- Part 1 by Rabbi Asher Schechter Congregation Ohr Moshe

Recent events have brought the term Chillul Hashem into the vernacular on a very regular basis. Many (but certainly not all) of our brothers and sisters (especially in the Chasidish and Yeshivish communities) have resisted the governing authorities' rules regarding COVID-19. Mask wearing, social distancing, and other precautions are not strictly adhered to. The press and the politicians tried to shame them into compliance putting the entire Orthodox Jewish Community in the spotlight for their activities. Many within the Jewish Community are appalled by these unsafe behaviors of Achenu Bnei Yisrael that put themselves and others at risk (and many are also angry at the unwanted and apparently anti-semitic singling out of our communities for chastisement). Now some in those communities are resorting to mischievous demonstrations against the stricter rules being promulgated upon them. Often times the words Chillul Hashem are used. Many have claimed that the Jews who publicly flout the safety laws and behave unlawfully are creating a Chillul Hashem as the Goyim berate us for our unsafe and illegal behaviors...

The term Chillul Hashem is an Halachik one, not an emotional one. Not everything that a fellow Jew does (even if we feel strongly about the inappropriateness of that behavior) qualifies as a Chillul Hashem . In this several part essay, I would like to address the following question: Is a Yid who refuses to wear a mask and social distance in public and/or breaks the law while participating in a demonstration against the government's restrictions in violation of the rules of Chillul Hashem?

Accusing someone of Chillul Hashem is no small matter. Chillul Hashem is arguably the worst one can commit. Chazal tell us that Chillul Hashem is the most difficult Aveira to atone for: מסכת יומא דף פו עמוד א שאל רבי מתיא בן חרש את רבי אלעזר בן עזריה ברומי: שמעת ארבעה חלוקי כפרה שהיה רבי ישמעאל דורש? אמר: שלשה הן, ותשובה עם כל אחד ואחד. עבר על עשה ושב - אינו זז משם עד שמוחלין לו, שנאמר (ירמיהו ג) שובו בנים שובבים. עבר על לא תעשה ועשה תשובה - תשובה תולה, ויום הכפורים מכפר שנאמר (ויקרא טז) כי ביום הזה יכפר עליכם מכל חטאתיכם. עבר על כריתות ומיתות בית דין ועשה תשובה - תשובה ויום הכפורים תולין, ויסורין ממרקין, שנאמר (תהלים פט) ופקדתי בשבט פשעם ובנגעים עונם, אבל מי שיש חילול השם בידו - אין לו כח בתשובה לתלות, ולא ביום הכפורים לכפר, ולא ביסורין למרק. אלא כולן תולין, ומיתה ממרקת, שנאמר (ישעיהו כב) ונגלה באזני ה' צבאות אם יכפר העון הזה לכם עד תמתון. Rabbi Masia ben Chorosh asked Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah in Rome: "Did you hear about the four methods of atonement that were taught by Rabbi Yishmael?" to which he responded, "Yes, but in reality, there are only three because Teshuva cannot be counted on its own since it is required with all the others in order for them to work." Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah explains: "If someone violates an Asei (positive commandment - e.g. doesn't take Lulav & Esrog on Sukkos) and he repents, he is forgiven immediately. If he violates a Lo Saaseh (negative commandment - e.g. eats treif) then Teshuvah is not enough, he must have Teshuvah and also he needs to experience a Yom Kippur in order to be forgiven. If someone violated a more severe Aveira that comes with the prescribed punishment of Kares (cutting off of the soul - e.g. eats Chelev - forbidden fats) or the Death Penalty (in Bais Din - e.g. Chillul Shabbos) then he needs Teshuvah, Yom Kippur, and Yisurim (physical pain and suffering) in order to cleanse him from the Aveira." Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah concludes, "And someone who has to atone for an Aveira of Chillul Hashem cannot suffice with the above three, rather he needs Teshuvah, Yom Kippur, Yisurim, and Misa (his final atonement comes upon his death after the above three have been accomplished)." Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah cites Pesukim for each of his rulings...

This ruling is also found in the Talmud Yerushalmi quoting both Rabbi Masia ben Chorosh and Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah with slight changes - in the Yerushalmi's version the discussion takes place in the "Yeshiva", etc. - (end of Yoma 8,7) and it is Paskened in Halacha by the Rambam (Teshuvah 1, 4). This is the accepted ruling that is promulgated throughout all the Poskim, Sifrei Machashava, and Sifrei Mussar, etc.... Why is Chillul Hashem punished so severely? Rashi (Sanhedrin ibid) comments that it is because Chillul Hashem causes others to sin as well. When people see others who they respect doing an Aveira they are tempted to follow and do the same. Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid (Sefer Chasidim 20) says that the reason for the severe punishment is because an Averia that is done in public brings about much "embarrassment" (K'Vayachol - if it can be said) to Hashem... We will see later that there may be a practical distinction between these two opinions.

[Despite the passage above, there are opinions that there is a way to atone for Chillul Hashem without having to wait until death. Rabbenu Bachyei (Vayikra 22,32) states that if one undoes the Chillul Hashem that he has committed by creating a in that very same issue that he had previously created a Chillul Hashem, then he can be forgiven because he has removed the stain of the previously committed Chillul Hashem. A similar ruling is found in Shaarei Teshuva of Rabbenu Yona (4,5)]

What exactly is Chillul Hashem ? The Rambam (Sefer HaMitzvos Lo Sa'aseh 63) and others (Sefer HaChinuch 295, etc.) define Chillul Hashem as any of the following three Aveiros.

1. Someone who is obligated to give his/her life in order to avoid an Aveira, but does not. For example, someone is being forced at gunpoint to worship Avodah Zarah. If he/she goes ahead and commits this grave sin (even in private) then he/she is guilty of Chillul Hashem . [There are 3 cardinal sins that a Jew is obligated to die and not violate - Avodah Zarah (idol worship), Shfichus Damim (), and Gilui Arayos (illicit relationships). In addition, if a Jew is being forced to commit any Aveira due to Shmad (in order to force his/her conversion away from Yiddishkeit) then they must give their life and avoid the Aveira.]

2. Someone who commits any Aveira (even in private) with the sole intention to anger Hashem and he derives no other pleasure from his act, he is guilty of Chillul Hashem. For example, if someone swears falsely using Hashem's name for no other purpose than to anger Hashem and to shirk his obligations of fidelity to, and respect for, Hashem he is guilty of Chillul Hashem.

3. A respected member of the community who behaves publicly in an inappropriate manner (even if it is not a technical violation of Halacha) is guilty of Chillul Hashem. More on this coming up, IY"H.

For the purposes of our discussion, the first two categories are not applicable. Certainly, someone who refuses to wear a mask in public is not included in them. Let's delve into the third category and see whether or not they are guilty of Chillul Hashem.

The source for the third category is the Gemara at the end of Yoma (broken down into segments for ease of reading). תלמוד בבלי מסכת יומא דף פו עמוד א היכי דמי חילול השם? אמר רב: כגון אנא. אי שקילנא בישרא מטבחא ולא יהיבנא דמי לאלתר. אמר אביי: לא שנו אלא באתרא דלא תבעי, אבל באתרא דתבעי - לית לן בה. אמר רבינא: ומתא מחסיא אתרא דתבעי הוא. אביי כדשקיל בישרא מתרי שותפי יהיב זוזא להאי וזוזא להאי, והדר מקרב להו גבי הדדי, ועביד חושבנא. What are some examples of Chillul Hashem? Rav said, for example, if I would shop at a butcher store and not pay for my purchase right away (the butcher might think that Rav was planning on cheating him and never paying for his purchase). Abayei explained that this only applies in a community where it is not normal to allow purchasers to buy on credit and collect from them later. However, if it is an acceptable practice in this community to allow purchasers to buy on credit and collect from them later, we are not concerned for Chillul Hashem. Ravina added that Masa Mechasia (his home town) is a town where it is normal to allow purchasers to buy on credit and collect from them later. When Abayei would purchase meat from two partners, he would pay each of them one Zuz and then have them both make a Cheshbon together how much meat he should get (this would avoid any concern that he didn't pay the correct amount to both of them). .רבי יוחנן אמר: כגון אנא דמסגינא ארבע אמות בלא תורה ובלא תפילין Rabbi Yochanan said (another example of Chillul Hashem) is if I would publicly walk away from the Bais Medrash without and without Tefillin (everyone expected Rav Yochanan to be constantly engrossed in Torah study while wearing his Tefillin. If Rabbi Yochanan would feel weak, he would have to sneak out rather than go out in public since it would appear that he no longer was committed to the intense lifestyle of constant Torah study with Tefillin - which would constitute a Chillul Hashem). יצחק דבי רבי ינאי אמר: כל שחביריו מתביישין מחמת שמועתו היינו חילול השם היכי דמי אמר רב נחמן בר יצחק: כגון דקא אמרי אינשי שרא ליה מריה לפלניא. אביי אמר: כדתניא, ואהבת את ה' אלהיך - שיהא שם שמים מתאהב על ידך, שיהא קורא ושונה ומשמש תלמידי חכמים, ויהא משאו ומתנו בנחת עם הבריות, מה הבריות אומרות עליו - אשרי אביו שלמדו תורה, אשרי רבו שלמדו תורה. אוי להם לבריות שלא למדו תורה, פלוני שלמדו תורה - ראו כמה נאים דרכיו, כמה מתוקנים מעשיו, עליו הכתוב אומר (ישעיהו מט) ויאמר לי עבדי אתה ישראל אשר בך אתפאר. אבל מי שקורא ושונה ומשמש תלמידי חכמים ואין משאו ומתנו באמונה, ואין דבורו בנחת עם הבריות, מה הבריות אומרות עליו - אוי לו לפלוני שלמד תורה, אוי לו לאביו שלמדו תורה, אוי לו לרבו שלמדו תורה, פלוני שלמד תורה - ראו כמה מקולקלין מעשיו וכמה מכוערין דרכיו! ועליו הכתוב אומר (יחזקאל לו) באמר להם עם ה' אלה ומארצו יצאו Yitzchak from Rabbi Yanai's Yeshiva said (another example of Chillul Hashem) is when a person's friends are embarrassed by his reputation - that in and of itself is a Chillul Hashem. What is an example? Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak said if people say (regarding someone's reputation), "May his Creator forgive him". Abayei added that this is similar to the teaching of a Braisa. "And you should love Hashem your G-d" this teaches us that we should bring about love for Hashem through our actions. You should learn the written Torah, the Mishna, and serve Talmidei Chachamim (to get additional insights into the Mishna through the study of the Talmud) and all your dealings with people should be with patience and honesty. What will people say regarding you? Lucky is his father who taught him Torah! Lucky is his Rebbe who taught him Torah! Woe to those people who never studied Torah! This person has studied Torah and you can see how beautiful are his ways, how proper are his actions! The Navi Yeshaya says that Hashem is very proud of such individuals. However, if someone learns the written Torah, the Mishna, and serves Talmidei Chachamim (to get additional insights into the Mishna through the study of the Talmud) and his dealings with people are dishonest, and he does not speak to people with respect and patience, what will people say regarding him? Woe onto him who studied Torah! Woe onto his father who taught him Torah! Woe onto his Rebbe who taught him Torah! This person has studied Torah and look at how crooked his actions are and at how disgusting his ways are! The Navi Yechezkel proclaims that such a person is guilty of Chillul Hashem.

Two big Chudushim (novel ideas) can be seen in this passage. First, as previously mentioned, we see that Chillul Hashem can include activities that are not otherwise forbidden by the Torah. If Rav wouldn't pay immediately at the time of purchase, he would not be violating any Halacha. As long as he would pay later, he would not be stealing in any way. Nevertheless, if it appeared that there was a possibility that he wouldn't pay, that was enough to constitute a Chillul Hashem. Similarly, Rabbi Yochanan would not be violating any Halacha if he would publicly leave the Bais Medrash when he was feeling weak. Nevertheless, it would constitute a Chillul Hashem.

is used in the Braisa to refer to the people who experience the בריות Second, the word .usually refers to all people Jews and Non-Jews alike בריות Chillul Hashem. The word This implies that Chillul Hashem is not only in the presence of Jews but rather in the presence of all people of all races creeds and religions, etc.

Another interesting point. From the statements of Yitzchak from Rabbi Yanai's Yeshiva and Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak, it is not clear whether or not they are referring to a person who is a respected member of the community. However, the way Abayei connects their statements with the Braisa it appears that he interpreted their statements to be referring only to respected members of the community. Rank and file people who are not steeped in Torah would not be guilty of Chillul Hashem when they misbehave. Chillul Hashem - Part 2 by Rabbi Asher Schechter Congregation Ohr Moshe

How about someone who is not an “Adam Chashuv” (a respected member of the community) – just a “regular Joe” – who does an Aveira in public for pleasure? Say, he eats treif in McDonald's at a rest stop in front of many fellow travelers (Jewish and Non- Jewish) who can see him? Is that a Chillul Hashem? This situation doesn't seem to fit any of the Rambam's three categories mentioned above.

The Gemara in Sanhedrin (82a) and Kiddushin (40a) gives us some more clarity on this issue תלמוד בבלי מסכת סנהדרין דף פב עמוד א וירא פנחס בן אלעזר, מה ראה? - אמר רב: ראה מעשה, ונזכר הלכה. אמר לו: אחי אבי אבא, לא כך לימדתני ברדתך מהר סיני: הבועל את הנכרית קנאין פוגעין בו! - אמר לו: קריינא דאיגרתא איהו ליהוי פרוונקא. ושמואל אמר: ראה (משלי כ"א) שאין חכמה ואין תבונה ואין עצה לנגד ה' - כל מקום שיש חילול השם - אין חולקין כבוד לרב. רבי יצחק אמר רבי אליעזר: ראה שבא מלאך והשחית בעם.

[Regarding the story (at the end of Parshas Balak) about Pinchas executing Zimri, the Nasi of Shevet Shimon, who was engaged in an illicit act with a Midianite Princess, the Posuk says that Pinchas “saw”. The Gemara discusses, what exactly did he “see”?.]

“And Pinchas the son of Elazar saw” What did he see? Rav says that he “saw” Zimri's act and (through his seeing, he) remembered the Halacha (that Kana'im, zealous individuals, are authorized to execute such a criminal during his act of sinning). He said to Moshe Rabbenu, “My Great Uncle, did you not teach us when you descended from Har Sinai that a Jew who is intimate with a Non-Jewish woman may be executed by the Kanaim?” Moshe Rabbenu answered, “Let the one who brings the King's Decree, be the one to carry it out” (meaning, that Moshe Rabbenu had temporarily forgotten this Halacha and now that Pinchas is the one to remind him of it, it is Pinchas' place to execute it.) Shmuel says (an alternate explanation of what Pinchas “saw”), “he 'saw' (was reminded of a concept mentioned in the Posuk in Mishlei 21) that “There is no wisdom or insight or counsel against Hashem”, meaning that whenever there is a violation of Chillul Hashem, there is no need to (seek counsel and advice from one's Rebbe which would be required under normal circumstances in order to) give honor to one's Rebbe. [Shmuel is teaching that the Torah was explaining why Pinchas acted without consulting and without and getting advice from his Rebbe, Moshe Rabbenu. Under normal circumstances, this would be a violation of disrespect towards one's Rebbe. A student is strictly forbidden to rule on Halacha (or to act on his own based upon his own Halachik rulings) in the presence of his Rebbe. How was Pinchas allowed to do what he did? The answer is that since this was a situation of Chillul Hashem, the normal rules of Kavod for a Rebbe are waived. And whatever needs to be done to quash the Chillul Hashem is to be done right away without hesitation or consultation.]

Rabbi Yitzchak says in the name of Rabbi Eliezer that Pinchas “saw” the Angel (of Hashem) who was decimating the Jewish people - as the Posuk tells the story at the end of Parshas Balak (and therefore since it was an emergency of he was justified to act without consulting with Moshe Rabbenu).

Rav, Shmuel and Rabbi Yitzchak are addressing the issue of why Pinchas was permitted to be the Kanai in the presence of Moshe Rabbenu. Rav says that Moshe Rabbenu gave him explicit instructions to carry out the Halacha. Shmuel says that even without explicit instructions, Pinchas was vindicated in his actions because of the Chillul Hashem that was transpiring. Rabbi Yitzchak says that it was the pending loss of life that granted special permission to Pinchas at that time. I believe that both Rav Yitzchak & Rav agree that Zimri's actions were a Chillul Hashem, however, they seem to feel that even in a situation of Chillul Hashem the rules of Kavod for a Rebbe are not waived. Possibly, they hold that since it is the sinner alone (Zimri) who is the one creating the Chillul Hashem, we cannot allow an observer (Pinchas) to violate Halacha (by disrespecting his Rebbe) in order to stop the Chillul Hashem. This falls under the general rule of “Ain Omrim L'Adam Chateh Bishvil Shetizkeh Chavercha” - we do not tell one Jew to sin in order to save a fellow Jew from sinning... Shmuel, on the other hand, may hold that everyone present who is watching the Chillul Hashem transpire and not stopping it is part of the Aveira of Chillul Hashem and therefore they should violate Halacha, if necessary, to stop it from transpiring.

Why were Zimri's actions a Chillul Hashem? At first glance, it appears that it falls under the third category of the Rambam (see above). An Adam Chashuv who misbehaves in public causes a Chillul Hashem. Zimri was the Nasi of Shevet Shimon. Despite his horrible actions, he would still qualify as an Adam Choshuv due to his position. Hence the Gemara calls it a Chillul Hashem. However, when analyzing the Rambam (Talmud Torah 5,3) and the Shulchan Oruch (Yoreh Da'ah 242,11) on this matter we see something different. רמב" ם הלכות תלמוד תורה פרק ה הלכה ג

ולהפריש מן האיסור אפילו בפני רבו מותר להורות, כיצד כגון שראה אדם עושה דבר האסור מפני שלא ידע באיסורו או מפני רשעו יש לו להפרישו ולומר לו דבר זה אסור ואפילו בפני רבו ואע"פ שלא נתן לו רבו רשות, שכל מקום שיש חילול השם אין חולקין כבוד לרב

When it comes to separating someone from a forbidden action it is permitted to rule in the presence of one's Rebbe. For example, if someone sees a person (apparently any Jewish person) violating a Torah Law, either because he doesn't know better or out of outright wickedness then it is proper to stop the violation and to tell the violator that is is forbidden, even in the presence of one's Rebbe, and even without the Rebbe's permission, because anywhere that there is a Chillul Hashem there is no need to give honor to one's Rebbe

The Shulchan Oruch follows suit. שולחן ערוך יורה דעה סימן רמב סעיף יא

לאפרושי מאיסורא, כגון שרואה אדם שעובר עבירה מפני שאינו יודע שהוא אסור, או מפני רשעתו, מותר להפרישו ולומר לו שהוא אסור, בפני רבו, שבכל מקום שיש חילול השם אין חולקין כבוד לרב. When it comes to separating someone from a forbidden action for example, if someone sees a person (apparently any Jewish person) violating a Torah Law, either because he doesn't know better or out of outright wickedness then it is permitted to stop the violation and to tell the violator that is is forbidded, in the presence of one's Rebbe, because anywhere that there is a Chillul Hashem there is no need to give honor to one's Rebbe

It is clear that both the Rambam and the Shulchan Oruch Pasken like Shmuel. However, what I find intriguing is that they both don't mention whether or not the violator, who is creating the Chillul Hashem, is an Adam Choshuv or not!!! It appears that their Halacha applies to all violators, Adam Chashuv or not. While the story discussed in the Gemara is clearly discussing an Adam Chashuv, both the Rambam and Shulchan Oruch seem to hold that any Jew can create a Chillul Hashem with any Aveira and that it is sufficient grounds for a student who is present to stop the violation from happening even if it means that the student is disrespecting his own Rebbe. If the person was not an Adam Chashuv, what Chillul Hashem is there? And without a Chillul Hashem, what permission does the student have to disrespect his Rebbe? Now let's analyze the Gemara in Kiddushin (40a): תלמוד בבלי מסכת קידושין דף מ עמוד א

אמר רבי אבהו משום רבי חנינא: נוח לו לאדם שיעבור עבירה בסתר ואל יחלל שם שמים בפרהסיא, שנאמר: (יחזקאל כ) ואתם בית ישראל כה אמר ה'... איש גילוליו לכו עבדו [ואחר] אם אינכם שומעים אלי ואת שם קדשי לא תחללו. אמר רבי אלעאי הזקן: אם רואה אדם שיצרו מתגבר עליו, ילך למקום שאין מכירין אותו, וילבש שחורים ויתכסה שחורים ויעשה כמו שלבו חפץ, ואל יחלל שם שמים בפרהסיא

Rabbi Avahu taught in the name of Rabbi Chaninah, it is better for a person to sin in private rather than create a Chillul Hashem in public (and he cites the source as a Posuk in Yechezkel 20). Rabbi Eylai the elder says, if someone finds it too difficult to conquer his Yetzer Hora (on a particular Aveira) let him travel to a far off place where no one knows him and let him wear black clothing (ugly and not becoming of an honorable person) and do what his heart desires rather than create a Chillul Hashem.

Rabbi Avahu doesn't clarify if he is referring to an Adam Chashuv or not. However, Rabbi Eylai the elder's statement may shed light on that issue. Rashi and Tosfos explain Rabbi Eylai the elder's statement as follows. This Jew is in the grip of the Yetzer Hora. Hopefully, with his travel and change of garb and other hardships that he will encounter along the way, he will second guess his intentions to sin and be saved from the Yetzer Hora. However, even if he does sin it would not be a Chillul Hashem, since no one knows who he is in the far off place. The Meiri adds that everyone knows that there are plenty of sinners and low-lives within society. Not every person who sins creates a Chillul Hashem. To reach the level of Chillul Hashem. it has to be someone that other people would look up to and possibly learn from his actions. Now we have a bit more clarification. The reason why an Adam Chashuv creates a Chillul Hashem, where others would not, is because of his potential influence on others to follow in his wicked footsteps. By extension, any situation where a person's public actions may cause others to follow into Torah violations can be classified as a Chillul Hashem even if he is not an Adam Chashuv.

Now, let's revisit the Rambam and the Shulchan Oruch. A student and his Rebbe are present when an individual is in the process of committing an Aveira. For example, you are driving your Rebbe to a Chasunah and you stop at a rest stop. As you go to the bathroom you pass through the Food Court and you see a Jew wearing a Yarmulka eating at McDonald's. The Halacha allows the student to interfere and alert the Jew of this violation of Halacha despite the fact that the Rebbe is right there. No respect for the Rebbe is necessary because this is a situation of Chillul Hashem. Why is this a Chillul Hashem? Let's continue the story. Just as you are finished explaining to the Jew that McDonald's is trief (and convincing him to refrain from eating it) another Jewish family happens to come by to use the restrooms. Now, imagine if they had seen you and your Rebbe walking by and saying nothing to this Jew who is eating treif. They might have gotten the wrong idea. They might think that you and your Rebbe condone his activity. Somehow, they may think that when someone is on the road and has nothing else to eat, there is some Heter to eat at McDonald's because it isn't very treif... Maybe the fish or a vegetarian dish, etc... The case of the Rambam and Shulchan Oruch by definition is a situation of a potential Chillul Hashem no matter the status of the violator. The presence of the Rebbe and his student requires a response to avoid a Chillul Hashem. The fact that an Adam Chashuv is present (the Rebbe) requires action to avoid a Chillul Hashem. That is what was happening with Pinchas. Moshe Rabbenu was present. Whether or not Zimri was an Adam Chashuv is not important. A Chillul Hashem was in motion and an immediate response was warranted. Otherwise, people would say that Moshe Rabbenu somehow condoned this behavior. Hence Pinchas' Heter to act in the presence of his Rebbe. Had that Jew in McDonald's been from Zimbabwe (far far away from his home and no one here knows him) and had he dressed “in black” I.e. had he worn nondescript clothing that would not have identified him as a Jew, he would not have been in violation of Chillul Hashem.

We have now expanded the Rambam's third criterion for Chillul Hashem. Any inappropriate activity that can cause people to learn from your actions and possibly follow suit qualifies as a Chillul Hashem. It can happen if you are an Adam Chashuv or it can happen if you are in a circumstance where others can learn from your actions for other reasons (such as the presence of an Adam Chashuv at the time of the violation) as in the case of Pinchas. Who is guilty of the Chillul Hashem? That seems to be a Machlokes, as mentioned above. According to the Rambam and the Shulchan Oruch (the practical Psak Halacha) all present are guilty. The sinner, obviously, and those present who do not react and try to stop the Chillul Hashem from occurring. [These days there are other concerns that may prevent us from approaching Torah violators and trying to stop them from sinning. Consult your Rabbi for practical advice on this subject.]

To be continued...