internal work- an external device using thought alone. from people unable to communicate in ings only roughly. For one thing, the Most headsets communicate only inter- other ways. Medical researchers already skull blocks some of the electrical ener- mittently with their host computers. use BCIs to help people who are locked gy from reaching the scalp electrodes. This BCI, however, continuously sends in—unable to move or speak because of Further, the signals are too diffuse to information about each pilot’s neural complete body paralysis. In the past, this trace to their origin. To locate brain ac- activity to the simulator, giving naviga- technology has been able to glean simple tivity, scientists rely on fMRI. When tors greater control over their virtual yes-or-no answers from these individu- neurons are active, they need oxygen, flights. With improved software, brain- als. New EEG algorithms might soon al- which they pull from the blood. The re- based command of any complex ma- low them to relay simple requests, needs sult is a local change in blood oxygen lev- chinery—including automobiles—be- or other information, says study author els that an fMRI machine can detect. comes a possibility. and cognitive neuroscientist Tomas Ros Scientists have turned to fMRI as a of the University of Geneva. tool for investigating how the brain Unlocked Although the algorithm used in that processes language, learns and remem- Whereas neuro-airline pilots show- study requires the consent of the person bers, among other functions. Yet the case the ability of EEG to extract sim- whose brain is being tapped, coarser technology is beginning to extract in- ple motor commands, other EEG set- types of information might be extract- creasingly detailed forms of data from ups can ferret out surprisingly specific ed without a user’s awareness. In a study the brain. In one of the latest advances,

The simulator periodically instructed test pilots to mentally direct their aircraft toward a given heading, much the way an actual pilot makes course corrections. information in a person’s mind. In an published in 2013 security analyst Mar scientists used brain activity recorded experiment published in 2012 comput- io Frank of the University of California, from people undergoing fMRI scans to, er scientist Ivan Martinovic, then at the Berkeley, and his colleagues flashed im- for the first time, accurately reconstruct University of California, Berkeley, and ages of faces in front of participants so pictures of faces a person had seen. his colleagues asked 30 healthy individ- briefly that the viewers could not con- Earlier this year cognitive neurosci- uals to don EEG headsets and watch a sciously process them. The software entist Marvin Chun of Yale University screen on which the researchers flashed could nonetheless determine whether and his colleagues showed six individu- images of ATM machines, debit cards, an individual recognized the person in als 300 distinct pictures of faces while maps, people, and the numbers 0 to 9 the image 66 percent of the time. they captured the viewers’ brain activi- in random order. Researchers then Although such findings might raise ty. The researchers’ machine-learning studied the EEG data for peaks in neu- the specter of surreptitiously spying on algorithm correlated both the faces as a ral activity. Such upticks suggested that people’s inner lives, they also could be whole and their individual features the person might be familiar with a parlayed into a useful monitoring tool with patterns of blood oxygen levels. particular digit or image. From those for individuals suffering from cognitive They then showed these participants 30 peaks, software tried to extract person- or emotional disorders. A mobile EEG new faces. The software matched the al information, such as a person’s ATM headset might, for instance, detect con- brain activity elicited by the new visag-

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 43 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE NEURAL CODE es with the catalogue of neural respons- view objects in different categories—such machines weigh several tons and re- es it had created during the original test. as a person, word or book—while scan- quire subjects to lie still in a narrow Using just the neural activity, the soft- ning their brains using fMRI. The men, porthole while the noisy magnets do ware re-created the faces that the indi- who also wore EEG headsets, were then their work—hardly conducive to every- vidual had seen. The result was “strik- asked to sleep in the scanner for about day situations. The technique also ingly accurate neural reconstructions” three and a half hours at a stretch over picks up neural activity relatively slow- of the new faces, the researchers wrote seven to 10 days. The researchers awak- ly, during seconds or minutes. As a re- in July in the journal NeuroImage. ened the volunteers up to 10 times an sult, fMRI cannot reveal the order in Instead of relying on activity in the hour and asked them what they had seen which different brain regions spring to

Brain- Activity Pattern Presented Reconstructed

Computer software can learn to translate the brain activity elicited by viewing a face into a picture of that visage (left). When people viewed 30 images of faces, six of which are shown above, a computer reconstructed each face from patterns of blood oxygen levels in the brain (bottom row).

brain’s occipital cortex, which plays a in their dreams. The software detected a life in response to stimuli. EEG, in con- central role in processing images, these close match between brain-activity pat- trast, can detect changes during milli- reconstructions were based on more dis- terns collected during dreaming and seconds, closer to the speed of neural tributed patterns of neural activity, those assigned to an appropriate object changes themselves. much of it in high-level brain areas that category at least 60 percent of the time. Because the technologies are com- identify and characterize objects by their Training the software to recognize plimentary, combining fMRI with general properties. The scientists were a greater variety of categories—includ- EEG holds enormous promise for re- hunting for more abstract representa- ing actions and emotions—might reveal vealing clues to various cognitive and tions of the imagery rather than visual even more nuanced information about emotional processes. To decode how cues such as contour and shading. The people’s dreams. These findings could our brains reorient our attention, for researchers next want to investigate how then provide clues to how sleeping and example, these scanning technologies memory, emotion and social judgment, dreaming affect memory and mood. might compare which brain areas light the province of other brain regions, in- The computer technology used to up at a moment of alertness with the teract with vision to better understand deconstruct images in detail, whether in pattern of activation when our atten- how we perceive faces and objects. dreams or while awake, has very broad tion wanders. “We might be able to cre- Scientists have also used fMRI and applications. “Advancing our ability to ate systems where, if we track those pattern-recognition software to decode decode brain activity and link it to be- states, we know when to give some- some of the content of people’s dreams. havior is the fundamental goal of cog- body important information,” says In work published in 2013 neuroscientist nitive neuroscience,” Chun says, “and it biomedical engineer Paul Sajda of Co- Yukiyasu Kamitani of Japan’s ATR is the foundation for all kinds of clini- lumbia University. Such a system might Computational Neuroscience Laborato- cal—diagnosis, prediction and treat- warn inattentive drivers when they ap- WEN ries and his colleagues asked three men to ment—and practical applications, in- proach an intersection, for example. O cluding brain-machine interfaces.” But one of the first applications for

this combination strategy is baseball. F ALAN C THE AUTHOR NeuroScout Sajda and his colleagues have spent the LARRY GREENEMEIER is an associ- As powerful as it is, fMRI has lim- past few years combining EEG and URTESY O O

ate editor at Scientific American. itations, too. Multimillion-dollar MRI fMRI in real time to study how quickly C

44 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a baseball player can identify a type of nize each person’s idiosyncrasies, a They detect only the strongest signals pitch and decide whether to swing. In process that can take minutes to hours, and, as a result, have limited capabili- 2012 Columbia postdoctoral fellow Ja- depending on the task. After all, an in- ties. Another example of a basic univer- son Sherwin and graduate student Jor- dividual’s brain and patterns of sal decoder is on display through Janu- dan Muraskin developed a computer thought—even in response to the same ary 4, 2015, at New York City’s Discov- program that simulates pitches from a stimuli—are unique. “If you mapped ery Times Square, where Marvel’s catcher’s perspective. They had partici- one person’s brain really well, you Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. exhibition pants lie in an fMRI scanner wearing a could build a really good brain decod- gives fans the ability to experience an 43-electrode EEG headset while they ing device for that person,” says psy- interactive head-up display similar to viewed a simulated oncoming base- chologist Jack Gallant of U.C. Berkeley. Iron Man’s. A three-electrode wireless ball—a dot that expands as it moves to “If you try it on someone else, that per- EEG sensor activates the display when create the impression of a ball ap- son’s brain is different,” so it will not a visitor presses his or her forehead proaching at upward of 80 miles per work well, if at all. against it. The sensor also helps users hour. Initially they tested nonplayers, Researchers would like to create navigate the display to watch video

“We might be able to create systems where, if we track [mental] states, we know when to give somebody important information,” says one biomedical engineer. asking them to tap a button if the pitch more versatile algorithms—ones that clips, play games and see their brain they saw matched the one they were told require very little, if any, tweaking be- waves in real time, although eye-track- to look for: either a fastball or a slider, tween uses and users. Such universal ing sensors and software also assist which curves. brain decoders would drastically re- with the navigation. The system was Later, they tried the experiment duce the amount of training time in ex- built with redundancy to ensure that it with players from Columbia’s baseball periments, speeding efforts to under- worked reliably for the large crowds team, who showed greater activation stand neural activity across large popu- visiting the exhibit. than nonplayers in certain brain relations under a variety of circumstances. Iron Man’s complicated hands-free gions that are indicative of expertise, More robust software would also very flight-control system might be out of Muraskin says. The precise differenc- likely lead to more reliable EEG-con- reach for now, but Fricke and his col- es in reaction times and location of trolled devices. leagues are making progress getting brain activity between players and Most neuroscientists agree that an their system off the ground. The Ger- nonplayers—something the research- effective universal decoder is years man researchers say they are cutting ers will reveal in a forthcoming pa- away. Companies such as Emotiv and down the amount of training their sim- per— could help poor performers by NeuroSky make consumer BCI gaming ulator software requires—a big step to- mapping the brain regions that are headsets and biosensors with a handful ward unlocking the black box between underactive compared with those in of electrodes that can be shared among our ears and extending its power be- experts. Stimulating those regions users and do not take long to calibrate. yond the body. M through specific exercises could help laggards improve their pitch recognition and reaction time. FURTHER READING The EEG data could also quantify ■■On the Feasibility of Side-Channel Attacks with Brain-Computer Interfaces. Ivan Martinovic changes in reaction time so that a play- et al. in Proceedings of 21st USENIX Security Symposium, pages 143–158; August 2012. er can track how well different training ■■Neural Decoding of Visual Imagery during Sleep. T. Horikawa et al. in Science, Vol. 40, methods are working. The researchers pages 639–642; May 3, 2013. have founded a start-up, NeuroScout, ■■Mind-Reading Technology Speeds Ahead. Kerri Smith and Nature. Published online October to market the results of their analyses 23, 2013. www.scientificamerican.com/article/mind-reading-technology-speeds-ahead ■■Neural Portraits of Perception: Reconstructing Face Images from Evoked Brain Activity. to sports teams. Alan S. Cowen, Marvin M. Chun and Brice A. Kuhl in NeuroImage, Vol. 94, pages 12–22; July 1, 2014. Universal Decoder From Our Archives So far algorithms that can interpret ■■Thinking Out Loud. Nicola Neumann and Niels Birbaumer; December 2004. brain signals must be trained to recog- ■■Out for Blood. Elizabeth M. C. Hillman; July/August 2014.

YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE SOCIAL WEB

IRTUAL 

VIRTUAL A SSAULT Cyberbullies take advantage of the unique psychology of online communities to attack, intimidate and hurt others.  Here is what makes trolls tick— and how to stop them By Elizabeth Svoboda

Illustrations by FRANK STOCKTON

IRTUAL SSAULT

When 25-year-old Caitlin Seida dressed up as Lara Croft from the movie Tomb Raider one Halloween, she posted a picture of herself enjoying the night’s festivities on Face- book. At most, she figured a few friends might see the photograph and comment. The picture remained in Seida’s social circle for more than three years. Then one day in 2013 a friend sent Seida a link with a cryptic note: “You’re Internet famous.” Clicking the link took her to a site called the International lem has largely gone unaddressed because so few Association of Haters, where her Halloween pho- observers take it seriously and because it can be un- to—which she had posted publicly by mistake— clear which comments qualify as bullying. “People Wbore the oversized caption “Fridge Raider.” Hun- are reluctant to report it,” says Chris Piotrowski, a dreds of commenters dragged Seida through the cyberbullying expert and research consultant at the mud for wearing a skimpy costume while being University of West Florida. “A lot of them feel like, overweight. “Heifers like her should be put down,” ‘[If] I go to the police, what are they going to do?’” one commenter wrote. “What a waste of space,” Researchers are uncovering the psychological another piped in. forces behind such poisonous verbiage and the Horrified, Seida did some more quick searches harm it causes, and their work points to ways of pre- and realized her photo had gone viral, racking up venting vicious avalanches of verbal aggression—or poisonous comments on dozens of sites. Reading at least minimizing the damage. An important part the messages was like absorbing a series of body of the solution involves all of us. As members of the blows. “I felt like shit,” Seida says. “I cried and Internet democracy, we each have the power to re- cried and cried some more.” With a paralegal direct negative group tendencies in ways that pro- friend’s help, she contacted Web site owners to get mote online civility. “Don’t wait for the other two the offending images and posts taken down, but or 300 [people] to do something,” says Mary Aik- she knew her efforts would likely fall short. “I can en, director of the CyberPsychology Research Cen- herd cats more easily than I can control what’s ter at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. “It’s posted online.” up to users to create a better environment.” Despite the publicity devoted to teenage cyberbullies, online aggression is hardly confined to the “They got the better of me, and they won” high school set. About one in four adults has been The trope of the swaggering bully is almost as cyberbullied or knows someone who has, accord- old as human history. Whether children or adults, ing to a recent poll by the online design firm Rad bullies blast their targets with scathing words and Campaign, along with Lincoln Park Strategies and profane put-downs—and they do not let up, even Craigslist founder Craig Newmark. The abuse can when the victim begs for mercy. Bullying behavior come in the form of insulting e-mails, tag team– probably has evolutionary roots, argues social an- style pile-ons in Internet forums or personal attacks thropologist Christopher Boehm of the University in news article comment sections. Victims are often of Southern California. Early humans who were so profoundly affected that they descend into de- good at lording it over others enjoyed a boost in pression or even contemplate suicide. Yet the prob- their social standing, and as a result, they produced more offspring. Contrary to popular wisdom, bullies are not FAST FACTS merely compensating for their own low self-esteem. CRUELTY IN THE CLOUD In a 2013 study of thousands of middle school stu- nnAbout one in four adults has experienced online abuse or knows someone dents, psychologist Jaana Juvonen of the Universi- who has. ty of California, Los Angeles, and her colleagues ooVictims of cyberbullying may descend into depression, suffer symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and even contemplate suicide. found that bullies are often perched at the top of ppAll of us can curb cyberbullying by reaching out to the victims and expressing the social hierarchy and demean others to cement our disapproval of online potshots and attacks. their position. Upbringing also plays a key role: ac-

48 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Reading the poisonous posts was like absorbing a series of body blows. “I cried and cried and cried some more,” one victim says.

cording to social learning theory, we learn how to down earlier this year after absorbing a relentless interact with others by observing those close to us. barrage of Twitter messages mocking her depres- Aggressive parents and other role models, then, sion and encouraging her to kill herself. She was may produce aggressive kids. The fallout can be found dead in her Sydney apartment, where she had devastating: bullying victims suffer significant dis- hanged herself. “It just triggered that feeling of tress, sometimes for decades. The U.S. Secret Ser- helplessness when the trolls got to me,” Dawson vice reports that in most school shooting incidents, said in a 2012 interview on Australia’s 60 Minutes shooters felt persecuted or bullied before launching after a previous round of Twitter attacks. “They their attacks. got the better of me, and they won.” Now that people are socializing in virtual realms, an age-old dynamic has taken hold in a Mob Mentality new environment. Cyberbullying is usually defined Just like real-world bullies, the worst online as intimidation, hurt or harassment conducted us- gangsters often display antisocial personality traits. ing cell phones, the Internet or other electronic de- Some may show characteristics of psychopathy such vices, but as Piotrowski points out, the contours of as aggression and disregard for fellow human be- this definition are somewhat blurry. “What defines ings; others are sadistic. In a 2014 study psycholo- cyberabuse? To one person, it’s someone who’s be- gist Erin E. Buckels of the University of Manitoba ing rude. To another person, it’s an offensive state- and her colleagues surveyed more than 1,200 Inter- ment. Another person might say it’s [an attack net users and found that those who agreed with that’s] escalating.” statements such as “I enjoy making jokes at the ex- At its most obvious, cyberbullying is extremely pense of others” and “I enjoy playing the villain in brutal. Women’s-rights activist Caroline Criado- games and torturing other characters” were more Perez endured dozens of unhinged online trolling likely to show traits associated with personality dis- attacks from woman haters after she convinced the orders. It stands to reason that people who have Bank of England to feature Jane Austen on its real-life antisocial tendencies might show similar 10-pound note. “I remember the man who told me contempt for others in the online realm. a group of them would mutilate my genitals with Still, plenty of psychologically balanced adults scissors and set my house on fire while I begged to take online potshots at others, says psychologist With a few clicks, die,” Criado-Perez told the New Statesman in Jan- John Suler of Rider University, partially because cy- an act of bullying can now quickly uary. “I remember the fear, the horror, the despair. berspace lets them create a virtual persona that is spread through I remember not being able to sleep. I remember the cloud. thinking it would never end.” (Although Criado- Perez did contact the police, she felt they did not take her complaints seriously.) As Criado-Perez’s experience suggests, online persecution can take an outsize toll on mental health. Victims of cyberabuse often show symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder, including flashbacks, runaway anxiety, guilt or depression. They report low self-esteem and feelings of helplessness. “It’s a serious problem that has serious psychological consequences,” says social psychologist S. Alexander Haslam of the Universi- ty of Queensland in Australia. Even people used to the public eye may reach a breaking point when tormentors go too far. Australian journalist Charlotte Dawson—herself an antibullying activist—broke

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 49 © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE SOCIAL WEB separate from their everyday identity. They know a virtual mob mentality takes hold. People are im- that when they retreat behind the cloak of anonym- pulsive and aggressive and tend to copy one anoth- ity, they probably will not have to answer for their er, often leading to tag-team attacks like those actions. The phenomenon of the faceless, nameless hurled at Seida. “When people engage in online online bully is a familiar one; surveys suggest only bullying, they are often doing it in front of a partic- about one in four online bullying victims know their ular audience they imagine is approving,” Haslam attackers in real life. “From the abuser’s point of says. If a chat forum’s terms of engagement—stat- view, [online bullying] is low risk, high reward,” Pi- ed or unstated—allow people to be bullied without otrowski says. “They’re thinking, ‘I won’t get caught consequence, new participants are probably going because it’s online,’” and they get the buzz of feeling to conform to the norms set by the bullies. Even elevated because they are pushing someone else people with good intentions can succumb. “If oth- down. In a 2012 study psychologists Noam Lapi- ers are piling on someone, you might join in even “They’re thinking, ‘I won’t get caught because it’s online,’” and they feel elevated because they are pushing someone else down, says one cyberbullying expert.

dot-Lefler, now at the Max Stern Academic College if you weren’t setting out to hurt anyone,” adds psy- of Emek Yezreel, and Azy Barak of the University of chologist Scott O. Lilienfeld of Emory University. Haifa instructed participants to debate a conten- Once insult-slinging gets under way in a chat tious topic in pairs over online chat; they noted that room or e-mail thread, it can escalate quickly, per- people were more likely to threaten their debate haps because empathy is more elusive in a virtual partners when posting under an alias than when us- environment. Cyberaggressors cannot see their vic- ing their real names. tims’ tears or the fear in their eyes. Their targets are But the most noxious and prevalent instances of abstractions. In addition, the bullying persists in online bullying emerge from a combination of ano- ways that would have been unthinkable in the era nymity and group forces. In 2001 social psycholo- before Google and Facebook. Victims relive that gist Tom Postmes, now at the University of Gronin- punch-in-the-gut feeling every time humiliating gen in the Netherlands, and his colleagues reported photos of them appear on a new Web site or insults that when online participants were anonymous, appear in search results for their name. Also, as they were more likely to conform to the behavior of Seida learned, erasing the attacks or even getting the groups they belonged to—a tendency that is bullies to admit to the harm they have caused is problematic when the group’s members are rude or fiendishly difficult. When Seida and a friend tracked aggressive. Similarly, in a 2012 study psychology re- down some of her tormentors and sent them person- searcher Adam Zimmerman of the University of al notes, they were rebuffed. “We sent them messag- North Florida studied 126 online participants in a es and a little certificate that said, ‘Why don’t you word-unscrambling game and found that those be a human being and take down the comments you who did not use their real names were more likely made?’ Nobody apologized.” than identified participants to write aggressive blog Bullying can affect bystanders, too. In a study posts about their fellow players, especially when published in 2013 Colorado State University com- they observed other participants acting aggressive- munications specialist Ashley Anderson and her ly. “We get permission [to bully] from the people colleagues recruited more than 1,000 people to read around us,” Zimmerman says. “It gives us the idea an online article about the risks and benefits of nan- that we could also do that if we want to.” otechnology. Readers who were exposed to “flame When nameless, faceless online participants as- wars” in which commenters slammed nanotech or sume the identity of the group that surrounds them, insulted its defenders tended to see nanotechnolo- gy’s risks as more pronounced than did readers who had not seen such verbal attacks, regardless of

THE AUTHOR whether the arguments held water. If, as these results suggest, bullies’ comments are often persua- ELIZABETH SVOBODA is a freelance science writer in San Jose, Calif., and author of What Makes a Hero?: The Sur- sive, passive observers might start to buy into some prising Science of Selflessness(Penguin Group, 2013). of the attackers’ claims (“Theresa is a slutbag ho”).

50 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Setting New Norms ments as abuse. When members of an online forum, The toxic fallout from online attacks has led discussion group or e-mail thread consistently re- some respected news outlets to kill off virtual dis- fuse to tolerate bullying, new participants will cussion communities. “We are as committed to fos- probably conform to that established norm, turn- tering lively, intellectual debate as we are to spread- ing the group into a force for good. ing the word of science far and wide,” wrote Pop- All online participants determine what a com- ular Science’s then digital editor Suzanne LaBarre munity’s norms are. “If trolls show up, if the com- last fall, announcing that the magazine planned to munity as a whole can say, ‘This is not something eliminate its Web site’s comment section. “The we want here,’ it can convince that person to move problem is when trolls overwhelm the former, di- on,” Suler says. Taking a stand not only helps the minishing our ability to do the latter.” victim but is also good for you: when people see oth- The decision by Popular Science to nix online ers being bullied and fail to speak up, their own psy- comments provoked outcry. Efforts to curb online chological health often suffers. bullying and flame wars often err in the direction of Concerned onlookers can also help curb bully- limiting open discussion. Part of the reason is prac- ing’s spread by reaching out to victims individually tical. Policing individual online interactions—by, via e-mail or direct message. Aggression often be- say, enforcing language restrictions on discussion gets aggression—cyberbullying victims may turn boards or cleaning up news comment sections—can around and bully others, according to San Diego be a time-consuming task for Web site managers. State University psychologist Jean M. Twenge. But What is more, few victims report bullying to site ad- you can mitigate this effect by offering the abused ministrators because they think nothing will be your support and condemning the attacks. In a done about the problem or because they fear retri- 2007 study Twenge and her colleagues found that bution from attackers. when people made a short, friendly connection with So far legislative solutions to the online aggres- someone else following an episode of social exclusion problem do not seem all that effective, even sion, the victim was less likely to show aggression though 48 states have laws against electronic harassment. California’s legal code, for instance, gives administrators grounds to suspend or expel students for participating in online bullying, and Louisiana’s legal code reads, “Whoever commits What to Do If You’re a Victim the crime of cyberbullying shall be fined not more If you have suffered abuse at the hands of cyberbullies, than five hundred dollars, imprisoned for not more you are not alone. Millions of others have, too. Here are than six months, or both.” Such laws, however, are some expert-approved strategies to stop the harassment seldom enforced, in part because cyberbullying and minimize its effect on you. —E.S. victims do not always report being abused—and when victims do complain, administrators and Don’t engage. When the harassment is relatively discussion board owners do not always notify mild, the old “I can’t hear you” approach really can state authorities. work. Block the person’s social media profile or just stop replying to the comments. The troll wants you to In the absence of systematic policing by Web site get worked up. When you don’t respond, he or she managers or the government, some administrators sometimes loses interest. have begun testing automated antibullying tools. A system produced by the video game company Riot Alert those in charge. Report abusive messages Games, for instance, detects patterns of negative that include ad hominem attacks or vulgar language to behavior from particular online players and sends someone who can make them stop—whether the police them a quick message, gently letting them know or an online forum’s administrator. A 2014 survey found that in 61 percent of cases, social networks shut down they have crossed a line. “For neutral and positive reported harassers’ accounts. players,” Jeffrey Lin, a lead designer at Riot, told GamesIndustry magazine, “this subtle nudge is of- Talk to a professional. If online attacks are bad ten enough to get them back on track.” enough to make you seriously doubt your self-worth, Yet some hard-core bullies are unfazed by auto- consult a therapist. Cyberbullies are skilled at eliciting mated warnings and keep right on unloading their a very intense, instant reaction that may be unlike venom. In such cases, community members should anything else you have experienced. You most likely will need support to deal with it. step in—whether by writing a response to the ag- gressor on the forum or reporting bullying com-

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 51 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE SOCIAL WEB afterward. “Having even one person accept you Rallying Friends seemed to mitigate the [aggression] effect,” says Many months after enduring online ridicule, Twenge, author of Generation Me. “Reach out and Seida decided she was not going to let the bullies’ say, ‘I’m sorry this happened.’” vile comments define her. To give her detractors the Such outreach is especially crucial because even middle finger, she did a boudoir photo shoot while antibullying education may not deter determined wearing the now infamous Lara Croft costume. “If trolls. According to a 2013 study by University of they’re going to talk, I might as well give them some- Texas at Arlington criminologist Seokjin Jeong and thing to talk about!” she says. Byung Hyun Lee of Michigan State University, stu- Seida’s brush with cyberbullies inspired her to dents were more likely to be bullied at schools that reach out to others on the receiving end of vicious had installed antibullying programs, perhaps be- online attacks. Along with a photographer friend, cause the programs inadvertently gave bullies ideas she created ifeeldelicious.com, a site designed to for tormenting their victims. help victims of online bullying repair the damage to

52 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN their dignity and psyche. She and other members ran a successful campaign against a notorious bul- FURTHER READING ly they called “the King of Mean,” rallying others ■■The Online Disinhibition Effect. John Suler in CyberPsychology & Behavior, to boycott and speak out against his insult-ridden Vol. 7, No. 3; pages 321–326; July 28, 2004. Web site and social media sites. She advises people ■■Replenishing Connectedness: Reminders of Social Activity Reduce who face relentless online jibes to gather a group of Aggression after Social Exclusion. Jean M. Twenge et al. in British Journal friends who appreciate them. (For additional ad- of Social Psychology, Vol. 46, Part 1, pages 205–224; March 2007. ■■Trolls Just Want to Have Fun. Erin E. Buckels et al. in Personality and vice, see “What to Do If You’re a Victim,” on page Individual Differences, V ol. 67, pages 97–102; September 2014. 51.) Indeed, knowing someone else has your back ■■National Crime Prevention Council on Cyberbullying: goes a long way toward softening the impact of www.ncpc.org/topics/cyberbullying drive-by online attacks. “Talk to somebody—find a From Our Archives support system,” Seida says. “If you keep it inside, ■■The Pain of Exclusion. Kipling D. Williams; January/February 2011. it’s just going to eat you alive.” M ■■When Nice Guys Finish First. Daisy Grewal; July/August 2012.

A DIGITAL SAFETY NET People are increasingly broadcasting symptoms of mental illness on social media. We should listen By Roni Jacobson

eter’s Facebook friends knew something Posts on Twitter by actors Charlie Sheen and Aman- was wrong months before he had a da Bynes, for example, chronicled their psychological manic episode. He had been posting unraveling before millions of followers, sparking in- about expensive shopping trips and tense debate among celebrity watchers about the ap- name-dropping celebrities he claimed propriate reaction to their attention-grabbing tweets. to haveP partied with—seemingly out of character for People who witness such events among their own the 26-year-old former dental student from Atlanta. friends face a challenging question: Should they re- When Peter (not his real name) ran away from home spond—and if so, how? “Mental illness is not like the in April 2013, he unleashed a flurry of paranoid, all- flu,” says computational social scientist Munmun De caps status updates saying his family was out to get Choudhury of the Georgia Institute of Technology. him. Meanwhile his sisters left messages on his Face- Unlike other conditions, “people are often not com- book wall begging him to come home. fortable discussing these things.” The deep-rooted What might have been a family affair a decade stigma of the topic discourages people from probing ago instead played out in front of hundreds of eyes, the emotional states of others. Yet silence compounds as friends and acquaintances watched the saga un- the problem because struggling individuals can come fold on their news feeds. Some people sent him pri- to believe they are suffering alone and avoid seeking vate messages. Others posted on his wall. Many help for fear of ridicule. commenters expressed support and concern, but a Social media could radically change this atti- few were mocking and unhelpful. One person wrote tude. As people increasingly share very private ex- “lol.” Most people, however, only watched. periences online, observers are gaining unparalleled Mental health crises such as Peter’s are being cap- insight into one another’s mental lives. Digital in- tured on social media with increasing regularity. teractions—through blog posts, social media up-

MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 53 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE SOCIAL WEB gauge whether a situation is serious, suggests psy- FAST FACTS chologist Jill Berger of the University of Maryland, A FRIEND IN NEED who has surveyed college students’ responses to on- nnMany individuals struggling with mental health issues turn to social media to line signs of suicidal thinking. Although they are describe their challenges, yet onlookers are unsure of how to respond. concerned, she says, they do not want to “make a big ooResearch indicates that people who post about their difficulties are seeking deal” about something potentially mundane and support and would welcome a friendly, nonjudgmental reply. risk an awkward interaction. ppIn blurring the lines between private and public space, social media could help reduce the stigma of discussing mental health. Even if a situation is not yet dire, Berger counsels that it warrants follow-up. Social media acquaintances may be critically positioned to offer support. dates, Instagram photos, and more—produce a Writing a status update or tweeting about a problem wealth of data about a person’s emotions and behav- can be easier than talking about it face-to-face, par- iors. Close family members and distant acquaintanc- ticularly for stigmatized issues such as mental illness. es alike can glimpse disturbing patterns in these out- Evidence suggests that people feel less inhibited on- lets and offer simple forms of support. By breaking line. Furthermore, adolescents and young adults, the silence, they can ease a colleague’s or compan- who are at an age when mental disorders typically ion’s pain—and they can chip away at the stigma that manifest, are more inclined to disclose sensitive in- keeps many from seeking help in the first place. formation to peers than to adults. Moreno believes that these posts are an important Emotional Voyeurs outlet for vulnerable individuals. Often, she says, Social media might not seem like a panacea for posters are looking for emotional support and encour- mental illness at the outset. People often err on the agement. On Facebook, “you don’t have to wait in line side of silence when a typically private sentiment is for a therapy appointment—you can get that positive expressed in a public manner. In a 2013 study, for feedback within seconds.” According to Moreno, example, Megan A. Moreno, an adolescent medi- posting frequently about mental health problems on cine specialist now at the University of Washington, social media could indicate that a person is not getting and her colleagues asked college students whether the help he or she needs offline. To a person in crisis, they had ever seen a Facebook status update from a not getting a response may be “almost worse than get- friend mentioning depression or anxiety. A majori- ting a negative response,” she adds, because it seems ty said they had, but when the researchers asked like “nobody is listening and nobody cares.” Social technologies provide a lifeline students if they would respond to such a post, they for people with were unsure. Most said they would if the post were Unlocking Support mental illness to written by a close friend or relative but not by a The work of scientists studying the reticence of find help. more distant acquaintance. In the latter case, they onlookers makes it clear that people do hear online would expect someone closer to the person in dis- cries for help—they just do not know how to reply. tress to do the heavy lifting. The good news is that people can be encouraged to The students’ aloofness may be partly explained take action. The bystander effect, for example, now by the bystander effect—a psychological phenomenon appears to be more nuanced than was initially first proposed in the 1960s, in which people become thought. Recent studies have found it to be less less likely to intervene in a crisis as the number of wit- powerful than in early experiments, perhaps be- nesses grows. A similar diffusion of responsibility oc- cause people are more aware of it today. curs online. In multiple studies, researchers have And there may be ways to reduce or even reverse posed as people requesting help by e-mail and in chat the effects. In a 2011 update on the bystander effect, rooms. The findings have been consistent: the bigger Peter Fischer, a psychologist now at the University the online community, the less likely a recipient is to of Regensburg in Germany, and his colleagues ana- respond. On platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, lyzed data from all previous studies of the phenom- where no one knows who has seen what, a sense of enon and found that it diminishes significantly as personal responsibility may be particularly elusive. the situation becomes more obviously dangerous. People might also hesitate because they cannot When faced with a sure emergency, the self-doubt that holds people back often disappears. The key to unlocking support is therefore edu- THE AUTHOR cating people about how serious mental health cri- RONI JACOBSON is a Brooklyn, N.Y.–based science jour- ses can be, how to spot one and what witnesses can nalist specializing in psychology and mental health. do to help. Mental health “first aid” programs, for

54 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN To a person in crisis, not getting a response may be “almost worse than getting a negative response,” Moreno says, because it seems like nobody cares. example, can teach people how to recognize and re- cial scientists have found that throughout history, spond to a mental health emergency in real life. Cer- prejudice is best dismantled when people interact tain groups, such as college resident advisers (RAs), frequently with others unlike themselves. Indeed, a traditionally tasked with identifying distressed stu- 2012 meta-analysis of approaches to reducing stig- dents, are learning to notice warning signs on social ma concluded that simply having contact with peo- media as well. Moreno thinks that RAs and other ple with mental health conditions trumps social ac- youth leaders, such as team captains and church tivism and education in getting adults to abandon group organizers, are well positioned to detect cri- their preconceptions. ses unfolding online and either reach out themselves Social media onlookers might even experience or pass the information along to a more qualified in- a boost in empathy and feel more willing to reach dividual, such as a school counselor. out after discovering a friend’s struggles online. Meanwhile Facebook is encouraging its users to In a 2014 study led by health communication exact when they see troubling posts. In 2011 the com- pert Nichole Egbert of Kent State University, stu- pany added a tool to anonymously report suicidal dents were also significantly more likely to sup- content. Once you submit a report, Facebook informs port a depressed friend if they identified with his the person in distress that a contact has expressed or her problem. concern and offers links to emergency hotlines and Along those lines, the New York City branch of the opportunity to chat with a crisis worker. the National Alliance on Mental Illness launched a Recipients are, of course, free to decline, but re- social media campaign called “I Will Listen” in Oc- search indicates that most people who post about tober 2013. In a series of videos and Facebook posts, their troubles do want help. In one of several recent actress Mariel Hemingway, writer Andrew Solo- studies, Moreno and her colleagues asked 60 college mon and other public figures pledged to listen to freshmen how they would like to be treated by some- those with mental illness “with an open mind and one who saw signs of their depression on Facebook. without judgment” and shared personal stories on Almost every student said that they would be open these issues. Since the start of the campaign, dozens to communication from friends, professors and of people have followed suit, documenting their own RAs. More than 30 percent said they would be okay experiences with mental illness on Twitter, Vimeo with receiving a message from a stranger. and Instagram with the hashtag #IWillListen. Most respondents, however, added that they As Moreno sees it, social media “offers us tools preferred people to contact them directly—either that we didn’t have 10 years ago,” when the same one-on-one, over the phone or via e-mail—and with people were walking around with little social sup- an open mind. “The emphasis was on this idea of be- port and few opportunities for others to witness ing inquisitive: asking questions rather than making their distress. Now that we have the tools, it is just judgments,” Moreno says. a matter of using them. M In addition, some amount of automated support could help sufferers. Researchers at Harvard Uni- FURTHER READING versity, Dartmouth College and other institutions are now developing apps that monitor smartphone ■■College Students’ Responses to Mental Health Status Updates on Facebook. Katie G. Egan, Rosalind N. Koff and Megan A. Moreno in Issues and social media activity to detect signs of distress. in Mental Health Nursing, V ol. 34, No. 1, pages 46–51; January 2013. This data trail could allow clinicians to intervene ■■Friends Don’t Let Friends Suffer from Depression: How Threat, Efficacy, before symptoms intensify or send users automated Knowledge, and Empathy Relate to College Students’ Intentions to suggestions for how to improve their mood or get Intervene on Behalf of a Depressed Friend. Nichole Egbert, Lori B. Miraldi back in touch with reality. and Krishnamurti Murniadi in Journal of Health Communication, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 460–477; April 2014. ■■I Will Listen campaign: http://naminyc.iwilllisten.org Learning to Listen From Our Archives Beyond offering new lifelines for people under ■■Are Social Networks Messing with Your Head? David DiSalvo; January/ duress, social media may now be lifting the veil of February 2010. silence that has long shrouded mental disorders. So- ■■Managing Your Digital Afterlife. Carrie Arnold; September/October 2013.

YOUR

FUTURE BRAIN

THE

HE ALING TOUCH 





YOUR  ELECTRIC PHARMACY Future medications for brain disorders could be delivered through electrodes rather than pills By Marom Bikson and Peter Toshev

Illustration by RADIO

Your temples throb as you enter the pharmacy. For months you have been battling daily migraine headaches. You have tried your doctor’s every sug- gestion—drinking more water, changing your diet, getting extra sleep— and downing a host of pain pills. Now you are armed with a prescription for a totally different kind of treatment. The pharmacist guides you to a shelf of headgear, labeled bersome, dangerous or costly. In contrast, tDCS is noninvasive, with different brain regions. She fits you for a cap, the under- inexpensive, user-friendly and portable. The only known side side of which features thin conductive metal strips, called effects are minor skin redness and irritation, which can be cor- electrodes, coated in adhesive gel to stick gently to your scalp. rected by adjusting the headgear. The electrodes link to a slim cable that dangles from the back In fact, some scientists suspect that tDCS could launch a new of the cap. She then hands over the key component of your era in treatment that could rival traditional drugs. Researchers prescribed medication:Y an electric stimulator. have spent decades struggling to develop pharmaceutical med- Once a day for the next week you will don the headgear icines that can enter the brain and heal it, with only mixed suc- and plug the cable into this device for a 20-minute dose of cess. Now a growing community of brain scientists hope that electricity. Setting aside your trepidation, you give it a try in electricity might succeed where chemicals have largely failed. At front of the pharmacist. At first you feel only a tingling sen- least one company—GlaxoSmithKline—is already funding re- sation and then relief. search into electrical therapies. Clinics and hospitals around the As you wear the cap, an electric current is traveling from world have begun to offer the technique to patients in need of re- the electrodes, past hair, scalp and bone, into the brain regions habilitation. The Department of Defense has invested tens of responsible for your migraines. At first it merely blunts the millions of dollars into investigating techniques that can boost pain, but over time it will also gradually rewire your neurons cognition in healthy individuals. The media buzz surrounding to prevent future attacks. The pharmacist explains that you these developments has inspired a community of hobbyists who will be free to carry on with your day—finish chores, watch are eschewing caution and attempting tDCS at home. television, go for a walk—with the cap on your head, and when To develop tDCS into a credible therapy and enhancer, sci- the dose is up, the stimulator will simply stop running. entists will need to answer many lingering questions. They For now this scene is still the stuff of science fiction, but must determine the proper doses of electric current that work many researchers believe that within the next few years this best with different ailments. And they must dramatically scale form of treatment could become commonplace. The tech- up experiments to clarify the safety and efficacy of these treat- nique, called transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS), ments across large populations. Those caveats aside, the grow- is being investigated for dozens of applications, including ing interest in tDCS suggests patients and physicians are eager helping people recover from brain injury, treating depression, for new methods to treat the brain. In a few years’ time, small enhancing vigilance and managing pain. doses of electric current may be just what the doctor orders. Using electricity to tinker with the brain is nothing new. We have long known that neurons send electrical signals to com- The Brain Electric municate. In response, scientists have sought to hack these mis- The basic components of this technology are straightfor- sives to alter or heal the brain. Yet most efforts have been cum- ward: a power source and a way to transfer electricity into the brain. So simple is the technique that even humans of antiqui- ty explored rudimentary forms of it. In the first centurya.d. , FAST FACTS for example, Roman emperor Claudius’s physician applied tor- IT’S ELECTRIC! pedo fish (electric rays) to the skull to treat headaches. Eigh- nnTranscranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) applies a weak teenth-century electrical discoveries led to more sophisticated electric current to the scalp to modulate signals in the brain. experimentation. By 1802 Italian physicist Giovanni Aldini had ooThis technique shows promise in treating several brain-based proposed a treatment for depression that involved tapping a pa- conditions that have stumped pharmaceutical researchers, tient’s head with direct current from a battery. including migraine pain and depression. The 20th century brought more complex techniques for ppOnce scientists establish a more uniform procedure and com prehensive understanding of dosage, tDCS could become a electrical healing onto the scene. In the 1930s doctors began widely used therapy. treating mental illness by inducing seizures with electric

58 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN COURTESY OF LABORATORY OF MAROM BIKSON more activemore down. quiet or them make neurons either flowcurrent can the of electric like acts The technique avolume in dial, which MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM out of and in ions of charged movement by the created are themselves signals The synapses. called connections through of electricity aspike by releasing tion informa receive and send Neurons nals. sig to electric respond could cells brain which way in the altering was tDCS TMS. from expected changes yond the be above and of neurons behavior the influenced current weak the Somehow activity. neural on effect areal had tDCS that convincingly demonstrate able to was experiment this a result, As brain. the altered way TMS of the ing coil. magnetic the of effects the to fine-tune tDCS use could they essence, In byTMS. initiated twitching pinky the ish dimin or intensify either would discovered they which brain, the through traveled current the direction the change could and Paulus Nitsche setup, the configured how on they pending De electrode. other the out through and brain the into skull, the through electrode, one in of current alow amount sent it on Turning to abattery. them linked and cortex motor of the to wiggle. pinky the caused activity such ducing Pro finger. pinky aperson’s right in movement controls that area the in activity electrical induced device This coil. magnetic large a under cortex motor participants’ their placed first ers research The technology. established a more to TMS, sponse brain’s re the it to alter used they byitself, tDCS administering than Rather this. of doing means ingenious an developed many Ger in of Göttingen University August George of the Paulus induce. could technique this changes physiological the measure and a waydemonstrate to to find was pioneers forthese lenge chal The tDCS. modern evolve into ultimately would that ry centu 20th the throughout stimulation brain of electrical form brain. of the conditions treating for ise prom most to hold the believed were interventions, electrical not discoveries, Drug resort. of last procedures considered generally were effects, side serious cases some in and ment equip involve expensive which methods, These electrodes. implanted of surgically aid the with or (TMS), stimulation ic magnet transcranial called atechnique magnets, large using outside the from either activated electrically be could gions re brain that demonstrated scientists later years Fifty shocks. Nitsche and Paulus suspected that that suspected Paulus and Nitsche understand astrong had already researchers time the At over portions electrodes two placed also Paulus and Nitsche Walter and Nitsche Michael neurophysiologists 2000 In a simple with tinkering kept nonetheless researchers A few

- - - www.diako.ir © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC ------naturally in the brain. the in naturally produced those but also coil amagnetic from signals electric the only not manipulate could approach this that revealed experiments Subsequent responsive. less are moves current re that electrode the near those But signals. to electric sitive sen more become brain the into current introduces that trode elec the near Neurons messages. electric to other responses their enhance or blunt alternately it can neurons, through and around flows current this As acircuit. in brain and head the way its through wends that ions of charged ariver produces to fire. them forcing ions, admit and expel to neurons cause can magnet powerful the TMS, In cells. brain Consider the case of migraine pain. Brain scans of people af of people scans Brain pain. of migraine case the Consider relief. apatient bring could setups stimulation different many means which to adisease, contribute regions brain multiple Typically problem. foragiven to target neurons best the ing both. or dysfunction, to contributes that activity dampen or brain the to heal helps that signaling to increase used be could technique The ders. disor for treating of options abundance an neuroscientists Health Jump-Starting down. them quiet voluble more or neurons make either can technique this in current flow electric of The dial. avolume as serves tDCS action, into neurons certain kick effectively proaches ap electrical other Whereas benefits. therapeutic offers it that but also brain’s activity the change can tDCS that only not have confirmed scientists numerous periment, In the 14 years since Paulus and Nitsche’s seminal ex seminal Nitsche’s and Paulus since 14 the years In It effect. asubtler has by tDCS created current the But The first challenge in using tDCS as a therapy is identify therapy as a tDCS using in challenge first The offered chatter neuronal up down or to dial ability The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC

the head and brain. into current electric controlled of dose right ( device tor astimula to wired electrodes are The tDCS. ister admin they when place in electrodes right top straps ( adjustable head use Researchers ) to send a a send ) to left left ) to hold hold ) to bottom bottom and and

- ------59 YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE HE ALING TOUCH flicted with these severe headaches have revealed that before ually lose their linkages. Adding tDCS can therefore heighten an attack, part of their visual cortex becomes more active. So the brain’s ability to rewire itself—its plasticity. Paulus and his colleagues decided to see if quieting that area A boost in plasticity can have powerful implications for re- with tDCS could prevent headaches. pairing the brain after damage. During a stroke, for example, In the study, which was published in 2011, 12 migraine suf- the blood supply to a part of the brain becomes blocked, starv- ferers received six weeks of electric stimulation. For 15 minutes ing neurons and damaging their connections. Through months a day, three days a week, the scientists directed current to dis- of rehabilitation, people can relearn lost skills as their plastic courage signaling in the migraineurs’ visual cortex. The re- brain builds new connections among surviving neurons. Incor- maining individuals received a sham treatment, in which they porating tDCS could potentially speed up their recovery. merely experienced a tingling sensation. Eight weeks later the In 2011 Harvard Medical School neuroscientist Felipe Many scientists believe tDCS could quell symptoms from a host of conditions, including dementia, epilepsy and schizophrenia.

researchers followed up with their participants. Subjects who Fregni and his collaborators investigated this idea while had received the full course of tDCS had shorter migraines, working with 14 patients who spent two weeks engaging in with significantly less pain, than those in the sham condition regular exercises to regain motor control. In addition, the did. The treatment was not a cure-all—it did not make mi- subjects received either 40 minutes of daily tDCS or a sham graines less frequent—but it seemed to at least soften their blow. treatment. Fregni and his colleagues aimed current at injured Other experiments, however, have hinted at a different brain areas in the motor cortex to encourage the growth of way to assuage migraine pain. Namely, stimulating parts of new connections. All the patients gained some motor func- the motor cortex is known to trigger the release of natural tion after two weeks of therapy. Yet the group receiving tDCS painkillers called opioids. A year after Paulus’s migraine recuperated the most. In a sense, tDCS seems to help the study, a second group of scientists, led by University of Mich- brain to help itself. igan pain neuroscientist Alexandre DaSilva and including one Rehabilitation and pain management are just two prom- of us (Bikson), opted to rev up the motor cortex with electric ising avenues of tDCS research. As we learn more about the current. During the course of four weeks, seven migraine pa- networks in the brain associated with neurological and psy- tients received 10 sessions of tDCS, 20 minutes each, and five chiatric disorders, many scientists believe the technique could others received sham stimulation. The recipients of tDCS did quell symptoms from a host of conditions, including demen- not experience immediate relief, but in the weeks that fol- tia, epilepsy and schizophrenia. lowed, they reported less pain than individuals in the sham The small, proof-of-concept studies that have occupied sci- group, and their relief persisted for months. Ultimately these entists for the past decade are now giving way to large-scale, different approaches may allow clinicians to craft customized long-term trials. In 2013, for example, University of São Pau- treatments for patients. lo physiologist Andre Brunoni led a six-week, 120-patient tri- As both experiments demonstrated, the full effects of tDCS al in which tDCS had comparable benefits to a commonly pre- can materialize slowly and endure for weeks or months. This is scribed antidepressant in treating depression. Brunoni is now in part because tweaking the rate at which neurons fire can al- expanding his efforts with a pool of 240 patients and other ter the architecture of the brain in lasting ways. When brain medications. Studies of this kind will be the best way to illu- cells activate together, the connections among them grow stron- minate the technique’s full potential going forward. ger and more numerous. Cells that seldom fire in concert grad- Zap to Attention Aside from tDCS’s promise as a therapy, many people have THE AUTHORS become fascinated by how stimulation could change the lives MAROM BIKSON is a professor of biomedical engineering of healthy individuals. If we can suss out the core networks at the City College of New York. Bikson has more than 120 linked with such abilities as critical thinking and creativity, the papers and 30 patents. He co-founded Soterix Medical, logic goes, scientists could give those areas a boost. Or they which designs neuromodulation devices. PETER TOSHEV is could dial down unwanted negative emotions and bad habits. a consultant for neuromodulation research and product Indeed, growing evidence supports the idea that tDCS development for academic research laboratories and pri- could enhance the brain’s abilities in domains as diverse as vate companies. Together Bikson and Toshev founded Neuro curbing junk food cravings and modifying mood. Several re- modec, a professional organization for neuromodulation. search groups have proposed that tDCS can accelerate an in-

ISTOCKPHOTO the prefrontal dorsolateral to cortex improve vigilance. themigraines, motor for cortex pain relief and rehabilitation, and treat to cortex visual the targeted have tDCS using Researchers cortex prefrontal Dorsolateral MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM mech basic the unraveling still are researchers hand, one On Ready for Prime Time? sleep-deprived. help the someday could electricity rest night’s a good beats Nothing hours. two foronly persisted and potent less was contrast, in kick, Caffeine’s hours. six for lasted alertness in boost this and scores, test their in improvements nounced pro showed tDCS receiving group the that discovered researchers the trial, of the end the At enhancers. vigilance favorite of humanity’s one caffeine, with head-to-head tDCS pit could way, this McKinley In gum. of caffeinated a stick obtained also subjects 10 and of these mark, four-hour at the memory. working and attention them among functions, many supporting area an cortex, prefrontal dorsolateral the in activity to stimulate current electric aimed team the case, this In gum. chewing plain some and of tDCS session a 40-minute gave 10 recruits researchers the in, hours Four tests. of attention aseries taking while of wakefulness hours 30 to endure who had recruits military 30 with worked team McKinley’s vigilance. improving in of tDCS use the on ings find his published Laboratories Research Force Air U.S. the of McKinley Andy engineer 2014 In biomedical areas. choice rest. and exercise of practice, of lots themselves to avail need still would enhancement cognitive seeking therapy, users ical phys traditional with stimulation coupled study rehabilitation of stead with tandem in to occur need certainly almost would tDCS using performance to elevate attempts Any modest. are pattern. finger-pinching intricate an memorizing as such tasks motor complex as well as rules, grammatical and words new to master ability dividual’s Scientists working with tDCS are now at a crossroads. now at acrossroads. are tDCS with working Scientists stimulation of sham a session had recruits remaining The afew in approaches conventional exceed might Yet tDCS effects their and size in small relatively still are studies These — old-fashioned approaches to learning. Just as Fregni’s Fregni’s as Just to learning. approaches old-fashioned — but perhaps swapping java swapping forajolt of but perhaps Motor Motor cortex

www.diako.ir cortex Visual — not in not © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC - - - - - tremendously exciting, there is still much more we have to more much still is there exciting, tremendously are field this in findings the Although at home. studies these to replicate trying individuals about concerned deeply is technique. of this potential or limitations the either appreciate fully we cannot trials, larger Without uncomfortable. increasingly become could itself stimulation but the a attacks, patient’s diminish further might graines mi to treat current raising For example, trade-offs. face point at some will practitioners that possible but it is application, to every unique be will this for conditions The up to apoint. results improve may dosage increasing drugs, with As of stimulation. intensity optimal the as well as condition, foragiven placed be ideally should electrodes the out where figure to nowneed Scientists findings. modest to produce tion of stimula levels weak very have used studies far Thus age. world. real to the technique this to bring angling are companies and agencies government patients, other, the on and of tDCS, anisms ■ ■ ■ Archives Our From ■ ■ ■ FURTHER READING coffee. morning your sipping or apill popping as commonplace as become may thinking and forhealing acap on putting out, further A little practice. their in stimulation have to adopt electrical will clinicians outcome, this aided. be achieve To finally may depression, and pain chronic as such treatment, eluded long have that conditions with whostruggle of people Millions to self-improvement. routes pave new could advances these All brain. the to benefits unique offer can which current, orpulsed apply alternating that techniques as such therapies, bioelectric of other studies sparked even has tDCS in terest in of surge The benefits. enormous offers research ever, this care. with tDCS surrounding hype approach the must alike scientists and public the interim, the In stimulation. electric about learn ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Richard P. Chi; November/December 2012. P. November/December Richard Chi; 2009. 2008/January December Aziz; Z. Tipu and Kringelbach Psychiatry, Clinical Study.Depression Repair, Patients. Movementwith Constraint-Induced Therapy in Poststroke 2000. September 633–639; pages in Paulus Walter and Stimulation. Current Direct Transcranial Weak Switching on Creativity. “Pacemakers.” Brain with Recovery Sparking Depression. Off Turning vs. Sertraline The Combined of tDCS Neurophysiological and Behavioral Effects by Cortex Motor Human the in Induced Changes Excitability Given these known unknowns, the research community community research the unknowns, known these Given dos is to address questions remaining major of the One As long as we balance our optimism with caution, how caution, with optimism our we balance as long As V ol. 25, No. 9, pages 819–829; November/December 2011. November/December 819–829; 9, 25, No. pages ol. Nadia B Nadia V ol. 70, No. 4, pages 383–391; April 2013. April 383–391; 70,ol. 4, pages No. M olognini et al. in in al. et olognini Electrical CurrentElectrical Therapy for Treating Journal of Physiology, David Dobbs; August/September 2006. August/September Dobbs; David Allan W. Snyder, Sophie Ellwood and and Ellwood Sophie W. Snyder, Allan Andre R. B R. Andre Neurorehabilitation and Neural and Neural Neurorehabilitation runoni et al. in in al. et runoni SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC V ol. 527,ol. 3, No. Morten L. L. Morten Michael Nitsche JAMA JAMA —

but only only but - - - - -

61 YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE HE ALING TOUCH

LET

THERE

BE LIGHTBy engineering brain cells to switch on or off in response to light, scientists are unlocking the mysteries of the mind and crafting new remedies for brain disorders

By Edward S. Boyden Illustration by VAULT 49

62 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.COM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 63 www.diako.ir© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN YOUR FUTURE BRAIN THE HE ALING TOUCH

In a neuroscience laboratory in Boston, a mouse explores a plastic box, poking its nose into this corner and that. The behavior is normal, but the rodent bears a novel prosthesis: a thin glass optical fiber extends from its head and connects to a laser that can generate brief pulses of blue light. The fiber is directed at a small cluster of cells deep in the brain that manufacture the neurotransmitter dopamine.

Drugs of abuse increase dopamine levels in the of those cells in behavior, sensory processing or brain, suggesting that the neurotransmitter conveys even disease. reward or pleasure, sometimes to a detrimental For a century neuroscientists have used electric- end—but no one knows the precise role of dopa- ity to trigger neuronal activity, sending current mine-making cells in addiction. By stimulating these down a conducting wire. In the 1950s neurosur- cells specifically, my group, working with neurosci- geon Wilder Penfield, for example, found that stim- entist Chris Fiorillo of the Korea Advanced Institute ulating certain sites in the brains of epileptic pa- of Science and Technology, hoped to find out. tients could cause them to recall childhood memo- Perhaps out of curiosity, the mouse pokes its ries. Others have found they could create visual nose into a corner of the box equipped with a move- perceptions, make ordinary things seem funny or ment sensor, triggering a flash of blue light from the even partially arouse people from a coma. Stimulat- laser, which courses down the fiber and activates ing the brain can prove that neurons in a specific re- the dopamine neurons near its tip. The mouse paus- gion drive complex emergent behaviors in a way es for a second and then jabs its nose again into the that simply observing the brain cannot. sensor, earning another pulse of light. Over and But because the brain packs approximately over, it repeats this behavior, working for light. The 100,000 neurons and a billion synaptic connections results, published in 2012, show that activating just in every cubic millimeter of tissue, electrically stim- this small cluster of dopamine cells, even briefly, can ulating even a tiny location in the brain will excite a make an animal do more of what it was just doing. very large number of intermeshed cells of different In this way, dopamine neurons could directly drive kinds. Thus, electricity cannot elucidate exactly a pattern of behavior reminiscent of addiction. which cells drive what behaviors. In contrast, if cells Of course, dopamine cells are not normally ac- of a single type, such as dopamine neurons, are tivated by light. We make them light-sensitive using equipped with light-sensitive molecules, illumina- a technology we developed known as optogenetics. tion will excite those cells exclusively. Over the past We endow neurons with molecules that act as min- decade hundreds of research groups have used opto- iature solar panels, which enable them to convert il- genetics to learn how various networks of neurons lumination into electrical signals, the currency of contribute to behavior, perception and cognition. computation in the brain. By issuing these tiny so- For example, they have identified one set of neurons lar panels to one type of neuron of the many thou- that triggers aggression, another that can drive sands in the brain, we can determine the precise role memory recall and a third that can augment perception of detail. In recent years we have expanded our molecular toolbox to include not only molecules that FAST FACTS enliven neurons but also those that silence them. We SOLAR-POWERED THOUGHT have found proteins that respond to different wave- nnUsing optogenetics, scientists endow neurons with molecules that act as min- iature solar panels, enabling the cells to convert illumination into electrical lengths of light, allowing scientists to modulate mul- signals, the currency of computation in the brain. tiple sets of interacting neurons at once. The result is ooBy delivering the tiny solar panels to a single type of neuron of the many thou- ever more precise manipulation of brain circuits. sands in the brain, researchers can use light to determine the precise role of Optogenetics is also revealing potential targets those neurons in behavior, sensory processing or even disease. for the treatment of brain disorders, which affect ppOver the past decade hundreds of research groups have used optogenetics more than a billion people worldwide. By revealing to identify, among other things, a set of neurons in mice that triggers aggression, another that can drive memory recall and a third that can augment how neural circuits work, the technology could point perception of visual details. to better targets in the brain for both drugs and

64 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN www.diako.ir AGE FOTOSTOCK (lake); GETTY IMAGES (salt ponds and green algae Chlamydomonas); SCIENCE SOURCE (halobacteria) MIND.SCIENTIFICAMERICAN.C scarce. are light than other sources gy ener where environments harsh in thrive bacteria help may and metabolism cellular support dopsins, bacteriorho as known proteins, These other. the to membrane of side the one ions) from ly charged (positive protons transport proteins the mination, illu On membranes. cell sit in that proteins driven light- with endowed are water salty very in live that discovered that a class of organisms single-celled Germany, Martinsried, in of Biochemistry Institute Planck Max now at the Oesterhelt, Dieter ologist bi and Francisco, San of California, University the of Walther Stoeckenius biologist late 1971 the In of vision. kind aprimitive in molecules these gage en life-forms other compounds; chemical ergy-rich ( Bay Francisco San of ponds salt the including water, salty very populate proteins, light-sensitive several alga green the from comes protein such One microbes. from proteins light-sensitive borrowed have scientists brain, the in neurons specific off To or on turn en into light translate molecules these tosynthesis, pho In processes. chemical or electrical important it to drive use and light capture that molecules tain Algae from Adoptions blindness. for atreatment yield even might to light Parkinson’s cells visual responsive Making disease. with patients in function motor enhance or seizure epileptic an during activity aberrant the down turn able to instantly be might One precision. extreme with sculpted be could away, dynamics ly years brain like is and techniques therapy gene advanced require would that a process to humans, adapted be could optogenetics If stimulators. electrical implanted wereit circuit. acomputer to developI hoped tools if as to brain analyze the physics, and myengineering inWith electrical training In the late 1970s scientists identified light-driv identified scientists 1970s late the In con of life tree over the all scattered Organisms Chlamydomonas O M

( left inset left ), whose habitats include freshwater lakes ( lakes freshwater include habitats ), whose www.diako.ir ------© 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC dent Karl Deisseroth about technologies we could could we technologies about Deisseroth Karl dent stu my fellow with brainstorming Iwas University, at Stanford student agraduate as of 2000, spring the In actuators. light-driven tiny of these utility tential light. with interact how organisms stand under to better molecules these studied scientists other and microbiologists biophysicists, decades For sunlight. to capture of ponds surface the ward to steer can microbes the that so algae’s flagella the control that signals molecular into light convert they algae; green in discovered were rhodopsins, channel as known ion channels light-gated ecules, of mol class athird 2002 in And organisms. same the in halorhodopsins as known pumps chloride en tion of proteins, so if we delivered the genes for genes the we delivered if so of proteins, tion produc the specify genes creatures, living In mans. hu into someday maybe and mice, as such ganisms, or other into them engineer likely we could meant states. pathological or behaviors specific in neurons those role of just the determine we could nipulation, ma either Using activity. their boost and cells the down to shut them cells the into ions move negative would them on alight shining that so cells of brain branes mem the into ionpumps microbial these serting in to imagine Ibegan circuit. acomputer it were if as brain the to analyze tools to develop I hoped ics, phys and engineering electrical in my training With brain. of the study the accelerate to radically develop As an engineer, I became fascinated with the po the with fascinated Ibecame engineer, an As The fact that living things made these proteins proteins these made things living that fact The — or, potentially, to convey positive ions into into ions positive to convey or, potentially, left ). Halobacteria ( right ). right inset right SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC ------), which produce

65 HE ALING ALING HE FUTURE FUTURE BRAIN TOUCH YOUR YOUR THE THE 66

charged particles into it ( it into particles charged ( eyespot an have algae Some

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC

these light-sensitive proteins into brain cells, the the cells, brain into proteins light-sensitive these ogies for mapping and fixing the brain. brain. the fixing and mapping for ogies improving the human condition through new technol radically in interested is He optogenetics. in work his for world, the in prize research brain largest the Prize, B European Lundbeck Grete the shared B for Institute McGovern the M.I.T. and the at Lab Media sciences of biological engineering and brain and cognitive BOYDEN S. EDWARD THE AUTH afunc produced cells The cells. mammalian tured cul into alga agreen from ion channel a light-gated for gene the inserted successfully had Nagel’s team colleagues. his and Germany in of Würzburg sity Univer of the Nagel Georg by biophysicist year that earlier published apaper Iread 2003 late In ment. environ saltwater extreme an from different quite is which brain, mammalian the in function would that pumps light-driven finding was challenge One neurons. into them to get trying start could I that so ionpumps light-activated encoding DNA protein. its produce will cells pamine do the only to a mouse, gene the we deliver when Then to insert. we want gene to the pieces those link and on switch neurons only, say,that dopamine sequences DNA take we can of genes, sets different on turn of cells types different Because cells. tain cer in only expressed, or made, is protein its that so a gene however, tailor We can, neurons. dopamine as such types, cell to specific genes direct atically to system us allow donot techniques engineering genetic Current rest. dothe theory, in could, cells right I asked several colleagues to send me pieces of pieces me to send colleagues several I asked ). This flow of charge fuels molecular motors that power the alga’s whiplike flagella, which propel it. propel which flagella, whiplike alga’s the power that motors molecular fuels charge of flow This ). left OR ) that enables them to swim toward light. When light hits the eyespot, protein channels open to let let to open channels protein eyespot, the hits light When light. toward swim to them enables ) that rain Research at M.I.T. He recently M.I.T. at recently Research He rain is an associate professor www.diako.ir © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC rain Research Research rain

------ic to the neuron for any number of reasons. number any for neuron to the ic prove tox also could protein inserted The signaling. neuronal to alter current little too generate or speed wrong at the open for example, might, channel The neurons. on effect have any would light ward move to evolved to help algae that ionchannel an er We wheth abit shot. of was along no idea had iment exper The amicroscope. on alamp from blue light of flashes to neuron first the Iexposed 2004, 4, gust at 1 and gene, the with neurons cultured bathed Deisseroth gene. his us to send Nagel asked to light. sponse re in cells the into ions charged positively ported trans that channelrhodopsin-2, protein, tional in response to light. to light. response in out of cells ions charged positively bypumping tivity ac neural suppress could that pumps proton driven light- Ifound and Han of Pennsylvania, University Chow, now at the Brian neuroengineer years two next the In signaling. neural silence and charged) negatively are (which ions chloride in pump would a halorhodopsin neurons, into insertion on that Ishowed and University, now at Boston Han, Xue of Technology, neuroengineer Institute sachusetts Mas at the professor assistant an Iwas while 2007 in published apaper In toolbox. control neural our paper. a2005 in sults re these we described neurons; cultured in release neurotransmitter and activity electrical stimulate to reliably light We used had aplant. from opted ad protein of this insertion the survived easily It wear. for worse the none looked neuron the more, is What generate. naturally neurons that those like just pulses electrical firing ron responded, To my amazement, however, the first test neu test first however, the To my amazement, I and scholar, apostdoctoral then Deisseroth, I then began working with colleagues to expand to expand colleagues with working began I then Nov em b er /D ecem a.m. b on Au on er 2014 ------

COURTESY OF BOYDEN LAB © 2014 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN © 2014 SCIENTIFIC A few years ago our then graduate student Na- planted an optical fiber. When they delivered light than Klapoetke discovered, through mining a data- through the fiber, activating these neurons, the mice base of gene sequences from algae, light-driven ion immediately attacked other mice. They even as- channels that can respond rapidly enough to pro- saulted inanimate objects such as gloves, under- duce the fastest electrical pulses seen in the brain. scoring the cells’ powerful influence over this com- Also from this database, Klapoetke identified ion plex behavior. Defining such circuits may lead us to channels that activate neurons in response to red an improved understanding of the causes of aggres- light, whose longer wavelengths can penetrate sion and suggest new ways to help people control deeper into tissue than blue light can and thus can their actions. activate neurons from farther away. A graduate stu- Researchers have also used optogenetics to dent in our lab, Amy Chuong, also found an ion hunt down the neural basis of memory recall. In a pump that can silence neurons in response to red 2012 study neuroscientists Xu Liu and Susumu light, even deep in the brain. Together these mole- Tonegawa, both at M.I.T., and their colleagues cre- cules opened the door to turning up or down the ated transgenic mice that carried the gene for chan- volume on multiple populations of neurons using nelrhodopsin-2 but would only express the protein different colors of light, enabling scientists to draw in neurons that had recently been active. The mice

When scientists delivered light through the fiber, activating these neurons, the mice immediately attacked other mice. They also assaulted objects such as gloves. sophisticated connections between various brain then heard a tone before receiving a shock. Over circuits and behavior. For instance, activating do- time the mice learned to associate the tone with the pamine neurons while stimulating a sensory path- shock, and they froze from fear whenever they way might show us how patterns of activity from heard it. After a mouse learned this link, the re- sensory neurons—such as those associated with searchers found that neurons in its dentate gyrus, drug-related objects or odors—drive behavior. a part of the hippocampus known to be involved in memory formation, were expressing channelrho- Attack Neurons dopsin-2, suggesting that these neurons were in- We have distributed our newfound tools to well volved in creating the fearful memories. Delivering over 1,000 research groups worldwide. Using these light to this region reactivated the neurons, and the microbial machines to control neurons, researchers animals would freeze again even in the absence of are identifying the neural networks that drive par- a tone, showing that these neurons can indepen- ticular behaviors. A few years ago neuroscientists dently trigger the recall of specific memories. In Dayu Lin, now at New York University, and David this way, optogenetics can reveal how complex in- J. Anderson of the California Institute of Technol- formation is stored in the brain. ogy wanted to know which cells in the brain could Optogenetic tools can also help scientists better trigger violence. In work published in 2011 they and understand the function of specific types of neurons their colleagues searched for a molecular sign of re- within known brain circuits. In a study published cent neural activity in the brains of mice that had in 2012 neuroscientists Seung-Hee Lee, now at the just been in a fight. They found this sign in a cluster Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technolo- of cells in the hypothalamus, a small, deeply embed- gy, Yang Dan of the University of California, Berke- ded brain region. The activation of these neurons ley, and their colleagues engineered mice to express during aggressive behavior, however, did not mean optogenetic activators in star-shaped neurons in the they contribute to violence, because their activity visual cortex, at the back of the brain. When they could have been a by-product of computations else- flipped the light switch, selectively activating these where in the brain. So the researchers injected a vi- neurons, the mice more reliably licked a spout when rus carrying the gene for channelrhodopsin-2 into the scientists showed them an array of lines that sig- this part of the hypothalamus, where they also im- naled the availability of water from the spout. Acti-

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC

become a remedy for some types of blindness. typesfor of blindness. some remedy a become visual cells responsive day one to might light ofoptogenetics, making application another In vating these star-shaped neurons seemed to help the to help the seemed neurons star-shaped these vating in many cases, halt the seizure within seconds. seconds. within seizure the halt cases, many in could, began aseizure as soon as cells these on light shining that found scientists The forebrain. the in neurons excitatory in for ahalorhodopsin gene the expressed they antidote: an with engineered also but were seizures to epileptic prone them made that a drug given been had mice These mice. in tion direc this in astep took Irvine, of California, sity Univer at the colleagues their and Soltesz Ivan and Krook-Magnuson Esther 2013 neuroscientists in work published In patients. forthese option er asaf represent could light with circuits neural rant aber the to reset ability The movement. or speech as such functions, critical in impairment permanent cause can treatment the removed, is tissue which on Depending seizures. the generating brain of the part of the removal surgical for opt sometimes tion to medica adults) do who not respond in types mon com (one most of the epilepsy lobe temporal with ions. negative admit that pumps ion light-sensitive to engineered neurons carry a of set silences illumination ( it activating cell, the into flow the channels open; positive ions neuron, the on shines light blue ( aneuron of brane mem the into amicrobe from channel ion alight-sensitive of copies to insert ing techniques genetic use engineer Scientists disorders. neurological various underlie that target potentially and Move a Making environment. the in features visual to discriminate brain’s ability the enhance can of neurons set this that indicate sults re The present. of was water the availability fied signi that stimulus the when confident more were they aresult, As vision. their sharpening perhaps mice distinguish arrays of different orientations, center These technologies can also be used to used be also can technologies These ). At the far right, orange orange right, far the At ). left ). When —

specific circuits in the brain brain the in circuits specific - www.diako.ir

their colleagues tested a less intrusive Parkinson’s Parkinson’s intrusive aless tested colleagues their and Deisseroth at Caltech, now aneuroscientist ru, Gradina Viviana 2009 in published experiment an In effects. have therapeutic location that in trodes elec that found have serendipitously surgeons cause be nucleus subthalamic the called structure seated at a deep- aimed often is stimulation The tremors. reduce and movement to facilitate brains their in implanted electrodes have had disorders movement other and Parkinson’s with of patients thousands of tens Forexample, treatments. existing livering ways of de safer have suggested animals in iments genes, leading to blindness. Without photoreceptor photoreceptor Without to blindness. leading genes, various in mutations 100 than of more of any sult re the as off die or atrophy eye the in cells sensitive) (light- photoreceptor pigmentosa, retinitis disorder the In of blindness. types forsome aremedy come be day one might to light responsive cells visual scalp. the on outside even or brain the in superficially more placed electrodes from benefit might patients that Parkinson’s suggests finding this brain’s surface, the on is cortex motor the Because symmetrical. more became movements their and out straightened mice of these gait the rhodopsin-2, channel made that cortex motor the in cells certain to activate light used researchers the When circles. in to walk them causing of Parkinson’s, acteristics char other among by aslow gait, body ofside the one on hobbled were mice these drug, of a influence of the Because optogenetics. using mice in therapy In other cases, results from optogenetics exper optogenetics from results cases, other In In another application of optogenetics, making making of optogenetics, application another In Nov em

b er /D

ecem b er 2014 ------

COURTESY OF BOYDEN LAB cells, the eye cannot convert light into neural signals turbation of a defined set of cells influences brain -dy that the brain can interpret. Various research teams namics. In a step in this direction, we worked with are exploring whether electrical stimulators con- physicist and neuroscientist Alipasha Vaziri of the nected to a camera can convey visual information University of Vienna in Austria and his colleagues from the captured image to spared visual cells. Be- earlier this year to develop a microscope optimized cause electricity spreads, however, this technique for imaging neural activity, in 3-D, throughout en- produces only low-resolution vision: people see tire organisms. points of light or heavily pixelated images. An alter- The Obama administration’s BRAIN Initiative, native strategy is to genetically deliver one of the launched in 2013, is aimed at stimulating the devel- proteins that converts light into neural signals to a opment of technologies for revealing how the brain set of surviving cells. Such a technique has restored works. The discoveries in optogenetics underscore some vision in blind mice. Several teams, some of the importance of looking in unlikely places for those them at biotech companies, are now exploring tools, from desert salt lakes to mountain ponds. The

whether this genetic modification could be a cure extraordinary story that began with curiosity about for blindness in people. microbial proteins that had no obvious practical use is leading, half a century later, to the unraveling of Engineering the Human Brain? such fundamental brain processes as thought and To use optogenetics to treat patients, however, emotion and to the discovery of safer, more effective would require several significant advances. By pre- treatments for brain disorders. M cisely manipulating the DNA of mice and other creatures very early in their development, we can insert a new protein into specific cells of their bodies. FURTHER READING In humans, in contrast, making cells responsive to ■■Optical Deconstruction of Parkinsonian Neural Circuitry. Viviana Gradinaru et al. in Science, Vol. 324, light would require inserting a new gene into a ful- pages 354–359; April 17, 2009. ly formed individual, and gene therapy techniques ■■A Light Switch for Neurons. TED talk by Ed Boyden; that can accomplish that feat cannot reliably re- March 2011. www.ted.com/talks/ed_boyden strict the expression of that gene to a specific cell ■■A History of Optogenetics: The Development of Tools type. Such a therapy—including the new, foreign for Controlling Brain Circuits with Light. Edward S. proteins—would also have to be proved safe over Boyden in F1000 Biology Reports, V ol. 3, Article No. 11; May 3, 2011. the long term. In addition, we would need to devel- ■■Optogenetic Stimulation of a Hippocampal Engram op implantable optical devices that could illuminate Activates Fear Memory Recall. Xu Liu et al. in Nature, neurons over an extended period. Vol. 484, pages 381–385; April 19, 2012. In the meantime, and perhaps more important, ■■On-Demand Optogenetic Control of Spontaneous optogenetic tools will help us greatly refine our Seizures in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Esther Krook- Magnuson et al. in Nature Communications, V ol. 4, maps of the brain, which will then point the way to- Article No. 1376; January 22, 2013. ward strategies for fixing it. To make the most prog- From Our Archives ress in this endeavor, we need to invent new ways ■■Controlling the Brain with Light. Karl Deisseroth; of recording neural activity that show us how per- Scientific American,November 2010.

TROUBLED TEENS Kid Gloves for Young Offenders?

Research reveals that get-tough tactics may worsen rates of juvenile delinquency

Mike S. (not his real name) was 13 years old when one of us (Lilienfeld) met him on an inpatient psychiatric ward, where Lilienfeld was a clinical psychology in tern. Mike was articulate and charming, and he radiated warmth. Yet this initial impression belied a disturbing truth. For tended to use to blow up his school. Ac volve teaching them how to engage in several years Mike had been in serious cording to psychiatry’s standard guide positive behaviors rather than punishing trouble at school for lying, cheating and book, the Diagnostic and Statistical them for negative ones. assaulting classmates. He was verbally Manual of Mental Disorders (now in its abusive toward his biological mother, fifth edition), Mike’s diagnosis was con You’re in the Army Now who lived alone with him. Mike tor duct disorder, a condition marked by a One get-tough technique is boot camp, tured and even killed cats and bragged pattern of antisocial and perhaps crim or “shock incarceration,” a solution for about experiencing no guilt over these inal behavior emerging in childhood troubled teens introduced in the 1980s. actions. He was finally brought to the or adolescence. Modeled after military boot camps, these hospital in the mid-1980s, after he was Psychologists have long struggled programs are typically supervised by a caught trying to con railroad workers with how to treat adolescents with con drill instructor and last from three to six ) into giving him dynamite, which he in duct disorder, or juvenile delinquency, as months. They emphasize strict rules and the condition is sometimes called when it swift punishments (such as repeated push- comes to the attention of the courts. Giv ups) for disobedience, along with a regi Arkowitz BY SCOTT O. LILIENFELD en that the annual number of juvenile men of physical work and demanding and AND HAL ARKOWITZ court cases is about 1.2 million, these exercise. According to the National Insti Lilienfeld

efforts are of great societal importance. tute of Justice, 11 states operated such (

Scott O. Lilienfeld and Hal One set of approaches involves “getting programs in 2009. Indeed, Mike S. was B Arkowitz serve on the board tough” with delinquents by exposing sent to a boot camp program following of advisers for Scientific American Mind. Lilienfeld them to strict discipline and attempting his discharge from the hospital. SEAN McCA is a psychology professor to shock them out of future crime. These Even so, research has yielded at best ); at Emory University, and efforts are popular, in part because they mixed support for boot camps. In a 2010 Arkowitz is an associate

professor of psychology quench the public’s understandable thirst review of 69 controlled studies, criminol juvenile at the University of Arizona. (

for law and order. Yet scientific studies ogists Benjamin Meade and Benjamin T O indicate that these interventions are in Steiner, both then at the University of O

Send suggestions for column topics to effective and can even backfire. Better South Carolina, revealed that such pro CKPH

[email protected] ways to turn around troubled teens in grams produced little or no overall im IST O

70 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND November/December 2014 www.diako.ir© 2014 Scientific American A critical look at popular wisdom provement in offender recidivism. For and potentially harmful, but the psycho against parents and teachers. Finally, reasons that are unclear, some of them logical literature holds several clues. some programs may inadvertently pro reduced rates of delinquency, but others First, researchers have long found that vide adolescents with role models for bad led to higher rates. Boot camps that incor punishment-based strategies tend to be behavior. For example, some of the at- porated psychological treatments, such as less effective than reward-based strate risk teens exposed to prisoners in Scared substance abuse counseling or psycho gies for lasting behavioral change, in part Straight programs may perceive them as therapy, seemed somewhat more effective because they teach people what not to do cool and worth emulating. than those that did not offer such thera but not what to do. Second, studies indi These results show that merely im pies, although the number of studies was cate that highly confrontational thera posing harsh discipline on young of too small to draw firm conclusions. peutic approaches are rarely effective in fenders or frightening them is unlikely to help them refrain from problematic behavior. Instead teens must learn en during tools—including better social TEENS MUST LEARN ENDURING TOOLS— skills, ways to communicate with par INCLUDING BETTER SOCIAL SKILLS—THAT ents and peers, and anger management techniques—that help them avoid future HELP THEM AVOID FUTURE AGGRESSION. aggression. Several effective interven tions do just that, including cognitive- behavior therapy, a method intended to Another method is “Scared Straight,” the long term. For example, in a 1993 change maladaptive thinking patterns which became popular following an controlled trial psychologist William and behaviors, and multisystemic thera Academy Award–winning documentary Miller of the University of New Mexico py, in which parents, schools and com (Scared Straight!), which was filmed in a and his colleagues found that counselors munities develop programs to reinforce New Jersey state prison in 1978. Typical who used confrontational styles with positive behaviors. Another well-sup ly these programs bring delinquents and problem drinkers—for example, by tak ported method, aimed at improving other high-risk teens into prisons to inter ing them to task for minimizing the behavior in at-risk children younger act with adult inmates, who talk bluntly extent of their drinking problem—had than eight years, is parent-child interac about the harsh realities of life behind significantly less success in helping their tion therapy. Parents are coached by bars. Making adolescents keenly aware of clients overcome their addictions than therapists in real time to respond to a prison life is supposed to deter them from did counselors who used supportive child’s behavior in ways that strengthen criminal careers. Yet the research on these styles that relied on empathy. Similarly, a the parent-child bond and provide incen interventions is not encouraging. In a 2010 review by criminal justice research tives for cooperation [see “Behave!” by 2003 meta-analysis (quantitative review) er Paul Klenowski of Clarion University Ingrid Wickelgren; Scientific Ameri of nine controlled studies of Scared and his collaborators found that delin can Mind, March/April 2014]. Straight programs, criminal justice re quency programs that involved confron The negative data on get-tough pro searcher Anthony Petrosino, now at the tational tactics, such as berating children grams remind us that we should be wary research agency WestEd, and his col for misbehavior, were less effective than of our subjective impressions of strate leagues showed that these treatments programs that did not use them. gies that simply seem right or that we feel backfired, boosting the odds of offending What is more, adolescents with con ought to work. Although we lost track of by 60 to 70 percent. duct disorder often enter treatment Mike S., we now know that a concerted The verdict for other get-tough inter angry and alienated, harboring feelings effort to teach him more adaptive behav ventions, such as juvenile transfer laws, of resentment toward authority. Get- iors would have been more likely to put which allow teens who commit especially tough programs may fuel these emo him on a productive path than would heinous offenses to be tried as adults, is no tions, boosting teens’ propensity to rebel any attempt to scare him straight. M more promising. In a 2010 summary, psy chologist Richard Redding of Chapman University found higher recidivism rates FURTHER READING among transferred adolescent offenders ■■Cures That Harm: Unanticipated Outcomes of Crime Prevention Programs. Joan McCord in than among nontransferred ones. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 587, No. 1, pages 16–30; May 2003. Perils of Punishment ■■Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programs for Preventing Juvenile Delinquency: A Systematic Review of the Randomized Experimental Evidence. Anthony Petrosino, Carolyn Psychologists do not know for sure Turpin-Petrosino and John Buehler in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social why get-tough treatments are ineffective Science, Vol. 589, No. 1, pages 41–62; September 2003.

POCKET THERAPY Mobile apps help you manage your mental health you to create your own superhero identity and adventure. The idea is that “gamifying” Should your smartphone be your therapist? Thousands of mobile apps claim to help peo- your goals may make it easier to achieve ple improve their mental health. Some offer relationship advice and productivity tips; oth- them and to stay motivated. To work ers aim to make psychiatric disorders easier to manage. Yet the vast majority of them toward a desired objective, you can devel- have no solid scientific basis, as a recent study concluded. Last year the U.S. Food and op your own adventure or choose from Drug Administration announced that it would begin regulating medical apps that claim to “Power Packs” of predefined quests, bad diagnose various conditions, such as heart disease and sleep apnea. Psychiatric apps guys (that is, people or triggers that may that serve to identify symptoms, rather than diagnose disease, may be exempt from trip you up along the way) and other activi- oversight because the agency believes they pose a lower risk to the public. ties developed with input from research- Some experts, however, feel that psychiatric apps deserve the same scrutiny as med ers at Stanford University, the University ical devices and have raised concerns over their safety and effectiveness [see “Apps to of California, Berkeley, and elsewhere. Avoid,” on opposite page]. Only more rigorous studies can ensure that these programs In the “Lazy Exercise” Power Pack, for offer a real benefit, determine how they might complement other forms of therapy and help example, an activity could be dancing to people make more informed decisions about which ones to use. Here Scientific American your favorite song, and bad guys might Mind takes a critical look at a range of popular mental health apps. —Roni Jacobson include sitting for more than an hour at a time and driving when you could walk. You DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY can also recruit “Allies”—friends from the phone numbers of loved ones, as Facebook or other SuperBetter users—to Optimism well as nearby treatment programs play with you. In a small, unpublished ran- For iPhone/iPad and hotlines. domized controlled trial in collaboration (free) with the University of Pennsylvania, 19 Mobilyze! people with self-reported depression Optimism is a mood-tracking app for For Android (free improved by 17 points on a standardized people with depression and bipolar but currently unavailable) depression test after six weeks of playing disorder, as well as those simply looking SuperBetter compared with about six to brighten their days. Users regularly This app from researchers at Northwest- points for those who did not play the game. record their emotional state, along with ern University takes full advantage of other factors, including the amount of users’ smartphones to sense when they RELATIONSHIPS caffeine or alcohol they have consumed are depressed. It uses a phone’s built-in each day and the quantity and quality of accelerometer and GPS to collect data on Gottman Apps their sleep and exercise. The app charts a person’s location and movement, and For iPhone/iPad these variables in a line graph, helping its algorithms monitor how often a user ($1.99 each) people visualize how various factors may talks on the phone, texts and interacts interact to influence their mood. The app with social media. When the app detects Married clinical psychologists John and also allows users to record potential a pattern of isolation, it sends a text mes- Julie Schwartz Gottman developed 11 “triggers,” or occurrences that negatively sage or automated phone call urging the apps based on their own relationship affect their mental health. By constantly user to get out and do something fun. In research (John Gottman is also an emeri- keeping tabs on their mood and environ a small pilot study, eight people with de tus psychology professor at the Universi- ment, users may learn to recognize key pressive disorders revealed significant ty of Washington) and have experience triggers and head off bouts of depres improvements in their symptoms via self- in counseling couples in family therapy. sion or anxiety before they occur. Al reports and telephone interviews with One, called Love Maps, is a relationship though published data are lacking, the researchers. Yet the app had trouble app designed to foster open communica- psychologists at George Washington accurately predicting users’ moods, and tion between long-term partners. Anoth- University are assessing the app’s the study itself was flawed because it er, called Open-Ended Questions, sug- effectiveness in an ongoing study. failed to include a control group. gests conversation starters that couples The team at Northwestern recently can use to escape the monotony of ev PTSD Coach pulled the app off the market to refine its eryday topics such as “What’s for din- For iPhone/iPad features. The researchers are currently ner?” Other apps help couples express and Android (free) recruiting volunteers for a larger trial on their relationship needs in a positive, depression. The app will be rereleased in nonjudgmental light. Research shows PTSD Coach was developed by the U.S. 2015, and those interested in testing the that open communication, even about Department of Veterans Affairs with app can sign up at the developers’ Web day-to-day minutiae, is associated with service members in mind, but it can be site at http://cbits.northwestern.edu/#!/ greater relationship satisfaction and low- used by anyone dealing with trauma and page_participate er divorce rates in couples who attend anxiety. It is designed to supplement counseling. Though heavy on science, regular therapy for individuals coping SuperBetter the apps’ simple design may turn off with trauma and to help users track their For iPhone/iPad more tech-savvy users. Text in the apps symptoms. The app offers advice and ($4.99) is displayed in a basic font on plain, coping strategies, such as relaxation Microsoft Paint–style backgrounds, and techniques. When users indicate that SuperBetter helps you work toward specif- the software has limited functionality. they are in crisis, the app helps them find ic goals—such as reducing anxiety, losing One customer review notes that the app immediate support by directing them to weight or fighting depression—by allowing is basically “index cards with questions.”

MEDITATION Apps to Avoid Each game targets a specific skill set Watch out! Some apps make and takes only two to three minutes to big claims with little evidence Headspace play. Some games involve memory and For iPhone/iPad concentration; others are more tradition- and Android ($95.88/year ally academic, such as those for building According to the fda, those psychiatric apps for full content) vocabulary or freshening up math skills. that provide coping techniques for people with In a game aptly entitled Face Memory, diagnosed mental health conditions pose low risks Headspace is a popular guided-medita- users are challenged to improve their to consumers. These apps will be regulated at the tion app that helps users achieve mind- facial recall so they will never again find fda’s discretion, and many will therefore escape the fulness, or a nonjudgmental, focused themselves awkwardly asking an ac agency’s safety and effectiveness assessments. awareness of one’s current emotional quaintance, “What’s your name again?” Some experts, however, say that these apps can state. After a couple of minutes of Although the app has not been tested in still be hazardous if they give out shoddy advice or breathing exercises, the app prompts a controlled study, Mind Games is based otherwise mislead vulnerable consumers. “Some users to pay attention to the sounds on psychology research that demon- of [these apps] are really good, and some of them around them and to do a mental scan of strates that people who alternate be are awful,” says Michael Van Ameringen, a psy their body for any aches and pains. Each tween different cognitive exercises learn chiatry professor at McMaster University in Ontario. session lasts 10 minutes and is led by more efficiently. “Clinicians and consumers need help sorting app developer Andy Puddicombe, a for- through them.” mer Buddhist monk. The theory behind PRODUCTIVITY For instance, be wary of apps designed by mindfulness is that when practitioners software companies that fail to include insight notice these details, they become more 30/30 from a medical professional (such as many of the in tune with their moods and can more For iPhone/iPad hypnosis apps out there), as well as apps claiming easily identify and control their emotions (free) to use audio tones to induce certain mental states, in any situation. In fact, research shows such as decreased anxiety (there is no scientific that practicing mindfulness can relieve People prone to distraction may benefit validity to these claims). stress, reduce anger and help people from 30/30, a time management app The Anxiety and Depression Association of overcome addiction. that helps users focus on the task at America, of which Van Ameringen is a board hand. The app first prompts users to set member, is currently developing a rating system BRAIN TRAINING up to-do lists for the day and estimate to screen out bad apps. Here are some things to how long each item will take to complete. keep in mind when browsing mental health apps: Lumosity When users are ready to start tackling For iPhone/iPad the list, they can tap on a countdown tim- ■■ If you are in immediate distress, see a doctor. (free) er, kicking off a 30-minute work session Apps cannot replace diagnosis and treatment; during which they have committed to they are supplements only. Like Candy Crush but better: Lumosity focusing on one task at a time without ■■ Read the terms of use. Confidentiality is an im offers fun games aimed at building users’ interruption—absolutely no e-mail, Face- portant concern for many people dealing with brainpower. Players can choose from book, Twitter, Big Bang Theory recaps or mental health issues. Make sure you know what more than 40 games focusing on dif any other microdistractions. When the the app’s developers are doing with your data. ferent skills, including attention, memory, time is up, users get a 30-minute break ■■ Check out the science. Many apps claim to have processing speed and problem solving. (or less) before the cycle starts again. experimental support, but often those studies Pilot studies led by Stanford University (Users, however, are not obligated to are performed by teams of in-house researchers researchers indicated that Lumosity work in 30-minute chunks; they can set and lack scientific rigor. Studies conducted enhanced memory, multitasking ability any length of time to complete a task.) by independent researchers and published in and processing speed in children and 30/30 is based on research indicating peer-reviewed journals provide a more objective adults with cancer-related brain injuries. that separating work into smaller chunks assessment. Yet when several independent research makes it more manageable, with fre- ■■ Take design into account, too. You are more groups tried to replicate these promising quent breaks serving as rewards for stay- likely to use the app regularly if the experience results in healthy individuals, they failed. ing on track. is easy and enjoyable. It also helps if the app Although participants in these latter can be customized to your unique needs, Van studies became more proficient in per MEDICATION MANAGEMENT Ameringen says. forming the in-game tasks over time, the improvements did not enhance cognitive MediSafe ability in real life. Lumosity may provide For iPhone/iPad some short-term benefits, but do not and Android (free) friend or relative, who can check in on ) expect monumental transformations. the patient. Data accumulated over eight MediSafe is a “virtual pillbox” that can weeks in 2012 indicated that 81 percent Mind Games help keep track of complex medication of MediSafe users were taking their med- For iPhone/iPad, Android schedules. The app reminds users when ication on time. By comparison, World warning sign warning ( and Windows (free) to take each medication and prompts Health Organization data suggest that T O

O them to scan the bar code on the pre- the average rate of medication adher- The 28 games included in this app are scription label once they have done so. If ence is 50 percent. MediSafe also sends CKPH aimed at people who want to sharpen a person forgets or misses a pill, Medi users reminders to refill their prescrip-

IST O their wits while juggling a busy schedule. Safe sends a notification to a designated tions when they are getting low.

trustworthy, you can stick brains. A smaller body also your finger in my mouth.” suggests a smaller pelvic size Why do we So biting is not only for in females, so selection would want to bite feeding or aggression. Behav- have favored the delivery of iors that resemble biting— smaller-headed babies. cute things, mouthing, nuzzling and gen- What explains our like adorable tle nips—seem to be a normal shrinking body size, though? newborn part of the friendly social This decline is possibly relat- repertoires of many mam- ed to warmer conditions on babies? mals. Also, of course all the earth in the 10,000 years —Emma Poltrack, mammals begin life as enthu- after the last ice age ended. V irginia siastic social nibblers, ex- Colder conditions favor bulk- tracting milk from their ier bodies because they con- mother’s mammary glands serve heat better. As we have Gwen Dewar, biological anthro- line up for the chance to han- by chomping down with their acclimated to warmer tem- pologist and founder of the Web dle another monkey’s new toothless jaws. Against this peratures, the way we live has site Parenting Science, responds: baby, and nuzzling—rubbing background, the impulse to also generally become less one’s nose and mouth against gobble up an adorable baby physically demanding, which The urge to nibble cute crea- the baby—is one of the most does not seem so bizarre. It overall serves to drive down tures might be a case of get- common forms of handling. may be one more example of body weights. ting one’s wires crossed. In a None of this is real biting. friendly, pseudo-biting—and Another likely reason for recent study, researchers per- When biting occurs, animals a sign of good intentions. this decline is that brains are formed functional magnetic get hurt. Yet pseudo-biting, energetically expensive and resonance imaging scans on if you will, is prevalent, espe- Brain size has will not be maintained at women who unwittingly cially in the form of the teas- increased for most larger sizes unless it is neces- sniffed newborn infants. The ing nips that mammals give of our existence, sary. The fact that we increas- odors activated reward-relat- one another during rough- so why has it ingly store and process infor- ed areas of the brain, the same and-tumble play. The reasons started to diminish mation externally—in books, regions that trigger a pleasur- for this behavior are not en- for the past few computers and online—means able rush of dopamine when tirely clear. When a puppy thousand years? that many of us can probably we get our hands on a desir- gently bites your hand, is he —via e-mail get by with smaller brains. able bit of food. A similar honing his motor skills? Re- Some anthropologists have neural effect was reported in hearsing for real-life combat? Christopher Stringer, a paleo- also proposed that larger an earlier study where women Engaging in a friendly game? anthropologist and research leader brains may be less efficient at viewed images of babies. All those explanations on human origins at the Natural certain tasks, such as rapid This research suggests are possibilities, but what is History Museum in London, replies: computation, because of lon- that, to some degree, our interesting here is that play- ger connection pathways. brains respond in a parallel biting generally happens be- Indeed, skeletal evidence The way we live may have way when perceiving cuteness tween trusted allies. Prima- from every inhabited conti- affected brain size. For in- and seeking food, and per- tologist Susan Perry in the nent suggests that our brains stance, domesticated animals haps our psychological expe- anthropology department at have become smaller in the have smaller brains than their rience of wanting to bite aris- the University of California, past 10,000 to 20,000 years. wild counterparts probably es from that physiological Los Angeles, and her col- How can we account for this because they do not require overlap. Yet we may have oth- leagues have seen capuchin seemingly scary statistic? the extra brainpower that er reasons to associate babies monkeys bite one another in Some of the shrinkage is could help them evade preda- and biting. A kind of friendly careful, seemingly ritualistic very likely related to the de- tors or hunt for food. Similar- “social biting” may be part of ways, clamping down on fin- cline in humans’ average body ly, humans have become more our evolutionary heritage. gers hard enough to trap size during the past 10,000 domesticated. But as long as

Creatures throughout them but apparently causing years. Brain size is scaled to we keep our brains fit for our iStockphoto the primate world are often no pain. The researchers body size because a larger particular lifestyles, there LL drawn to their species’ off- think the monkeys may be body requires a larger ner- should be no reason to fear for spring. Some Old World testing their social bonds, vous system to service it. As the collective intelligence of

monkeys, for instance, will sending the message, “I’m so bodies became smaller, so did our species. M CARRJAMIE O

1 SENTENCE SNAKE 4 WORD WHEELS N N A statement about someone’s smarts Spell an eight-letter word in each box by beginning with the correct letter and is coiled in the grid below. To spell it moving clockwise or counterclockwise around the box, using each letter only out, start with an “H” and move to an once. The question mark represents a letter that you must supply, which is adjacent letter in any direction. Two the same for both words. letters will not be used; all others will be used exactly once. (Hint: the enu E ? T C O A meration is 2’1, 3, 3, 9, 5, 5, 2, 3, 5.) U S S L S E L E ? F X N O H E S N O 5 HOMOPHONES K T T H E H T T N C H G I B R I G Use the clues to fill in each pair of blanks below with words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings and different spellings. O E L R O S E H a) Part Tranquility L B H C P T T X b) Movement of the sea Put together with a cord or rope c) Sardonic A grain

2 CONFOUNDING 6 SIBLING SUM 8 BALANCED BUDGET N COMPOUNDING N N Place the same four-letter word Suzanne has three times as many Ryan is going to have a barbecue at in each blank below to make brothers as she has sisters, but her his house. He spends half of what he four common words. brother James has the same number has plus $5 for steak. He spends half of sisters as brothers. How many boys of what is left plus $5 on fruits for a RAY and girls total are in the family? salad, half of what is left plus $2 for END paper plates and the remaining $3 on ice cream. How much money did he AGE 7 ANAGRAMS N start with? ICO For each pair, think of the five-letter answer to the clue on the top, then add 9 MINI CROSSWORD a “P” to the letters and rearrange them N Across Down to make the six-letter answer to the 3 SCRAMBLE 1. “Amazing!” 1. False locks N clue on the bottom. 4. Eye part 2. Mine yards Mix the letters in the box below 6. Man 3. Flirtatious a) Say “#@&%*!!!!” with another unspecified letter 7. Wild blue gesture to create two common nine-letter Evergreen tree yonder 5. Pig’s digs English words. b) Dutch flower 1 2 3 Preacher’s place P D A 4 5 c) The briny E ? R Chicago gangster Al 6

d) Quarrel 7 R E I Czech city

Answers 8. $70. 8. The missing letter is “R.” STREUSEL, ALFRESCO. STREUSEL, “R.” is letter missing The 4.

c) OCEAN, CAPONE, d) ARGUE, PRAGUE. ARGUE, d) CAPONE, OCEAN, c) is “S.” is

PULPIT, TULIP, b) SPRUCE, CURSE, a) 7. letter missing The DESPAIRER. and DRAPERIES 3.

Y K S

6. Two girls and three boys. three and girls Two 6. PORTICO). PORTAGE, PORTEND, (PORTRAY, PORT 2. T N E G

S I R I c) WRY, RYE. WRY, c) BLOCK. THE ON

Scientiﬁ c American’s eBooks ? From the Editors of

Scientiﬁ c American’s ?

Fact or Fiction Science Tackles 58 Popular Myths ™ Scientiﬁ c American, Inc. c ™ Scientiﬁ

Start your SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN eLibrary today: books.scientiﬁ camerican.com/sa-ebooks www.diako.ir

eBooks_Print_Nov14.indd 1 9/17/14 3:25 PM PROMOTION

Scientiﬁ c American’s NOW IN eBooks PAPERBACK! A New York Times From the Editors of Editors’ Choice “As a sex writer, Jesse ? Bering is fearless— and peerless.” —DAN SAVAGE

Scientifi c American’s “Bering uses the tools of science to crack open more than a few taboos, and [Perv] shows why he’s deserving of the accolades.” ? —DAVID DiSALVO, Forbes “Bering’s a supple, witty writer, and praiseworthy terms like wry and irreverent suggest themselves readily. [Perv] is a humane flirtation with the often- Fact or Fiction strange intimacies that drive people’s lives.” Science —MICHAEL WASHBURN, The Boston Globe Tackles www.fsgbooks.com • books.scientificamerican.com 58 Popular Myths ™ Scientifi c American, Inc. c ™ Scientifi

Start your SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN eLibrary today: ™ Scientific American ™ Scientific American SCIENCE MATTERS books.scientiﬁ camerican.com/sa-ebooks www.diako.ir

eBooks_Print_Nov14.indd 1 9/17/14 3:25 PM MINDMIND ININ PICTURESPICTURES

Dwayne Godwin is a neuroscientist at the Wake Forest University School of Medicine. •Jorge Cham draws the comic strip Piled Higher and Deeper at www.phdcomics.com.

Think Clearly.

Your brain. It makes up only 2% of your body weight, yet it consumes roughly 20% of your body’s energy when at rest. That means the human brain needs a whole lot of nutrition to stay alert and focused throughout the day. Citicoline is nature’s way of keeping the brain’s energy-producing centers firing. Clinically tested for efficacy, Cognizin® delivers a patented form of Citicoline that supplies your brain with the energy it needs to stay sharp.* Cognizin is also pure, vegetarian and allergen-free. So look for Cognizin brand Citicoline on the ingredient panel of your favorite supplements to help keep your mental edge.*

To learn more about Cognizin® visit www.cognizin.com

Follow Cognizin®

CMY

Cognizin® is a registered trademark of KYOWA HAKKO BIO CO., LTD. *These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. Copyright ©2014 KYOWA HAKKO U.S.A., INC. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. All Rights Reserved.

Look for Cognizin® Citicoline in these fine brands.

www.diako.ir Get All-Access!

ALL-ACCESS NOW AVAILABLE!

Subscribe to All-Access and read any issue, any year, on any device. All-Access subscriptions include:

PRINT DIGITAL ARCHIVES 12 issues featuring the Instant access to current Search over 4,960 issues latest developments in issues and the archive and 133,700 articles to find science, medicine and using any computer, tablet the information you need. technology. or smartphone.* 1845–present.

Go to: scientificamerican.com/all-access

SA_AllAccess_FullAd_Aug14.indd 1 8/6/14 5:19 PM