Tasman Bridge Disaster: 25Fianniversary Memorial Service $29 by Rod Mcgee and Lynn Young Vh Understanding Employee Responses to Disaster 3Uc\'Y by Thomas E

$Tasman Bridge Disaster: 25Fianniversary Memorial Service $29 by Rod Mcgee and Lynn Young Vh Understanding Employee Responses to Disaster 3Uc\'Y by Thomas E$

Management Produced by Emergency Management Australia Vol 15 No 4 Summer 2000-2001 In this issue...

% Cost-effective spillway designheview for small dams in Victoria: avoiding dam failure emergenciesy by Dr John D. Pisanielio, Wrof Jennifer M. Mckay and Mr Siraj Perem

Tasman Bridge disaster: 25fianniversary memorial service $29 by Rod McGee and Lynn Young vh Understanding employee responses to disaster 3uc\'y by Thomas E. Dmbek "1 Community mapping-an aid to emergency management 3uc CAY by Rick McRae and Alan Walker

vh Landslips-a moving story (a Municipality's perspective) $25 by Lex Ritchie & Glenn Hunt vh East Timor-emergency risk management $25 by ~gtnlr Turketo "1 New guidelines aim to support older people in emergencies %$ by Lesley-Anne Knight "1 Lines that divide, ties that bind: race, class, and gender in 3 C women's flood recovery in the US and UK by Elaine Enanon and Maureen Fordham

3 The Brisbane-Gladstone transport corridor: identification of risk KAYC and vulnerability for the bulk transport of dangerous goods by lmphne R.W. Childs,Ralph D. Carlisie, and Peter A. Hastings

vh Direct and vicarious experience of volcanic hazards: 3csCKAY implications for risk perception and adjustment adoption by Douglas Paton, David M. Johnston, Mark S. Bebbington, Chin-Diew Lai and Bmce F. Houghton

Plus ... Book reviews 53 Conferences and other announcements 8, 32, 36, 42, 52, 57, 63, 64 Disaster Events calendar 64, 65 EMA Update Centre pages

Cover: Spatial data collection at a local level (community mapping) can be used to fill the gap between available datasets and those required by emergency managers.

st-effective spillway designlreview for small dams in Victoria: avoiding dam failure emergencies

Introduction A clear need has developed for a Australia has a large number of relatively by Dr John D. Pisaniello, BE (Hons I), mechanism that: small, privately owned dams (farm dams raises public awareness of this problem PhD, Research Fellow; AIProf Jennifer M. in particular): those which have failed and improves the transparency of the number in the thousands (ANCOLD Mckay, BA (Hons), LLB, PhD, GDLP, risks 1992). A large proportion of these dams Associate Professor in Business Law, promotes consistency and uniform are located in Victoria which has an University of South Australia, School of standards estimated 170,000 farm dams, 800 of International Business, Water Policy and simplifies the engineering desiglreview which are large enough to cause serious Law Group; Mr Siraj Perem, MSc. processes involved while keeping in line consequences downstream if they failed MIEAust, MICE, Water Assets Engineer, with state-of-the-art practice (ANCOLD 1992; Murley 1987).Thegrowth Dept. Natural Resources and minimises reviewldesign costs to of farm dams in Victoria (and Australia) Environment, Victoria. private owners and in turn encourages is also increasing at a rapid rate. For better dam safety management example, in the Victorian Lal Lal Reservoir The Department of Environment and catchment alone (234 kd), farm dams Natural Resources, Victoria, recognising increased in number from 182 in 1970 to identified many unsafe, hazardous private this need commissioned the University 534 in 1985, representing an increase of reservoirs and found that most owners of South Australia to undertake a study about 200% (GHD 1987). When thesedams are not taking the necessary action in based on Pisaniello (1997 PhD thesis, see were constructed, the majority more than terms of analysis and upgrading of their also Pisaniello et al 1999), in order to 20 years ago, their designs were based on structures. establish such a mechanism for Victoria. rainfall frequencies and intensities, design Consequently, the recognition of risks This paper summarises the preliminary methods and criteria and standardsofrisk associated with the dams has increased procedures involved in the study, presents available at that time. However, these greatly. A need has therefore developed the resulting cost-effective flood capa- aspects have changed over time, together for private dams and risk to co-exist and bility designlreview procedure, and with population distributions and the for owners to appropriately manage their provides worked examples of how to condition of the dams, raisine serious dams in line with current standards in amlv the ~rocedure. ., 8.f doubts about dam adequacy. order to reduce the risks involved, reflect The development process In modern times, the major concern community standards and provide in- The Pisaniello (1997) procedure primarily with dam safety world-wide is the pro- creased dam safety assurance to down- involves the development of regionalised vision of adequate spillway flood capa- stream communities. flood capability prediction relationships bility. This is mainly because significant In particular, owners should review the for dams on small rural catchments based advances made in the fields of meteorology spillway flood capabilities of their dams, on the Reservoir Catchment Ratio (RCR): and flood hydrology have updated both and upgrade if necessary, in order to avoid maximum drobabk rainfalls and design liabilityfor possible faiiure consequences floodstandardsabove thoseon which most (McKay and Pisaniello 1995). Unfor- existing dams were based. As a result of tunately, the engineering processes these revisions, many dams have in- involved are highly rigorous and time- sufficient spillway capacities. consuming in practice and therefore In addition to this concern is the fact generate high consulting fees which in that most private owners hire contractors many cases are not affordable by private (Equation 1) toconstruct their dams. These contractors owners. For this reason, owners tend to are, typically, not properly trained or overlook the need for reviewing their where: skilled in the design and construction of dams and instead develop a sense of SC = spillway overflow capacity (m3ls) dams. Thus, many private dams are not complacency, believing that as the dams PIpMF= peak inflow for the PMP design built to an adequate standard. For have not failed up to now, then they will flood event (m31s) example, the layers of soil that constitute never fail. In essence, owners lack an RA = resenroirarea at Full Supply Level (km2) the dams are not properly compacted and appreciation of the risk of failure to SH = maximum height of spillway the structures are not provided with society and the costs. The result is that overflow (m) adequate outlet works. This is evidenced dams are deprived of necessary upgrading CA = catchment area (km2) by a recent case study investigating and downstream communities are placed = peak inflow for the 100 year ARI private dam safety management practices at risk. Pisaniello &McKay (1998) demon- event (m31s) in South Australia (Pisaniello 1997,seealso strate the potential seriousness of this PISo = peak inflow for the 50 year ARI Pisaniello and McKay 1998). The study problem. event (m31s)

2 Australian Journal of Emergency Management For regions where no variation is (AR&R) (IEAust 1987 and new edition) Producing a design peak flow pre- observed in the Annual Exceedance and Bulletin 53 (BoM 1994). diction equation for the PMF event, ie. Probability (AEP) of the Probable Maxi- The calibration flood studies basically scatter plot of catchment area (km2) mum Precipitation (PMP), the RCR can involved: versus peak flow (m'ls) in the logarith- take on the compact form: collation of recorded streamflow, daily mic domain. This equation when rainfall and pluviograph data substituted into the RCR establishes a RORB catchment modelling Regionalised Reservoir Catchment trial-and-error 'fitting' of modelled Ratio (RRCR). hydrographs with recorded hydro- Using the determined peak inflows and graphs elevations to establish peak inflow- (Equation 2) SMEC Victoria was commissioned by frequency and elevation-frequency the University of SA to perform the relationships for each dam. With these Developing the RCR, based on the calibration study for the Barringo Creek relationships the Imminent Failure Pisaniello (1997) procedure, necessitates catchment in order to provide a basis for Flood (IFF) capability of each dam is the collection and derivation of approp- independent comparison and check. determined as IIAEP (years). The IFF riate 'calibrated' catchment and reservoir In order to create the flood capability is taken as the smallest flood which data in the study region, and the formu- prediction relationships, it was necessary peaks at the lowest point of the non- lation of a range of hypothetical dams to produce a wide range of flood capa- overflow crest (ANCOLD 1986): this is (approximately 20) on each catchment bility outcomes relating to embankment in line with the ANCOLD (2000) defi- representing all possible scenarios up to dams placed at the outlets of the regional nition of Dam Crest Flood (DCF) for the PMP design flood event. calibrated catchments. The aim of the embankment dams. It should be noted An initial search for appropriate process is to represent the hydraulic that ANCOLD (2000) defines IFF as'the 'calibrated' data for rural catchments up response of any size of reservoir and flood event that could be reasonably to lOOkm2 proved unsuccessful. SMEC spillway(s) relative to the hydrological expected to cause failure of the dam', Victoria was then commissioned by the flood response of the selected 'catchment and hence, for the purposes of this University to undertake a more detailed type' (Pisaniello 1997). In brief, this was paper IFF is 'reasonably' assumed to search: this revealed an absence of such achieved for Victoria by performing the coincide with DCF. data in the State. It was therefore necessary following: These flood capability outcomes are to generate the required calibrated data, Creating a number of hypothetical dam used to create scatter plots of RRCR but unfortunately, only three small gauged cases, 57 in total, at the outlets of the versus IFF. Lines of best fit are then catchments with reasonable historical selected catchments, comprising of drawn through the scatter plots and the data were available for this purpose. varying size reservoirs and spillways associated regression equations are Fortunately, these are reasonably well which will produce a wide range of determined, thus producing the re- spread throughout the State and for the flood capability outcomes up to the quired reservoir flood capability purposes of this study, can be considered PMF. The spillways must be free flowing prediction relatiooships. to represent the three main regions of and weir-type in nature. A good variety The flood capability relationships the State relative to the Great Dividing of cases was obtained by either: developed using the above procedure Range (GDR): widening the spillway form the main part of the overall design1 raising the top of the crest which review mechanism presented later. 1.Barringo Ck. GS 230209 increases spillway height Study results (Area = 5.1 km2, 20 yrs record): deepening the spillway which in- Central GDR (ie. mountainous region) creases spillway height and decreases Calibration flood studies 2.Shepherds Ck. (3415244 reservoir surface area and storage As described, the calibration process (Area = 6.4 km2, 20 yrs record): capacity involved generating the RORB parameters Inland side of GDR raising the entire embankment and k, and m by trial-and-error 'fitting' of 3.LittleAire Ck. GS 235204 spillway which increases reservoir modelled hydrographs (using catchment (Area = 11.2 km2,40 yrs record): surface area and storage capacity. losses as determined from Hill et al 1996) Coastal side of GDR Including each of the hypothetical with recorded hydrographs for the two It should be noted that the coastal dams as 'special storages' in the already largest historical events for each catch- region warrants further subdivision into created RORB models of their respec- ment. The calibration results are pre- East and West regions in order to include tive catchments. sented in Table I. It is important to note cases which represent the Gippsland zone: Determining design rainfall infor- that 'good quality' historical data were this will be undertaken in future studies mation and design losses for theselected available for the Little Aire catchment only in order to increase confidence in the catchments for events between the 20 (i.e. around 40 years of record). The data developed prediction relationships year ARI and the PMF using the for the two other stations, although applying to the whole of Victoria. procedures described in AR&R (1987 workable, were rather poor (i.e. around The RORB program (Laurenson and and new edition) and Hill et al (1996). 20 years of record): this deems the results Mein 1990) was used for modelling; Using the RORB program to route flood for these catchments somewhat un- catchment and sub-area delineations hydrographs through each of the hypo- reliable for use with less frequent events were made using 1:25,000 scale topo- thetical storages, assuming the most (i.e. 100 yrs to PMF) which is unfortunate graphic maps. All catchment calibration, conservative 100% full 'start' storage as such events form the basis of this reservoir flood capability and PMF level case, to determine peak inflow, project. Nevertheless, and despite this, studies were undertaken in accordance peak outflow and water elevation for these results are basedon the best available with Australian Rainfall and Runoff all events up to the PMF. data and therefore their use would

Summer ZOO1 The coefficient of determination (R2) for the relationship presented in Figure 2 suggests a high levelof predictive accuracy. Storm event Peakflow Callbrated parameters ARBR (1987) Andrews curves However, to apply the above relationship (11131s) kc m kc (m~0.8) k, (m-0.8) also required the ability to accurately May 1974 1.76 13 0.8 predict the peak PMF inflow associated 5.3 3.6 with a dam for input to the RCR in order July 1990 0.88 7 0.8 to establish the Regionalised Reservoir Catchment Ratio (RRCR). Therefore, the peak PMF inflows determined for the calibrated catchments were plotted Storm event Peakflow Calibrated parameters AR8R (1987) Andrews curves against their areas and fitted with lines of (11131s) kc m k, (m-0.8) k, (11180.8) best fit in the logarithmic domain. The Sep 1984 5.13 11.2 0.8 peak PMF inflow (PIPMF,m3/s) was found 1.6 1.4 to be a function of catchment area (CA, Ian 1987 2.91 13.0 0.8 km2) for the line of best fit as follows:

Storm event Peakflow Callbrated parameters AR8R (1987) Andrews curves (Equation 3) (mVs) kc m kc (m-0.8) kc (msO.8) lun 1978 24.5 7.0 0.7 The above equation was substituted 26 9.8 into the RCR (Equation 2) to produce the Od 1976 19.2 7.5 0.8 Regionalised Reservoir Catchment Ratio 7heCalib~mIlmdnudy~rm&~lmlwacundemkpn by WECVldofid (RRCR) applicable to the sample region as follows: Tabe 7: Comparison of RORB Parameters as Determined from Various Means represent current acceptable practice. gauged catchments), as described below. In an attempt to substantiate the calibrated results, parameters were also Developing the flood capability (Equation 4) determined using: prediction relationships - regionalised prediction equations Non-conservative relationships A new flood capability prediction presented in ARM (IEAust 1987), and A total of 57 hypothetical dam cases were relationship was constructed using the Andrew's Fourier Plots (Dyer et al created on the catchments, based on the same sample outcomes but based on the 1994). The results are also presented in Pisaniello (1997) procedure, so as to above RRCR. The resulting scatter plot Table 1, where they are compared to represent all the possible combinations and line of best fit are presented in Figure the calibrated results. of reservoir size and spillway capacity to 3. Table I demonstrates that, in general, pass the entire range of design floods up Figure 3 demonstrates increased scatter there exists significant variation between to the PMF. Flood capability studies were and, hence, some loss of accuracy in the AR&R (IEAust 1987) andlor Andrews undertaken for each case in line with moving from the RCR to the RRCR; this Curves results and the Calibrated results; ARM (IEAust 1987), and also keeping in is a direct resuit of using the derived PMF Little Aire Creek being somewhat of an mind the new edition of AR&R (1998), prediction equation. Nevertheless, the exception. The calibrated kc values for Book VI. All cases resulted in an AEP of level of accuracy displayed is still consi- both Barringo Ck. And Shepherds Ck. PMF of I in 106 using the AR&R (1987) dered acceptable for predicting the flood appeared abnormally high, which has the procedure (compared with 1 in lo7 for all capability of reservoirs on small catch- tendency to underestimate design floods, cases using the procedure of the new ments in the region. that is: they represent a non-conservative edition of ARM): this therefore led to approach. At the same time, the lower the Reservoir Catchment Ratio taking on Conservative Relationships values determined using Andrew's Curves the compact form, ie. Equation 2. Given As indicated, the sensitivity analysis would tend to overestimate design floods the previous uncertainties surrounding involved reconstructing the IFF pre- which represents a conservative ap- Book VI of the new edition of AR&R, it diction curves (i.e. Figures 1, 2 and 3) proach. The erratic nature of these results was decided to adopt the more conser- based on the lower kc values determined was seen to have the potential to impact vative AEP of PMF (1 in 106) for all works using Andrew's Curves for the two smaller adversely on the final designlreview described here, while, if necessary, the less gauged catchments (see Table I). A total curves. Therefore, following consultation conservative case (1 in 107) would be of 19 additional points covering a range with DNRE, it was decided to provide a considered in future works. of AEPs from the 20 year ARI to the PMF sensitivity analysis and develop the The magnitude of the Imminent Fai- were derived for this purpose: these are designlreview relationships at 'both ends lure Flood (IFF) capability IIAEP (years) illustrated for the RCR in Figure 4. of the spectrum', i.e. for both (1) a non- was found to be a power function of the Figure 4 demonstrates minimal overall conservative approach (using the cali- Reservoir Catchment Ratio for a single scatter despite the large range of k, values brated kc values), and (2) a conservative line of best fit over the entire range of AEPs. which the entire data set represents (ie. approach (using the kc values determined The sample data and line of best fit are 1.4 to 13): this is a positive result as it from Andrew's curves for the two smaller presented in Figures I and 2 respectively. suggests that the RCR absorbs much of

Australian Journal of Emergency Management

- Non-cona. Predictor

I 2 om, owl 0010 a lm lm OW, 0.OK am om Irm Rrdomlised Reservoir Catchment Rntio (RRCR) Ragiomlijed Rerrroir Cnlrhmenl Rntio (RRCR)

Figure 6:additlonai sample data and line of best fit for IFFprediction based on the Figure 5:addltional RRCR sample data derived for the aensitivlty analysis conservative RRCR and comparison with non-conservative curve

condition is appropriate for embank- This model was verified by Pisaniello values for small rural catchments in ment type dams (1997) against real storage-height rela- Victoria. Given the lack of small gauged When using the procedure in review tionships, but unfortunately, these were catchments in Victoria, the Dyer et al mode, the simple parameters required in of South Australian farm dams only. In (1994) procedure would be ideal for the associated dimensionless ratio must order for the model to be used with readily determining k, values on small be first determined for an existing confidence here, it should be verified ungauged catchments in the State: this reservoir. These parameters are then put against a Victorian data set. Nevertheless, being the sort of catchments on which into the prediction relationship to read and despite this, the model can still be small farm dams are commonly located. off the corresponding flood capability, used as a 'rough' predictor of storage However, in its calibration study of which is automatically checked against capacity for farm dams in the State. Barringo Creek, SMEC noted that the the displayed ANCOLD criteria. When As to which relationship should be catchment did not identify particularly used in design mode, the same basic adopted in any particular case, this well with any of the groups of Andrew parameters are related to a proposed depends on the level of risk that an owner Curves and that this is not unusual in their reservoir, or upgrade of an existing is prepared to take andlor the judgement experience. In contrast, when applied to reservoir. The parameters must be varied and discretion of the design engineer. As the Shepherds Ck. and Little Aire catch- iteratively in the associated dimension- a general rule, it is recommended that for ments, this procedure provided for less ratio until the ANCOLD safety criteria design, the limiting ANCOLD criteria remarkable coincidence with the Type 2 together with the owner's storage needs should always be satisfied with the Andrew Curve, thus providing some are satisfied. Any proven method for conservative curve. However, when re- support for its use on other catchment estimating the storage capacity of a viewing existing dams, particularly Low cases for further refining the flood reservoir can be a useful tool in the and Significant hazard ones, ifthe limiting capability designlreview curves. It is iteration process, but is not a critical one ANCOLD criterion is not satisfied by a reasonable to adopt either the Dyer et al as it does not affect the predicted flood small margin via the conservative ap- procedure or the AR&R (IEAust 1987) capability used for design (this is illus- proach, but is satisfied with the non- prediction equations in place of the trated in Appendix A). Pisaniello (1997) conservative approach, then the overall abnormally high calibrated values as these developed a model for this purpose based flood capability can be based on the latter were derived from very limited historical on two equations: (at least until the former is refined in data(i.e. 20years) which can not be related future works as described below). Both with confidence to extreme events. This review and design worked examples are notion is also supported by the analysis presented in Appendix A. of the Little Aire catchment which (Equation 7) contained much better historical data (i.e. Overview, discussion and future 40 years) and in turn provided 'more research expected' outcomes which better coin- At this stage the credibility of the cided with both the Dyer et al and AR&R relationships presented in Figure 7 may values. be questionable due to the lack of As such, future works will be under- representation of varying calibrated taken so as to refine the conservative (Equation 8) catchment sizes and subsequent un- designlreview relationship by: certainty surrounding the RORB kc Establishing a 'well spread' range of where: parameters. Nevertheless, they do demon- additional catchments, say 4 to 6, of V = total storage volume strate worthiness of further works to varying morphometry (particularly of A = top surface area increase credibility and genuine potential the smaller scale size and including at H = maximum height of storage to provide a beneficial designlreview tool least one in the Gippsland region)- h = any height less than the maximum to farm dam owners. determining kc using either the Dyer et height (H) In essence, there exists an underlying al (1994) procedure andlor AR&R V(h) = storage volume at height (h) need to better establish appropriate kc (IEAust 1987) prediction equations-

Australian Journal of Emergency Management because of the lack of representation of varying catchment sizes throughout the State. This is due to the absence of appropriate small gauged catchments throughout the State and the uncertainty associated with thecalibration results: this will be rectified in future works. At the same time, the sensitivity analysis has done well to demonstrate: the narrow bound within which more refined relationships will lie, therefore making the relationships presented here'useable' in their current form the worthiness of further works to increase credibility genuine potential to provide both a reliable and beneficial designlreview tool to farm dam owners, which will undoubtedly encourage better private dam design and safety management in Victoria. For Non-Conservative approach: Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the RRCR = valuable contributions made by the 1.1723, CA"~~'" following people and organisations: Mr David Watson at DNRE for his interest in the project and the supply of For Conservative approach: all the necessary topographic maps. The research was made possible wholly through funding by DNRE. Mr Erwin Weinmann at Monash Uni- versity, who kindly engaged in fruitful discussions and provided valuable information. where: SC = spillway overflow capacity (m'ls) Dr Mark Pearse at SMEC Victoria for RA = reservoir area at Full Supply Level (km2) his advice throughout the project and SH = maximum height of spillway overflow (m) efforts in undertaking the Barringo Ck. CA = catchment area (km2) calibration study. Mr Steve Noble and staff at Theiss Environmental for providing historical Figure 7: reservoir flood capability designlreview relationship incorporating ANCOLD (1986) criteria flow data. Bureau ofMeteorology for the supply of daily rainfall and pluviograph data. and including these in the refinement appropriate remedial action where process so as to increase credibility and necessary. The regionalised procedure References confidence in the developed relation- developed here can be used to provide ANCOLD 1986, Guidelines on Design ships applying to the whole of Victoria. such encouragement. The procedure is Floods for Dams, Australian National Given the final publication of Book VI applicable to dams on small catchments Committee on Large Dams. of the new edition of AR&R (1998)- up to 12 km2 in size: this will cater for ANCOLD 1992, Status ofDam Safety in fully developing the alternative, less most private dam cases in the State. Australia, Bulletin No.91, Australian conservative relationship based on 1 in The main benefit of the procedure is National Committee on Large Dams, pp. lo7 AEP of PMF as determined using its simplicity which dramatically reduces 9-29. Book VI: this will merely produce a the effort and resources required for ANCOLD 2000, Guidelines on Selection similar relationship to that presented conducting a 'state of the art' reservoir of Acceptable Flood Capacity for Dams, here but with different slope. flood capability study. The procedure Australian National Committee on Large The above works are currently being provides a basis for quick yet accurate Dams. undertaken and will be reported in a review andlor design of private dam Bureau of Meteorology 1994, The future article. spillways against any design flood stan- Estimation ofProbable Maximum Precipi- dards, and is in line with modern tation in Australia: Generalised Short- Conclusion acceptable practice which is of critical Duration Method, Bulletin 53, Dec. 1994, There is a clear need to encourage private importance in a court of law. AGPS, Canberra. owners to review the spillway flood However, at present the relationships Dyer B. G.,Nathan R. I., McMahon T. A. capabilities of their dams in line with upon which the procedure is based may and O'Neill I. C. 1994, 'Development of current acceptable practice and to take be seen to lack credibility primarily Regional Prediction Equations for the

Summer 2001 RORB Runoff Routing Model', Cooperative Digest, Emergency Management Australia, Author's contact details Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 27-28. Dr. John D. Pisanlello, BE (Hons 1). PhD, Research Technical Report, No. 9111, Monash Murley K. 1987, 'Referable Dams in Fellow, University of South Australla, School of University, Melbourne. Victoria-Spillway Inadequacy' ANCOLD international Business, Water Policy and Law Gutteridge Haskins & Davey Pty. Ltd. Bulletin No. 76, April 1987, pp. 24-26 Group, Way Lee Building, City West Campus, North Terrace, Adelaide SA 5000 1987,'Farm Dams in Catchment Study', A Nathan R. I.,Weinmann F! E. and Gato S. Phone: 08 8302 0031 Technical Report prepared for Dept. of A. 1994, 'A Quick Method for Estimating Moblle: 0418 825 732 Water Resources Victoria, November 1987. Probable Maximum Flood in South Fax: 08 8302 0512 Hill P. I.,Maheepala U. K.,Mein R. G. and Eastern Australia', Water Down Under 94 Email: [email protected] Weinmann F! E. 1996,'Empirical Analysis Conference Proc., Adelaide, November APmt Jennifer May, BA (Hons), LLB, PhD, of Data to Derive Losses for Design Flood 1994,pp. 229-234. GDLP, Director Water Policy and Law Group, Estimation in South-Eastern Australia', Pisaniello J. D. 1997, 'Analysis and University of South Australia, School of inter- Cooperative Centre for Catchment Hydro- Modelling of Private Dam Safety Assurance national Business, Faculty of Business and Management, Banister and Solicitor, Way logy, Report 9615. Policy and Flood Capability DesignlReview Lee Bullding, City West Campus, North Terrace, Institution of Engineers Aust. 1987, Procedures', A PhD Thesis, University of Adelaide SA 5000 Australian Rainfall and Runoff-A Guide South Australia. Phone: 08 8302 0887 to Flood Estimation,Vols. 1 & 2. Pisaniello I. D., Argue J. R. and McKay I. Fax: 08 8302 0512 Institution of Engineers Aust. 1998, M. 1999,'Flood Capability DesignlReview Emall: [email protected] Australian Rainfall and Runoff-Book VI: of Dams on Small Catchments-A Simple MrSiraIPerera, MSc. MiMust MICE, Water Estimation of Large to Extreme Floods. and Cost-effective Regionalised Proce- Asspts ngineer, Natural Resources and Environment V~cloria.PO Box 500. East Laurenson E. M. and Mein R. G. 1990, dure' Australian Journal of Water Resources, Melbourne VIC 3002. 'RORB-Version 4 Runoff Routing Pro- IEAust,Vol. 3, No. 2.pp. 177-188. Phone: 03 9412 4062 gram User Manual', Monash University in Pisaniello J.D.and McKay J.M. 1998,'The Fax: 03 9412 4360 conjunction with ACADS and Montech Pry. Need for Private Dam Safety Assurance hail: Sim][email protected] Ltd., Melbourne. Policy-A Demonstrative Case Study', McKay 1. and Pisaniello J. D. 1995,'What The Australian lournal of Emergency must the Reasonable Private Dam Owner Management, Emergency Management Foresee?', The Australian lournal of Australia, Vol. 13, No. 3, Refereed Paper, Disaster Management-The Macedon pp.46-49.

isaster and Emergency medidme

The twelfth world congress on Disaster and experience, guidelines and projects on an Emergency medicine welcomes you in an international level. exceptional congress setting, where for three There will also be a discussion on how to eval- days, we will share our experience, present uate medical practice. The organisers encou- our research and discover the work of other rage you to bring to the debate methods and international teams regarding emergency, results and finally, the congress aims to highlight catastrophe and humanitarian medicine. new pedagogical tools. It is to be held in Lyon from the ninth to the twelfth of May, 2001. The congress will deal with the practical aspects of catastrophe situations For further information such as setting up a triage center, handling radio communications, studying identification WDCEM 2001 procedures. 1 rue de la Banniere 69003 Lyon France Two specialized trilingual one-day symposiums Fax: 33 (0) 4 72 60 92 89 will also be held: the first is for emergency Email: [email protected] nursing staff; the second for paramedics, emer- www.wcdem2001 .org, or http://pdm. gency medical teams and ambulance staff. Their aim will be to compare and share practical medicine.wisc.edulpdmcalendar.htmI.)

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Appendix A : worked examples demonstrating the application of the developed Wood capability designlreview procedure

Review Mode Worked Example ach, as the flood capability will only be 0.2m, ie: SH = 2.2m. Therefore, the worse. maximum reservoir depth reduces Case Description: Farmer Jones owns an embankment dam at Mount Macedon in from 10m to 9.8m. 3. Overall Assessment: As 5200 < 10,000, Substituting necessary parameters Victoria with a catchment area of 8 km2 the dam is in need of remedial action! into Equation 8, the new storage (as measured from 1:25,000 scale topo- capacity of the reservoir (RC) would graphic map) and a well populated valley Design Mode Worked Example become; downstream in what would be a dam- break inundation area. The reservoir has Case Description: Mr Jones, the owner of a maximum still-water depth of approx. the dam in the above case, would like to IOm and a surface area at Full Supply know the amount by which he must Level (FSL) of 0.048 km2 (as measured increase the size of his spillway in order from 1:10,000 scale aerial photo). The to make the dam of adequate flood As 190.5 > 190, increasing the depth dam has a free flowing, broad crested capability standard? However, he must of the spillway by 0.2m is just weir-type spillway which is IOm wide be left with a full storage capacity of at acceptable. Therefore, can work with and 2m high (max.) to the lowest point least 190 ML in order to meet his annual SH = 2.2m new maximum spillway on the non-overflow crest. Mr Jones farming needs, and he would also like to depth. would like to know if the flood capability avoid the option of raising the entire Also require a new reservoir area at of his dam is of adequate standard in non-overflow crest. FSL (RA). This can be determined relation to ANCOLD(1986) guidelines? using Equation 7 in reverse with a new Case Solution: A new spillway can be maximum reservoir depth of 9.8m; Case Solution: In accordance with designed as follows: ANCOLD guidelines, the dam warrants a I. In the review of this dam, 1 in 10,000 for 190.5x103 = 0.415x(RA)x9.8 'High' hazard rating given the populated AEP for the Recommended Design RA = 0.0468 km2 valley downstream. It must therefore Flood (RDF) was used as the minimum Therefore, substituting all necessary have an IFF capability of at least 1 in standard and was compared to the parameters into the cons. RRCR equa- 10,000 AEP (see Figure 7) in order to be non-cons. predicted flood capability. tion and applying it in reverse; of adequate 'ANCOLD' standard. This can For design, as lives are at risk down- be checked as follows: stream, best to adopt the conservative for 1. First check via Non-conservative approach: 0.00259 = - ~ - curve (Figure 7): 1000.8 Thus, can determine the 'required' Determine Non-cons. RRCR: . cons. RRCR to meet this standard by RA = 0.048 km2,CA = 8 km2, SH = using the appropriate equation in The spillway width (SW) required to 2m, Figure 7 in reverse; - need to determine spillway capacity provide this spillway capacity for a (SC) which for a rectangular weir for 10,000 = ~X~O"RRCR~.~~~~,2.2m maximum depth is determined with flow width, SW (m), and weir RRCR = 0.00259 using the broad-crested rectangular coefficient, C,, is given by SC = weir equation (presented above under C,.SW.SH1.5, where C, = 1.69 for 2. Can now design the new spillway for Review Mode Worked Example) in free flowing, broad crested weir-type RRCR = 0.00259 by using the cons. reverse; spillway (IEAust, 1987; Pisaniello, RRCR equation in reverse: for 142.6 = 1.69~SWx2.2~.~ 1997). Hence, with SW = ]Om, SC = As the height of the spillway (SH) SW = 25.9m 1.69x10~2~.~= 47.8 m3/s. cannot be increased by raising the Substituting into Non-cons. RRCR; embankment, extra spillway capacity Therefore, as the spillway width is can only be obtained by widening the already IOm, it must increased by RRCR = - spillway (either the existing one or a 15.9111, for a O.2m increase in depth. new secondary one) andlor deepening 3.Overall Assessment: The size of the its base. However, the amount by spillway must be increased from 2m which the bottom of the spillway can Using the non-conservative prediction deep x 10m wide to 2.2m deep x 25.9111 be deepened is restricted by the equation in Figure 7; wide in order to satisfy the ANCOLD farmer's storage capacity requirement. (1986) flood capability standard. IFF = 3~1011~0.001662.7916 Therefore, need to determine the = 5200 years (IIAEP) maximum depth that the spillway can Note: If the use ofEquations 7 and 8 is be dug out without loosing excessive to be avoided, then alternatively thedam 2.As the non-conservative approach storage capacity. Equation 8 can be owner can maintain the original storage does not meet the standard of 1 in used for this purpose by'trial and error' capaciy ofthe reservoir, and an increase 10,000 AEP, then there is no point in as follows: in spillway width can be determinedfor checking for the conservative appro- Try increasing spillway depth by the original 2m high spillway.

Summer ZOO1 ridge disaster: th anniversa memorial service

Introduction growth in both after the opening of the The collision of the vessel ss Lake Illa- by Rod McGee, Manager Asset Strategies, bridge. warra with Tasman Bridge on 5 January Deparlment of Infrastructure, Energy and The bridge however suffered storm and 1975 had a major impact on the lives of corrosion damage and increasing traffic Resources, Tasmania and Lynn Young the people of southern Tasmania. The congestion, especially during the opera- event had a number of unique charac- State Recovery Coordinator, Department tion ofthelift span. Asa result,consultants teristics and occurred at a time when the of Health and Human Services, Tasmania were commissioned in 1956 to investigate effects of disasters on communities were options for a bridge to replace the floating less well understood. Assistance to the arch. A number of bridge and tunnel community in this regard was thus stream. Population growth on the eastern options were considered during the limited. shore had been slow to that time, but preliminary design stage and review by An approach to the Tasmanian State accelerated after the opening of the the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Government by a local Lions Club led to a bridge generating increasing traffic Public Works. Navigation issues, including memorial service to mark the 25Ih anni- demand. Figure I shows population on the possibility of ship collision, were versary of the disaster. This paper the eastern shore and cross river vehi- assessed comprehensively. While a provides some background to the buil- cular traffic and highlights the rapid suspension bridge was considered the best ding of the Tasman Bridge and the option, its high cost and the inability of disaster, discusses its effects on the the State to finance it meant that a viaduct community and describes the memorial structure was adopted. service. It shows that effects of disasters Construction of Tasman Bridge com- can remain after extended periods and a menced in May 1960. The bridge was memorial service after 25 years can assist - opened to 2 lanes of traffic on 18 August members of the community. eq-.:-..- 1964, withall4lanes becoming operational on 23 December 1964. The bridge was History of Tasman Bridge tm 1020 1e40 1860 TWO m I officially opened by HUH The Duke of Hobart is divided by the Derwent River. Gloucester on 29 March 1965. Non-indigenous settlement of Hobart occurred in 1804, initially on the eastern Tasman Bridge Disaster shore but transferring shortly afterwards Figure 1 -Eastern shore population and cross river At 9.27pm on Sunday 5 January 1975, the traffic to Sullivans Cove on the other side of the bulk ore carrier ss Lake Illawarra struck river due mainly to a lack of fresh water. As early as 1816, a ferry took passengers across the river north of Hobart at Austins Ferry. A bridge at Bridgewater, some 20km north of Hobart, was opened on 30 April 1849. Ferry services across the Derwent close to Hobart commenced in the 1850's. While a bridge of boats was proposed for a crossing close to Hobart in 1832, the first investigation of possible bridge crossings was not commissioned until 1913. Costs of all the options were however high and it was recommended that a ferry would meet traffic requirements for many years. In 1936, a proposal for a floating arch bridge was submitted to the Premier by the Director of Public Works for consideration. The floating arch was proposed to eliminate deep and expensive foundations. The proposal was accepted and construction of the bridge commenced in 1938. It was ooened to traffic

1 0'0 Australian Journal of Emergency Management I Tasman Bridge resulting in the collapse of 3 spans, the sinking of the vessel and I the loss of 12 lives. Seven of those were crewmen, the other five people were travelling in four cars. A large number of organisations and members of the public were involved in the response to the event. Organisations included Tasmania Police, Tasmanian Ambulance Service, Hobart Fire Brigade, Royal Hobart Hospital, Civil Defence, Hobart Tuc Company, Marine Board of Hobart, ~uhc~o'rks'~e~artment, Trans- port Commission, Hydro-Electric Com- mission, Postmaster-General's Depart- ment, Hobart Regional Water Board, Salvation Army and the Defence Forces. The Mercury newspaper on the following morning said that: 'Few could comprehend the meaning of the disaster, the lives lost, the destruction of both the Lake Illawarra and the bridge itself and the huge traffic problems which will face Figure 3 -1asrnan Bridge, 6 January 1975 Hobart for months, perhaps years to come'. For people travelling from the eastern additional demands on relationships. teams. The effect on the hospitals and shore, the immediate effect was that what Social contact was reduced. Many with police was small. The ferry queues did had been a 10 to 15 minute trip became a part-time jobs, particularly women, gave however provide some assistance by 2 hour journey in each direction. The up work because of the cost and time providing a forum where people had nearest alternative road connection was involved in travelling. Overtime was also much in common and could vent their via Bridgewater over mainly unsealed in many cases curtailed. Phobias asso- frustration. roads for a distance of approximately 50 ciated with water, ships and crowds A Tasman Bridge Restoration Commis- kilometres. Ferries that had been carry- became apparent in some. The difficul- sion was establish to oversee the rehuil- ing tourists on the Derwent started ties were exacerbated by the lack of ding of the Tasman Bridge, which was commuter operations on the following hospital services and specialists on the widened to 5 traffic lanes and reopened morning. The ferry fleet was expanded eastern shore. Pregnant women in in October 1977. rapidly and shore facilities upgraded and particular felt very insecure. A number The eastern shore police presence and built to cater for people wishing to cross of businesses closed. Much of the medical services were upgraded. Branch the river. frustration and anger was directed offices of several government agencies Prior to the disaster, the eastern shore towards the transport services. were also established. The increased was almost exclusively a dormitory The Tasman Bridge disaster was in Government presence on the eastern suburb with a large labour force that had many respects unique. Because it shore remains. to cross the water every day to workplaces occurred on a Sunday evening shortly Flextime was introduced to reduce on the western shore. The major tertiary after Christmas, there was relatively little peak transport demands, and this also institutions, private schools and hospitals traffic on the bridge. If the event had remains. were also on the western shore. There occurred during a weekday after schools The disaster stimulated development had been no decentralisation of govern- had resumed and businesses had returned in Kingborough, a municipality south of ment administration and there was a lack to work, the death toll could have been Hobart on the western shore, because of of eastern shore offices of insurance far higher. Except for those who lost their the reduced travel times for western shore companies, hanks, solicitors, doctors, lives or were on the ship, no personal workers compared to the eastern shore. dentists and many other businesses. possessions were destroyed and there was The eastern shore became a more self- Cultural activities were largely based on nothing that the community could do to contained community, with a higher level the western shore; these included the help clearing debris or provide support of employment and improved services theatre, halls, the museum and art gallery, for rescue operations, clothing, shelter, aid and amenities, than it had been prior to cinemas, restaurants, meeting places, or restoration of the damage as it had the disaster. The previous imbalance lecture theatres and the botanical gardens. done after the 1960 floods or the 1967 between facilities and employment There was a diverse range of effects on bushfires in southern Tasmania. Visible opportunities between the two shores the community from the disaster. These progress on restoration of the bridge was was to a high degree redressed as a result included psychological effects arising slow because of the need for extensive of the disaster. Many roads were upgraded from anger, uncertainty, inconvenience underwater surveys ofdebris and the time and the Bowen Bridge subsequently built and dissatisfaction. Fatigue and reduced required for design of the rebuilding. The to provide an alternative crossing. family contact were a consequence of the role of Salvation Army and Red Cross, Bob Clifford was successfully operating additional travel demands. Alcohol sales although geared to disasters, was limited the Sullivans Cove Ferry Company as a on the ferries were substantial, placing to support for the search and rescue ferry and charter operator and a boat

Summer 2001 builder prior to 1975. The disaster was with 'Highland Cathedral', provided a service and display advertisements during the catalyst which totally changed the transition from the one hour music the preceding three weeks. The service focus of the company and was a significant program for people arriving for the was strongly supported by both print and influence on its growth. As Incat, the service itself. electronic media. The chair of the company is now an established exporter The site selected for the service was planning committee gave a series of of high speed catamarans and a major beneath the eastern approaches to the interviews in the preceding week. The Tasmanian employer. bridge because of its proximity to the site media also gave prominence to its of the impact, and its ability to accom- extensive coverage of the service. Memorial Service modate the number of people likely to The service was developed to have a The Clarence Lions Club, from Hobart's attend a service, albeit with some tidying number of symbolic aspects, including: eastern shore, proposed to the Minister ofthe area. It was also close to the location being held beneath the eastern approa- for Infrastructure, Energy and Resources selected for the memorial plaque, being a ches to the bridge where many of the in January 1999 that a memorial to the large bridge pylon adjacent to the water's people involved in the early response Tasman Bridge disaster be erected. As a edge. were located result of the proposal, a meeting of The Governor and Premier of Tasmania choirs and bands comprised youths and representatives of organisations and were invited to participate in the service adults from both sides of the Derwent individuals that may have had an interest and readily accepted. River, representing the nature of the in the proposal was convened. The The planning committee identified the Hobart community meeting resolved that a service, which desirability of placing a plaque near to - prayers were said by leaders of the include-d the unveiling of a memorial, the site of the collision, both for com- Anglican, Roman Catholic, Uniting, would he appropriate and a planning memoration and for interpretation by Salvation Army, Jewish and Islamic committee was established comprising visitors to the area. Careful consideration religions representing the spiritual representatives of: was given to the wording on the plaque diversity of the community Department of Infrastructure, Energy to recognise the passage of time since the extinguishing the lights on the eastern and Resources as owner of the bridge disaster and the likely inability to contact halfofthe bridge, to a lone piper playing (chair) many of the families of the deceased to a lament at the time of impact, recreated Department of Health and Human discuss the proposal. Significant input its appearance after the collision Services because of their roles in was provided by attendees at a disaster a single wreath was laid by a serving community health and recovery recovery course at the Australian Emer- police officer from the police vessel Clarence and Hobart City Councils gency Management Institute. A symbol Vigilant during a period of silence to representing the people of greater was developed to illustrate the bridge represent those who had assisted in the Hobart with the collapsed spans. The layout of response to the disaster, especially from Tasmania Police, Tasmanian Ambulance the plaque is shown in Figure 4. A the emergency services; both the Service, Tasmania Fire Service and State commemorative brochure outlining the officer and the boat were involved in Emergency Service because of their history of the bridge, the disaster and its the actual response. roles in emergency management effects on the Hobart community was Estimated attendance at the service Department of Premier and Cabinet for prepared for and distributed at the exceeded 1000 and included families of matters of protocol service. some of those who died or were most Hobart Ports Corporation as managers Awareness of the service was raised affected by the disaster, senior repre- of river usage through a series of press releases over a sentatives of government and organi- Clarence Lions Club to represent period of about six months prior to the sations that had been involved in response community groups Tasmanian Council of Churches for their role in the spiritual aspects of a service - Hon Bruce Goodluck MHR who was TASMAN BRIDGE Warden of Clarence municipality at the In memory of those who died time ofthe disaster and as a community representative. In recognition of those who were affected It was recognised that music would be In acknowledgement of those who assisted an important and integral part of a commemorative service and a sub- The Tasmanian Community remembers the committee was established to develop Tasman Bridge disaster of 5 January 1975 that part of the program. The sub- committee comprised representatives of the pipe bands, concert bands and choirs This plaque was unveiled on the invited to participate. The music program 25th anniversary of the tragedy comprised recognisable tunes that were by consistent with the nature of the com- His Excellency The Honourable memoration. It also included the playing Sir Guy Green AC KBE of a popular tune,'The Ferry Boat Shuffle', Governor of Tasmania which was written shortly after the disaster and described the carrying of commuters across the Derwent River and, Figure 4 -Commemorative plaque

AustralIan Journal of Emergency Management and recovery and members of the public. In his address the Premier said that the Plpe Bands Cuilen Bay, Mairi's Wedding. Rowan Tree, Steam Boat Song. disaster was clearly remembered by many Cock of the North, Bonnie Dundee, Green Hills of Tyrol, When the Battle's O'er, Sweet Maid of Giendaruel, 1976 Police Tattoo Tasmanians. He noted that some were still struggling with the memories of its ScoUand the Brave, Skye Boat Song effects, and commended the resilience of Pipe and Concert Bands the community in coping with the disas- Concert Bands and Choirs Maritime Medley, Strike Up the Band, Anchors Aweigh, Andrew Lloyd Webber: A Concert Celebration, Songs that Made ter. The Governor described the pain and Australia, Ei Shadaih, I am Australian loss of loved ones and the social and Ferry Boat Shuffle economic disruption. He paid tribute to Recording the efforts of emergency services person- Pipe and Concert Bands Highland Cathedral nel in responding to the disaster and the Concert Bands and Choirs Oimond way in which the State managed to the Premier of Tasmania Address challenges created by the collision. He Church leaders Prayers said that the eastern shore had emerged Abide with Me more self-sufficient in the wake of the Concert Bands and Choirs Lone piper, lights extinguished tragedy and that Tasmanians were now Sieep Dearie Sieep stronger, more self-reliant and mature. on eastern half of bridge Police Vessel Vigilant Silence, wreath laying Community recovery aspects Governor of Tasmania Address, unveiling of plaque The collision occurred at a time when Concert and Pipe Bands, Choirs Amazing Grace the psychological effects of disasters on Pipe Bands Auld Lang Syne, Will Ye Nae Come Back Again, We're No Awa' communities were less well understood. Tae Bide Awa' A service, prepared and led by members of the Tasmanian Council of Churches, to Table 1 -Memorial Service Program commemorate the tragedy of the bridge disaster, to celebrate the rebuilding of the spans and to rejoice in the possibilities which the reopening offered to greater Hobart was held on the occasion of the reopening on Saturday 8 October 1977. The reopening itself was however low key and other assistance to the community was limited. As noted previously, opportunities for the community to be involved in the response to the disaster and the physical restoration of infrastructure were minimal because of the nature of the event. It is likely that this lack of contribution contributed to the enduring nature of the effects of the disaster on a number of individuals. Knowledge and practice regarding community recovery has developed significantly over the past 25 years since the Tasman Bridge tragedy. Eyre (1999) Figure 5 - Estimated attendance at the service exceeded 1000 and included families of some of those who describes the psychological and social died or were most affected by the disaster importance of post-disaster rituals associated with anniversaries of disasters, munity and personal support services has include the affected community in their both in the short and long term, and the been endorsed by the Standing Com- development and management need to take account of the range ofsocial, mittee of Community Services and facilitate sharing of information religious and political issues involved in Income Security Administrators (SCCSISA) between agencies as an integral part of planning for such commemorations. and commended by the National Emer- the service delivery It is of value for recovery agencies to gency Management Committee. The recognise that people will require examine the efforts made at the time of principles advise that: accurate and current information the commemorative service. The plan- Community and personal support about the situation and the services ning committee included a number of services are most effective when they: available members with backgrounds in emergency are provided in a coordinated, timely - are integrated with all other recovery management and community recovery and culturally appropriate manner services, particularly with regard to and was able to draw on their training, are available for all people affected by financial assistance expertise and involvement in the recovery the disaster including individuals, provide assistance and resources to aspects of the Port Arthur tragedy in the families, communities, groupslorgani- create, enhance and support commu- planning of the service. sations, and emergency service, re- nity infrastructures A set of principles relating to com- covery workers and volunteers recognise that cultural and spiritual

Summer 2001 symbols and rituals provide an impor- Manley Those interviewed described the disasters on communities and the bene- tant dimension to the recovery process, beneficial nature of the commemoration, ficial effects of commemorations at and with one saying it was the service that we appropriate times. utilise personnel with appropriate didn't have at the time. A number of those More recent disasters have provided capacities, personal skills and an aware- attending expressed similar sentiments opportunities closer to the event; the ness of the full range of services privately to members of the planning Tasman Bridge 25th anniversary memorial available. committee with as much said as unsaid. service nevertheless demonstrated that The initial impetus from the local Lions Frank and Sylvia Manley are two people there are benefits in providing some form Club, and their subsequent membership who remembered the disaster vividly. of commemoration after a significant on the planning committee ensured solid Their vehicle was one of the two that were passage of time where these opportunities and informed community representation. left with their front wheels over the edge have not arisen earlier. It is considered It facilitated the establishment of dialogue of the gap. They still own the green GTS that the service met those needs of the with representatives of the community Monaro that featured in many reports of Hobart community and further services which was further enhanced by repre- the event. are not envisaged. sentation from local government. The The Manleys participated in a number Summary planning committee met on a regular of interviews for media reports on the The Tasman Bridge disaster on 5 January basis over a period of approximately 12 anniversary and the commemoration. 1975 had a significant effect on the people months and a coordinated response, with The Mercury reported Mrs Manley as of Hobart. While it resulted in major a set of common and stated goals, was having said that "sometimes it's okay to enhancements to physical infrastructure, achieved. talk about it, other days it's not'and that it occurred at a time when the psycholo- That the committee had such broad 'grief takes a lot to get over, you never get gical effects of disasters on communities representation from community and over it". The Examiner noted that Mrs were less well understood and assistance churchgroups, and all levelsofgovernment Ingrid Harrison, who had been one of to the community in this aspect of from the Premier's Department to Emer- their reporters at the time, was still recovery was limited. gency Services highlighted the range of haunted by the night of the disaster each A proposal by a local service club to erect resources which are deployed, and thus time she drives over the bridge. a memorial to the disaster was developed need to be acknowledged, in the event of a A reunion for a substantial proportion by a planning committee with broad disaster. of the crews of the ferries that maintained community representation and expertise cross river links until the bridge was The fact that until 2000 no formal into a service to commemorate the 25th closure ceremony had taken place at the rebuilt was held on one of those ferries, anniversary of the disaster. The staging of site marked the 25Ih anniversary as an the Cartela. It was one of a number of the service highlighted the enduring appropriate time with a large proportion boats that moored near the bridge during effects of disasters on communities and of the Hobart population remembering the service. While unplanned, the soun- the benefits of such commemorations well the immediate and longer term ding of its horn at the end of the silence after extended periods where earlier impact of the tragedy. Representatives and the rafting together of a number of opportunities have not been provided. from a range of church groups and service the boats added further symbolism to the organisations were involved in an attempt service. References to deliver a culturally appropriate service. The presence of the crews on one of Eyre A 1999, 'In remembrance: post- Direct contact was made with as many the ferries used during the disaster in disaster rituals and symbols', Australian of the families that may have been most close proximity to the service was an ]ournalofEmergency Managemen1,Vol. 14, affected by the disaster as could be located appropriate commemoration for those No.3 prior to the commencement of publicity people because of their particular role. 'Emergency Management Practice, so that they would be aware of the Spiritual symbols and rituals are an Vol.3 Guidelines,Guide 2: Community and important dimension to the recovery background to and nature of the service. Personal Support Services', Emergency With the passage of time and the spread process. The presence of survivors, Management Australia. of residential addresses for the shipS crew, relatives of those who lost their lives in Lock J. B. and Gelling M. J., 1976,'The this was however difficult. While the the tragedy, dignitaries, the evocative Tasman Bridge disaster-before and majority of those contacted were suppor- playing of the lone piper, the extinguishing after', Australian Road Research Vo1.6 No.2 of lights on the bridge and the laying of tive of the commemoration, others MCGee R., 1993,'Tasman Bridge: Pre- indicated that events in their lives had the single wreath provided an air of impact phase', Unpublished report, Hobart enabled them to move on. solemnity appropriate to the occasion. McGee R., 1993,'Tasman Bridge: Impact The inclusion of a contact telephone Whilst the growth of the Eastern Shore as phase', Unpublished report, Hobart number in advertising for the service a direct result of the tragedy provided a MCGee R., 1993,'Tasman Bridge: Post- enabled a number of people to tell their positive side to the event, it appeared that, impact phase', Unpublished report, Hobart story or of the involvement of others in in a general community sense, there had 'Official Opening: The Tasman Bridge, response to the disaster; these stories had been limited opportunities for the Hobart', 1965, Department of Public mourning of those who had passed away mostly been untold for 25 years. Aware- Works, Tasmania ness of the service was assisted by the and were otherwise affected. The goal of support and interest of the media. the commemorative service was to pay Acknowledgments The service itself was described as those long overdue respects. emotional by the media, whose inter- The attendance at the service, the telling The contributions of the members of the ~lannina tommnee, mLnc subanm ttee, arganisasons an;; views included families of some of the of stories, the emotion of the service and nalw d~alswho Dan (malea n me sew te, and Don deceased, one of the crewmen from the the expressing of sentiments highlighted Stephens for periissi& to publish his photographs Lake Illawarro, and Frank and Sylvia the enduring nature of the effects of are gratefully acknowledged.

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management Bs disaster

Introduction family and work. For some the decisions During recent years, disaster preparedness by Thomas E. Drabek, Department of are easy-they may stay at work late to place sandbags, move furniture, or what- and planning within private businesses Sociology, University of Denver, has moved from being a topic that was ever. For others, a series of compromises Denver, Colorado met with smiles and little else, to a are required to reduce the strain they recognised managerial responsibility. For confront because of family expectations example, 'In 1989 researchers showed that and needs. Understanding the behavior less than half of the Fortune 1000 cor- evoked by disaster warnings, therefore, que et al. 1993; Goltz et al. 1992). But no porations surveyed had a crisis manage- requires examination of a complex mix comparative studies of employee responses ment team or had any type of crisis of social constraints that capture the to disaster have been reported. Following management plan in place to deal with a juxtaposition of both work and family briefdiscussion of the theory and methods major crisis or catastrophe' (More 1998, p. expectations. that guided and bounded my study and a 224). By contrast, more recent surveys Seven disaster events were compared summary of general responses, I will reveal a somewhat improved picture. through field work in 12 communities: describe the results of five multivariate 'According to a recent Contingency ~urkaneFelix (August 1995) (Carteret models that best predict variations in: Planning B ManagementlErnst & Young and Dare Counties, North Carolina) work-family tensions LLP study, 95 % of companies surveyed Hurricane Fran (September 1996) desired change in evacuation pay are either developing or have some type (Pender, New Hanover and Brunswick policies of BCP [Business Continuity Planning] in Counties, North Carolina and Horry perceived morale change place' (Keating 1997, p. 1). But even this County, South Carolina) dissatisfaction with management survey revealed gaps and voids that suggest flood (January 1997) (Washoe County, disaster response vulnerability to disaster. For among the Nevada) dissatisfaction with local government companies included in the 95 percent are flood (January 1997) (Stanislaus County, disaster response. those who are'developing plans' (24%) and California) I will conclude with discussion of those who have completed plans only for flood (January 1997) (Sutter and Yuba employee recommendations regarding certain departments or divisions (32%). Counties, California) desired changes in company disaster In short, these survey data actually flood (July 1997) (Larimer County, planning and response. documented that only 38 percent of the Colorado) companies surveyed claimed to have Theory and method flood (July 1997) (Logan County, Colo- completed the planning process although This study was guided by the stress-strain rado) for event descriptions and most were evidencing some progress and theoretical perspective which has been analytic characteristics, see Drabek commitment. A 1999 follow-up validated applied in numerous disaster studies for 1999,00.28-54.... these results and the implicit vulnerability. several decades (Haas and Drabek 1970; The research design was a comparative 'While still encouraging, the results have Drabek 1990, 1994, 1996, 1999a). It is a case study (Yin 1984) wherein field fallen about two percent from 1998' (1999 variant of the emergent norm paradigm observations were augmented by sys- results based on a four page question- (Turner 1964; Perry 1985) and draws tematic field and telephone interviews naire; 10,000 mailed, 53 1 returned, i.e. 5%) heavily on bounded rationality theory with 406 employees who worked for 118 (Van Gilson 1999, pp. 12 and 16). (Burton et al. 1993). In essence, this different businesses. The firms were But what about behavior? When im- perspective assumes that when people are selected carefully to insure balancing pacted by actual disasters, what do confronted with danger they will form across two analytic design variables, i.e. employees experience? Although a great emergent perceptions of risk. Multiple size and mission. Interviews averaged 45- deal has been learnt over the years about layers of social constraint, including 50 minutes although many went well over human responses to disaster (Fritz 1961, various forms of structured strain, i.e. an hour especially in the high impact areas. Barton 1969, Dynes 1970, Drabek 1986), inconsistency, ambiguits and overload, Following each interview, I requested that employee responses have not received pattern these emergent perceptions of a short mail backquestionnaire (30 items) much attention. There have been a few risk. Hence, when disaster warnings are be completed; two-thirds (66%) returned studies of employee responses to single issued, all employees are free to select their these. Also, 23 emergency managers were events like the accident at Three Mile behavioral actions. But their choices interviewed; they provided contact Island (Chisholm et al. 1983), the bombing reflect the range of options they perceive recommendations of impacted busi- of the World Trade Center in 1993 (Wenger to be available. These, in turn, are limited nesses and important contextual infor- et al. 1994) and Hurricane Andrew by varied forms of social constraint that mation regarding both the disaster event (Sanchez et al. 1995). Others have reported are the outgrowth of their past life and the community response. a few observations regarding work place experiences (Drabek 1999b). behavior that were reported during As in everyday life, during disaster Employee responses household evacuation interviews (Bour- employees are forced to choose between When warned about these disasters, threat

Summer 2001 denial was the initial response regardless double or negative meanings by had the most influence (for elaboration, of the information source. All employees, employees. On the surface, for example, see Drabek 1999b,pp. 164-166). however, tried to confirm the information these two statements might imply only a Although most (96%) reported that through one of several coping actions. sense of gratitude. neither they nor any family members These reflected the constraint of social 'We could stay in their home-they were injured, over one-fourth (27%) said status. For example, CEOS and upper offered. They knew we were not they had personal property losses of some management contacted local authorities comfortable staying in our trailer.' type. In contrast, only oneofthe 118 firms, with some frequency whereas line per- 'He offered free rooms to anyone all of which were evacuated either before sonnel turned to relatives, friends, and who needed a place to stay. I asked or after impact, escaped without damages. media outlets. Extensive discussions with about our six dogs and he said we Although a few (16%) refused to co-workers were reported by most had pet rooms here so I could bring disclose even a'ballpark figure,'most CEOs employees. The content varied, but the them here which I did: (43%) estimated losses that ranged most frequent topics discussed were: While guarded and tactful-and often between $10,000 and $99,999. Just over the potential severity of the threat couched in a context of appreciation- one-fourth (27%) suggested that their where to go some employees added remarks that losses were not expected to exceed when to go reflected hostility. Since they were at a $10,000. The others (29%) suffered the continued relative safety of both manager's home, or more commonly at significant impacts including six that work and home locations. their work site such as a structurally incurred losses in excess of three million During these discussions additional sound hotel, they were available to work dollars. warning information was received, but until just prior to impact. And afterwards, As would be expected, when some often inconsistencies emerged. Decisions they remained on-site to assist in a rapid employees (15%) tried to report back to about work and family had to be made reopening. In the disaster aftermath they work, they were advised that temporary within a context of uncertainty and now had lingering doubts about their office locations had been established ambiguity. boss's motivations. Was it just circum- elsewhere. In some cases these were As the warning period continued, over stance that they, and sometimes family branch locations of a larger corporate two-thirds said they stayed at work to help members, were a readily available work- structure to which employees were prepare the business for impact. Again, force when other businesses had yet to reassigned temporarily, but more com- their actions clearly reflected the powerful get any employees back on-site? monly they were new locations that were constraint of social status. Those in Emergent perceptions of risk gradually leased while repairs were made. For about managerial positions focused on provi- intensified prior to impact, especially one-third (37%) of the employees, such ding necessary information to other among employees who: arrangements were very temporary, i.e. employees, while those with other jobs resided in communities wherein the two days or less. For others, such disrup- boarded up, created back-up computer least amount of disaster planning had tions were much longer, e.g. 3-7 days files, and assisted customers. These firms occurred (17%); 8-31 days (24%). Ten percent varied in their degree of disaster- received warning messages they inter- worked in temporary locations for over a relevance. Some like lumber yards and preted as meaning that it was manda- month. A near equal number (12%) were retail outlets that sold emergency supplies tory for them to leave their place of still in such a place at the time of my of various types were pressed to remain residence interview, with expectations of remaining open as long as possible. This too was true resided in a mobile home or apartment there for another couple of months. A few of some shelter providers, e.g. hotels that So, with, or occasionally without their projected return times of another six provided rooms to media personnel who bosses approval, they left work. Nearly all months or more. arrived on scene to report and record the went straight home although a few had Although some employees emphasised upcoming destruction. arranged to meet family members in that the temporary job relocation had One-half indicated that their boss other locations such as a relative's home. negative impacts on their family, most provided some form of evacuation related Those quickest to leave work, more (93%) took the inconveniences in stride. assistance during this time. The forms of often: Those reporting difficulties usually noted assistance varied widely both in content confronted events with a lengthy longer driving times to get to the tempo- and the perceptions of employees. duration of impact rary location which in turn complicated 'Our manager offered a room at an had bosses with high future risk percep- day care arrangements, school transpor- inland hotel for me and my family if tions tation, and other child related issues. But we decided to evacuate from our were female those impacted negatively consistently home: Those quickest to leave home, more expressed strong sentiments toward upper 'We received pay advances; nor- frequently confronted events with a management whom they believed had little mally we get paid on Thursday and lengthy duration of impact that was either awareness or interest in the enhanced that was the day the hurricane was minimal or disastrous in its impact, e.g. family stress they experienced. due. So management paid everyone hurricane threatened areas that were early to help out with people leaving.' either missed at the last minute or Response variations 'They indicated that if we had impacted severely. Also, these employees As is clear from this brief portrait of problems at home we could take more frequently received initial warnings employee responses, there were impor- time off to protect our homes. I had three or four days prior to impact and tant variations that clearly reflected to get a pump to get the water out of formed very intense emergent percep- selected aspects of a complex mix of my flooded basement: tions of risk. Although additional varia- social constraints. Multivariate analysis At times offers of help that might have bles demonstrated varied aspects of social techniques were implemented to examine been made in good faith were viewed with constraint, these were the qualities that a large number of these. Five will he

Australian Journal of Emergency Management addressed in this section of this article: - work-family tensions desired change in evacuation pay policies Community disaster subculture 12.07" ,237"' ,146" perceived morale change - dissatisfaction with management disas- Children in household 7.07"' ,214"' ,134 ter response Notified relatives of evacuation 26.41"' ,255"' ,131" dissatisfaction with local government disaster response. Scope of impact 6.89"' -.142"' -.122" Racial orethnicbackground 3.92"' ,159"' ,102" Work-family tensions Prior evacuation from work 1Z62"' ,208"' ,104 Acute priority conflicts between work and family during these evacuations were Planningassistance by EM 7.33"' ,136"' ,081 experienced by over one in five em- Total number in household 4.89"' -.197"' ,078 ployees (21%). And three-fourths (75%) Disaster-relevant business 9.42"' ,155"' ,058 indicated that managers of private businesses should give more considera- 'Adjusted R' = ,164; F = 8.06; p < ,001; "p < .05; "'p < .O1 tion to such tensions when they are preparing disaster plans. Undoubtedly, all Table 1: Model that predicted work-family tensions employees experience some degree of tension at times between the demands of work and family. Although the rates are social factors that comprised this model experience can influence the subsequent lower, these results are consistent with were: evaluation of risk'. Finally, employees of those documented among Three-Mile community had a disaster sub-culture so-called 'disaster relevant firms' most Island (TMI) employees by Chisholm et children living in household frequently confronted bosses who truly al. (1983, pp. 393,402). When compared to relatives were notified of business believed that the broader community their comparison group, i.e. persons closure before employee left work would best be served if the business employed at the Peach Bottom plant of disaster had extensive scope of impact remained in operation as long as possible the Philadelphia Electric Company, TMI employee was racial minority despite increased amounts of threat employees :. . experienced significantly prior evacuation from work information. higher overall tensions on their jobs business had received disaster planning during the incident than did PB em- assistance from local emergency manager Evacuation pay policies ployees'. Furthermore, '. . . interrole three or more people living in house- Two interview items were used to identify conflict contributed importantly to TMI hold employees who believed that changes employees' job tension. This is apparent business was 'disaster-relevant,' e.g. should be made in the compensation from the impact of "need to he in two lumber yard that sold plywood and policy used during the evacuation. Salaried places at the same time," because the vast other emergency items during warning employees typically were paid despite majority of TMI workers (approximately period. these short-term business closures while 90 percent non supervisors and 75 percent Interrole conflict, like that which those paid on an hourly basis were not. supervisory) indicated conflict between Chisholm et al. (1983) documented among Various uses were made of sick leave and being at work and at home during the TMI workers is reflected in several of these vacation time to reduce pay check im- incident: factors including number 2 (children pacts. Also, many employees expressed I combined responses to three inter- living in household) and 8 (three or more appreciation for being scheduled for view items pertaining to work-family people living in household). Disaster additional work hours during the weeks tensions. This index was used to ascertain frequency and expectations of high risk that followed to offset pay reductions that the social characteristics that were were reflected in such factors as number had occurred because of these evacua- associated with those employees who 1 (community disaster sub-culture), tions. Overall, however, 30 percent of the experienced the highest levels of work- number 6 (prior evacuation from work) sample said they were not paid at all for family tension during these evacuations. and number 7 (business had received the time they missed work because of Among the thirty-four variables that were disaster planning assistance from local these disasters. Reflecting acceptance of significantly related were such factors as emergency manager). While other issues the legitimacy of a 'no work-no pay' policy racial minority status (F = 3.92; p < .01); may be reflected, more intensified work- stance, nearly three-fourths (74%) indi- children within the household (F = 15.98; family tensions among minority em- cated that they did not see any need for p < .01); and prior evacuation of the ployees is consistent with numerous risk change in the policy they encountered. business (F = 17.05; p < .01) (see Drabek perception studies such as those reviewed So as to identify the social factors that 1999, pp. 168-171, for details regarding by Vaughan and Nordenstam (1991, p. 46). might differentiate among those with index construction and discussion of all Clearly, ' . . . ethnic minority status is different views on this matter, 76 hy- variables). associated with a greater likelihood of potheses were tested. These analyses Examination of several combinations increased exposure to hazardous agents indicated that 39 social factors covaried of the thirty-four variables, however, led in a wide variety of occupational settings'. with the compensation policy index. For to the acceptance of a nine-variable Furthermore,'Tbis differential exposure example, those employees who favored a multivariate model that accounted for may account, in part, for differences in policy change, usually meaning that full about 16 percent of the variance within risk perception among members of or partial compensation should be made the index. As detailed in Table 1, the nine ethnically diverse groups, because prior to employees who can not report to work

Summer 2001 because of a management evacuation decision, more frequently: were female had worked for the company fewer years Employee future risk perception 4.87"' -.246"' .383" were of minority ethnic or racial Length of forewarning 12.89"' ,256"' ,312" background Core technology 9.76"' ,214"' ,308"' were younger had job positions at or near the bottom Number of service org. memberships 7.28"' ,331"' ,304"' of the organisational structure. Time of initial warning 5.40"' ,212- ,257 Other critical factors included certain Job position 9.80"' -.302- -.I63 business characteristics, e.g. routine core technology and high level of vertical Type of home residence 7.70"' -.247"' ,050 differentiation; community features, e.g. 'Adjusted R2 = ,344; F = 6.16; p < ,001; " p < .05; "' small population sizeand wide circulation p < .O1 of a disaster preparedness brochure; and event qualities, e.g. lengthy forewarning Table2:model that predicted change in evacuation pay polities and very limited escape routes. A seven variable model was discovered very negative. Indeed many expressed Extensive trials yielded the seven that predicted about one-third of the acute tones of bitterness about the way variable predictive model presented in variance in employee preferences regar- they had been treated. While many issues Table 3. It documented that those em- ding changes in company policies per- were involved two were mentioned quite ployees who perceived the most negative taining to disaster evacuation compen- frequently. First,'They should have closed shift in morale had received warning sation (Table 2). Employees who most this place sooner; they kept us here until messages indicating that the evacuation favored change in such policies were: the last minute just to make another buck.' advisory issued by local government for those who had high expectation of a And second, 'They didn't show much the geographic area where they worked future event that would trigger another compassion to those of us that had was mandatory, rather than voluntary (I). evacuation damages at home; we needed time off to They also revealed high future risk resided in communities that received get things hack together but they just said perceptions (2), i.e. when asked how a lengthy forewarning of the disaster "no! you're needed here"' probable it was that another event would event Many who expressed such displeasure occur within the next decade, they employed in businesses with highly also talked of seeking future employment specified probability levels ranging routine technologies elsewhere and gave various evidences of between 75 and 100 percent. Rarely, if ever, minimally involved in community harboring serious grudges. 'They think had they been afforded any disaster service organisations this has all blown over, but there's a lot training while at work (3). The company - personally warned initially three or four around here that are still pissed about wherein they were employed had a days prior to impact how we got treated. They're going to medium level of disaster loss, i.e. between in lower level job positions regret it someday.' $5,000 to $100,000 (4) and had done - living in a mobile home or apartment What social factors differentiated these minimal or no disaster preparedness three categories of employee? Analysis planning (5). The CEO of their firm had a Perceived morale change revealed 33 different factors. Those who medium level future risk perception, i.e. Responses to one interview item were, i.e. perceived a morale shift toward the 50 percent probability level that another 'Do you believe that employee morale was negative reflected such individual charac- disaster would trigger a company evac- adversely impacted because of the teristics as: uation within the next ten years (6). Finally, disaster evacuation policies and proce- - shorter community residence the firm had not received disaster dures used by this company during this having been divorced andlor currently planning assistance from any corporate event?' Since this was one of the last living with a friend, but not married office (7). questions asked, it often was placed in lower family income In short, employee morale deteriorated context by prior remarks. The perception absence of pets at home. the greatest in those businesses that had ofeach employee was coded as to whether They tended to work for companies done the least to prepare their employees or not they believed overall company that: at all structural levels to cope with the morale had remained unchanged, im- had never provided any disaster pre- uncertainties and challenges these events proved, or deteriorated. Most (65%) paredness training presented. employees indicated that the evacuation were more recently founded experience had little or no impact on were smaller. Dissatisfaction with management morale, at least as they saw it. About one Despite these company qualities, many Each employee was coded into one of four in tive (21%), however, provided specific of these employees lived in communities categories regarding their degree of examples that they interpreted as im- that had experienced prior disasters and, satisfaction with the way company provement. Most common were themes in turn, evolved extensive disaster executives had handled the evacuation, ofbonding; the disaster had brought them subcultures. And within the mix of seven i.e. 'very satisfied' to 'very dissatisfied'. and most other employees closer together. events studied, these employees expe- These codings were based on comments But another segment-15 percent of the rienced those with minimal forewarning made and responses to about one-half of total-responded quite differently. For and minimal magnitude. But their escape the interview items and their answer to them the impact was negative, sometimes routes were very limited. the following question: 'How satisfied

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management because of perceived community needs. 'Those people caught on the highway need somewhere to go for shelter."The media are here in full force and need some Warning message constraint. work 14.24"' -.335"' -.279"' place to stay.' Some employees bought into Employee future risk perception 5.58"' -.249"' -.I51 these logics whereas others defined them Disaster training 16.16"' -.226"' -.145" as little more than 'a rationalisation to make a quick buck'. Also dissatisfied were Estimated company dollar loss 4.53"' ,210"' ,136" those who had not received any on-job Extent of company disaster planning 4.1 7"' -.220"' -.I24 disaster training. Finally, if they had CEO's future risk perception 9.34"' -.208"' ,108 children at home or were of minority background they more frequently rated Planningassistance by corporation 13.03"' -.205"' -.011 the performance of company management during the evacuation in negative 'Adjusted R2 = ,185; F = 8.16; p < ,001; "p < .05; "' p < .0l terms. These results are consistent with the Table 3: Model that Predicted Perceived Morale Change' interpretations of Sanchez and his associates (1995, p. 504) regarding' ...the effects of corporate relief efforts on employees' organisational and health- related strain'. While they recognised the complexity of such assessments due to the multitude of agencies and informal Type of pet 5.06"' ,233"' ,250"' groups who responded in Andrew's aftermath, their data supported a key Disaster-relevant firm 4.86" -.136" -.128"' conclusion. Disaster training 3.83" ,121 ,128 'Relief efforts may thus control Children at home 5.06" -.138" -.098 absenteeism and workers' compensation costs, which should rise when Racial or ethnic background 4.13" -.lo6 -.086 a disaster has affected most ofa work force. In addition, according to our 'Adjusted R2 = ,158; F = 6.34; p < ,001; " p < .05; " p < .01 data, such basic help may also improve attitudes like organisational Table 4: model that predicted dissatisfaction with management commitment in themonths following adisaster'(Sanchezet al. 1995,p.519). were you with the way they (the manage- were asked whether or not they had any ment) handled the warning situation?'. pets and then what type. Three code Dissatisfaction with Local Government Among the 76 hypotheses tested, only categories were used, i.e. dog, cat, other. A similar interview item and procedure seven were accepted. When these seven Forth-three percent had a dog while to that used for assessing satisfaction with variables were used in regression analyses, about twenty percent were cat owners. management provided a basis for coding one (number ofpersons in the household) The 'other' category included those with employee perceptions of the local govern- did not increase the predictive power of multiple pets of one type, or multiple pets ment response. The four categories, i.e. the model. Consequently, I accepted the of different types, or in a few cases some degree of dissatisfaction, were juxtaposed six variable model depicted in Table 4. other type of animal such as a snake or with 76 social factors. Significant patter- Which employees were the most dis- bird. Over one-third of the sample (37%) ning was discovered among 42 of these. satisfied with managerial responses? were coded in this category. It was this Various combinations of these were First, it was those who did not receive group that most frequently voiced intense examined through regression analysis any offers of assistance from their bosses. dissatisfaction with company manage- until an eight variable predictive model As noted above, one-half of those inter- ment. was identified that accounted for about viewed provided specific examples of Many employees who voiced dissatis- one-fourth of the variance in the govern- how their bosses andlor other company faction worked for 'disaster-relevant ment dissatisfaction measure (Table 5). officials extended offers of varied forms firms'. These were companies with varied This model documented that a very of assistance during the evacuation. Over missions but the key criterion used in different mix of constraints molded two-thirds (67%) had some type of pet the coding was the CEO's stated viewpoint employee views about government that often figured into their evacuation and description of their evacuation performance that had been operative decision. decision making. Lumber yards, for with their own company management. This constraint is one that too many example, like some retail firms, were Three event characteristics-uncertainty community disaster planners have igno- defined by some managers as being of forewarning, accessibility of escape red, but recent research has documented 'disaster-relevant' since many in the routes, and the length of forewarning- its importance to behavior responses and community needed their plywood, flash- were crucial. emergency management policy (Drabek lights, generators, etc., to prepare their Thus, when employees felt that the 1996,pp.68-71,281-283; Heath et al. 1997). homes for the predicted event. Some warnings issued were highly uncertain and In this case,'type of pet' refers to a three- hotel executives delayed closure or even relatively short, they reported less satis- fold differentiation. That is, employees remained open during the impact period faction with government performance.

Summer 2001 expectation. Indeed, 91 percent of them either agreed or strongly agreed with this identical questionnaire item (see foot- Uncertainty of forewarning 25.87" ,315" -613" note to Table 6) (Drabek 1996, p. 285). As might be expected, a survey of tourist Community disaster subculture 53.33" ,425" ,460" business managers indicated less enthu- Length of forewarning 55.03" ,419" ,411" siasm for this policy option (36% dis- Accessibility of escape routes 27.42" -.349" -.220" agree; 14 neither agree nor disagree; 50% agree; n = 97 managers from nine Degree of community disaster planning 14.10" ,249" -.I17 communities in seven states; see Drabek Community populationsize 13.06" ,293" ,101 1994, p. 223). Thus, while they were less enthusiastic than customers, many of Predsion in warnings 18.49" ,280" ,058 these employees favored this rather Prior evacuation from work 27.21" ,254" -.050 controversial measure that only a few communities have tried to implement. 'Adjusted Rz = ,243; F = 16.74; p < ,001; " p < .O1 Out of the 266 employees who returned their policy option questionnaire, over Table 5: model that predicted dissatisfaction with Local Government' one-half (58%) took the time to write responses to the following open-ended question: 'When this evacuation occur- Although they resided in areas where should be included in such a brochure. red, the most helpful thing that the escape routes were readily available, in Almost all (91%) disagreed with a management of the firm where I work contrast to locations like the Outer Banks management inspired objection to such could have done was: -'. Of these, of the Carolinas where bridge and a policy. These employees did not believe one-third (33%) wrote comments limited roadways severely constrain traffic flows, that a brochure of this type would make to managerial praise, e.g.'They did a good this condition did not blunt their negative them uncomfortable or fearful of their job'. Some of these hinted at employee assessments. But if the warnings received work place. Some managers had ex- priorities, but all were coded as 'nothing weredefined as being imprecise, then their pressed such concerns in their intemiews specified: e.g.'Just what they did; allowed dissatisfaction was intensified. Typically, and in previous studies (Drabek 1996, pp. all employees that wanted to, to go home'. they lived in larger communities, that had 281-282). Remarks written by the other 103 em- few or no elements of disaster subculture, Would an annual disaster drill be helpful? ployees provide managers with a food for wherein only minimal amounts of disaster Many (27%) indicated that it would not thought. Seven topics were identified (the planning had occurred. and a sizeable number (22%) were un- percentage listed indicates the proportion Finally, most of these employees had certain. The others (51%), however, of employees whose remarks reflected never experienced evacuation from their responded differently. Apparently, they each theme): work place. Thus, the areas of constraint believed that a yearly exercise would . better communication - 34% that shaped their perceptions of govern- enhance the effectiveness of responses to close earlier - 26% mental performance contrasted sharply to events like these (see Table 6, item 3). provide employee assistance - 11% those that molded their views of company Furthermore, two-thirds (66%) indicated do more preparedness - 11% management. that local business associations such as retain more staff to implement pro- chambers of commerce should demon- tective actions - 7% Employee recommendations strate more interest in disaster evacuation - establish return procedures - 7% Two-thirds (66%) of those interviewed planning. - provide pay for employee time off returned a short questionnaire. These were Initiatives by such groups have been during such evacuations - 5% mailed to them immediately after each successful in some communities, espe- In summary, the multivariate models interview was completed. Certain of the cially when coordinated with activities that were discovered clearly document questionnaire items afforded these sponsored by local emergency mana- the potential residual costs that disasters employees an opportunity to share their gement offices and others involved in may impose on businesses. When pre- views regarding numerous disaster evac- disaster responses. While more (28%) paredness activities have not been a uation policy options. Most relevant to the were uncertain for whatever reasons, over company investment, managerial leader- matters discussed in this article are the one-half (56%) of these employees ship may be curtailed. Employee expec- results based on the six questionnaire indicated that local governments should tations will not be met and tensions been items listed at the bottom of Table 6. provide more disaster evacuation training work and family priorities may be Despite reluctances expressed during for private-sector business executives. exacerbated. some executive interviews, most em- Partnership arrangements for business Consequently, perceptions of dete- ployees highly favored the distribution and industry disaster seminars and hazard riorated morale may linger in the months of a brochure that outlined disaster awareness workshops have been imple- following recovery. Such costs can be evacuation procedures. During employee mented successfully in some communi- reduced or eliminated entirely if manage- interviews, many volunteered related ties, but the overall picture is very spotty ment makes a commitment to involving concerns. For example, most had no idea (Drabek 1994, pp. 207-218). employees in a meaningful disaster ofany company policy regarding disaster- Most customers expect lodging estab- preparedness program. When imple- induced evacuations including such lishments to be prepared for disaster. For mented such programs may permit an matters as compensation or return example, a survey of over 500 tourists and actual improvement in morale and procedures. These and related matters business travelers documented this organisation commitment despite the

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Company brochure 3 17) 6 (16) 11 (28) 48 (126) 33 (87) Brochure discomfort 47 (119) 44 (112) 6 (151 2 (6) 1 (2) Yearly disaster exercise 5 (14) 22 (57) 22 (56) 36 (42) 15 (38) Business as~~ciati~ns 1 (2) 6 (16) 27 (68) 48 (123) 18 (47) Executive training 1 (3) 15 (37) 28 (68) 45 (1 10) 11 (28) Mandate written plans 2 (9) 6 (24) 5 (21) 33 (135) 18 (72)

'The number in parenthesis b the actual number of employees who indicated the responses listed. Percentage is based on the total number who responded to each questionnaire item.

" Policy option items: 1. 'Business Rrms shouid provlde ail employees with a bmdw that outllnes their disaster evacuation procedures.' 2. 'if I ever received a hazard awareness brndwe (e.g., hurrimne information and response procedures) from my employer, I would not feel comfortable working there.' 3. The effediveness of future evacuations could be enhanced if ail business Rrms participated in a disaster exercise each year: 4. 'log1 buslness associations (e.g., chamber of commerce) should demonstrate more interest in disaster evacuation planning.' 5. 'Local governments should provide more disaster evaaalion training for private.sector business executives: 6. 'Lomi governments should require ail firms providlng lodging, Including RV parks, campgrounds, etc. to have written disaster evacuation plans:

Table 6: tmpioyee policy preferences

trauma and suffering that disasters of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. gency Management: Evacuating Threa- inherently bring to communities and the Drabek T. E. 1999a, Disaster-Induced tened Populations, JAI Press, Inc., Green- social units that comprise them. Employee Evacuation, Institute of Beha- wich, Connecticut and London. vioral Science, University of Colorado, Sanchez J.I., Korbin W.P., and Viscarra References Boulder, Colorado. D.M. 1995, 'Corporate Support in the Barton A. H. 1969, Communities in Drabek T. E. 1999b, 'Understanding Aftermath of a Natural Disaster: Effects Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Disaster Warning Responses', Social on Employee Strains', Academy ofManage- CollectiveStressSituations, Doubleday and ScienceJournalVol. 36: pp.515-523. mentlournal, Vol. 38, pp. 504-521. Company, Inc., Garden City, New York. Dynes R. R. 1970, Organized Behavior Turner R. H. 1964,'Collective Behavior', Bourque L. B., Russell L. A. and Goltz J. D. in Disaster, Heath Lexington Books, in HandbookofModern Sociology,ed.R.E.L. 1993,'Human Behavior During and imme- Lexington, Massachusetts. Faris, Rand McNally, Chicago. diately After the Earthquake', in The Loma Fritz C. E. 1961,'Disasters', in Contem- Van Gilson V. 1999,'The State of Pre- Prieta, California Earthquake ofOctober 17, porary Social Problems, ed. R. K. Merton paredness l999', Contingency Planning 6 1989-PublicResponse, ed. P.A. Bolton, US. and R. A. Nisbet, Harcourt, New York, pp. Management, No. IV (Special Issue), Geological Survey, Washington, D.C, 651-694. pp.12-16. pp.3-22. Goltz J. D., Russell L. A. and Bourque L. Vaughan E. and Nordenstam B. 1991, Burton I., Kates R. W., and White G. F. B. 1992, 'Initial Behavioral Response to a 'The Perception of Environmental Risks 1993, The Environment as Hazard, The Rapid Onset Disaster' International Among Ethnically Diverse Groups', Guilford Press, New York and London. Journal ofMass Emergencies and Disasters Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Chisholm R. F., Kasl S. V. and Eskenazi, Vol. 10, pp.43-69. Vol. 22, pp. 29-60. B. 1983,'The Nature and Predictors of Job Haas J. E. and Drabek T. E. 1970, 'Com- Wenger D. E., Aguirre B. and Vigo G. Related Tension in a Crisis Situation: munity Disaster and System Stress: A 1993, 'Evacuation Under Conditions of Reactions of Nuclear Workers to the Sociological Perspective', in Social and Uncertainty: The World Trade Center Three Mile Island Accident', Academy of Psychological Factors in Stress, ed. J. E. Evacuation of February 26, 1993', paper Management Journal No. 26, pp.385-405. McGrath, Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., presented at the XIll World Congress of Drahek T. E. 1986, Human System New York, pp. 264-286. Sociology, Bielefeld, Germany. Responses to Disaster: An Inventory of Heath S. E., Dorn R., Linnabary R. D., Yin R. K. 1984, Case Study Research: Sociological Findings, Springer-Verlag, Casper J., Hooks J., and Marshall K. 1997, Design and Methods, Sage Publications, New York. 'Integration of Veterinarians into the Beverly Hills, California. Drabek T. E. 1990, Emergency Manage- Official Response to Disasters', Journal of ment: Strategies for Maintaining Organi- the American Veterinary Medical Asso- Author's note zational Integrity, Springer-Verlag, New ciation No. 210, pp.349-352. Revision of a paper presented at Iheannual meeting York. Keating J. 1997,'Continuity Plan Inten- ol thewestem Sooai Science Association. April. 2000. Drabek T. E. 1994, Disaster Evacuation tions Good, Implementation Lacking' Ponons ol th s paper are based on Drabek (19991. and the Tourist Industry, Institute of Contingency Planning 6 Management Vol. i wlsh to thank Ruth Ann Drabek for her work on Behavioral Science, University of Colo- 2 (April) No.1, pp. 10-12. this paper. Partial support for the preparation of his rado, Boulder, Colorado. More E. 1998, Managing Changes paper was funded by NSF Grants Number CMS- 9415959andCMS-9813478.Any opinions,findings, Drabek T. E. 1996, Disaster Evacuation Exploring State of the Art, JAI Press Inc., conclusions or recommendations expressed in lhis Behavior: Tourists and Other Transients, Greenwich, Connecticut. paper are those of the author and do not necessarily Institute of Behavioral Science, University Perry R. W. 1985, Comprehensive Emer- reflea the views of lhe National Science Foundation.

Summer 2001 Introduction mapping agencies saw the future impor- 'This paper discusses an emerging area of by Rick McRae, ACT Emergency Services tance of digital data and committed data management within the overall Bureau and Alan Walker, North Coast resources to the digitising of existing emergency management framework. It is mapping data. We saw a switch from the Community Mapping, Waumope NSW. an area that has been slow in gaining the employment of field surveyors (to record interest of policy makers, partly due to changes 'in the paddock') to employment misunderstanding. However, current of digitisers (to provide digital data from trends in spatial data management are source of spatial data for response crews existing paper maps). The 'digital'change- driving us, perhaps inexorably, down the operating outside metropolitan areas. over was a major undertaking involving path to this very area. This is an attempt They are on-hand at all times and all heavy expenditure, in resources and in to clear that path. The fundamental point crews have training in their use. Senior personnel, on the part of all mapping is that there is a very real gap between officers often carry large numbers of agencies. Very little map updating was some of the datasets provided by statewide maps. We use topographic maps all the undertaken during this process. Most mapping and suweying agencies and those timeand find them an invaluable planning topographic maps in southeast Australia required by emergency managers. This is and operational support tool. They would are now in the 15 to 25 years age range. highlighted for our stock-in-trade, the appear to be an indispensable and This disturbing fact should be of grave topographic map. In this article we state welldesigned product. concern to emergency managers. that spatial data collection at the local level On closer inspection, and from the In the January 1994 Sydney bushfire is an effective way of filling in the gap. The perspective of the modern information crisis, the ACT Emergency Services local community gets better protection, the age, topographic maps have some serious Bureau, along with many other Australian emergency managers are better informed shortcomings. The primary issues include: fire services, sent task-forces interstate and state-level providers have access to they are chronically out-of-date and to help. When tasked these crews were accurate datasets that complement theirs. take too long to be revised handed photocopies of photocopies of This is made possible by both new they are not necessarily synchronised 20-year-old maps, and told to work along technology and new standards for spatial with any digital or other spatial datasets fire trails that weren't even on the maps. data management. in use This scene could be repeated next Why worry about spatial data? The they do not show all of the data that summer in most parts of Australia. It is a traditional model of the response crew is emergency managers need serious, but understated issue. Crews can that they have a lot of local knowledge- they are not designed to meet the needs normally do their job by relying on their they know where they are going and they of emergency managers pool of local knowledge. But when crews do the job. While this may be true in large The first two issues relate to currency, are operating outside their brigade areas, part, there are a lot of new demands for and the latter two to relevance. they don't have local knowledge to guide spatial data that require development of Over three decades ago, Australia them. This is the very time when the local spatial databases. Examples include: switched to the metric system of measure- crews (whom they are assisting) can be the provision of a fire shed in a small ment. One of the biggest efforts involved guaranteed to be too busy to pass on their town once its population reaches a in this switch was the production of new knowledge. This is thus a source of risk threshold value maps in metric units. A new definition of to out-of-area crews. the preparation of district risk maps the earth's shape (ellipsoid) was produced, The pool of local knowledge, collectively and plans and from this the Australian Geodetic across Australia, is an asset to the com- interstate response of task forces Datum 1966 (AGD66) was created, which munity of immense value, but shows up reporting to government on levels of gave a better result over which to drape a on no balance sheets. It needs to be service delivery. map grid. recorded, and its full value needs to be Clearly these are important things to The new metric grid, the Australian accessed. Community Mapping is a way emergency managers. Map Grid 1966 (AMG66) was developed. to start this. There are a number of problems with This changed the core scale for topo- The Australian mapping and surveying the spatial data with which we work. graphic maps from 2 inches to the mile community decided that the geocentric Rather than discussing technical issues, (1:31,680 scale) to 1:25,000 scale. This definition of the earth's shape would be it is perhaps most useful to focus on the meant that each map in the country adopted across Australia (the Geocentric main means of access, during emer- needed revision to the new metric Datum of Australia 1994, GDA94). This is gencies, to spatial data for most of scale-a heyday for map users. compatible with the Global Positioning Australia: the topographic map. Once the transition to metric had System (GPS), unlike the geodetic defi- finished, the production of maps slowed nitions that had been used for map What's wrong with topographic down. At about this time, the impact of making previously in Australia. This maps? new computerised geographic infor- makes life easier for surveyors, pilots, Topographic maps are the fundamental mation systems (GIS) was being felt. The mariners and the military. Unfortunately

Australian Journal of Emergency Management it makes any new maps prepared with the new map grid based on this (the Map Grid of Australia 1994, MGA94) incom- patible with any previous maps. To put it another way, all of our maps became out- Coarse State Statewide holdings Digitised map data Poiicy of-date at once, but unlike the similar Region Planningdata Broad-area Strategic event in 1966, the maps are not being mapping programs planning revised in bulk. In December 1998, the Federal Government began work on LGA LG data Surveyors, GPS Hazard spending $2,000,000 that it had set aside assessment for revision of 1:100,000 scale maps in Fine Locality Local knowledge Community Operational GDA94, and recognised that emergency mapping support managers had the most critical needs. However this is a very small proportion of the total effort needed. Table 1:scale dependence of data, its management and applications So emergency managers are being diverted towards digital datasets to emergency management has brought a They facilitate both emergency contacts support their work. As a good example of growing recognition of the key role of and risk management by providing A4- this, during the 1999 Sydney hailstorm spatial datasets. The holdings ofthe former format, indexed access to information disaster, cadastral databases were brought do not match the needs of the latter. The about residences. They are extremely on-line to assist with logging the tens of third shift has been the ready availability popular, and have, to a limited extent, been thousands of calls for assistance. A Joint offield GlSlGPS equipment that allows the emulated elsewhere. The key fact is that Emergency Services Mapping Unit was collection of accurate and consistent data they give information that is not provided created to service this capability (Anon by unspecialised personnel. [This has been elsewhere. Privacy and other concerns 1999). This concept showed its benefits augmented by the recent improvement in dictate that this information cannot go immediately and is being widely endorsed precision with the removal of Selective on standard maps. as a standard tool. However, the inner Availability.] The fourth shift is an across- The authors have had direct experience workings raise many fundamental issues. the-board recognition of the value of with the issue of designing maps to meet Principal among these is the need for standards in spatial data. And, finally, all the needsofemergency managers. In 1990 current databases to be on-hand in of these have reinforced a trend to devolve AUSLIG invited both authors to assist with preparedness for emergencies. While we risk management down to the local level. the production of a 1: 100,000 scale Special are not custodians of the available data, (It is worth noting that a new shift, the Map covering the entire ACT. This we nevertheless need ready, confidential recognition-in accrual accounting coincided with the need for a revision of access. Also there is a difference in terms-of the value of spatial datasets, is the map. At the time AUSLIG was experi- technology between office-based planners yet to occur.) mentine.2 with the use of satellite imaee" and vehicle-based response crews. So what information do emergency maps (SlMAP, a rr.3istr.rr.d tr~dmimr.)on Another issue raised by joint mapping managers require? This is a very difficult the mainland (\Vise IYY!).They had been is that of reconciliation of the three key question, and perhaps the best attempt at used successfully for some' years in dataholdings of relevance to emergency answering it is in Granger & Johnson Antarctica, and were seen as beinga faster management: the local knowledge men- (1994). They listed a number of'essential way to produce maps 'back home'. They tioned earlier, the data held by local elements of information': location, also had the ability to accurately depict governments, and the data held by state resources, personnel, weather, hazards, vegetation types. mapping agencies. It is extremely difficult communications, transport, population, The map used a fully rectified LANDSAT to ensure that these match, given their tenure, health, community, utilities, image, with map grid, line work and text diverse histories and the differing updating terrain, biota, rural use, urban use, and superimposed over the image. (The image efforts. Much of the data held by local administration. For emergency managers was a hybrid of thematic mapper and governments has its origins back in the to access all of these broad classes of panchromatic data, resampled to 25 m original development era. Surveyed information is a major task. Further, some on the AMG.) The image took on the role boundaries from then do not necessarily of these have, traditionally, not been easy ofterrain shading and vegetation shading. match thosesurveyed to modern standards to access. It is only in recent years that a Contours werenot shown,asexperimental or even collected with GPS. The old data major focus on lifelines has yielded maps with them included have shown that were not necessarily accurate. There is even results. Building partnerships over a range these made the end product too cluttered. a fundamental limit to this reconciliation, of agencies is also yielding results. And The image had to be ghosted back to reflecting the scale dependence of data, its traditional information sources, such as avoid it swamping all other information management and its applications. This is maps, are failing to match the ever- on the map-about 30% strength was summarised in Table 1. increasing demands for detailed infor- found best. A number of major shifts in spatial data mation. Maybe part of the problem has The image was carefully selected: management in the public sector have been that emergency managers have not to be from a time-of-year when the local coincided in recent years. Firstly, the been 'in the loop' for designing infor- grasslands were quite different in their state-level data agencies have needed to mation products. appearance in the image (thus giving retreat to a well defined set of core Victoria's Country Fire Authority has maximum discrimination of vegetation datasets, driven by economic constraints. for some years been producing and types), and Secondly, the shift towards risk manage- revising regional map books, which serve also to be from a time when the sun ment (Standards Australia 1995) in as 'street directories', but for rural areas. was high in the sky when the satellite

Summer 2001 between these is outside of our financial capabilities. Cooperation is perhaps the best approach to take here. The value of local data must be recog- How do you rate... The way that landform is shown without contours? Pwr nised. It has been suggested that the best way to put a value on knowledge for The colours shown in the satellite map? Acceptable accounting purposes is to look at its Your ability to make practical use of replacement cost. None of us has yet put this map? Acceptable on our balance sheets the value of the The use of purple to show local knowledge of our response crews [operational] information? Poor and planners. Your understanding of the image map? Acceptable - Priority areas need to be recognised- How do you rate the new map, compared to the old map? where the built environment is changing fastest, the data that describes it needs Clarity of the map? Worse to be updated more often. Areas on the The way that vegetation is shown? Better rural I urban interface are notorious for The overall use of colour? Worse having out-of-date spatial information, especially maps. Yet it is these areas that The way that land tenure is shown? Better need the most protection. A rapidly The tire tower compass roses? Much worse expanding suburban area may not be The way the map grid Is printed? Better built to withstand wildfire, yet those Placement of the labels for easting. and northing.? Better houses stranded on the edge during The way the legend is shown? On a par summer may be at considerable risk. The same may be said about floods, with floodways that are unfinished. Table 2: views on the useabiiity of the ACTBush Fire Council Edition map and how it compared with Ule Drevious traditional edition. Development of a standard approach During discussions at the recent work- passed over, avoiding large shadows Other comments were invited on the shop on Spatial Data in Emergency (which show no information) in rugged questionnaire. One comment that was Management- Where are we now?, (see terrain, such as the Brindabella Ranges repeated many times was the difficulty McRae 2000) it emerged that there is a west of Canberra. of using the map at night in a four-wheel perceived and vital role for community- A special print of the new map titled drive, under torchlight. level mapping. the ACT Bush Fire Council Edition, with a The request for contours was in conflict State or National mapping agencies purple overprint of operational infor- with the technical findings, and would be need to develop and maintain key top- mation (fire tower compass roses, key a major driving force in map design. level datasets, addressing core mapping land uses etc) was produced. Purple was products. Extracts from community-level chosen as an opaque, high contrast colour What can be done? mapping products are able to assist with largely absent from the base map. Grid Some fundamental changes are needed the development and maintanence of labels were redesigned to aid the use of a to address the issues above. these datasets. This is an effective method folded map. At all levels, emergency managers of maintaining and keeping the data We issued the map to all our operational should be input to the design of spatial 'dynamic', without which the dataset is crews with a questionnaire designed to data products.At the end of the eighties, only a snapshot in time. The datasets need solicit their views on the useability of the emergency managers were not 'on the to be constructed in such a manner to map and how it compared with the mailing list' for mapping agencies. At ensure that State and National mapping previous traditional edition of the map. the end of the nineties we were defi- agencies can draw down their data Responses were collated (Table 2) and nitely on the list. The momentum requirements at any time to meet their showed some interesting trends. driving this change is still there. If needs. Clearly there were some strong views emergency managers, as a national The use of the concepts in the Australian expressed. We extracted from this some community, pooled our resources we Spatial Data Infrastructure (ASDI, see salient points: could gain considerable power to ANZLIC 1997, and Granger 1998) will Use contours-terrain detail is impor- influence spatial data managers. facilitate the interaction and coordination tant. These should be at 10 metre - Emergency managers need to review needed. ASDl allows agencies operating intervals, and tagged every 100 metres, their needs for spatial data. In order to in an area (such as rural fire brigade, to maximise map clarity. do this, we need to work around the National Parks Service or State Forests, Land tenure is important. philosophy of doing it alone that Council, or Department of Land & Water Fire tower compass rdses are important, permeates our use of spatial data Conservation) to jointly ensure that as but must be clear. (McRae 1999). This requires the buil- changes occur to local resources and Thedesign ofa grid and its labeling (both ding of links between states, between property, the data describing them are in the margins and across the sheet) is the sub-cultures of emergency mana- kept up to date. A grader driver with State important and must be optimised for gement (e.g. police, ambulance, and fire, Forests may upgrade a road. GPSIGIS, ease of use. This also facilitates coordi- SES) and with the private sector. The computer-based systems make it possible nation of operational information when first step is to review what we have and to store these improvements in the faxing and photocopying the map. what we need. Often the difference database almost immediately.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Quality control of the data is an inbuilt resource: local knowledge will immediately alert those responsible at the local level to any inaccuracies. These can immediately be checked and rectified. Further quality control arises from the use, by Community mapping, of brigade areas as the building bricks for dynamic data sets of a district. Brigade members may be required to put their lives on the line during an incident and therefore have a very real reason to ensure local knowledge of their area is the best available. Give them a map of their area before fire season and they will ensure the information is up to date. Mechanisms are being developed where the base for all mapping (either very accurate aerial photography or satellite imagery) is regularly updated over those areas where there is continous growth and change. This imagery allows rapid recognition of the location of changes. Cycles for this will vary depending on the Figure 1:field crew with the North Coast Community amount of change and will vary from 3 to mappingprojea 5 years. All this results in considerable demonstrated cost savings to the commu- standard (see Figure 2). nity, both in data use,and in data collection A further element necessary to facilitate by local volunteers in Fire Services and coordination is the use of a regional State Emergecy Services, and workers of supervisor. A regional role is important, the various land managers going about as not all agencies share jurisdictional their daily business. boundaries, and the variable level of The local community now has the overlap that results forces a need for capability to produce their own maps coordination of timetables, sharing of during any emergency, such as a major equipment and production of databases bushfire, flood or hailstorm. It also has and maps. the tools to plan for very detailed risk Having developed the concept, it has management in future. been a long process liaising with mapping To coordinate all of the elements of this agencies to see where it can be linked a comprehensive standard has been into their mapping programs. It appears developed to cover data collection, data most likely that emergency semices using coding and depiction on maps. The a regional approach will be in a position standard, titled the National Emergency figure2 sample legend from a map genemled from to provide mapping agencies with a data twea lo the Comm~nilvMa~tXnestanaard. The Operations Mapping Standard (or . .. - continuous supply of up to date accurate standard coven the terms, symbols, symbol sires NEOMAP), has Emergency Management mapping data to enable them to produce and symbol colours Australia as its national sponsor under the publicly available maps. They will also definitions of ASDI. The evolution of the probably become 'data warehouses' for standard is occurring through use in the the best way to show local knowledge on other data users. field. a map for emergency managers is shown Most ofthis development is now focused The current standards in Figures 3A t+ 3B. on protocols and methods for keeping the During emergencies it is common This design allows the user to select the data 'dynamic' and up to date, and on the practice to photocopy maps, as a tool to most appropriate side to use at any time. standards for data coding. The latter work aid concise tasking. However, topographic The user can simply turn the map over will ensure that the depiction of an object maps do not photocopy well. The use of along its short axis-very useful in the is the same in most commonly used terrain shading and solid areas of colour field on the bonnet of a vehicle. desktop GlSs and that they are capable of to indicate vegetation cover causes large While working with stakeholders on being rendered equally in colour or black areas of the copies to appear as dark or map design concepts some other matters and white (to enable faxing and photo- black, and associated text is often illegible. have been raised. One of the difficulties copying during operations). While soft- The purpose of the value-added copy is in Community Mapping is that the people ware such as MAPINFO (from MapInfo to show strategic and tactical decisions. involved have limited training in spatial Corporation) and ARCVIEW (from ESRI) Dark 'blobs' hinder the depiction of these data management. use different user interfaces and data decisions. The area that requires the most careful formats, each should be able to produce After experimenting with a number of control is ensuring data consistency. This maps that meet a common depiction prototype designs, it became clear that necessitates software that provides a pull-

Summer 2001 - interpretation notes, is Included. project stakeholders.) down list of phrases from which to chose for any attribution of mapped objects. In free-form text, a dam could be:'dam','farm dam', 'large farm dam' or even 'fram dam' (i.e. a typographic error). A pull-down list could force a choice between 'farm dam- large' and 'farm dam-small'. This then makes it easy to build the lists to use from standard data dic- tionaries. In turn this facilitates the building of a comprehensive database that describes the mapped object. In this we could include other features, such as (for dams) their permanency, ease of tanker access, presence of a pump or overhead filler, and usefulness in dry times. (Figure 4.) This work has been progressing since early trials in the Yarrowlumla Shire area in 1994. Coding for building type allowed a direct match against the codings of the Australasian Fire Authorities Council's (AFAC) Australian Incident Reporting System (AIRS) codes. It is also important to code against standards for mapping. The conclusion is to produce a super-coding that can be collapsed down to either mapping or AIRS codes (Figure 5). Product development has been ongoing for community mapping data. Once the dataset is established, there are three Figure 4: examples of the detail that can be coded in Community Mapping. main products that can emerge. a. locked gates are a major issue for emergency access, and appropriate symbols should be used on maps. A means for state or local government b. bridges need to described: construction material, width, weight limit, river flood height at which the bridge data agencies to reconcile their own becomes impassable. This is a wooden suspension bridge, 3.5 metres wide, 8 metres high, and, most holdings. The provision of current importantly, with a load limit of 10 tonnes. differential GPS standard data can allow r, crossings-are they suitable for heavy vehicles such as a large fire tanker? d&. A rural dwelling can be coded for: address, ownership, and telephone number (for emergency contact); amassessment of the accuracy of older construction material; water supply; difficultyof access. data holdings. f. A rural shed (see Fig 5). The production of large-scale maps. Maps at a scale of 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 can be produced with a GIS package these at first, the effort afterwards is that they are clear and do not obscure and a suitable plotter. While con- much less. Most of the initial effort is other information. siderable effort is required to build involved in the art of placing labels so . Local area directories can be produced.

AustralIan Journal of Emergency Management compatibility with their datasets and so far suggests that the concept readily maps sells itself to those who see it in action. adherence to nationally sponsored The project in Hastings shire has done standards for data collection, data a lot of the hard work in defining coding and depiction, and to the Community Mapping. It now needs to be principles of ASDl taken up in other jurisdictions. Only then an ability to locally produce spatial will the benefits of interoperability come analyses and map products to meet to the fore. local needs. References The future Anon 1999, 'Operation Autumn Storm', Thus it seems that there is a future for Bush Fire Bulletin, vol. 21, No. 2, Joint the concept of Community Mapping. In Emergency Services Mapping Unit, p. 7. this future, a broad-range of stakeholders ANZLIC 1997, ANZLICS Visionfor the gain considerable benetits. Local volun- Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure, teers gain recognition of their local Australian New Zealand Land Information knowledge and also gain access to a range Council, Canberra, www.anzlic.org.au. of map products that better suit their AUSLIG 1991, Australian Capital specialised needs. Local Government and Territory 1991 Satellite Image Map, Catalog local land managers gain access to these No. GIU 911044. datasets and the maps, as well as an ability Granger K 1998, ASDIFrom The Ground to reconcile their own spatial data Up-A Public Safety Perspective. holdings. State Governments gain an Granger K.J. & Johnson R.W. 1994, ability to ground truth their data holdings, HazardManagement-Betterlnformation and accelerated topographic map re- for the 21s' Century, Emergency Manage- vision. ment Australia, Canberra. The application of the principles of McRae R. 1999, 'Spatial Data Issues', ASDl causes many potential problems to Disaster Preventionfor the 2lStCentury- evaporate. Application of data custodian- Proceedings of the Australian Disaster ship principles, recognition of national Conference 1999, Canberra, Emergency sponsors, and the use of metadata dic- Management Australia, Canberra. tionaries will lead to considerable McRae R. 2000, Proceedings of the efficiencies. Spatial Data in Emergency Manage- They will also facilitate progressive ment Workshop. Published on-line at adoption of 'hyperspace' as a way to www.esb.act.gov.auladc99/index.htm. manage Community Mapping. This will, Standards Australia 1995, Risk Manage- I.. . in turn, give access to: value-added ment. ASINZS 4360, Standards Australia mm. ,-.-- ...... resellers, who can improve the usefulness Canberra...... of datasets without requiring the custo- Wise F! j. 1992,'The Genesis of AUSLIG's dians to acquire expensive processing or Canberra l:100,000 scale satellite image storage infrastructure; remote data and map', Cartography,Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 9-13. Figure5:Data enw saeens in the FieldNotes system mapping systems, that allow data transfer CFA 1998, CFA NorthEast Rural Direc- lorcodinga building. The saeens show attlibution of to mobile vehicles; and 'maps on de- tory-Regions 23 &24. 1998, Country Fire Ule same stmcture for both mapping depiction and AIRS. (FieldNotes soflware is used for field data mand', that allow better informed emer- Authority, Wangaratta, Victoria. coding-produced by PenMetricr lncand supplied by gency management, and thus service to Rapiid Map Australia.) the community. Acknowledgements Finally, Community Mapping can forge The authors would like to thank those who better links between planning and res- have worked in the past on the NEOMAP It is relatively easy in a GIs to produce ponse needs. A strong focus on the Working Gmup, especially Joe Barr;those who a directory along the lines of those Australian Standard for Risk Management helped the prototyping in Mrralumla Shire, produced by Victoria's Country Fire will facilitate this. especially Bob Allison, Richard Donarski, Authority (for example CFA 1998). With All of the factors listed above require Steve Forbes and Peter Lucas-Smith; andthose a detailed database at hand, additional an adherence to standards and thus a level who have helped North Coast Community information can be added. Once the of discipline to which many of us are not Mapping, in Hastings Shire and elsewhere, 'macros' are built, revision is easy. accustomed. This discipline will enhance especially Bany Belt, Mark Cmssweller, Ken Granger, Don Gmnt, Frank Harrison, Phil the various levels of interaction within Community Mapping can be defined as a Koperberg Paul Norton, Ross Smith, 700 combination of the following: AustraliaS emergency management in- staff, group captains and volunteers and the local agencies take on custodianship of dustries, and also the interactions with land managers. local datasets, relying on local know- private sector providers. The data used in the figures were supplied by ledge of their staff and volunteers to Community Mapping continues to various stakeholders in North Coast update and verify the datasets develop. If this is kept to a national Community Mapping, and are provided here these agencies provide their datasets standard and retains standards for as illustrations only. to agencies at the local government and depiction, Australia will be better pre- state government level to ensure pared for most emergencies. Experience

Summer 2001 Landslips - a moving story (a Municipality's perspective)

andslips occur in varying degrees, strategy on how to achieve a more on a regular basis, throughout our by Lex Ritchie 8 Glenn Hunt, Asset informed community, without instilling municipality. Recently the Shire of Management Department, Shire of Yana panic amongst affected property owners. Yarra Ranges initiated a shire-wide Ranges, Vidoria, Australia The objectives of the strategy were to: survey, by consultant geotechnical engi- ensure that the community understood neers, to assess the risk of landslip. During that the Shire had introduced a Landslip this process approximately 11% of the Overlay to protect the safety of the Shire's rateable properties were identified engineers, Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd. community in the two highest risk categories. This assessed the risk of landslip potential explain that the results of the landslip Municipalities provide the link between across the entire municipality, excluding study required the Council to provide response and recovery agencies and the Crown Land. The survey allowed for the a consistent set of planning controls local community. How well a community creation of an Erosion Management highlight to the community that the handles an emergency is directly related Overlay that could be incorporated within Council would continue with its main- to the attitude, preparedness and involve- the new Planning Scheme and the Shire's tenance of roads and Council drains ment of the local government agencies. Geographic Information System (CIS). and revegetation of public land to This article provides one municipality's This enabled measures to be taken so that retard the risk of soil erosion, which experiences of identifying a potential risk the impact of development could be can be a major factor in triggering a to its community and how they approa- properly managed in relation to landslips. landslip ched the situation. The Erosion Management Overlay educate the community about the The Municipality divides the municipality into six categor- practical steps that can be taken to The Shire of Yarra Ranges is located east ies. These categories are shown in Table I. minimise exposure to landslip on of Melbourne. It has an area of approxi- There are approximately 55,000 rate- individual properties mately 2,400 km2 and an enviable repu- able properties within the Shire of Yarra Conveying the 'right' message to the tation for its natural beauty and numerous Ranges. community was important. A negative tourist attractions (i.e. the Dandenongs, The survey identified 434 properties in reaction from the public could have had Yarra Valley, Healesville Sanctuary, Puffing the High Risk category and 5,556 proper- an enormous impact on Council's re- Billy). Approximately one third of the ties in the M2 Medium Risk category. This sources and potentially damaged its municipality is comprised of Crown Land. translates to approximately 11% of total credibility The issues of how to'break the (i.e. State or National Parks). properties. news gently' to residents, while 'fully' The natural terrain, although pictures- informing them, was crucial and con- que, can carry an enormous risk to life, Involving the community siderable resources were channelled into property and environment from events Given the large percentage of properties ensuring that this was achieved. such as fire, flood and landslips. affected within the municipality, it was The methods utilised to inform the The Shire was formed in 1994 during imperative that extensive community community, included: the State Government's review of muni- consultation was undertaken. The delibe- - briefing Councillors and staff on the cipal boundaries, 21 1 Victorian munici- ration process on what information to potential impacts of the landslip issue palities were reduced to 78 and the Shire provide was extensive. The services of an within the community and the availa- of Yarra Ranges was created from a external public relations consultant was bility of an Erosion Management Overlay combination of four former munici- obtained to provide a communications within the Shire's Planning Scheme palities. Consequently a need was established to consolidate the four previous Shire Planning Schemes into a relevant and Ex Exempt Flat land, unlikely to be any instability, no impacts consistent Planning Scheme for the newly L Low Landslip unlikely even though the land Is gently sloping formed municipality. Various anomalies were highlighted MO MediumRisk Construction requires compliance with guidelines during this process, one being the issue of MI Medium Risk Construction requires compliance with guidelines geotechnical surveys having been conduc- M.? ted in two of the four pre-amalgamation Medium Risk Slopes20% require a mandatory planning permit municipalities. This subsequently obli- and site sp~iflcgeo-technical assessment gated the Shire to initiate a comprehensive H High Risk A! risk of landslip without any developmen!. A planning survey of all areas within its boundaries. Dennit can onlv be issued where a ~eo-tedmical investlgatlon shows risk 1s arceptabfe There may be The survey clmmstantes where a plannmg perm t cannot be ~ssuw A geotechnical survey was undertaken during 1998199 by consultant geotechnical Table 1 :The six Municipal categories defined in the Erosion Management Overlay

Australian Journal of Emergency Management development of an extensive infor- have not moved for hundreds, perhaps mation kit containing various fact thousands of years. sheets on landslips. These fact sheets Landslips can result from both natural included: and artificial causes. Heavy rainfall has - landslips in the Shire triggered many landslips in the Shire, such - summary of the landslip study as those that occurred in 1863,1891,1928, - geology of the Shire of Yarra Ranges 1934,1958,1992,1994and 1996. - Coffey Partners landslip study Some artificial causes of landslip - qualified Geotechnical Engineers include: consultants list excessive or poorly engineered cutting landslip risk categories and filling - development practices that should be inadequate drainage of seepage and avoided surface water information for land owners (specifi- - removal of vegetation cally addressing each risk category) - construction on an old landslip or Figure 1:he Montroseiandslip 1891 -30,000cubic private consultations made available debris flow metres of earth and rodc moved down the slope at with appropriate Shire officers to poor irrigation practices approximately 40km per hour. discuss specific individual require- poor storm water run-off design ments inadequate ground waste water disposal his luggage, Mrs. Jeeves having gone a few extensive media campaign conducted Many landslips occur then re-occur in minutes previously, with her child and the provision of a 'hot line' to enable easy the same location, therefore sites where other two lads, Jeeves remaining to assist access for resident enquiries landslips have previously occurred have Mrs. Herschell across. Goodwin had just provision of information to other a higher risk of future landslip. reached Abbott's fence when the mountain plunged down upon them with a noise interested stakeholders, i.e. real estate Case studies agents, insurance companies, Govero- like that of thunder. Goodwin received a ment authorities, etc. Case study 1 severe shaking, but escaped serious injury. 1891 Montrose landslip-site of signifi- After recovering himself he said he ran The response cant previous landslip down in the direction Mr. Jeeves and Mrs. The Shire was pleased with the com- Alandslip occurred in 1891 on the north Herschell had been carried. He then saw munity's positive response to the con- western slopes of Mt. Dandenong. Mr. Sam Jeeves, who was covered with sultation process. Initially, Yarra Ranges To give an indication of the severity of mud, crawl out of the debris. After Service Centres received an influx of this landslip, the Thredbo Tragedy in July searching and calling out, he saw some- general enquiries from property owners 1997 involved the displacement of 2,000 thing like an arm held up, of which he and requests to access the mapping cubic metres of liquefied soil, whereas this took hold. This proved to beMrs. Herschell. information in their particular areas. event involved the movement of 30,000 After dragging the lady out of the mullock Generally the information kits were well cubic metres of earth and rock-damage and stones, he filled his hat with water and received and appreciated. was recorded over at least 1.4 kilometres poured it down her throat, she being Unfortunately it is hard to guess whether and the flow was said to have reached nearly suffocated with mud.. . this response was due to: speeds of up to 40 kilometres per hour. '...Since then the rocks and earth have the comprehensive community aware- The extract below has been taken from been falling in, thus, to a great extent, ness program the Lilydale Express, published in August lessening the depth. No one as yet has apathy on behalf of property owners 1891. given a decided opinion as to the cause who may not be affected until the '...Twenty minutes after the gigantic of the collapse of such an immense body category assessment affects the sale1 mountain landslip at South Mooroolbark of earth, but as there is no solid rock development of their property everything seemed to rest in tranquility, foundation beneath the mountains, the lack of understanding of landslips excepting the thundering noise of the excepting large round to water washed and their potential impacts on the rushing waters as they fought their way boulders, which, perhaps are next to community with vengeance down the valley scooped useless where the hill is so steep, all I can In hindsight some form of feedback out by the rocks and trees in their mad say for it is, as there were large openings process could have been included with career. The rain was falling in torrents, or cracks to be seen some time back, no the information kits to establish a clear but nevertheless a good number of willing doubt the continual washing of the indication of the level of understanding hands had gathered in order to rescue underground springs and numerous among the community. those from further harm, who so narrowly soakages, the moving of large round Landslips within the Shire escaped with their lives from being boulders and the continual swaying of Landslips are a fact of life in the Shire of engulfed for ever in the maddening rush timber by the storm had a great deal to Yarra Ranges and have occurred for of debris which swept all before it. .. do with it's failing after such a heavy rain. thousands of years. . '...The first sign of danger occurred The cracks along the hill must have The types of landslips that occur in the about loam, when the water rushed down contained some hundreds of tons of Shire include falling boulders, debris past the house in torrents, fding the creek water. The hill being so steep above the flows, slow long term earth movements, in a few minutes. Mr. Jeeves, the manager, opening in the ground the water would small landslips up to the size of a and another man named Goodwin, then come down with a terrible rush ... residential block and large landslips tried to flog the horses, across but failed. '...MI Ellery says he and his wife were involving entire hillsides. Some landslips About 1.30pm things looked bad, and standing under the verandah when the move relatively frequently whereas others Goodwin started for Abbott's house with fall of earth and water took place. He says

Summer 2001 it bounded down the hill into the valley, Over thelast 100 years the Montrose area around his back yard ... ' and upon then sprang up the hill on the opposite has been extensively developed. Should a investigation found the ground beneath sidelike a thunder clap, whence it receded, similar sized landslip occur today and the the chook house '...had dropped away and rushed straight onwards, sweeping movement of debris follow a similar path, during the night. . . '. everything like grass before it. He says he significant loss of life and serious injury Floods and record rainfalls were saw a large gum tree fully I0 feet through could result. Destruction ofbuildings, even recorded in the Warburton area in 1952. at the butt and 150 feet high, hurled 50 substantial solid brick houses, would be The landslip has moved every decade feet into the air, and large rocks, weighing likely. The highest risk of damage or injury since the 1950's and is expected to many tons, were sent spinning into the exists on the steep slopes below the area continue moving. It is believed that total air like footballs. When he saw Herchell's where the landslip might occur. The movements in the order of 20 to 30 metres house swept down and broken into physical location of the Montrose landslip have occurred since the landslip formed matchwood, his wife fainted at the sight, area is within the Dandenong Ranges (based on the present slope profile and they not knowing where the inmates National Park and subsequently no the assumed pre-landslip profile). might be. Another eye witness stated he development exists on the site. The critical The Blackwood Avenue landslip lies on was shipwrecked three times, but was factor contributing to the damage poten- the north bank of the Yarra River at never so awe stricken in his life as when tial is the resultant debris flow generated Warburton. The toe of the landslip is at he saw the mountains coming down ... by the initial landslip, not the actual initial the edge of the river. Cumulative move- '...Many hundred of persons have movement of land. ments up to about 1.5 metres have been visited the scene ofthe catastrophe within measured on the Blackwood Avenue the last three weeks, coming from all Case study 2 landslip in the last seven years. Concern quarters of the colony. All express the Blackwood Avenue - Active landslip has been expressed that this landslip may same opinion of the site, that is - 'It's In October 1992 an active landslip in fail catastrophically, blocking the river, and something awful!' The mountain road has Blackwood Avenue, Warburton moved this could lead to flooding of the War- been completely blockaded from top to significantly causing the evacuation of burton area. bottom, and will cost a good sum to repair houses in the immediate area and the The landslip covers approximately 6 it again. The exact area of the landslip is permanent closure of the road. hectares. It is irregular in shape and has a hard to define. From start to finish, it is Historical information leads us to maximum length ofabout 320 metres and about a mile in length. Giant trees and believe that this landslip has been in a maximum width of about 230 metres. huge boulders have been swept from the existence for, perhaps, thousands of years. Currently there are no occupied buil- main head, fully a miledown the valley.. .' It was almost certainly well established dings on the landslip. Four houses were It is believed that the major contri- prior to European settlement in the on the site until the early 1990's. They have buting factor to the 1891 landslip was the Warburton area. The earliest recorded since been demolished or permanently heavy rainfall that continued unabated movement of the landslip occurred in the vacated. Four houses lie in close proximity over a three day period from about early 1950's, a newspaper article quotes a to the edges of the landslip. midnight on Friday 10" July until Sunday resident of Blackwood Avenue who was Currently parts of the landslip are used 12thJuly1891. alerted to the movement when he for grazing, other parts are vacant and Duringthe 1891 landslip relatively minor '...noticed his chooks which had been have vegetation varying from blackberries damage was recorded. The damage locked up the night before, wandering to eucalyptus regrowth. included the destruction of a house and someoutbuildings in the path ofthedebris. Two horses were carried some 600 metres downslope and killed, two people were caught in the debris flow, narrowly escaping death, with one being buried in the debris. In 1891 all drainage from the mountain was via natural streams and channels. Today on the steeper slopes this is still the case. On the lower slopes under road culverts have been installed and selected natural water courses have been piped. Based on available photographs and documented evidence uphill from the road (Old Coach Road) was well timbered, whereas downhill was mostly cleared and in pasture or crops. Photographs taken in 1904 suggest the timber density uphill from Old Coach Road was perhaps marginally less than exists at present. Conditions existing in the area in 1891 were different to those in existence today. In 1891 there wereonly a few houses in the area and only one road which traversed the north west face of the Dandenongs.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management No evidence has been found to suggest successful links with external bodies, such and the Canterbury Regional Shire from the landslip may have blocked the Yarra as the specific controlling and support New Zealand, along with representatives River in the geological past, let alone in agencies, is vital in aiding us to prepare, from numerous municipalities through- more recent times. The available evidence respond, resource and recover from these out Australia, including the City of indicates the landslip is 'slowly shuffling' events. Cairns, Queensland. along, most likely in response to heavy In order to accommodate the possibility The proposed outcome of the work- rainfall and that substantial movements of a landslip occurring within the munici- shop was to identify arrangements for: causing the river to totally block are oalitv. we are currentlv in the final staees of landslip mitigation unlikely to occur. Irrespective, given the landslip preparedness narrowness of the river, the uncertainties managing landslip response regarding the behaviour of any landslip These are being formulated using the managing landslip recovery and the events that could take place in a information obtained during the Landslip This workshop confirmed that land- major stormlflood event, the conse- Survey conducted by Coffey Geosciences slip contingency plans were basically quences of the landslip blocking the river Pty Ltd. non-existent and that the lack of specific need to be considered. While the initial emphasis of the Survey guidelines meant that the municipality In the very unlikely event of a total was community awareness and develop- would be 'starting from scratch' when blockage of the river, the resulting landslip ment controls, the Emergency Management determining requirements for the dam is likely to be made up of loose focus was towards strategic landslip development of this plan. The Shire of debris, which would erode quickly, planning and site specific plans for known Yarra Ranges does not profess to be particularly if over topped by the river. If high risk or active landslips. expert on landslips but relies upon the the unexpected happens and the dam is expertise and input of others to aid in not rapidly eroded, flooding will occur. Contingency plans the formulation of viable, comprehen- This will, in turn, primarily affect infra- Within Victoria the responsibility for sive and practical plans. structure, such as the bridge spanning the managing a landslip emergency rests with We recognise that contingency plans Yarra River, which carries the main the Victorian Police Force. Council's primary should be clearly written, easily under- Highway through the township (Figure3). function is to facilitate the provision of stood and flexible enough to enable This would result in the isolation of resources as required. In the event of a implementation at any time. They services such as the hospital and the landslip, the need for specialist equipment, should integrate various activities and volunteer fire brigade and cause flooding resources and skills will occur. Therefore, plans and have the flexibility to cover a of a nearby caravan park. Should this our municipality needs to pre-empt this wide range of possible sources and levels occur, the consequences are considered requirement by ensuring that we maintain of risk. to be manageable. a comprehensive list of resource providers. Some of the components of our In June 1999, the Shire of Yarra Ranges Landslip Contingency Plans are: Where to now was requested to present a paper on definitions The Victorian State Government's Emer- Landslip Contingency Planning at a work- history of landslips within the muni- gency Management Act 1986, requires shop conducted by the Australian Emer- cipality municipalities to prepare an Emergency gency Management Institute at Mt. Mace- risk analysis Management Plan and to ensure the don in Victoria. This workshop was preventionlmitigation ongoing integrity of the plan, through attended by Dr. Marion Leiba from the control agency and response regular auditing processes. Australian Geological Survey Organisation scenarios The basis of the Plan has been formulated by the Victorian State Emergency Service and is generic to all municipalities within the State. It must identify resources and specify details on how these resources are to be utilised during emergency prevention, response and recovery. The Shire of Yarra Ranges has taken the initiative to incorporate into its Plan a series of sub-plans covering specific events, suchas fire, flood andlandslips. The aim is to have the Municipal Emergency Management Plan a 'working' document, as opposed to a'shelf ornament'. Individual plans, directly relating to specific risks within the municipality, need to be developed using and expanding on existing documentation. These individual plans are a vital component of an all encompassing Plan, specifically designed to this unique environment. The preparation of these Plans involves Figure 3. lhe Bla&wooo Aven~elanosllp lies on the nonh bank of the Yana Rver a1 Warbunon me toe ol enormous amounts of time and effort. A the IandSllD 1s at the Nee of the flier In the un.ikely event of a total blocka~e- ol !he rlver, ~nfmslufl~resuch high level of community consultation and as the bridge spanningthe Yam River could be affected. summer 2001 31 effects on the community (social and extensive damage to infrastructure and 1986,'Municipal Emergency Management technical) resulting in the construction of several Plan', Municipal Responsibilities (S20), resource listing gabion walls. There were four significant part 4,p. 16. - local contact listings landslips recorded in various ares of the - maps municipality, resulting in disaster funding Authors' contact details - recovery aspects claims in the order of $500,000. Although Lex Ritchie is the Manager of Asset Management and the Municioal Emereencv Resource Officer Looking to the future these incidents wereall'landslips'they were recorded as storm damage works and no (MERO) for the'shire of kiRanges. He has a Given the significant number of high & degree In Civil Engineering. a Graduate Diploma in information sharing occurred. medium risk landslip areas identified Municipal Engineering and a Company Directors This task is very easily overlooked. within the Geotechnical Survey, the ability Diploma. Relatively minor landslips can occur on a to monitor regularly is not considered a As MERO for the Shire, Lex has worked closely with frequent basis throughout the munici- viable option. The community awareness the Countly Fire Authority, Victoria Police and the pality and can be treated as routine storm State Emergency Service over the past few years program and the production of the Shire to damage or as a drainage system failure. enhance community safety throughout Victoria. He of Yarra Ranges Planning Scheme, inclu- Even when the word'landslip'is associated has actively supported and contributed to the ding the Erosion Management Overlay, with incidents, it is not necessarily a high continuous improvement of Municipal Emergency provides the framework for the develop- Management priority to inform AGSO of the occur- ment of appropriate land management rence. Re-education of staff and the Glenn Hunt is an Emergency Management Offlcer, practices. employed in the Asset Management Department of review of processes has been necessary Due to the significant nature of the the Shire of Yarra Ranges. Glenn is currently to ensure that these types of events do Montrose Landslip and the known quan- undertakine the task of devel0LIinE a eeneric not go un-recorded. tity of the active landslip in Blackwood emergency Ganagement plan in relkon-to lkips. He ialso lormulatlng more comprehensive S~te Avenue- Warburton, the Shire has under- References Speofic plans for known landsl~pareas thro~aout- taken steps to ensure regular monitoring Golder Associates 1982, 'Shire of Upper tlie Shire. occurs. Yarra Geotechnical Investigation- In the case of the Montrose landslip, Landslip Blackwood Avenue' For further Information contact: formal survey monitoring comprising Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd 1999, 'Shire Lex Ritchie or Glenn Hunt Shire of Yam Ranges Asset Management Dept. tape measurements andvisual observation of Yarra Ranges-Geotechnical Survey' P.O. Box 105, Lilydale, Victoria, 3140 along several routes will be conducted. Emergency Management Act (Victoria) Emaii: [email protected] There is also the need for additional monitoring when triggered by extensive or prolonged rainfall. The Blackwood Avenue landslip will have a completely different approach to monitoring. It is envisaged that following community consultation, adjoining property owners will play an important role in monitoring movement within the Victorian Flood Management Conference area. This is likely to take the form of a simple peg in the ground from which Traralgon, October 2001 movement can be measured easily by an untrained observer. Formal survey moni- The next Victorian Flood Management Con- In a questionnaire taken at theend ofthe toring will still occur, but on a more ference will be held in Traralgon in October inaugural conference,many ofthe 140 dele- infrequent basis. Any movement detected 2001. It will be jointly hosted by the West gates indicated that there was astrong need and reported by property owners will be Gippsland Catchment ManagementAuthority for further floodconferences tobeheld. followed up by an immediate Geo- and theLatrobeCity Council. ThesecondVictorian Flood Conference will technical assessment. From all accounts the inaugural Victorian be held inTraralgon from9'h to 1 l'h October Flood Management Conference held in Wan- 2001. Theconference themeis Planningfor lnformation sharing garatta in September 1999 was a significant thelnevitable, which should remind us that It is imperative that information step in raising awareness of flood manage- that weshould never hecomplacent about the sharing occurs in relation to landslip ment. frequency of floods or their impact. This is activity within municipalities. Ensuring For the first time, local government plan- wellillustratedby the fact that theannualcost that the likes of the Australian Geological ners, floodplain managers, emergency plan- of damages from floods in Victoria is now Survey Organisation (AGSO) and other ners, consultants and people from other estimated to be greater than $56m and is continuing to grow. relevant bodies, including the community, disciplines were able to come together to are informed of any activities is essential discuss developments in flood management. TheChairmanoftheconferenceorganising Presentationsweremade on a wide rangeof in historically documenting movements committee is Wayne Gilmour, Floodplain issues including the Victoria Flood Manage- to enable a holistic picture of activity Manager with the West GippslandCatchment ment Strategy, community involvement, the Management Authority. within any given area. This type of Victoria Planning Provisions, flood insurance, For more information, contact Wayne information is a vital component in the iegalliabilityand flood mapping. identification of areas of risk and their Since thelastconferencewas held many of on: 03 5175 7800 (phone) subsequent effective management. theseissues havecontinued to evolveand new A conference brochure and 011 for During the heavy rainfalls experienced oneshaveemergedtocommandourattention papers will be released in the near future throughout the municipality in August 1996, numerous landslips occurred causing

Australian Journal of Emergency Management summer 2001

Produced by Emergency Management Australia through the Aurtralian Emergency Management Institute Main Road. Mount Macedon, Victoria 3441

Management of Civil Defence Operations International Search and Rescue course 2001 Advisory Group The Management of Civil Defence Operations Course The Asia Pacific Chapter ofthe International Search and gained formal status as an accredited course in August Rescue Advisoty Group met in Seoul, Korea in November 2000. Thecourse is usually conducted annually at AEMl 2000. This wasthe first meeting of the group since 1993 usually in late November. However.the2OOl course has and resulted from an exploratoly meeting hosted by EMA been scheduled for the last weekof September. in Canberra in March 2000. Thecourse isaimed primarily at theoperational level of The meeting was attended by representatives from 10 emergency management and examines issues relating countries of the Asia Pacific Region and the UN Office to civil defence planning and operationsto manage the for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). effects of armed conflict in Australia. In addition to Attendees pledged to work together to improve urban membersof statutotyemergencymanagementlresponse search and rescuecapabilitiesin the region. New Zealand agencies such as police, fire,ambulance, SES and welfare will host the next meeting in late November 2001. agencies, representatives from Defence, public health, For furtherinformation contact: the media, local government, public utilities, NGOs and Rod McKinnon commerce and industry are most welcome to apply. Phone: 02 6266 5328 For furtherinformation contoct: Email: [email protected] David Morton Phone: 02 6266 5325 Review of disaster response plans Email: [email protected] EMA is currently reviewing the Commonwealth Govern- Commonwealth Government reception plan ment Disaster Response Plan (COMDISPLAN) and the Australian Government Overseas Disaster Assistance Plan In October 2000,a two-day workshop was held at AEMl (AUSASSISTPLAN) as partofa three-year review cycle.The to review the Provisional Commonwealth Government revised plansshould beavailable in mid-2001 Plan forthe Reception of Persons Evacuated into Australia following an overseas event (COMRECEPLAN). Expe- For furtherinformation contoct: riences gained through recent evacuations such as the Don Patterson Solomon Islandsevent had highlighted this requirement. Phone: 02 6266 5165 Email: [email protected] The workshop which wasattended by around 30 persons representing States,Territories,Commonwealth agencies lndian Disaster Management Symposium and nonGovernment organisations madea numberof recommendations to refine the plan which will now be In November 2000, EMA coordinated Australian partici- submitted to the national Emergency Management pation in a joint Australia India Council (AIC)/Confede- Committee for further consideration. ration of lndian Industry (CII) sponsored Disaster Management Symposium in Delhi, India. For further information contoct: Rod McKinnon The Symposium covered a range of topics under the Phone: 02 6266 5328 broad headings of prevention, preparedness, response Email: [email protected] and recovery with lndian and Australian speakers addressing each topic followed by open discussion. A New Australian emergency manual- post- disaster assessment and survey EMA will soon be publishing a new manual on Post Disaster Assessmentand Survey as part ofthe Australian Emergency Manual (AEM) series. The new AEM will provide emergency managers with useful a planning Authority, guide for the conduct of initial survey and damage assessments following the impact of a disaster. The manual draws on material from Australia and overseas and will include a series of check-lists and proformas. Themanual should beavailable by mid-2001. For further information contoct: Don Patterson Phone: 02 6266 51 65; Email: [email protected]

EMA UPDATE 1 Management of Chemical Biological outstanding contribution ofthosededicated people who Radiological Incendiary and Explosives giveso much to make communities safer. (CBRIE) Emergencies1 Incidents course EMA intends to undertake a significant leadership role in The datesfor the next CBRlE course to beconducted at IW to ensure the profile of volunteering gains wider AEMl have changed from 12-16 March to 25-29 June community acceptance and understanding.States and 2001.The CBRlE course is currently going through the Territoriesare planning activities tomake the lYVa special accreditation process which should be completed by year. A National Comminee hasalso been established to March 2001. Thosewho haveanended oneofthethree coordinate national emergency volunteer IWactivities previous CBRlE courses at AEMl will receive a new and met forthe first time recently. Atthismeeting,ideas certificate through the mail in due course. for nationalactivitieswhich couldassistthe recruitment, retention, training or recognition of volunteers were For further lnformation contact: generated. EMA will submit a proposalto the Department Don Panerson of Family and Community Services to seek funding for Phone: 02 6266 5165 activities identified by the national IWComminee. EMA Email: [email protected] will also make a significant financial and in-kind Exercise SAGIP 2000 contribution towards these activities. For further information contact: Exercise SAGiP is an annual multilateral forum that David Winterburn promotes the sharing ofexperiences in disaster response Phone: 02 6266 5009 and humanitarian assistance and provides an under- Emaii: [email protected] standing of theemergency management arrangements in place in countries from the Asia Pacific region. The Australian Disaster Information exercise is an initiative ofthe Philippine Department of Management workshop Defence with the word SAGIP meaning'to save lives: The Australian Disaster lnformation Management ExerciseSAGlP2OOOwhichwas held in Maniladuring the workshop was heldfrom6-8November2OOOwithmany period 23-27 October 2000 brought together90 military representatives from a wide range of organisations. The and civilian persons from 17 AsiaIPacific countries. workshop considered issues such asdisaster information MrTrevor Hainesfrom €MA participated in the exercise needs, benefits of a greater information capability and asa member ofthe four person Australian Defence Force disaster information networking, some ofthe restraining led delegation and presented papers on Early Warning forces, strategicobjectives, possible actions, and resource and the United Nations response framework for inter- implications. An- national Urban Search and RescueTeams. ~orfurtherinforrnati~1;~rit;lct: For further information contact: Jonathan Abraha s Trevor Haines Phone: 02 626&219 Phone: 02 6266 5169 Email: [email protected] email: [email protected] \ I National 200XSafer Communities Award\s EMA Projects Program '. I ~ollowin~thesuccessofthe~~ural~afer~ommunitiev EMA has made available project funding to support Awardsin 2000, planning is nowuqferway forthe 2001 disaster prevention and management projects during Awards. EMA is making arrangements to refine some 2001102. Project proposals aimed at reducing disaster- elementsofthe Awardswith a launch scheduledfor late related loss of life, property damage, and economic and social disruption in Australia are now encouraged from individuals, community groups, businesses, nongovernment organisations and agencies at all levels of Territory judging will proceed government. Detailson the EMA Projects Program funding areavailable on the EMA web site at www.ema.gov.au. The closing attracting a higher date for proposals for Financial ~ea;2001/2002 project emergency management, vol 'nteer, local go funding is 28 February 2001. ranhateYterprisesectors. yw4 For further information contact: for further Rob Cameron Tom Parkes Phone: 02 6266 5408 Phone: 02 6248 97.44 Email: [email protected] Email: awards@~ma.gov.au / InternationalYear of thevolunteer ~DIN~OOIU~date I--. \ 1. It is estimated that there are over 500.000 volunteers PreparationfoptheGlobal~ystefl&hJrmation Network registered with Australian emergency service organi- Confeence (GDIN200?)is progressihg well. This is a i sations. Without them the emergency management sector could not function effectively. The year 2001 has Conferenc beendeclared thelnternationalYearoftheVolunteer(IYV) and provides a unique opportunity to recognise the

21EMA UPDATE ub information managementand is expected to attract up Emergency Management Officers' to 200 delegates from a range of areas within Australia professional development program and overseas.The Conference registration form and The new program consists ofthreecourses and is designed program can be found at the GDlN2OOl website: for newly appointed Emergency Management Officers www.ema.gov.au/gdin/index.html. An advertisement (EMO's) with significant emergency/disaster management appears in this issue of AJEM. responsibilities. These may work in SES, emergency For furtherinformation contact: . managementorganisationsor havesignificantemergency Greg McKenzie Smith management duties in other organisations. Phone: 02 6266 5317 The purpose of the program is to provide a compre- Email: [email protected] hensive package to supporttheinitial roleand function of newly appointed EMUSand to provide the EMO's with sufficient skillsand knowledgetoenable them to facilitate and support emergency management within their AEMl Program of activitiesfor March - communities. Upon completion of this program, participants should beableto: June 2001 apply emergency management concepts, principles AEMI has reviewed the Program of Activitiesforthe first and arrangements halfof2001 andasa resultthere have beena numberof apply emergency management toolsand skills changes to the program, including additions and apply management principles, knowledgeand skills substitution ofactivities.Theaccompanying table outlines in emergency management contexts the residential activities with the changes highlighted. display appropriateattitudes,valuesand behaviours Please note that only the National Studies Program (NSP) The program consists ofthree two-weekcourses:Course activities that have been programmed are included, no 1, Course 2 and Course 3. Course 2 comprises of an extensionsappearonthetableand that,in responsetoa Understanding Emergency Risk Management (UERM) number of requests from clients, we will conduct a course and an lmplementing Emergency Risk Manage- numberof Evacuation Managementcourses. ment (Implementing ERM) course. It is expected that 5-9 March 2001 Recovery Management persons nominatingforthe program willmakethemselves 12-16 March 2001 Evacuation Management availabletoattendall threecourses in theprogram,aswell 19-21 Mar 2001 Emergency Management of as completing the associated assignment and project Australia's Cultural and Linguistic work. One program hascommenced and the next EM0 Diversity (NSP) Program has been timetabled for: 26-30 Mar 2001 Exercise Management Course 1:6-18 May 2001; Course2 15-26 October 2001; Course3: 18 February- 1 March 2002. Workshop Senior Executives Emergency AEMl Program of Activitiesforthe Management Briefing FinancialYear 200112002 The Program of Activities and details about courses can EMOProgramCourse 1 be accessed via EMA website at wwwemo.gov.ou, or via The AEMl Handbook, which will be available from the beginning ofApril.TheHandbook isobtainablefrom AEMl orthe nominating authorities. New Activities at AEMl Next financial year (2000/2001) AEMl will be offering 2 new courses. They are: Response and Recovery Planning ReintroductJondf Evacuation Management Emergency Management for Local Government The 3 YI da&reditec/course in Evacuation Management The accredited Emergency CoordinationCentre Manage- included inlthe Program of Activities in March ment will again beoffered,as well as the following: 2001. Th am of this course is to enable Understanding ERM participantstocontrj ute to the selection and implemen- g lmplementing ERM of evacuatioA as an intervention strategy. Upon $tlon ExerciseManagement ccqmpletlonofthebourse participantsshouldbe able to: Evacuation Management {he key issuesin planning an evacuation RecoveryManagement Management of Civil Defence Operations issues in making a decision whether Consequence Management to CBlRE Emergencies Emergency Management Officers' Program hikw\(opics in this course are related to the issues For more information on courses contact: invol &in the five phasesof evacuation, that is: Judy Parker D2 ision toevacuate; Warning; Withdrawal;Shelter; Phone: 03 5421 5288, Fax: 03 5421 5272 email:[email protected] National Studies program 200012001 Commonwealth and Statenerritory government The following are reponson the status of threeactivities departments on thecostsand effectivenessofflood that comeunderthe National Studies Program banner. disaster mitigation projectsand programs; and, Informationfor the publicationofa Working Paper by Community Safety - Towards a safer community the BTE that examines thecostsand effectivenessof AEMl is hostingaseriesofworkshopsonCommunitySafety. Rood disaster mitigation measures. The aim of these is to develop a bener understanding of The expected outcome of the National Study Program the ways in which Emergency Management can contri- workshops is a significant contribution to thecapacity of bute to Community Safety. Participants will include Commonwealth and StatelTerritory government depart- Emergency Managers, representativesfrom local governments to assess the potential effectiveness of disaster mentand other policy areas including health,crime/injury mitigation projects and consequently more effective prevention,communitydevelopmentandenvironmental allocation of government expenditure. health. Outputs from the workshop include a set of All those wishing to participatein this vital work are urged principles and strategies for integrating Emergency to contact: Management into local government practices. The first Peter Koob,Senior Education Officer, AEMI was held at AEMl on the 12& 13 of December. Twoothers Phone: 03 5421 5283, Fax: 03 5421 5272 2001. will be held in March and May email: [email protected] Formore information contact: MarkScillio,Senior Education Officer,AEMl Phone: 03 5421 5292,Fax: 03 5421 5272 Email: [email protected]

Emergency Management for Australia's Non-English School education resources Speaking Badgmundcommun~:~'dentsandvisitors Swirling Winds, Dry EoSh Emergency Management Australia in conjunction with Avaluable resourcedeveloped,as part ofthe International the National Police Ethnic Advisoly Bureau and Kangan Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction,for middle school Batman TAFE will be conducting a workshop titled when teaching about hazards,weather,orspecifically on Emergency Management for Australia's Non-English cyclones and droughts. Speaking BackgroundCommunity: Residents and Visitors Desioned- with inauirv-based. , learnina- activities to hel~ from lYhMarch to 21" March 2001. The venue will be understanding the Australian Emergency Management Institute Mt Each section looks at ~acedon~ictoria.~heworksho~willbestructuredard

Formoreinformation contact: email:[email protected] responses. A wide range of Measuring the performance of disaster mitigation statisticaldata, photographs projects It is available through: Considerable resources are invested in risk reduction (disastermitigation)measures by all levelsofgovernment. Thereare few Australian examplesofthemeasurement of the effectiveness, efficiency or appropriateness of these measures. without these;it isdifficult to assess Happen merit of such measures. The Commonwealth Department of Transport RegionalServices ( East Timor - emergenq risk management

- ~ -~-- 1 Introduction i I Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) In February 2000, I attended a residential ! to '...organise and conduct a popular course called Understanding Emergency I by Sgt Alf Turketo, consultation, scheduled for 8 August 1999, ! Federal Police Risk Management at the Australian Austmlian on the basis of a direct, secret and Emergency Management Institute at Mt I universal ballot, in order to ascertain .-~- --- Macedon Victoria. As a pre-course whether the East Timorese people accept assignment, I clinically applied the the proposed constitutional framework General held regular talks with lndonesia Emergency Risk Management Planning providing for a special autonomy for East and Portugal aimed at resolving the status Model to my 1999 peace-keeping deploy- Timor within the unitary Republic of of the territory. In June 1998, Indonesia ment in East Timor. I was invited to Indonesia or reject the proposed special proposed limited autonomy for East expand upon this experience in an article autonomy for East Timor, leading to East Timor with lndonesia. In light of this and my subsequent delay in responding Timor's separation from lndonesia'. proposal the talks made rapid progress is due in part to my wish to confront and Resolution 1246 authorised the deploy- and resulted in a set of agreements put to rest some raw and painful memo- ment within UNAMET of up to 280 ries of this time. between lndonesia and Portugal, signed unarmed civilian police officers to act as in New York on 5 May 1999. The two I was a part of the unarmed fifty advisers to the lndonesia Police in the governments entrusted the Secretary- member strong first contingent of discharge of their duties and, at the time General with organising and conducting Australian Federal Police deployed to East of the consultation, to supervise the escort a 'popular consultation' in order to Timor between July and September 1999, of the ballot papers to and from the ascertain whether the East Timorese in support of the United Nations Mission polling sites. people accepted or rejected a special to East Timor (UNAMET). The word Resolution 1246 stressed that it was the autonomy for East Timor within the 'assistance' was removed from the original responsibility of the Government of unitary Republic of Indonesia. mission title after an apparent objection lndonesia to maintain peace and security Against this back drop, in May 1999, from our Indonesian hosts; however, the in East Timor in order to ensure that the the Australian Federal Police called for letter 'A' remained embedded in the popular consultation was carried out in a 'Expressions of Interest' from members original United Nations mission acronym fair and peaceful way. It was to be willing to serve in a 'difficult environment' and foundation documents. Later as a conducted in an atmosphere free of in a possible United Nations Mission to member of the training team, I would intimidation, violence or interference East Timor. A short time later, successful jokingly explain to inductees that this 'A' from any side and to ensure the safety applicants were assembled in Canberra was silent and referred to me (as in UN and security of United Nations and other and "AlfS Mission to East Timor). for comprehensive medical preparation international staff and observers in East and psychological testing during an Before I continue further, it is necessary Timor. Resolution 1246 also authorised intensive two-week pre-deployment to detour for a short history lesson the deployment within UNAMET of 50 course. Upon completion of this training courtesy of the United Nations Depart- unarmed military liaison officers to phase, 1st Contingent members returned ment of Public Information (www.un.org/ maintain regular contact with the Indo- to their home states for a short leave break peaceletimor). nesian Armed Forces in East Timor in The United Nations General Assembly and to await the outcome of Security support of this Security Agreement. Council deliberations. placed East Timor on the international The UNAMET also incorporated about agenda in 1960, when it added the territory Phase 1-policy, procedures 8 425 United Nations Volunteers deployed to its list of Non-Self Governing territories. terms of reference in electoral, information and political At that time, Portugal administered East On l l June1999, the 4013Lh meeting of the components. The electoral component Timor. Fourteen years later, in 1974, Security Council adopted Resolution 1246 was responsible for all registration and Portugal sought to establish a provisional (1999) which established the United votingactivities at 200 registrationlpolling government and a popular assembly that would determine the status of East Timor. Civil war broke out between those who favoured independence and those who advocated integration with Indonesia. Unable to control the situation, Portugal withdrew from the region. Indonesia then intervened militarily and later integrated East Timor as its twenty-seventh province. The United Nations never recognised this integration and both the Security Council and the General Assembly called for Indonesia's withdrawal. Beginning in 1982, at the request of the General Assembly, successive Secretaries- Figure 1: the main road through ManaMo heading west towards the capital of Dili.

Summer 2001 sites distributed throughout the 12 regencies or districts in East Timor. The information component was responsible for explaining the popular consultation to the East Timorese people in an objective and impartial manner without prejudice to any position or outcome. Lastly, the political component was responsible for monitoring the fairness of the political environment for ensuring the freedom of all political and nongovernment organisations to carry out their activities. Figure 2: river crossing on the 'main' road to Soibada, 64hsouth-west of Manatuto. Authority to plan In June 1999, the leading elements of UNAMET were deployed to Dili, East Timor, as the main body assembled at the RAAF Base Darwin for documentation, induction and training. At this time, I was invited to join the United Nations Civilian Police Training Team who were tasked to induct and brief all civilian police being deployed into the mission area. The UNCIVPOL training program involved briefings on the Mandate role and function of UNCIVPOL, thegeography and figure 3: coastal bypass road around Manatuto, iooMng west to where the river Laclo meets the ocean climate of East Timor, the current politicall social environment, personal health1 physical security, fieldcraft and 4 wheel Royal Canadian Mounted Police (the lone Establish the context driving assessments. This was a very Mountie who had sewed with the UN in The UNAMET Mandate required free and hectic period and the close support and the snow of Bosnia but had never been to unimpeded movement within East Timor assistance of the Australian Defence Force the tropics). We declined a job in HQ and to facilitate the popular consultation as at this time was invaluable. opted to be posted out to the'busb' in the set out in the United Nations Security The build up, training and deployment district village of Manatuto on the Council Resolution 1246, in order to of 261 civilian police (shortfall on 280) northern coast of East Timor where the ensure that the popular consultation was from 16contributingcountrieswas staged local governor was apparently being carried out in a fair and peaceful way and over 30 days to facilitate the controlled difficult and uncooperative with the in an atmosphere free of intimidation, establishment and spread of UNCIVPOL United Nations. violence or interference. throughout East Timor where local Upon arrival in the village of Manatuto, Phase 2-profile the community resources and facilities were limited or I took up the role of operations officer within the 12 member (6 nation) UNCIVPOL about 30,000 East Timorese people in non-existent. On more than one occasion, the District of Manatuto I have had to explain to newly arrived team. I assisted the Team Commander in planning daily patrol activities (confi- four United Nations Military Liaison civilian police that they were not going to Officers Bali and not to expect hotels with air dence building measures), examining security arrangements and compiling the twelve United Nations Civilian Police conditioning or western style restaurants. Officers I suggested that they were going to 'Jenny daily situation reports to UNHQ. I took Craig' Island where they may have to live an active part in planning local operations Identify vulnerable elements and in very basic conditions and forage for and enhancing local security arrange- sources of risks local food. ments by building useful informal net- Reliable external agencies and United The UNCIVPOL Commissioner, Alan works within the local community and Nations security specialists in the Mission MILLS (formerly of the Australian Federal with the Indonesian police. Area of East Timor provided accurate Police), decided that a UNCIVPOL mem- Establish planning committee Emergency Risk Modelling based on ber would be posted to each of the 200 All 12 members of the Manatuto intuitive understandings ofbehaviour and registrationlpolling sites with two UN UNCIVPOL were consulted in the prepa- the changing built, physical and environ- Electoral staff. A locally recruited driver ration and planning of local operations mental elements. Risk evaluation criteria and interpreter were added to this and security arrangements. Regular were developed with particular reference composite team which was then based meetings and discussions were held with to legal obligations, political 'issues and within 1 hours drive of any given UN community groupslleaders, local govern- geographical deployments (communi- District HQ in each of the 12 regencies of ment officials, Indonesian police and cations and transport barriers). East Timor. military commanders to establish and All Manatuto UNCIVPOL were vul- Upon completion of this training role, maintain liaison points. These meetings nerable to the following priorities risks: I deployed to the mission area with my validated future planning to achieve the 1. Motor vehicle accidents - pat- training partner Rick HARTEN of the goal of Mandate 1246. rolling on third grade rural road systems

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Phase 3-decision The local operations and security plan for Manatuto ClVPOL was subject to constant review and revision as UNAMET prog- ressed towards the popular consultation with voter registration and education being completed, notwithstanding threats and isolated acts of intimidation from the local militia and rogue elements within the Indonesian security forces. Civil unrest became the first priority risk, the health risk was a close second (with over 70 cases of malaria) and motor vehicle Figure 4: typical highland village of Fatamacuerec, located about 30h south of Manatuto. Houses in the accidents a distant third risk as the need village are a combination of traditional and modem constmciion. for routine daily travel diminished. It should be pointed out that a substantial I I bers in all stem of a svstematic number of the Indonesian security forces process, that included Preven- and police personnel were locally re- tion, Preparedness, Response cruited East Timorese who may have felt and Recovery options as fol- that their safety would be in jeopardy lows: should the popular consultation reject the 1. The risk of death or autonomy package being offered within serious injury from motor the Republic of Indonesia. vehicle accidents was treated Despite an extremely tight timetable, a by requiring all UNCIVPOL high level of tension, East Timor's members to pass a 4WD-com- mountainous terrain, poor roads and petency assessment before difficult communications, UAMET regis- being issued with a United tered 451,792 potential voters among a Nations driving vermit. In population of over 800,000 in East Timor Figum 5: Sgt Alf Turketo and interpreter Joe Reiss addition to the provisionoia detailed and abroad. on the hilltop shrine of St Antonio, overlooking the country briefing and good quality patrol On the voting day, 30 August 1999, some village of Manatuto. maps, there was a graduated deployment 98% of registered voters went to the polls into the mission area (to develop local to stand and queue in the blazing sun to particularly in the highlands, that are knowledge). Finally, local East Timorese cast their vote. I cannot accurately subject to degradation by monsoon were hired as driverslguides and interp- describe the looks of pure joy and elation weather (undercutting or slippage) and reters to further reduce this risk. on so many faces, both young and old, as overuse from increased local traffic flow 2. The risk of death or serious injury the local East Timorese lodged their votes with the lifting of military restrictions on from health risks was treated by provi- in the ballot boxes at the polling station movement, combined with the influx of ding all UNCIVPOL members with a where I stood guard on behalf of the over 200 United Nations vehicles. detailed health briefing and an intro- United Nations. 2. Health risks - insect borne duction to fieldcraft. Members were At the end of the voting day, the ballot diseases (malaria is endemic to the provided with personal first aid kits, anti- boxes were sealed and secured until they region), contamination of food and water, malaria medication, insect repellent, could be airlifted back to UNHQ for skin infections and environmental injury water purification tablets, dry rations, counting under international observation. (such as heat exhaustion or heat stroke) bedrolls, camp beds, mosquito nets and With the completion of the ballot all UN combined with the absence of compre- eating utensils. They were told to prepare Volunteerslelectoral staff were withdrawn hensive medical support in the mission for hardship. from Manatuto District andother districts, area. 3. The risk of death or serious injury with the majority being withdraw from 3. Civil unrest - threats and acts of from civil unrest was treated by providing East Timor within 48 hours. All politically motivated violence intended all UNCIVPOL members with a detailed UNCIVPOL personnel concentrated in to impede the UNAMET Mandate under political briefing and ongoing updates as their District HQ's with restrictions on Resolution 1246 or the disruption of the the mission gathered momentum. Each movement (Security status grade-3 'no legitimate registration and polling pro- district in East Timor conducted a daily move'). cess for the popular consultation. review that was fonvarded to the UNHQ On the morning of Saturday 4 Sep- for immediate follow up by liaison oficers tember 1999, the local lndonesian radio Identify prevention, preparedness, if required. The Head of the UNAMET broadcast the results of the popular response and recovery Mission, being the Special Representative consultation ad announced that by the Evaluate and select options, plan and of the Secretary General (SRSG) was margin of 94,388 (21.5%) to 344,580 implement treatments. required to provide progress reports to (78.5%) the people of East Timor had Pre-deployment training and briefings for the Security Council every 14 days. A '5- rejected the proposed autonomy. UNICIVPOL were structured with the aim Stage' Security Plan was developed and Following the announcement of the of minimising the exposure of this UN implemented with stage-l being unres- result, pro-integration militias, at times community to identified risk. This was tricted daily operations and stage-5 being with the support of elements of the achieved by involving UNCIVPOL mem- the evacuation of the mission. lndonesian security forces, launched a

Summer 2001 systematic campaign of violence, looting period, all UNCIVPOL trapped on the In conclusion, I cannot condemn all of and wanton destruction throughout the eastern end of the territory were evac- the Indonesian security forces for entire territory. The Indonesian au- uated from Baucau by an RAAF C-130 inaction. I did meet and work with thorities did not respond effectively to transport and returned to the safety of Indonesian policemen of honour who the violence, despite clear security Darwin. Unfortunately, I left many trusting endeavoured to discharge their duties commitments made under Resolution East Timorese friends behind to an during the popular consultation in a fair 1246. Many East Timorese were killed and unknown fate. After debriefing, I realise and impartial manner. However, they too as many as 500,000 were displaced from that our risk management planning could were overwhelmed by the wave of vio- their homes, about half leaving the not reasonably predict the extent and lence that swept across the territory. territory, in some cases by force. The local magnitude of the systematic violence family with whom my 'Mountie' partner that overtook UNAMET in the backlash me views expressed by Ule writer are his and do and I boarded in Manatuto was removed to the rejection of Indonesia. I also not reflect Ule views 01 his organisation. and their house destroyed along with 85- understand that some East Timorese 90% of the village and local infrastructure. quietly accept the sacrifice of this After a very tense and hectic 72-hour generation to achieve independence.

Global Disaster Information Network (CDIN) - 'Scoring Coals' Canberra, Australia, March 21-23, 2001

Emergency Management Australia (EMA) is hosting the fourth annual conference of the Global Disaster Information emergenoy Management Network-GDIN2001. A"stra1Ia

Conference Approach Registration Receiving the right information, in the . working group discussions Registration and Sponsorship brochures right format, in time to make the right - plenary and parallel presentations are available through EMA. Electronic decision is of paramount importance for . forums copies including electronic registration disaster managers. The focus ofGDIN2001 - vaster sessions is available throu~hthe EMA website or therefore is toadvance the understanding - iechnical displays the GDlN lnternaiional site and collaboration between disaster Conference managers and providers of information. aims share information about achievements It will bring together representatives from in disaster information management- all areas of disaster information manage- Conference details 'the goals that have been scored' Emergency Management Australia ment, including: progress the development of GDIN Government officials-National, Pro- - PO Box 1020 build closer relationships among users Dickson ACT 2602 Australia vincial, Local and providers of disaster management United Nations and regional organi- Phone: 61 2 6266 5219 - information sations Fax: 61 2 6266 5029 identify further projects that will have Email: [email protected] - academics and researchers a global impact in saving lives and - disaster managers property and in protecting the environ- non-Government and community ment Conference administration enquires organisations Australian Convention and Travel information managers Cost Services industry-information technology, full registration fee: $550 GPO Box 2200 remote sensing, geographic infor- - daily registration fee: $275 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia mation systems, software, hardwareand - cocktail party: $30 (guestonly) Phone: 61 2 6257 3299 equipment suppliers conference barbecue: $35 (guestonly) Fax: 61 2 6257 3256 - consultants Email: [email protected] journalists

b 36 Australian Journal of Emergency Management New guidelines aim to support eople in emergencies- -

umanitarian disasters, whether national and local relief and development caused by floods, conflict or by Lesley-Anne Knight, Emergencies agencies. ' earthquakes, put older people Manager, HelpAge International. The research examined relief work in special danger. They cannot during crises and also during the subse- always move as fast or as far as younger quent phases of rehabilitation and people and often lose out in competition recovery, with three main components: for food, water and shelter. But their needs cation in April 2000 of a set of guidelines a review of HelpAge International's and views are given low priority com- that aim to assist humanitarian agencies experience, using an internal workshop pared with other vulnerable groups, working with older people in disasters and literature review to formalise its according to research by HelpAge Inter- and humanitarian crises. They suggest institutional knowledge gathered over national. Humanitarian organisations practical ways to meet older people's 15 years of working with and for older frequently lack the expertise and capacity needs and to recognise their potential in people in development projects and to address their particular needs. The emergency situations. emergencies. The documentation result is often discrimination and un- covered 21 different emergency settings necessary hardship. Research on older people (initial assessments, rapid appraisal, There is a common misconception that in emergencies project proposals, internal and external in developing countries, relatively few The research that formed the basis for the evaluations). people live to beyond 60 years of age. This guidelines documented HelpAge Inter- four field studies of different types of is no longer true. The number of older national's existing knowledge and expe- emergencies covering both natural people in developing countries will more rience from its involvement in emergency disasters and humanitarian crises as a than double over the next quarter century, responses and explored the links between result of conflict: reaching 850 million by 2025-12 per cent humanitarian organisations and older slow onset natural disasters (repeated of the population'. By 2020, seven of the people in emergencies. Most importantly, flooding in Bangladesh) ten nations with the largest populations it recorded the experience of older people sudden onset natural disasters (the of older people will be developing coun- in emergency situations, using partici- 1998 Hurricane George in the Domin- tries: China with 231 million, India 145 patory methods including group work, ican Republic) million, Brazil 30 million, Indonesia 29 workshops, semi-structured interviews, - protracted conflict (in Bosnia during million, Pakistan 18 million, Mexico 15 story telling, case studies and ranking and after the war of 1992-6) million and Bangladesh 14 million. exercises. The researchers sought to cross- sudden onset political emergencies These figures indicate how important check points with key actors in civil (the 1994 genocide in Rwanda) consideration of older people's needs will society (officials, community and reli- a questionnaire survey of humanitarian become-in emergencies as well as in gious leaders, and other age groups agencies to assess the level of under- development work. Today, in major including young people) and both inter- standing and experience within the emergencies children are usually highlighted as the key victims, and saving their lives is the main priority. But older people have a right to care and protection along with other vulnerable groups when disaster strikes, HelpAge International argues. 1999 was the last year of the Inter- national Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, and it was also the UN International Year of Older People. During 1999, HelpAge International was commissioned by the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) and UNHCR to conduct a study ofolder people in major emergencies. The result was the publi-

Notes 1. Far further details of population agelng see me Aeeinc and DeveloumeM Rm:Povem. Indenendenre aia iIe Norldf 0iaer ~wpli,HelpAge l~iernalionaland Lanhwdn, .onaon. 1999 A summary al lhls repon r Figure1 Blago]eC~rkov~c.83, rests on Brewood prov~dedby HelpAge Internattonal Heano nls wife Roksanda. available from HelpAge International. 86, (In background] are Serblans I.wg n Crannlca, Kosovo

Summer 2001 in the flood plain of the Padma (or Ganges).They gave first hand accounts of floods that lasted for three months in 1998 and commented on their experience of earlier major floods. Older people on Moheshkhali Island were interviewed about the effects of the severe cyclone that struck in 1998 and gave accounts of earlier cyclones over the previous 50 years. Referring to the Munshiganj floods, an aid worker with a local NGO noted:'When we examined the mortality figures for four unions during last year's flood we found that out of 140 flood-related deaths, 77 were older people-over 50% of the total'. After the floods, older people were often left behind, either to guard property or because they were not seen as a priority for communal shelter. In the cyclone shelters, older people could not compete with young people for refuge and there Figore 2: Orissa, India, 1999. was insufficient room for all. Loss of income, livelihood and ongoing humanitarian community of the situa- Refugees estimates that on average 10 per poverty were the most difficult problems tion and needs of older people. The cent of refugees in humanitarian crises they faced. Their low social status and the replies (60 out of 180 circulated) were are over 60 years old. In some cases, the absence of state benefits meant that older analyzed in a workshop. proportion can rise as high as 30 per cent. people were the last to receive help. The The majority of these older refugees are breakdown of family networks was a Structural issues: women. particular problem. Some felt that their poverty and invisibility Older women as a group tend to be abandonment was not intentional, but the This research built up a fairly clear and more vulnerable than men. A cyclone, a result of the poverty of their sons, whose consistent picture of the effects of war or a flood is likely to undermine the priority was their own families. emergencies on older people. Though not networks that help them to survive, in Many lost husbands, wives or family seen as definitive, the research and the addition to loss of homes or displace- members and the trauma made it very guidelines based upon it are seen as ment. They depend on the informal difficult to find the motivation to rebuild contributions to an ongoing debate. economic sector for their livelihoods and their homes. Older widows found them- HelpAge International concludes that rarely have any retirement benefits. selves dispossessed and forced to beg to 'invisibility, exclusion and powerlessness Widows in particular may have to'depend survive. In a situation of food shortages, are common themes emerging from older on relatives and neigbbours to 1survive. older people found it hard to compete people's experiences of crises. It argues Older women, and widows particularly, for food and were often the last members that this invisibility is part of a broader are excluded in many societies not just of the family to be fed. pattern of poverty and powerlessness. In from wealth and resources but also from a crisis, the chronic problems of poverty, decision making. Aid agencies and older people exclusion and poor health become acute. An additional obstacle to addressing in emergencies Among the key structural problems older people's needs in emergencies is The stated aim of most humanitarian facing older people is poverty. Older their invisibility. The general public, organisations in emergencies is to people as a group are among the poorest governments and aid agencies in both the provide emergency relief to whole com- in most societies. Their economic developed and developing world tend to munities, if possible targeting the most vulnerability makes coping with crises ignore older people and rarely regard vulnerable. Most aid agencies recognise more difficult and recovery slower. them as active members of society. They older people as a vulnerable group in Industrialisation, rural-urban migration are at best seen as a burden or as passive emergencies but rarely assign them the and high labour mobility in many regions recipients of care. They are rarely asked priority given, for example, to children. makes for unstable economic conditions, what their needs are. Humanitarian organisations frequently while better health care and longer lives The study of two natural disasters in lack the particular expertise and capacity mean the ratio of older people to those in Bangladesh, chosen as an example of to address older people's needs. This can middle age is increasing. The prospect is prolonged or repeated natural disasters, result in discrimination and unnecessary for an increasingly fragile economic and illustrates these issues. In Bangladesh, hardship. social situation for most older people large areas of land are close to sea level Immediate survival in an emergency worldwide. and prone to recurrent flooding of often depends on rapid access to relief. Older women, the research suggests, disaster proportions. Many coastal areas Longer-term rehabilitation depends on experience emergencies differently to along the Bay of Bengal are affected by the recovery of coping and support men. They tend to live longer than men, cyclones. mechanisms. Many older people reported so usually form the majority of older Older people from areas affected by that they had problems in accessing relief survivors. The UN High Commission for flooding were interviewed in Munshiganj, aid and were often excluded from support

Australian Journal of Emergency Management with economic and social recovery. Even when agencies carry out participatory assessments of need at community level to determine relief priorities, older people's vulnerability and their potential Health Food and nutlition contribution to relief delivery and Access to health services Food and nutrition Isolation I separation from family rehabilitation tend to be ignored. Shelter Water and sanitation Access to health services A notable difference emerged between I Agerelated health services the perceptions of older people, as Access to age-sensitive Basic need health services non-food items reflected in HelpAge International's experience, and those of respondents Food and nutrition Shelter Psychosocial needs from aid agencies dealing with emer- Isolation 1 separation Sklllstmining Destruction of social structures gencies. In the ranking exercise shown in from family Table 1 older people assessed their most important problem in emergencies as lack Table 1:lhe six most common problems in emergencies identified by older people, compared with the six of income, followed by poor access to most common activities of the NGOs Sulveyed and the six most common problems that NGO staff thought health services. Aid agencies thought food older people would face in an emergency (~elp~geinternational 2000). and nutrition and isolation were the most important with income not included in the top six problems they identified. This dealing with emergencies, if seems to reflect older people's concern they are to challenge the dis- with re-establishing their coping mecha- crimination currently expe- nisms compared with the relief agencies' rienced by older people. The more welfare oriented approach. guidelines can be adapted to meet needs in specific situa- The guidelines tions but the principles of Invisibility, exclusion and powerlessness consultation, inclusion and are common themes emerging from the empowerment are intended to experience of older people as expressed be evident in each case. in the research. They consistently asked to be seen, heard and understood, to have Basic needs and mobility equal access to essential support services Older people identified several and to have their potential and contri- basic needs from their expe- butions recognised, valued and supported. rience of emergencies. Where The guidelines therefore promote consul- homes have been destroyed, tation, inclusion and empowerment as the they need building materials primary indicators for good practice. and labour to help rebuild Experience in the field indicates that shelters. In order to cook food, these principles require changes in the they need help collecting fuel way essential services are delivered and and ways to share cooking the way older people are viewed. This does arrrangements with neigh- not mean that special services should be bours or other individuals. established for older people. The empha- Clothing, blankets, pots, pans sis is on integrating older people into and other kitchen and house- mainstream services and ensuring equity hold equipment were among of service provision across all sections of the basic items required, as Figure3: In an emergency, older people often find themselves with the community. Or as a a raised increased responsibilities for supporting their families, mobilising Older people identified the following area to avoid acute resources and caringforchildren, orphans and dependants. At the as key issues and needs in an emergency: joint and muscle pain caused ageof 58, Adera Karwimngu looked affer loorphans in Rwanda in basic needs: shelter, fuel, clothing, by sleeping on the ground. the aftermath of the conflict. bedding, household items Solutions as simple as straw or mobility: incapacity, population move- grass inside flour sacks can dramatically lead to problems of exclusion and abuse ment and transport, disability increase an older person's capacity for as the larger group rejects or resents the health: access to services, appropriate self-care and survival. presence of the older person. Communal food, water, sanitation, psychosocial When planning their work, agencies shelters that do not offer some measure needs need to be aware that many older people of gender separation may exclude women family and social: separation, depen- are not automatically given shelter by or other groups from using them. In some dants, security, changes in social their adult children and must find shelter cases, such as cyclone shelters, this may structures, loss of status for themselves. Grouping older people represent a direct threat to personal economic and legal: income, land, together with people who they do not survival. information, documentation, skills know (for example, to make up the Older people may have more difficulty training. numbers required to qualify for shelter in finding fuel and water than younger These are issues that any service or for allocation of supplies such as members of a community. This can affect provider must take into account when utensils, plastic sheetingand blankets) can their capacity to feed themselves, in turn

Summer 2001 programs. Where they receive food, the food is frequently unsuitable for digestive systems and teeth compromised by the ageing process. Older people are also vulnerable to rapid debilitation caused by diarrhoea in the same way that children are, but their nutritional status is rarely monitored'.

Psychosocial support In the research surveys, older people identified the social and psychological traumas that accompany separation from, or loss of, family members, bereavement and loss of support. Older people are often left to care for younger children or other dependants in the absence of middle- generation adults. The destruction of social structures may cause loss of family figure 4: Recent flwdlng In Mozambique and Zimbabwe leR many older people without shelter. and community support and loss of respect for older people as cultural and reducing their capacity to collect fuel and whether people with restricted mobility social values break down. In extreme water. Woodpiles and other fuel stocks can can climb into high-sided vehicles. cases this results in abandonment. Older be provided for use only by vulnerable people find they need protecton against members of a community. Alternatively Healthcare and nutrition theft, disposession, physical and sexual older people may be linked to supportive Where the problems of isolation, lack of abuse. families where younger members help to mobility and physical strength or trauma Support can include extending family collect fuel or water for the older person make it difficult for older people to access tracing services to isolated older people or the older person adds their ration to essential services, it is necessary to adapt or, when no family members can be found, the family 'pot' and shares the cooked these services to preserve equity of to develop 'foster' family links with meal. provision. Older people may find diffi- supportive neighbours and families The research identified four main culties with access to health services willing and able to support older people. problems with mobility in emergencies: because of mobility problems, the distance Those older people who have long term - when housebound older people are left to centralised services, or the absence of responsibility for children can be helped behind or are unable to gain access to community health systems and the loss of by providing support with school fees, essential services regular health facilities because of the materials or uniforms-preferably chan- - older people are sometimes unable to emergency. Where older people are able nelled through the carers-and linking climb into trucks, or are slower than to reach centralised relief and service older carers with other carers for mutual others and get left behind delivery points, they may need protection support and information. where there are no regular transport or other support to access the service if The risk of sexual abuse can be reduced facilities, older people may not be able they find themselves competing with by creating awareness of the separate to reach essential services people who are more able bodied. Estab- needs of older women and men and not some older people are disabled by the lishing outreach services or prioritising mixing older women and men together loss of mobility aids, prostheses and the most vulnerable at clinics can address to make up numbers for shelters without spectacles in the emergency. these difficulties. In emergencies there is the informed permission of the older To address these difficulties, outreach often a lack of medication for chronic women, as experience has shown that this elements can be built into service assess- disorders, especially disorders that will creates a high risk of abuse for the ment, delivery and monitoring. In the become acute without regular treatment. women. Rwandan refugee camps in Tanzania, Simple age-related clinics to deal with The crisis in Kosovo is an example of HelpAge International supported able issues such as joint pain and other how community breakdown can lead to older people to set up a home visiting ailments associated with ageing are violent and abusive behaviour towards system that aimed to identify housebound especially relevant where displaced all vulnerable groups, including older people, abandoned elders and those who people are sleeping in the open or on hard, people. In late 1999, the Organisation for lacked information about what help was cold or damp surfaces. They also need to Security and Cooperation in Europe available. Able elders and other com- ensure that drugs are available to treat reported 'a deplorable pattern of violence munity members made stretchers from chronic disorders. These clinics may help and harassment' against older people. locally available materials to transport to reduce pressure on limited resources This occurred both during the Serb those who could not walk to clinics. by treating groups of older people 'Fast track' queueing systems allow together, and can limit 'revolving door' access for the most frail and vulnerable at patterns of repeated patient visits to Not6 service delivery points, especially where regular clinics. 1. For a dlsmsslon of nutritional monitoring of older physical competition for relief supplies Older people often encounter reluc- people, see Suraya lsmail and Mary Manandhar, Bener Nutrition for Older People: Assessment and Adion, is high. Where trucks are used for tance on the part of service providers to HelpAge lntemational and the London Shoo1 of Hygiene transport, account needs to be taken of include them in supplementary feeding and Tropical Medlclne. 1999.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management onslaught on the Albanian majority and, for them to bring things to us. We want to list was designed for use in the large after the refugees returned, against older keep our projects growing-we can look refugee camps found on the Tanzania1 Serbs remaining in Kosovo. These vul- after ourselves.' Rwanda border at that time. These key themes are common to most checklists: nerable older Serbs face recrimination Consultation and participation attacks and harassment on the streets, at family circumstances The guidelines emphasise that older World Food Program distribution points - social supports people should be consulted and involved health and at medical centres. HelpAge Inter- in decision-making, both in making the national has set up a home visiting mobility initial assessments of need and in deci- program, in coordination with other basic needs ding how to allocate assistance. They agencies, in Pristina to ensure that Variations can be made according to recommend an 'outreach' approach to vulnerable older people from ethnic the particular circumstances of any given assessments-using staff, volunteers and minorities receive warm clothing, meals emergency. Identifying the source or other older people to locate vulnerable and medical attention in their homes. adequacy of income, for example, is an elders. In an emergency, older people often element not seen in this checklist but Rehabilitation find themselves with increased responsi- which would be important in most other bilities for supporting their families, In the aftermath of humanitarian crises settings. mobilising resources and caring for and natural disasters older people, as What was evident from using the children, orphans and other dependants. much as younger adults, need to rebuild checklist was that a person could have The guidelines argue that building on their lives. But they suffer from a variety problems in the areas of health, mobility their contributions offers potential gains of economic disadvantages: inflation, loss and basic needs and still not be counted for both older people and service provi- of employment, lack of pensions, loss of as vulnerable if they were well supported ders. Previous experiences of disaster or markets and lack of access to credit (social support). On the other hand a conflict, coping strategies, traditional schemes. Restoring income and the person might have fewer problems lower skills and local environmental knowledge means of livelihood therefore play a down the checklist but potentially be very are important in mitigating the impact critical role in the recovery and self- vulnerable if they were isolated and of emergencies. support of older people and their contri- unsupported. This checklist does not offer This strategy is not confined to emer- bution to their families or other support hard and fast answers to identifying gency responses. In protracted conflict networks, especially where there is no vulnerability, but is a tool for highlighting situations such as that of southern Sudan, other form of income support. They need the indicators of vulnerability. older people can become involved in training in literacy, numeracy and new During the Orissa cyclone relief pro- managing their own lives. The HelpAge language skills in changed circumstances, gram with HelpAge India, HelpAge lnternational Juba Emergency Programme, as well as new practical and income- lnternational distributed questionnaires initiated in 1998, improved the quality of generating skills. with a request to other aid agencies life and self reliance of older people by Rehabilitation programs often fail to (international and local) to provide actively involving them in deciding take account of these needs, excluding feedback on the situation of older people priorities for aid. Juba's population of older people from income generating in the areas of cyclone relief. The impor- 160,000, including some 8,500 older people, projects and credit schemes. Yet the tance of these forms and the information has been heavily dependent on aid for the provision of tools, seeds and other they provided was twofold: last 15 years. But the needs ofolder people material inputs and support for other to raise awareness among agencies of were not specifically catered for. forms of income generation is a means older people's needs and whether older Local committees of older people of supporting a whole family and the people's needs were even being consi- identified vulnerable elders by a set of wider community, as well as older people dered criteria-including age, sources of themselves. Experience has shown that to help ensure more accurate needs income, living family members, health - older people are among the most consis- assessments for the provision of ade- status-which they themselves had tent and reliable in the management of quate relief assistance. agreed. savings and return of loans. Older people These forms are also being used in The committees ensured that aid was have also successfully undertaken literacy Kosovo and Mozambique and have delivered and monitored. They also classes in refugee and resettlement enabled HelpAge lnternational to identify organised practical activities, such as programs. and service the special needs of older house building, sanitation and agricultural Occupational activities can stimulate people. They form the basis of referrals work. Members of the committees repre- social contact, physical activity and a sense from other aid agencies to HelpAge sented the needs of older people to NGOs, of self-worth, especially in refugee camps lnternational requesting assistance in UN agencies and government officials. where opportunities for income genera- developing aid programs to include older Training was a key part of the program, tion are very limited or made redundant people. to increase older people's abilities to by the level of relief provision. assess needs and to improve the aware- In Rwanda, aid agencies emphasised Recent disaster responses-Orissa ness of older people's views and needs the importance of encouraging self-help and Mozambique among NGO, government and UN staff. rather than dependency, but older people In the period following the devastating themselves felt that the assistance given, Vulnerability checklists November 1999 cyclone in Orissa, HelpAge while it was appreciated, was too short HelpAge lnternational has developed lnternational has been working to inte- term, while their problems were long term checklists to assess the needs of older grate its key principles for older people ones. An older woman commented: 'Why people in emergencies. The first was into the emergency response of local don't the agencies support our projects? developed for the HelpAge International organisations with which HelpAge India This would be much better than us waiting refugee program in Tanzania. The check- works.

Summer ZOO1 This cyclone was an example of a clothes or adequate food-deteriorates establish the coping mechanisms and recurring type of natural disaster of which rapidly. Drinking dirty water, when there self-reliance of older people. Older people many older people have had experience. was no alternative source, aggravated in Mozambique must continue to work But one older villager commented that what were already poor health conditions as it is their only means of livelihood. Few whereas in the past younger people in the of the young and elderly. They were also receive any kind of pension. They will village used to pay attention to older more prone to skin diseases, malaria, need safe and fertile agricultural land to people's advice on what to do, they were diarrhoea, high blood pressure, and relocate and construct new homesteads. less willing to do so now.This observation intestinal infections, in a situation where Martha Mbiza is not sure of her age, but had also been made in the Bangladesh there were inadequate medical facilities. looks over 75 years old. She lives with her research. Some older people also reported that the widowed daughter in law, Madelena, 56, In rural areas affected by the cyclone, food provided aggravated diarrhoea. and four children. The floods swept away there was a general lack of food and loss HelpAge lnternational and HelpAge their house and possessions, including of utensils needed to cook rice and dal. Mozambique are working in Gaza and Madelena's two goats. Madelena says she Poor mobility limited many older people's Maputo provinces with local organisations still has the strength for agricultural access to food and water distribution for older people, to implement a relief and activities, helped by her mother in law and points. In cyclone or hurricane disasters rehabilitation project. The initial goal is daughters, and will buy and sell items to older people, like children, are severely to relieve suffering and minimise the boost her income. Martha says,'the dead affected by gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea distress and psycho-social trauma of older are in rest, but we continue to live to and dehydration, as well as chronic people, their carers and wider family witness the worst torture of humankind.' respiratory problems aggravated by hours members and dependants. References immersed in water and wearing damp The community-based nature of Help- HelpAge International, Older People in Age Mozambique's local partner organi- clothes. Local NGOs, working with disasters and humanitarian crises: HelpAge India, are using mobile clinics sations, APOSEMO and VUKOXA which Guidelinesfor best practice, London 2000, to give frail older people easier access to both work directly with older people, p. 18. Available free in English, French, health services and psychosocial support. means that staff and facilities are already Portuguese and Spanish from HelpAge If older people are included in recon- in place to purchase and distribute International. The full document is materials. From the onset of the disaster, struction they can play a key role in available in English at www.helpage.org. economic and social recovery after a field workers and volunteers began disaster. In Orissa, HelpAge lnternational identifying the affected older people in Further information plans to continue food provision, especially both Maputo and Chokwe. Small contri- HelpAee htematlonalis a dobai network of nabfor- where older people are excluded from food butions in cash and in kind were made profil &an~sat~onsw th amss on lo work with and for work programs. towards the immediate needs of the most lor dlsadvanlaged older people world wide to achleve Those who can, are rebuilding their vulnerable infirm older people within their a lasting mprovemenl in the quality ol lhe~rIlres. To deliver this v:sion. HelpAge International works homes, but community-based initiatives families and community. through local partners prov.dmglbna and supporlto are needed for those older people who In the medium- to long-term, HelpAge over 200 organisations in 70 tounlries. I1 has 63 cannot do the work themselves and do not lnternational and its partners seek to re- member org%isations. www.helpage.org have family to help them. HelpAge India and local partners plan to implement small-scale income generation projects that will help to provide a self-sustaining livelihood for older villagers. Severe floods in early 2000 devasted wide areas of southern Africa and Australian Emergency Management Institute especially Mozambique, affecting all Mt Macedon population groups but in particular the 16-20 July 2001 vulnerable young, the frail and the elderly. 'Are You Prepared?' The young and the old were most frequently separated from abler adults or What role would you play it you were required to respond to Cyclone Tracey, abandoned in the immediate rush for the Ash Wednesday Fires, the Newcastle Earthquake survival. Some older people still do not the Katherine Floods or plan for the Melbourne commonwealth Games know where their family members are. or the Grand Prix? The majority of older people found themselves in camps where their specific By attending this course you will gain an understanding of your roles needs were not immediately recognised and responsibilities. or taken into consideration. They were the last group to reach the established Enquiries and registration forms canips and were the last to know about Mr Peter Donovan, Emergency Managemenl Commillee: ph: (03) 5261 0634 the recession of waters and resettlement information. Ms Bernadet Ferraro, Execulive Officer AIEH (Uc) Oiv. : ph: (03) 9496 4044 Like many others older people spent Mr Duncan Moore, Emergency Managemenl Commillee: ph: (03) 9724 3262 many days in flood waters as they waited Ms Heather O'Donnell, Emergency Managemenl Commillee: for rescue services, and those on safe land ph: (03) 9637 4138196374280 had no roof over their heads. The health of older people-without bedding, warm

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Limes that divide, ties that bind: race, cllass, and gender in women's flood recovery in the US and UK1

Introduction common patterns in the material condi- 'I want you to listen to these women. I by Elaine Enarson, Evergreen, Colorado tions of women's everyday lives, including want you to hear their stories and how domestic and reproductive labor, care- USA and Maureen Fordham, Anglia they struggled.' The speaker urged resear- giving and family support, and vulnera- Poiytechnic University Geogmphy chers and policy-makers to attend to the bility to sexual and domestic violence. neglected experiences of Latinas like Department, Cambridge, UK These commonalities afford women a herself, a former migrant worker, in a unique angle of vision when natural and major US flood. Why are these stories and technological disasters impact human struggles so important? Why are they so extreme events are socially constructed communities. little heard? within particular sociological contexts To study the social relations of gender This paper examines diversity in flood and experienced, at least in part, through in disaster is necessarily to study inter- impact and recovery in major floods in gendered, racialised, and classed para- secting patterns of racelethnicity, class, the US (Red River Valley, Upper Midwest meters. Deeply embedded patterns of age, sexuality and other power relations 1997) and UK (East and West Scotland 1993 gender, raciallethnic, and class strati- in culture and society. There is a clear and 1994),bringinga comparative perspec- fication and segregation shape the relative need to move beyond analysis limited to tive to two primary questions: First, how vulnerability of residents to extreme demographic variables or focusing on did the social relations of racelethnicity, events like floods, their capacity to victimisation, i.e. examining race only as social class and gender increase the recover from flood effects, and their minority status, gender only in women's structural vulnerability of women in power to engage in community recon- lives,and class only in thelives of the poor. communities subject to flooding? Secon- struction (Blaikie et. al. 1994; Peacock, We draw on feminist standpoint theory dly, how did these patterns affect women's Morrow and Gladwin 1997; Enarson and (Hartsock 1998; Smith 1987) and other subsequent recovery from major flooding?z Morrow 1998). writing by women of color (Hill Collins Our investigations were intended both Specific social decisions, for example 1990; Narayan 1989) to analyse these to offer a more nuanced perspective on regarding urban development, zoning, intersecting patterns in women's flood 'diversity' in the development of disaster social insurance, or construction codes, experiences. In doing so, we reject the theory and research, and to influence interact with physical hazards to shape the misconception (embedded as much in organisational practices and cultures in relative vulnerability of residents to popular culture as government research) emergency management. In the com- extreme events. Community and house- of a dichotomy between 'women' and munities we studied, as in others (Wiest hold power structures place residents at 'minorities', including the false implication 1998; Finlay 1998, Fothergill 1999a), power risk, for example through racial bias in that 'all the women are white and all the structures based on race, gender and class insurance payments or racial segregation blacks are men', to paraphrase the title of exposed some residents more than others fostered by real estate and lending insti- a popular women's studies text (Hull, Scott to the effects of disastrous flooding and tutions (e.g. 'redlining' neighborhoods), and Smith 1982). complicated their emotional and material economic barriers to safe housing, poverty Feminist standpoint theory, as develo- recovery. There was little evidence, rates among the elderly, race- and gender- ped by Nancy Hartsock (1983), Dorothy however, that local emergency planners based job segregation and wage differen- Smith (1987), Patricia Hill Collins (1990) in these two settings had at hand an tials, and exposure to personal violence and others, does not suggest a single, analysis either of women's structural (see Peacock, Morrow and Gladwin 1997; unitary female stance or exclusive truth vulnerability or of organisational barriers Enarson 1999; Childers 1999; Fordham and claims, as the experiences of women to recovery, to help guide the effective Ketteridge 1998; Fordham 1999; Enarson across racial, ethnic, economic, sexual and use and distribution of scarce resources. 1999a). Quite apart from the water, wind, cultural divides are manifestly diverse. But As our research is intended to help or fire, social forces produce unsustainable the knowledge earned by women, forged address this planning gap, we conclude environments and inegalitarian social by oppression into a social group at once with specific action recommendations relations setting the ground for 'disaster highly vulnerable to disaster and mar- for change. by design' (Mileti 1999) when natural ginalised in emergency management, hazards threaten human communities in cannot be captured without attention to Diversity in disaster sociology: the future. feminist and social vulnerability Studying disasters 'through the eyes of theory women,' for example, clearly illustrates the Notes Notwithstanding the popular notion of inadequacy of theory which either 1. We gratefully bomw our title from Johnneiia Cole's edited text Ail American Women: Llnes That Oivlde, Ties disasters as social levellers impacting universalises or compartmentalises or That Bind (The Free Press, 1986). residents indiscriminately and the focus both (Enarson and Morrow 1998; Fordham 2. in a forthcoming paper, we develop a comparative in dominant disaster theory on ostensibly 1998). Notwithstanding the self-evident perspedive on race, dass, and gender in women's flood universal patterns, the social impacts of diversity of the world's women, there are experiences In Vle USIUK and in developing societies.

Summer 2001 gender relations in disaster theory and change in emergency management which, to examine women's formal and informal practice. in our view, would help disaster planners disaster work, open-ended interviews That we have not yet heard the voices and responders better identify and were conducted at six, 12 and 18 months of women disaster subjects, understood address diversity issues in emergency after the flood with 113 women in focus calamitous events and processes through planning and response. groups and personal interviews involving their everyday experience, documented The flooded communities: service providers, emergency responders, their disaster decisions and survival event, method and sample disaster outreach workers, single women, strategies, or addressed their interests and single mothers, rural women, crisis Two locations in Scotland form the basis needs in disaster practice and policy workers, women in service clubs, home for the UK research: the floods in Perth reflects, not their irrelevance, but our health aides, senior women, family day and Kinross in 1993 and in Strathclyde in failure to ask the right questions (Enarson care providers, housing specialists, 1994. A series of in-depth, qualitative 1998; Bolin, Jackson, and Crist 1998). professional and business women, neigh- interviews were carried out at various Because the social location ofthe observer borhood activists and other$. periods after the events (from 3 months shapes knowledge claims (Stanley and to 4 years). The floods were region-wide Structural vulnerability Wise 1993), including the knowledge we events, which disrupted large parts of to flooding have about disasters, the absence of these West (1993) andlater East Scotland (1994). How do taken-for-granted patterns of specifically female experiences in the Most communities had experienced everyday life before major floods expose sociology of disaster is a real loss. floods before hut none remembered them some, more than others, to chronic crisis Both vulnerability theory and feminist to be of the same magnitude. Early theory insist on a 'bottom up' or 'inside and heighten their vulnerability to the emergency operations were compro- social impacts of extreme events? It is out' perspective on the social construction mised to some extent, in both events, beyond the scope of this paper to develop of disasters. As we argue in conclusion, because people were expecting the floods disaster mitigation cannot remain the a complex analysis of local community to follow the same path as before. When province of credentialed experts or power structures, nor do we want to floods went beyond previous boundaries, suggest that this is necessary for effective community elites hut must centrally or in unexpected directions, there were emergency planning. But racelethnicity, engage the individuals, households, and some delays in action. The damage was communities most at risk (Maskrey 1989). class and gender were, in the actual flood variable but many of the respondents had experiences of those we interviewed, Overview to be evacuated (or self-evacuated) from inextricably interwoven into conscious- their homes and spent between a few days ness, living conditions and social relations While stratification patterns impact all to nearly a year in temporary accom- impacting emergency preparedness, aspects of the disaster cycle, our focus in modation of various kinds4. relief, recovery and mitigation. For the this paper is on emergency flood relief In the twin river cities of East Grand purposes of discussion, we take up race1 and long-term recovery. We also focus Forks, Minnesota and Grand Forks, North ethnicity, class and gender sequentially in largely on women and issues women Dakota, a series of severe winter blizzards the following three sections, and focus identify as significant in their relation- set the stage for 'the flood of the century' more on the 'lines that divide' than the ships with male partners, fathers, sons,and in the Red River Valley. When local dikes 'ties that bind' flood-impacted women. brothers, and the male-dominated disaster were unexpectedly breached, emergency In the predominantly white Scottish planning and response organisations. We managers implemented the midnight communities studied, racelethnicity invite and anticipate the direct investi- mandatory evacuation of East Grand issues did not emerge and were not gation of men's specifically gendered Forks (9000) and Grand Forks (50,000). directly focused on; thus, the first section disaster experiences3. Residents dispersed for periods of two to below focuses more specifically on the We begin by sketching a framework for six weeks to relief centres, host families Grand Forks study. women's structural flood vulnerability in and extended kin around the nation as the Grand Forks and Scottish study areas. the isolated prairie cities assessed signifi- Raciallethnic patterns along the rivers Here, despite thegeographical and cultural cant housing, industrial and agricultural As life is lived as a whole and social power spread of our study locations, we identify damages and began vital repairs. In order constituted and experienced interactively, common intersecting patterns based on race, class and gender which can, and should, be identified as an important part Not6 of social vulnerability analysis. Next, we 3. Some recent work focuses on men and masculinity interviews and informal meetings were carried out with use data from open-ended interviews and in disaster contexts but the literature is sparse. See professionals (emergenq planners, soda1 workers, police, focus groups to suggest how the social Enarson and Scanion 119991; Alway,Belgrave, and elc.) connected with the events. relations of racelethnicity, class and Smlth 119981; and Roberts [1997). 5. Respondents were predominantly Anglo (white, now gender created significant organisational 4. In the earliest stages of research the respondents Hispanic), though a focus group was conducted with were predominantly white, working class women whose seven Latinas and four Native American women were barriers to resources vitally needed by ages ranged from their late teens to some in their 70s Interviewed. Elght women were over 70 but most were women and their families. and even 80s. They also ranged from single women In middle-aged, and either married or widowed. They were But these 'lines that divide' are more full time work, through married or separated women generally mlddle.class women employed in or retired than simply the basis for increased with young children and working part-time, to older from jobs in education, health, and human services women in full time employment or retired. Their jobs 1e.g. nurse, teacher, counselor, saial worker). lhe group disaster vulnerability. In the third section were mostly of relatively low status and law pay - also included affluent women with secure careers as of the paper we argue that patterns of cleaning, retail, clerical. In later research a number ol agency administrators, executives, or small.business difference also make women especially middle dass women were interviewed, agaln ranging in owners, and marginally employed women in working. important partners in community-based ages from their mid-twenties to beyond reurement. They class occupations in the retail, clerical, and personal were either marrled or widowed. Their occupations service sectors (e.g, teacher's aide, family day care, mitigation. We conclude with three major induded those ol human service (teacher, sodai wo*efl home health). The great malarity reported moderate to steps toward structural and cultural or small business owners. Additionally a number of severe damage to thelr homes andlor workplaces.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management the race-specific aspects of living life as a below, tribal membership was an impor- were too bloody feared [afraid] to! I woman cannot be isolated nor gender tant resource for Native American women think they were scared to come to factored neatly from race. But the places seeking help for their families and cultural people like us. Can't blame them. To in which disasters unfold have a racial bonds among Spanish-speakers were think of the amount of times I history and structure important for strengthened by the flood and the shared sounded off to people!' planners to understand, as race in the US experience of racial bias in the relief Thus, in both communities, some and elsewhere so powerfully limits system. Ethnicity was also made meaning- stories were silenced in order to present people's access to key survival resources ful in the dominant community through a public face of satisfaction and consen- like economic security, safe housing and the celebration of Scandinavian culture, sus rooted in cultural homogeneity Social political voice6. for example in the public discourse of relations grounded on race and ethnicity The culture and society of this flood- media stories, local jokes, original songs, structure disaster vulnerability in any plain in the Upper Midwest were con- and local flood art. Residents and outsiders community and impact groups of people structed first by indigenous cultures and typically attributed the resilience of flood differently. Here, the compound effects then during white settlement by Northern victims to the Scandinavian heritage of this of racial and gender dominance put Europeans interacting with native popu- stable Midwestern agricultural community, women at special risk. lations. More recently, demand for cheap describing residents as 'very stalwart and agricultural labor in the rich tields of the noble and strong and tremendously Rising above the water: economic floodplain drew Mexican and Mexican- courageous.. . and generous''". This cultural patterns along the rivers American migrant workers to the region. heritage could be empowering for women: Structural economic barriers also diffe- Anglos continue to dominate both Native 'Well, I'm a pretty stubborn Norwe- rentially impact the recovery of flooded Americans and Hispanics politically, gian! And one thing that my husband households. Women's economic status is a economically, culturally and demographi- taught me is you tell it like it is- key factor universally in the ability of cally On the North Dakota side of the Red you know, if something bothers you households to repair, rebuild, or relocate, River over 95% of Grand Forks residents or whatever . . .And I don't take any to repair or replace cars, replace damaged are non-Hispanic white (Anglo). East guff from anybody. When I couldn't clothes and household goods, to help Grand Forks, MN is also predominantly get my building permit because they family members recover financially, Anglo though Hispanic families reside said the Corps of Engineers had to purchase physical and psychological health there in larger numbers. Air Force Base come, and I had my contractor services, and in other ways begin again. personnel based just outside Grand Forks coming to put my window in, I Social class mattered to women in were visibly part of flood preparations wasn't going to cancel him because Grand Forks and in the Scottish localities. and response7 but these racially diverse then I'd have to wait again. l just said, Reflecting international gender patterns military families were not so visibly part you know, in the building permit (e.g. the feminisation of poverty), women of the cultural community, nor was their office,'What are you going to do to in these flooded regions were concen- flood work consistently acknowledged, for me? My windows are going to go in: trated in female-dominated occupations example in flood anniversary ceremonies. . . .My doors when they came in were in the service and retail trade sectors in Like Hispanic residents generally, the wrong compared to what I ordered, female-dominated jobs less likely than small minority group of Latinas residing and I went back to the person and others to provide security of tenure, flood in the Red River Valley are more likely he was hemming and hawing and I services like on-site child care, uninter- than Anglos to live in poverty, to rent just said,'Don't mess with me:I took rupted pay-checks, and flexible working rather than own homes, to have limited my finger and I said,'You don't mess hours. Residents with insecure seasonal formal education, and to work in low- with me. Give me what I ordered: incomes or incomes contingent upon waged occupations. Thirty-eight percent But ethnicity was not always inter- social relationships with men are in- of Native American households in Grand preted positively by Anglo women; for herently more vulnerable when the waters Forks were headed by women, compared example, one social worker attributed rise. In Grand Forks, more than 65% ofall to 9% of Anglo and 22% of Hispanic high rates of alcohol abuse and domestic women (and 74 % ofwomen with children householdss. Among this group are many violence after the flood to the reluctance younger than six) were employed at the former migrant workers now settled in of stoic Norwegians to speak publicly the region. As discussed below, deep- about 'family matters'. rooted social tensions between migrant Similarly, working-class cultural identity Notes and host residents clearly structured the in the Scottish case studies played a part 6. Racialiethnic Dalterns have no1 been fullv exlored in b5 afsaster iesearcn, nor have gender'and class interaction of Latinas with other victims in both disadvantaging and empowering d nprences w th.n rar:al an0 elh cgroupr ben examlnw and with relief workers, impeding their women in different situations. Working- 8.J see Perrv an0 M~shkatel119861. Boi n .119861. .. recovery in ways emergency planners class Scottish women empowered to take and ~eacock,~Gladwin,and ~oirow1'19971. cognisant of local racial power structures on the officials felt themselves regarded 7. Military personnel provided critical help preparing might have anticipated. We note below as nuisances when they demanded their homes and businesses acainst- flooding" and evacuatina- rerldenlc. operalw a malor emergeno, rel.ef ceaer sewlng that Latina women were primary users of rights. Their vociferous complaints meant a Crand fork res~denb,and operated a comprehensae postdisaster relief systems and hence they were sidelined during official visits flood recovery program for impacted military families more exposed to racial bias than either in case they embarrassed local and visiting living on base. Military families also hosted evacuees Latino men or more affluent Anglo dignitaries: for weeks in lheir homes on base and volunteered in women. 'Any dignitary that came after the resDonse organisations like the Red Cross. 8. 1990 North Oakota CenSUS, General Population A mechanism both of solidarity and floods, it was highly chosen people Charaflerislis. Table 12. division, race or ethnicity assume no single they got to speak to. I mean they were 9. Quoted in an oral history from the flood Oral History meaning in disaster contexts among either no' coming to me or Janet or any Project. University of North Dakota, directed by Kim dominant or subordinate groups. As noted ordinary people like us, because they Poner and Eliot Giassheim.

1 Summer ZOO1 time of the floodlo but few could support communities, just following low-income my back. . . I was barely able to walk their families on their own wages. Lower- housing wherever they could'. and was taking care of [him] even income households, including those Women owning homes or land were though my back was killing me.. . They headed by women, were rarely econo- clearly better able than renters or home- fit me with a brace and as yet have no mically secure homeowners to whom less women to recover from material flood relief from the pain. And in the many disaster relief programs are geared. losses. But our focus on the structural process of all this I began losing Many of the Scottish women interviewed vulnerability to flood created by the weight. I still weigh a husky 97 lived in social housing, which gave them divisions of social class should not be pounds. Needless to say, I look a mess no choice over location. Many would have mistaken for a deterministic economic and feel like one too. We are in an moved away from the flood risk areas if argument about vulnerability and power. apartment but we both need more they could have afforded to, as this woman Many affluent women in our studies drew room and better traveling for [him]. reported: 'If we had the money, we should on their husband's income, savings Thick carpets are hard for him. What be safe because 1 still [don't] feel safe. No.' accounts, credit, second homes, profes- we are doing is marking time, day by Women supporting families on their sional credentials, and networks of social day We are lonely, lost, and I for one own incomes were clearly more in need influence during this difficult period. But am too old to start over.. .Would you of help after the flood. In Grand Forks, they were not immune to the emotional believe this place is so small we only savings accounts and credit cards helped impacts of mandatory evacuation, housing have a card table and two chairs? I some women evacuate their families to missmy kitchen, I miss my homeand hotel rooms instead of to crowded everything in it, I miss my friends. I emergency shelters. Affluent married miss my security. l miss my identity women often described evacuating to the Every single day. Nothing will ever be relative comfort of nearby lakeside ... The gendered the same again. . . . I lost 50 years of cabins. In some cases, middle-class love and history. There's not a thing women and their husbands bought cheap division of labor to work or to fight for anymore. flood-damaged rentals as investment in the home Forgive me, this is a very bad day. I properties. Professional women were also hope things start looking better.' more able to take advantage of new social left women Similar stories could be added from the service flood recovery jobs. The availa- disproportionately Scotland case studies. One of the most bility of flood insurance freed some of distressed interviewees was a woman the Scottish women from dependence on responsible for from an economically secure background disaster rest centres or the poorest quality children, seniors who was left by the flood without the will accommodation but the insurance money to pick up the pieces of her life. As with was limited and once spent they were and chronically the case above, she also has a disabled again dependent on what the local autho- ill or disabled child. The complexity of these women's rity could provide. However, they were lives suggest questions for future research perhaps better off than those in Grand relatives ... into the way people who are already Forks as there was a greater quantity multiply impacted (e.g. through poverty, (though never enough) of social housing ill health, with carer responsibilities, etc.) generally available. do or do not cope with sudden disaster. More than twice as many female damage, loss of personal memorabilia, the Women who did own or reside in single- household heads in Grand Forks are strains of rebuilding, or the loss of control. family dwellings were not a homogeneous renters than are home owners. Single This member of the Grand Forks disaster group. An Anglo wife and mother in a mothers in particular were highly repre- outreach team recalled affluent residents two-job working-class household des- sented in Fernall trailers, where managers she encountered during 18 months of cribed her 'depleted' checking account, estimated they comprised one-third of outreach work: high gasoline and food bills, and the the total and were among the very last 'I wonder,too, if those that had more painfully slow process of replacing families to find other accommodation wealth maybe had more difficulty household goods 'piece by piece by when Fema closed its trailer parks. Many because they had more destroyed. paycheck', notwithstanding receiving older, large, affordable houses needed by Sometimes people with wealth or temporary housing assistance from Fema, single mothers with large families were influence or power aren't used to private donations to flood victims (see located in the area most hard-hit by the dealing with hard stuff. And this was below), voluntary labor from a visiting flood. Asked where single mothers found pretty hard. They were totally out of clean-up crew, $1,000 from their church, housing 18 months after the flood, a control. They had no management of and canned goods from Salvation Army. member of the service agency coalition what happened to them. For many of Class differences were vividly illustrated responding to 'unmet needs' on a case- them, that was a new experience.' by the varying uses women made of flood by-case basis explained many were 'Talk about money-money doesn't do recovery funds, including the controversial 'scattered out in the small rural areas- nothing for you,' a woman remarked as $2,000 'Angel' grants an anonymous donor in Fema trailers but also scattered in other she read aloud from a letter written by a made available to all Grand Forks residents friend, an affluent widow evacuated out on a first-come-first-serve basis. One woman used her Angel money to purchase Notes of town with her profoundly disabled 10. 1990 North Dakota Census of Population and grown son: a cheap used car to replace the one Household: Summary Social. Economic, and Household 'We eventually ended up in [another destroyed by the flood. A friend paid her Chamderlstla. Table 5. state] in a Holiday Inn motel. While ex-husband for his help mucking out the 11. The US Federal Emergency Managemenl Agency. there I fell lifting [him] and injured house to make it habitable for the children.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management The grant helped another woman rent an private domains also increased women's US and UK commented that the work of apartment for her family for three months structural vulnerability. Among other mothering was also more complicated. rather than moving into a Fema trailer features of 'normal' pre-disaster life, the Children unexpectedly became hostile or while the family searched for a new home gendered division of labor in the home aggressive, developed psychosomatic to buy. An affluent woman in a two-career and violence against women put women illnesses, reverted to earlier developmental household applied for the grant but later and men differently at risk when massive stages, became ill after exposure to mold passed it along to the family that had hosted flooding occurred. and to hazardous substances used in them during their lengthy evacuation. The gendered division of labor in the rebuilding, and in other ways needed As in Grand Forks, flood recovery funds home left women disproportionately more time and attention. in Scotland became a focus for com- responsible for children, seniors and As parents with primary responsibility munity divisions; what, in Perth, was chronically ill or disabled relatives. for child care, women were especially originally termed a 'flood fund', and thus Accessing food, cleaning supplies, clo- vulnerable to disruptions in the formal and available to all impacted by the flood, was thing and household equipment con- informal child care system. Costs are renamed (for the best of reasons) a tinued to be women's work under emer- generally higher in centers than in private 'hardship fund' to be targeted at those in gency conditions and later on. Some homes, so working-class women earning greatest need. The latter were generally domestic tasks were also much more low wages relied more than others on those without insurance and many of the difficult. The employed woman quoted informal home-based day care. Flood- insured felt aggrieved that they were now below strongly objected to the suggestion waters damaged these home-based facili- being disadvantaged for what they regar- that women's work was less severely ties substantially, delaying the return of ded as having acted responsibly: impacted by the flood than the work of many employed women to their jobs and 'So you get people like us, pay your men 'in the provider role'. She explained: putting many family day care providers insurance, you skrimp and scrape to 'I disagree. Personally speaking, out of business. do it. . . And I know people who were when I couldn't fix a meal because I In addition, patterns of interpersonal not insured at all and they've got didn't have water, when I had my violence exposed women dispropor- better houses now than they ever had basement water in my kitchen- tionately to harm in the wake of the flood. before: that's what I felt like I was respon- On the day the Red River crested, the local However, some of those that did get help sible for, is washing their clothes.And shelter housing homeless and battered through the hardship fund found that I had to-it majorly disrupted my women was already filled, so several clients rather than money they were given life, where my husband could go off of the local crisis center were housed vouchers that they had to take to certain and go to his job and bring a pay instead in area hotels and motels. Crisis listed shops and were only allowed to check home, and 'everything's just workers were out of touch with them replace particular selected items. They felt fine: And I'm like, 'Everything's not!' during the emergency evacuation hut stigmatised when they went into the I couldn't shop at the stores I wanted learned later that some returned to unsafe shops and could not hand over money to shop at, I couldn't do anything. 1 relationships for lack of alternate housing. like everyone else hut were marked out thought the day-to-day living tore In any community, emergency managers instead as 'poor flood victims: me apart big time: can predict where resources will be most As in the U.S., some middle class The floods sensitised some of the necessary by understanding patterns of women found themselves in a liberal Scottish women to the limitations of their power and privilege in their own com- dilemma when offered flood recovery existing relationships and the gendered munity. Race, class, and gender inequali- money: should they take it or not? For division of labor that had formerly gone ties-not simply proximity to hazard- them, it represented the possibility of unchallenged: set up some residents more than others to extra luxury items rather than the 'I mean his whale total effort was disaster long before floodwaters rise. replacement of bare essentials and some shrugging his shoulders and sighing. There is a second important dimension struggled with a degree of guilt. I mean I was turning out my whole to'diversity' issues in emergency manage- 'We got money from the flood fund house, seeing to my kids, worrying ment. Though flood recovery was gene- as well. . . I feel the money should myselfsick.. .and I just felt hethought rally interpreted as a race-, class- and have gone to people who needed it that where we were was very comfor- gender-neutral process complicated only and, I'll be quite honest with you, we table. . .'I like it' and I says 'but you by bureaucracy, patterns of community didn't particularly need it, so that dinna understand? He didna' under- and household power clearly impacted might have been better managed: stand how I was. And I just realised access to vitally needed services. These Structural factors increasing women's really what a hopeless sod he was. I organisational barriers are outlined in the poverty and economic insecurity placed mean probably if we hadna' been following section. women at higher risk than men in these flooded out I'd have just sauntered floods. Like racelethnicity, class differen- along with him. His life didn't change. The flood recovery process: ces among women also positioned women His Monday to Friday job was the organisational and interpersonal differently to withstand the material losses same but from Friday to Sunday he barriers to services of a flood and rebuild their homes and was still assuming he was going out Flood-impacted women across racial1 daily routines after these major com- to the pub. I was left in the caravan ethnic and class lines drew heavily on munity floods. The economic status of and that's the bit I couldnae cope women was not, however, addressed as a with.. . .I couldnaecopewith my house public concern in the rebuilding process. and him and. . . a new baby and Notes 12. Quoted in a newspaper account ol 2,500 liooded everything.' Chippewa families who returned to the Turtle Mountain Gender patterns along the rivers Outreach workers, teachers, service Reservation 150 miles outside Grand Forks (Long Gender relations in both public and providers and many mothers both in the 19971.

Summer 2001 immediate family and extended kin tisation of social assistance and welfare. Anglo children were placed together in networks for lodging, money, emotional Yet women more often than men put aside bilingual classrooms, but during a 'family support and other key resources. Along these feelings and visited relief agencies fiesta night' for staff, parents, and children the Red River Valley, a vibrant and resour- repeatedly. Like so many other women was pleased to see 'tables with migrant ceful family and kin network was an with family responsibilities, this Native families sitting next to the local banker'. especially critical survival resource for American mother ofa young daughter had Latinas in an East Grand Forks focus women in subordinated racial com- no choice: group discussion described many inci- munities. 'I had a hard time going to, like, dents of racial bias. One single mother, Native American women turned for Red Cross or anything like that. I had whose extended family lives in Texas, help to their extended families and, more a very difficult time. And I don't made a perilous 72-hour long-distance broadly, to their tribal community. This know if it was a pride thing or what. drive home after a distressing encounter parallel relief system based on tribal My Dad would not go. [And your with Red Cross volunteers unable or membership provided Native American husband?] Oh, there's no way. No. unwilling to assist her and her three women with critically needed material And when we were [evacuated] out children. Still seeing a counselor and and emotional support. It also reduced there, I had to go. I had nothing for taking antidepressant medication 18 their dependence on the racially-charged my daughter.' months after the flood, she described her relief process in the Greater Grand Forks Women's interaction with institutional struggle to find housing when she retur- area. The tribal chairwoman explained it flood recovery systems not only illumi- ned to East Grand Forks: was the 'people's tradition to return to the nated gender patterns but also made race 'I had a hard time getting that land where they have their extended and class privilege starkly visible. In the apartment but I actually begged families. . . where they will be cared for'*'. next section we discuss a range of obser- them-actually, I kneeled down and Another tribal official continued,'lt is our ved service barriers linked to the social I said,"Please, me and my kids need tradition that nobody would ever be relations of racelethnicity, class, and a place." I had my furniture and without a home. . . that you would never gender. clothing and everything in storage refuse anyone anything"'. and I said "I have to go into storage Underpinning race and class differences 'You don't belong here': raciallethnic to get clothing for me and my kids." was the gendered division of labor in barriers to service I said,"l need a home."And he's over flood recovery. Notwithstanding sup- Hispanic migrant workers who returned here. . ."Well, let me think about it portive family, extended kin and flood to work the rich fields along the Red River for two weeks, because Mexicans relief on Native reservations, impacted after the spring flood suffered indirect but used to livein my placeand destroyed women in all our study areas had in significant flood losses. Many migrant my apartments before the flood". common with disaster-hit women around families skipped the 1997 summer season, That's what I was told by him.So that's the world the need to publicly seek but those who did come faced intense where 1 thought racial had somc- assistance from public and private competition from flooded Anglo families thing to do with it.. . It really upset agencies. Asking for help was women's also needing temporary housing, work me when he did make a comment work, including standing in line to receive clothes, and cheap household goods. Some about Mexicans. I said, "Not all emergency goods, information, or gui- established migrant families lost the Mexicans are the same, that's where dance; doing the paperwork of recovery trailers they left in the area from the you are wrong".' (e.g. completing forms, providing sup- previous season. Because these were not Racelethnicity was also a factor in porting documents, following-up with full-time residences they were classified informal communication networks about phone calls and letters); and contacting as 'second homes' ineligible for compen- the reliefprocess. Language was a powerful agencies for specific flood relief (e.g. sation, although the trailers were signifi- barrier to Spanish-speaking women and counselling for disturbed children, health cant primary residences during the field men facing 'a wall of English', notwith- services for senior family members). season for migrant workers otherwise standing the availability of bilingual Class resentment in the politics of the forced to sleep in their trucks or camp in helpers in relief centres.At least some flood flood recovery was complicated by gender parks. After the spring flood, migrant information materials were translated by and racelethnicity, as we see below. Their families faced a more hostile environment the bilingual staff of service agencies visibility as service users exposed low- than usual as flood relief was both covertly working with Spanish-speaking families income women in particular to criticism. and overtly restricted to Anglos through in the area. But this translation work took Social workers described women with coded references to 'Minnesota families' place after the flood under very difficult severe economic problems as 'using the or 'residents'. As single mothers are over- conditions and was not part of emergency system', criticising them for accessing represented among migrant families, these planning to serve diverse populations. more than one service at more than one racially-based patterns seriously disad- Latinas also reported exclusion from time in order to help solve problems after vantaged many Hispanic women. informal communication networks. For the flood. Like the men in their families, Ironically, some programs became example, they recalled learning too late many resisted asking for emergency more racially inclusive. An East Grand about the arrival of a semitruck loaded assistance from government and private Forks agency serving migrant children with donated vacuum cleaners, though relief agencies, reflecting the stigma- integrated flood-impacted Anglo children many of their Anglo co-workers had into their summer programs, somewhat already made arrangements for time off reducing the previous level of services to from work to meet the truck. Notes migrant children but providing vitally Formal service barriers (e.g. lack of 13. Quoted in a newspaper account of 2,500 flooded Chippewa familles who returned to Ule Turtle Mountain needed child care to flooded residents. A assistance to migrant families not resident Reservation 150 miles oulslde Grand Forks [long program director recalled bracing for during the flood) were compounded by 19971. community backlash when migrant and informal organisational practices. Both

Australian Journal of Emergency Management economic need and their gendered role as a place to hold our groups and we struggled emotionally with the effects of help-seekers exposed Latina women in don't have any storage space and we the flood. particular to racial bias and restricted don't have offices to do the private In many ofour study locations, effective access to vitally needed recovery assistance. counselling we'd like to do.. . I think and wide-ranging door-to-door disaster [the lack of a shelter] really compro- outreach teams were in place for many 'Back to my abuser?' Lack of mises the security and the safety months after the floods, offering a variety setvices for women in crisis element for women. Abusers aren't of resources targeting seniors, children, Flooding damaged or destroyed most stupid, by any means. They're going employers, and neighborhoods. downtown buildings in Grand Forks and to figure it out. I mean, I don't Many churches and social service East Grand Forks, including businesses think-Grand Forks isn't a large agencies also offered flood-recovery and financial institutions but also com- enough place where they might not programs like support groups or coun- munity-based agencies serving residents think of some ofthe other places that selling. Yet there was no single pace of struggling with flood damage and the we might be putting them.. . It's very recovery. Many women interviewed a year chronic crises of homelessness, substance easy to track somebody down, and and a halfafter water entered their homes abuse, violence, mental illness, and that doesn't provide the kind of described continuing physical symptoms unemployment. Although their work with security and safety that we want to of stress, needed help coping with these vulnerable populations was even be able to provide for our clients. So, children's self-destructive or aggressive more essential after the disaster, the flood's behavioral changes and were still taking direct and indirect impact on facilities, antidepressant medication. staff, and resources made services less Coping with the emotional needs of available. male partners was a major challenge for Women were at greater risk of personal many women in the recovery period. violence in the wake of the Red River Coping with the This college-educated Native American fl00ds14. Service statistics from the local emotional needs woman described how her husband's crisis center indicated a 47% increase in emotional withdrawal from the family crisis calls over the same quarter the of male partners (and his physical absence two separate previous year and a 65% increase in was a major times) led to 'role reversal' after the Red requests for protection orders. In some River flood: households, women were unwillingly challenge for 'He was not the strong one any more drawn back into relationships with many women because he had such a difficult time, former partners who could help them thinking, not only did he lose his clean their homes, make repairs, replace in the recovery home but his parents' home. And so I possessions, fix cars, or relocate. Crisis period. had to be the strong one. I still had to counselors heard later about the prob- take care of my daughter. He did come lems, which followed: up [where we evacuated] for a week. 'It's not working out well, because . .The first three or four months he there's a lot of promises that they was, he stayed away. He was real don't keep. So they're trying to rely distant and kind of did his own thing. on 'em but yet they're not getting the I mean we do the best we can, but I . . He said the most difficult thing for support they need, and plus then the don't think-l don't feel very good him was the fact that he is supposed abuse continues. You don't neces- about the options that we're offering to take care of his family and he had sarily have to be living with them to right now,and I know that our clients nowhere to bring that famil$ continue to beabused.. . [A] few have don't. I assume that some people Interviewed a year and a half after the wanted to get divorced and then the probably don't even utilize these flood, and newly settled into a new job divorce was delayed because of the options because that doesn't feel safe and new house, she felt ready for coun- flood, one for over a year. The to them. So people aren't getting the selling but others were now reluctant to courthouse was down for awhile, and help that they need: talk about personal issues raised by the all those issues of trying to get that In the Scottish case studies, issues of flood, and free counselling was no longer back up and running: domestic violence did not emerge al- available: Battered and homeless women in the though their absence in interviews does 'It's now that I think that people Red River Valley lost safe space to not mean they did not exist at all. However need help, it's not right after the fact floodwater-and to community compla- one social worker involved throughout and it's not five months later, it's cency about their vulnerability before, the 1993 floods near Perth, remarked that when they're settled.. .It's a year later, during, and after the flood. Community domestic violence had not been an issue more than a year later, and I know I crisis agencies for women are not recog- and that on the contrary many of the haven't dealt with it, but I'm con- nised by emergency managers as critical women had been made stronger by the scious of that, and I know when I'm care facilities and the women they serve flood. ready and my mind is ready I will not seen as vulnerable in the way that deal with it. . . Men are supposed to nursing home residents or disabled 'Women were the strong ones': be strong and tough and dodt need residents are. Gaps in service were women helping men described by a staff member concerned Not all barriers to women's recovery Notes for the life safety ofwomen after the flood: emerged from organisational practices. 14. For a more extended discussion of violence against 'We're very cramped here [in tem- Women's recovery was also complicated women in disasters, see Enarson 11999al and FoVlergiil porary facilities] and we dodt have by the need to respond to men who 119991.

Summer ZOO1 anything. Women are supposed to be exclusion from the resources of main- emergency management. Building sustai- the ones who need help all the time. stream relief agencies. nable disaster-resilient physical environ- It's like-"excuse me!"It should have In Scotland, class divisions were ments for the future necessarily involves been there for him right after the exacerbated as spatially scattered middle building more sustainable disaster- flood, and then for me, now,' class residents expressed their resentment resilient social structures. The action steps In Scotland, the son of a single-parent of those in the spatially coherent social identified below suggest a new model of family, who had taken on the role of'man housing locations of North Muirton emergency planning predicated as much of the family', but who was absent during (Perth) and Ferguslie Park (Strathclyde) on social as on physical vulnerability and the floods was nevertheless affected by who appeared to command greater a vision of residents as knowledgeable them: attention and services. community planners and effective disas- 'Now when it came to moving, to Women were not united across racial ter responders as well as future victims. chucking everything out, coming or class lines as a unitary or self-conscious back when the water went down and social group. Many women did appear to Utilising social vulnerability analysis put it all out to get thrown away, become more conscious of gender divi- Flood mitigation is not a technical which was pretty traumatic, he sions while negotiating with partners over accomplishment but a social process. couldn't do that. He literally couldn't household preparations and recovery Effective emergency preparedness and do that, he broke down. And a lot of work and observing the public flood response must incorporate an analysis of it was that he couldn't stop blaming how local racial, class, and gender ine- himself that he wasn't there to help qualities are likely to impact residents us that night.And although he wasn't through the disaster cycle. Differentials here the night ofthe floods, the floods Our findings in these in housing, economic security, family have affected him.' flooded communities status, health and other living conditions A social worker involved in the floods in diverse populations provide important in Scotland told how 'the flood wiped the suggest that clues about patterns of vulnerability and men, paralysed them' and the women addressing recovery. became stronger through it. Men could not Social vulnerability analysis is, or can ask for counselling help for themselves but population diversity be, an important planning tool for when their wives or partners received and community emergency managers. Concrete know- home visits from counsellors, the men ledge of local community power struc- would listen attentively in the background power structure is not tures enables emergency planners to or slowly feel able to communicate their an indulgence but anticipate needs and target resources. personal distress. Knowing the right questions to ask is the Gender identity, the gendered division a necessity in first step. What can be done now to ensure of caregiving and the gender politics of emergency that mixed-sex teams are available to disaster decision-making make emo- contact stressed families after the next tional recovery difficult for both women management. flood? Where are the battered women's and men. shelters and other group homes located The different emotional worlds of and how prepared are they for a major women and men may equip them dif- recovery process. Most respondents community flood? Where are most ferently for the hard work of disaster agreed that women's specitic interests and women in the area employed and what recovery and warrant more investigation, needs were neither identified nor expli- proportion are single mothers? How can as do class and raciallethic patterns of citly considered. Women across races and families living below the poverty level emotional recovery. classes, and in our different national prepare their homes for flooding? How locations, had sandbagged, walked the many families use which kinds of child Lines that divide and ties that dikeslfloodbanks and prepared families care, and how well equipped are these bind: solidarity and flood recovery and workplaces for disaster, but were facilities for a major flood? What are the The strength of the 'therapeutic' united mostly (although not exclusively) absent major community language newspapers community was undermined by the very from the table when planners developed in the area and who in emergency different experiences of women across reconstruction projects or local action management can communicate with their class and raciallethnic lines. We found that groups formed to formulate action plans. publishers and writers? flooding reflected and exacerbated The solidarity of flood victims as a Few emergency management offices economic, raciallethnic and gender whole was undermined by an implicitly have the resources at hand to research inequalities. gendered, racialised, and classed vision historical and contemporary patterns in In the Red River Valley, flooding of community recovery. In the long run, local community power structures. increased the salience of ethnic identity, community divisions were not overcome Relevant data are not always available (e.g. making racial bonds and divisions oflong but strengthened. gender and race sensitive census data). standing more visible. Ethnic solidarity Emergency management agencies should seemed to increase among Euro-Ameri- Responding to diversity in utilise the resources of universities and cans, who experienced the flood as emergency management: colleges and, in the process, forge new members of the dominant population; strategies for change links with the disaster researchers of the among Native Americans who turned to Our findings in these flooded commu- future. tribal authorities and systems for emer- nities suggest that addressing population Concretely, we recommend that: gency relief and emotional support; and diversity and community power structure baseline community vulnerability among the Hispanic community after their is not an indulgence but a necessity in profiles be developed and updated

Australian Journal of Emergency Management

Enarson E. and Morrow B. H. (eds.) 1998, Routledge, London. Gendered Terrain of Disaster: Through The Gendered Terrain of Disaster: Through Perry R.and Mushkatel A. 1986,Minority Women's Eyes, eds. Enarson and Morrow, Women; Eyes, Praeger, Westport CT. Citizens in Disasters, University of Praeger, Westport, CT, pp. 63-79. Enarson E. and Scanlon J. 1999,'Gender Georgia Press, Athens GA. Author's contact details Patterns in a Flood Evacuation: A Case Roberts J.T. 1997,'Negotiating Both Sides Elaine Enarson Study of Couples in Canada's Red River of the Plant Gate: Gender, Hazardous 331 74 Bereen Mountain Road Valley', Applied Behavioral Science Review Facility Workers and Community Res- ~ver~reen,"Colomdo80439 Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 103-124. ponses to Technological Hazards', Current Phone: 3031670-1834 Finlay C. C. 1998,' "Floods, They're a Sociology, Vol.45, No. 3, pp. 157-177. Fax: 3031679-0938 Damned Nuisance": Women's Flood Smith D. 1987, The Everyday World as Email: [email protected] Experiences in Rural Australia', in The Problematic: A Feminist Sociology, Uni- Dr Maureen hrdham Gendered Terrain of Disaster: Through versity of Toronto Press, Toronto. Geography Department Women) Eyes, eds. Enarson and Morrow, Stanley L. and Wise S. 1993,BreakingOut Anglia PolyiechnicUniversity Praeger, Westport CT, pp. 143-149. Again, Routledge, London. East Road, Cambridge. CB1 1PT UK Ernail: [email protected] Fordham M. 1999,'The intersection of Twigg J and Mihir B. 1998, Under- Gender and Social Class in Disaster: standing Vulnerability: South Asian Balancing Resilience and Vulnerability', Perspectives, Intermediate Technology International lournal of Mass Emergencies Publications on behalf of Duryog Nivaran, and Disasters, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 15-36. London. Fordham M. 1998, 'Making Women Wiest R. 1998, 'A Comparative Pers- Visible in Disasters: Problematising the pective on Household, Gender, and Private Domain', Disasters, Vol. 22, No. 2, Kinship in Relation to Disaster', in The pp. 126- 143. Fordham M. and Ketteridge A. 1998, 'Women Must Work and Women Must Weep: Examining Gender Stereotypes', in The Gendered Terrain of Disaster, eds. Churchill Enarson and Morrow, Praeger, Westport CT,. pp. 81-94 ~~ther~illA. 1999,111 Exploratory Study of Woman Battering in the Grand Forks Fell Flood Disaster: Implications for Com- munity Responses and Policies', Inter- national Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Vol. 17, No. I, pp. 79-98. Each year the CHURCHILL TRUST rewards over one hundred Fothergill A. 1999a,'WomenS Roles in a Australians striving for excellence with the opportunity Disaster', Applied Behavioral Science to investigate a project overseas. Since the trust was established over 2500 of Australia's best and brightest Review, Vol.7,No.2,pp. 125-143. have been awarded Fellowships. Recent examples are: HarstockN. 1985,Money, SexandPower: Toward a Feminist Historical Materialism, Wojciech Pietranik who studied medal and coin design Northeastern University Press, Boston in Italy. (Wojciech subsequently won the medal design competition for the Sydney 2000 Olympics). MA. Hull G., Scott P. B. and Smith B (eds.) Keilie Hamilton who will visit the USA and Sweden to 1982, All the Women Are White, All the study techniques for isolation and culture of cartilage cells Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave, to repair cartilage defects. The Feminist Press, New York. Anthony Grant who will visit the USA, the UK, France Long P. 1997,'Turtle Mountain Reser- and Germany to investigate the latest methods in the vation Opens Its Homes, Hearts', Grand feedlotting of beef and lamb. Forks Herald, April 27, 1997. We now seek applications from Australians of 18 years Maskrey A. 1989, Disaster Mitigation: and over who wish to be considered. A Community Based Approach. Oxfam, No prescribed qualifications are required, merit being the Oxford, UK. test. However, applicants must have a willingness Mileti D. 1999, Disasters by Design: A to share the results of their Fellowship with the community. Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the Download information forms from our website at: United States, Joseph Henry Press, Wash- www.churchilltrust.org.au ington D.C. or contact the National office: Narayan U. 1989,'The project of feminist epistemology: perspectives from a non- Phone: 02 6247 8333 Fax: 02 6249 8944 western feminist, in Gender/Body/Know- email: [email protected] ledge, eds. Jaggar A. M. and Bordo S. R., Rutgers University Press, New York. Peacock W., Morrow B.H. and Gladwin Closing date for completed applications and references is Wednesday February 28, 2001. H. (eds) 1997,HurricaneAndrew:Ethnici& Gender, and the Sociology of Disasters,

Australian Journal of Emergency Management The Marginalization of Disaster complex political, social and eco- Response Institutions nomic problems which come with disasters. The study suggests that The 1997-1998 El Niiio Experience In m~n~gingthe s~ruarioncreatd by a Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador major EYSO event ideally requiresthe same approach to mana&gnational By Richard Stuart Olson, Juan Pablo development in general-ENSOs Sarmiento Prieto, Robert A. Olson,Vincent themselves are so complex that they T. Gawronski and Amelia Estrada really should not be defined as just 'events'. Natural Hazards Research and Applica- Particularly for those of us involved tions Information Center, University of in developing risk management app- Colorado 2000, Special Publication 36, roaches to the management of com- 43 pages, English (Spanish version munity safety risk and concerned available) about the proper ownership of the community safety risk management One of the latest in the invaluable series process, there are clearly policy of Special Reports published by NHRAIC implications in the present NHRAIC and made freely available in both hard study. copy and electronically for reproduction, this study sets out to answer a deceptively simple question-based on the expe- Reviewed by: Roger Jones, TEM Consultants Pty. riences of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador in Ltd. (f;lrmerly Director, ~ustralia" dealingwith the ENS0 event of 1997-1998 organisations charged with managing the Emergency Management Institute). (and to a lesser extent their experiences response, in all three cases responsible to with a similar event in 1982-1983): Will the highest levels of government. It Price and ordering details the governments of those countries be concludes that while there is evidence of The publication can be purchased for institutionally better prepared to deal with intra-organisational learning in all three US$10.00 plus $8.00 for shipping. the next major ENSO? countriesasaresult ofthe 1997-1998event, Two critical assumptions underlie the examples being in the ministries of health Orders should be directed to: study, that institutional readiness to deal and in various scientific offices, there The Publications Clerk with disaster is a political and policy issue remain major problems at the level of inter- Natural Hazards Research and Appli- rather than primarily technical or ad- organisational and multi-sectoral coordi- cations Information Center ministrative issues, and that disasters nation. Campus Box 482 themselves are innately political events Thus there is a likelihood of continuing University of Colorado because of the enormous demands, multi- marginalisation of the nominal 'national Boulder CO 8309-0482 sectoral coordination requirements and emergency organisations' in future major Phone: 303 492 6819 decision-making stresses they impose on events. Fax: 303 492-2151 governments. The study recalls Quaran- Factors identified as contributing to this Email: [email protected] telli's 1987 analysis in which he noted that situation include national institutional The publication is also available from the accidents and emergencies are typically elements such as short-term political 'horizons' in planning for the future and Natural Hazards Center Web site at: dealt with by emergency services but www.colorado.edulhazards1splsp.html disasters and catastrophes require higher- the lack of permanent civil service struc- The report can be viewed on-line or level coordination with all its political and tures which can provide for administrative downloaded in Microsoft Word 97 or PDF policy implications, and suggests that in stability and organisational 'memory'. furmat. the case of all three countries the ENS0 However, and given the study's chosen unit event of 1997-1998 broke through the ofanalysis, the civil defence organisations A Spanish version is also available in print emergencyldisaster 'firebreak'. themselves are seen to a considerable or on-line from: The study's selected unit of analysis is extent as contributors to their own lack of The Regional Disaster Information Center the civil defence organisations in the three success. for Latin America and the Caribbean countries, which in each case was nomi- Traditionally, such organisations have (CRID) at: nally the 'national emergency organi- tended to be event-oriented, focussed http:llwww.crid.or.cr or sation',and examined the roles they played primarily on preparedness and response, http:llwww.crid.or.crlcridlENGlNEWSl in the 1997-1998 event. Its principal and limited in capability in dealing with not7.htm finding is that at the outset of that event, as major events. Perhaps more critically, it was perceived that the 'firebreak' had however, they are generally seen as having Reproduction and distribution of this been breached, these organisations were low political salience and as only mar- publication is permitted and encouraged, rapidly pushed to the sidelines by one or ginally relevant, if that, to the needs of with acknowledgment. more new but temporary governmental governments having to deal with the

Summer 2001 risbane - Gladstone transport entification of risk and vulnerability for the bulk transport of dangerous goods

Introduction: the hazard facilities is generally through the north- With the ever-increasing variety and by lmphne R.W. Childs School of eastern part of the Brisbane metropolitan quantity of chemicals used by indus- area. Under a policy established by Humanities and Social Sciences, QUT; trialised societies, communities continue Queensland Transport, dangerous goods to face risks of injury from hazmat Ralph D. Carlisle, CHEM Unit, road transport northbound from these (hazardous materials) emergencies. This Qld. Dept. of Emergency Services; areas is directed to the Gateway Motorway is despite the implementation and Peter A. Hasting, School of Humanities which passes to the east of the metro- continual improvement of regulatory and and Social Sciences, QUT politan area to connect with the Bruce technological systems for the safe manage- Highway at its commencement in the ment of hazardous materials. Of particular northern suburb of Bald Hills. From here concern in the context of public exposure the road passes through the populous to hazardous chemicals is their release community for dealing with the adverse Sunshine Coast hinterland. The current during transportation. Along transport event. alignment of the Highway by-passes many routes this may result from an accident The Brisbane to Gladstone towns and villages through which it involving one or more vehicles carrying previously passed directly, but it still transport corridor dangerous goods, or from failure of comes within one or two hundred metres Brisbane and Gladstone, located some 600 of residential areas at some locations, e.g. containment systems due to factors such km apart on the east-coast of Queensland, as inadequate equipment or loading are the two major heavy industrial centres Nambour. At the small cities of Gympie procedures. of the state. Both have significant and Maryborough, the Highway skirts the Public risk from transport-related chemical industries. Brisbane has two oil CBD but passes through, or adjacent to, hazmat emergencies relates to a variety of refineries and two fertiliser works. residential areas. In several small towns, factors, including the hazardous properties Gladstone has two cyanide manufacturing such as Childers, the Highway becomes of the chemicals involved and the likeli plants (at nearby Yarwun), an alumina the main street of the settlement. The hood of potential exposure to the chemi- refinery and an aluminium smelter. In Highway passes some 40 km west of km cals. The latter is significantly determined addition to these major hazard facilities, Bundaberg and 20 west of Gladstone by the environmental conditions under which use large quantities of hazardous with feeder roads providing access to which the transport is conducted and the chemicals, both cities host numerous those cities. geography of population and settlement. other industries that use and store The rail link Experience shows that the great majority hazardous materials. The potential of From the Brisbane CBD, the North Coast of such hazmat emergencies are minor, using and transporting dangerous goods railway extends through northern suburbs with effects limited to the immediate throughout the region must, however, be and near-northern townships, before vicinity. In a small number of cases, balanced against the many economic, proceeding through the Sunshine Coast however, the surrounding community has employment and other benefits that hinterland and passing through the major been placed at risk, or could readily have accrue from the development of these towns and cities en route to Gladstone been so had circumstances (e.g. location, facilities. (Map I). Because it was a historical focus time, weather conditions) been slightly Transport of dangerous goods1 bet- for growth, the North Coast rail line passes different. ween these two centres utilises both road through the heart of most cities, towns and The aim of this paper is the initial (the Bruce Highway, National Route I) and villages which lie on its route. consideration of levels of risk and vulnera- rail (the North Coast railway). For much bility relating to potential hazmat emer- of the corridor, the road and the rail line Dangerous Goods transport gencies from the transport of bulk closely parallel each other, often within along the corridor dangerous goods along the Brisbane- one kilometre and generally less than ten There is considerable movement of Gladstone transport corridor. Geographi- kilometres apart. In one section, however, dangerous goods along the Brisbane- cal regions at risk will later be used in a between Maryborough and Gladstone, Gladstone corridor, either for use in those more detailed assessment of vulnerability they follow very different routes and can centres or for destinations beyond. Much within selected communities, building of this transportation is in bulk loads. For be up to 40 km apart (Map I). upon some initial comments made in this example, travelling northwards are petrol paper. Community vulnerability is defined The road link (flammable liquid), liquefied petroleum here in accordance with Young (1998) as The major chemical industries in Bris- gas (flammable gas), liquefied ammonia 'the coping capacity of those at risk'. This bane are located to the east of the city at Notes is a function of factors such as the the mouth of the Brisbane River with other important concentrations in sout- 1. The term 'dangerous goods' is used in relation to demography and socio-economic status chemicals considered lo be sufficiently hazardous to of the community which may be affected hern and south-western suburbs. Trans- require regulation of their transportailon under the and the level of preparedness within the port of goods northwards from these Australian Dangerous Goods Code (the ADG Code).

Australian Journal of Emergency Management (toxic gas) and molten sulfur (flammable) ? THE BRISBANE-GLADSTONE in bulk tankers (often 20,000 litres capa- TRANSPORT CORRIDOR city) as well as liquefied chlorine (toxic gas), concentrated hydrochloric acid (corrosive) and compressed hydrogen (flammable gas) in smaller containers. In the southward direction, sodium cyanide (toxic solid) is carried in briquette form in lBCs (Intermediate Bulk Containers of 1 cum capacity) and bulk tankers. Liquid fuels are also distributed southward from Gladstone. Many aspects of the transport of dangerous goods by road are already regu- lated, but there is no centralised recording of individual loads to provide a comprehensive picture of this activity. Infor- .d mation on the types, quantities and frequencies of dangerous goods loads is held by individual transport operators on a commercial basis. By contrast, comprehensive information on dangerous goods transported by rail is available through Q- Rail's centralised computer system. Kilometers Recent hazmat emergencies along the Brisbane-Gladstone corridor Incident loation Since 1992 a number of accidents, a lmamt No. Fable I) involving vehicles carrying dangerous goods, has occurred along the Brisbane- Gladstone corridor. A selection of these incidents is shown in Table 1 and their locations are shown on Map 1. The Map 1 :The Brisbane-Gladstonetransport corridor outcomes of these accidents ranged from no loss of containment of the dangerous goods through to loss of the major part of the load leading to a fire or the generation of a toxic gas plume. Four drivers andlor Se~t1992 Nambour Ill. . Collision between no loss of nil passengers have been killed as a result of LPG tanker and containment these accidents over the seven year period. ethanol tanker (road) No significant injury or death to the public Nov 1992 Yandina (2) Rollover of semi-trailer fire; e~.plosIoi?~ driver killed with large load of resulting In gas and has occurred, but outcomes could have compressed gas cylinders being Incinerated been more serious in at least two cases cylinders (road) projected large had circumstances been slightly different, distances as the following examples show. June 1994 Gunalda (3) Derailment of spill of petrol; petrol tanker (rail) fire Yandina, 1992 July 1995 Caloundra Rollover of petrol spill of petrol; fire driver killed A truck accident occurred less than a turnoff (4) lanker (road) and hundred metres from houses and a incinerated I caravan park. The resultant fire caused 0ci 1996 Murarrie (5) Rollover of anhydrous release of ammonia; 2 minor injuries ammonia tanker en route toxic gas plume from ammonia numerous compressed gas cylinders in to Gladstone (road) exposure the truck's load to explode and debris was projected in excess of a hundred metres ~uly1998 North of Gymple Colllslon between petrol spill of petrol; away. Minor differences in the trajectories (6) tanker and car (road) posslbillty of (Ire by impact of projectiles could have caused casualties. Jan 1999 Near Wallaville Collision resulting In no release of Injuries from Had the truck been carrying hulk LPG, (7) rollover of anhydrous ammonia impact ammonia tanker (road) there could have been the potential for a major BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding Feb 1999 Gympie (8) Semi-traller carrying Major spill of paint Nil paint rolled over on inlo river vapour explosion) to have occurred. banks of Mary River (road) Murrarie, 1996 Mar 1999 Glenwood (9) Fire in truck carrying Rre Nil calcium nitrate fertilizer A Gladstone-bound ammonia tanker I travelling through Murrarie, an eastern Table 1 :Selected hazmat tmnsporiation incidents involving bulk or large loads of dangerous goods along Ule suburb of Brisbane, overturned and Brisbane-Gladstone corridor, 1992-1999. ruptured resulting in the release of some

Summer 2001 12 tonnes of liquid ammonia which hypothetical emergency scenarios sup- Level of emergency response rapidly boiled away to form a toxic gas ports the conclusion that an impact resources plume. Fortunately, the atmospheric radius of hundreds of metres can be A major hazmat emergency requires conditions prevailing at the time allowed expected4. appropriate responses by Police, Fire, the plume to rise quickly into the Population potentially exposed Ambulance, Local Government and atmosphere and disperse. The nearest probably medical and hospital personnel. residential area was about one kilometre Large sections of the Bruce Highway traverse open country with no permanent In the Brisbane metropolitan area these away from the accident scene and there resources are readily available. In larger was no significant public exposure. Had settlements and therefore risk to public safety is limited to isolated homesteads urban centres along the route they may the accident occurred closer to a built- be all available, but to a relatively limited up area and had stable atmospheric and passing traffic, and to the environment (creeks, soils, etc.). extent. In small centres not all these conditions (e.g. a cold, still night) held resources may be available, and what is the ammonia plume at ground level, Larger population centres may be at greater risk from a hazmat emergency available may be very restricted in numerous casualties from exposure to capability. ammonia gas might have resulted. because of (i) the longer distances traversed by the dangerous goods within Risk and vulnerability along the Risk factors and vulnerability their built-up areas and (ii) the greater Brisbane-Gladstone corridor With the resultant expected increase in the population density within the impact Qualitative consideration of the combi- quantity of chemicals passing along the radius. While, by this logic, smaller centres nation of these factors along the corridor commensurate with projected may be at lesser risk, they may be less Brisbane-Gladstone corridor suggests population2 and industrial growth3 in able to cope with a bazmat emergency several levels of potential risk and Southern and Central Queensland, there is because of the lower levels of emergency vulnerability for the hazards associated a need to assess risks and community response resources available locally and with the bulk transport of dangerous vulnerability associated with the bulk the need to rely on resources from goods for given geographical regions. transport of dangerous goods along the further afield. For this reason, attention Brisbane-Gladstone corridor. While the must be given both to sections of the Brisbane metropolitan area probability of a catastrophic accident is highway that pass through, or adjacent to The Gateway Motorway is a dual- very low, the consequences of such an residential zones in the larger population carriageway, high-speed (100 kmlh), accident, should it occur in a built-up area, centres, and also to smaller, more remote limited access road which passes through could be very severe. and less well-resourced settlements along or adjacent to built-up areas including In a community risk and vulnerability the corridor. residential suburbs such as Bracken analysis ofthis hazard, factors which would Ridge. The consequences of a major need to be considered include: the nature Local geography and hazmat emergency along the Motorway of goods being transported; frequency and highway conditions would be severe because of the levels of amounts of transport; population poten- Geographic characteristics and the population potentially exposed within the tially exposed; socio-economic charac- condition of roads can increase the identified risk zone. The severity of an teristics of communities; impact radius likelihood of a traffic accident occurring emergency could be moderated, however, of potential hazmat emergencies; local at any particular location or time, which by the high level of emergency response geographic characteristics; highway could lead to a hazmat event and the resources available in the Brisbane area. conditions and levels of emergency potential flow of hazardous materials into the atmosphere. These can include the Near-northern corridor resources and community preparedness. From Bald Hills to Nambour-Yandina, the An evaluation of potential levels of risk following: terrain and drainage characteristics Bruce Highway is a dual carriageway, high and vulnerability along the Highway has speed road which passes adjacent to a been attempted as a first step in the process prevailing weather conditions higher speed limits series of rapidly growing residential areas of selecting locations for more detailed - such as Burpengary and Caboolture. While analysis. Initial consideration of some of single carriageway (as opposed to dual carriageway) the overall populations potentially ex- these factors are outlined below in the posed within the risk zones in these context of the study area. intersections or entrance ramps - highway alignmentlsharp bends5 localities may be less than for the lmpad radius of potential hazmat In the event of a hazmat incident, these metropolitan area, the levels of emergency emergencies same factors can also affect emergency response resources are commensurately The impact radius of a hazmat emergency response and levels of community disrup- less, thus tending to increase community represents the distance over which there tion. vulnerability. may be effects on people or the environment. Events that are likely to have the Notes the air sufficient lo cause injury by inhalation up to a largest impact radius are fireslexplosions 2. Monitoring BrLcbane and the South Easl Queensland radius of 900m. In stable atmospheric mndillms. and toxic gas releases. For such events, Region, (1998) Australian Housing and Urban Researh 5. Apart from some minor road options, there Is little the emergency services are advised to lnstltute (AHURI). scope for reducing risk to communities from dangerous 3. Planned developments indude a new alumina refinery goods transport along the corridor by uslng alternative consider evacuation of people for dis- at Gladstone and a magnesium production facility at routes. Where altemauves do exist, they usually entail a tances of up to 1500 metres in all direc- Rockhampton, about one hour's drive north of lower grade of road and/or pass through addltlonal tions (Standards Association of Australia Gladstone. settlements. Their use could arguably Increase the overall 1997). For the present analysis, built-up 4. Computer modelling indicates that a BLEVE (boiling risk. Continuation of the strategy of building bypass areas within 1500 metres of the road are llquld expanding vapour exploslon) of a 14 tonne LPG roads around population centres would generally be tanker would have iniurious thermal effects wllhin a effective in reducing the risk lo communllles considered to be within the impact raa us ol 240 metres A leak rate of 0 25 tonne p~r 6 For disaster plann ng p.rposes Q.eenslana is d wdea radius. Quantitative modelling of relevant m nute lrom an annydms ammon a contentrat on n .nto Dsaster Dstr N wnicn Lsua.ly cons st of several

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management Regional cities and major towns rapid and, consequently, warning time for emergency service operatives, as those At the regional centres of Gympie and evacuations is most likely to be minimal who would have primary responsibility Maryborough the Bruce Highway by- or non-existent. Public warning systems, for dealing with local emergencies and passes the CBD but still passes through such as may be implemented within disasters. residential suburbs for a considerable coastal communities aimed at reducing References vulnerability to flood or cyclone damage, distance. For example, in Gympie, this Erkut E. and Verter V. 1995, 'A Framework are of little assistance in the case of distance is 10 kilometres, largely of single for Hazardous Materials Transport Risk carriageway at speeds of 60 or 80 kmlh potential chemical hazards. Thus, in Assessment', Risk Assessment, Vol. 15, No. terms of community vulnerability, one is with numerous intersections adjacent to 5,pp. 589-601. dealing basically with questions of the suburban shopping centres and com- Hunter C. 1996, 'A new approach to capacity of the community, in particular mercial strip development. The conse- emergency management education and quences of a major hazmat emergency at the resources of the emergency services, training in Australia', Australian Journal any of these intersections could be severe to evacuate post-event and to cope with of Emergency Management, Spring, pp.12- and the availability of resources in such potential casualties and injuries resulting 19. primarily from the effects of fire, blast or smaller centres may be limited. Quarantelli E.L. 1984,'Chemical Disaster toxic gas release. Preparedness at the Local Community Small towns and settlements While the availability of physical Level', Journal of Hazardous Materials, No. From Yandina north the Bruce Highway resources is an important factor, the 8,pp. 239-249. is largely single carriageway with small effectiveness of such resources can towns and settlements dotted along it Standards Association of Australia 1997, largely be determined by the quality of Dangerous Goods: Initial Emergency between the major centres. In some cases emergency preparedness and planning at the road passes through the centre of the Response Guide HB76, Sydney. the local level. Preparedness and counter- Young E. 1998,'Dealing with hazards and settlement with a reduction in the speed disaster planning begins from the point disasters: risk perception and community limit (e.g. Childers), while in others it of perception of risk. Current research is passes near residential areas at the edge participation in management', Australian examining these issues and other relevant Journal ofEmergency Management, Winter, of town without a reduction in speed limit local parameters in a selection of centres pp.14-16. (e.g. Cooroy). In such locations thesmaller representing localities at varying levels of population may reduce the potential risk and vulnerability. Focus group Acknowledgments severity of a major hazmat emergency but discussions with key personnel in Disas- local resources to deal with it would The support of the following in conducting this ter District Control Groups6 are yielding research Is gratefully a&owledged: probably be inadequate. Such smaller valuable data on perception of risk and centres have lower levels of emergency .the Queensiand Department of Emergency local resources and conditions. The Se~ices,theQueensland Fire and Rescue Authority, response resources and would have to rely community vulnerability assessment the Queensland Ambulance Service and the on resources from the nearest larger includes activities related to the five-stage Chemical Hazards and Emergenry Management centre some distance away, resulting in (CHEM) Unlt for support in principle and access to methodology outlined by Hunter (1996) information; delayed response time and increasing which is set within an emergency risk vulnerability. .Ms Janeiie Queich, formerly Scientific Advlsor, management framework in the Australian CHEM Unit for conducting computer modelling of Towards assessing community context'. Description of the hazard and scenarios. analysis of its interaction with the vulnerability .Rod McGee for review comments on the The above analysis is a first step in the community is being achieved through the manuscript. assessment of community vulnerability use of scenario setting and application to to the transport of dangerous goods from the particular environmental conditions Brisbane-Gladstone. The relative vulnera- of geographical regions identified above. bility of different communities is not Assessment of risk perception focuses on adequately measured simply by parameters such as location ofroute or population size, but must also take into account community preparedness and resilience European Master in Disaster Medicine in the recovery phase. In the case of chemical disasters, the The European Master in Disaster Medidne is intended - participate In planning for disaster preparedness speed of onset of the hazard is usually to provide patiidpants with a dear pldure of current b rectihemed~~lres~nseteamin~seofdlsanerr concepts and developments in the medical - organire- and manage. evaluauon and debriefing . management of disasters and will be based on: sessions self study provide introduflion and awareness to disaster Local Government Areas. The Disaster Distrifl Control - the writing and defence of a dissertation or a management for medical response teams Group is usually chaired by a dlstrlfl Police OMcer, and research project paper Includes representatives from Fire. Ambulance, local - interactive lectures and debates The duration of the Master is one academic year, medical services, SES and local government. - practical exerdses indudlngthree consecutive weeks of an interactive 7. HUIIBI'S (1996) model includes several stages of simulation exercises live-in course in the CEMEC in San Marino. rlsk evaluation and assessment: (I) description of the wrinen and om1 evaluaUon followed by interactive hazard, the community, the environment and the assessment Ulrough Internet The Master will bescheduled for the Academic year emergency services; (ii) analysis of interafllon between 2000/2001. the hazard, the communitv. the environment and the At the end of the course we expect participants to emergency services, (MIassessment 01 community tisk be able to: Further Information is available from Ule website at: perception. (uj ranklng 01 vulneraD.lllles, and tul evaluaterisk www.dismedrnaster.com comparison of rlsk to existing risk olteria I I

Summer 2001 Direct and vicarious experience- of volcanic hazards: implications for risk perception and adjustment adoption

Introduction standing the dynamics of personal risk While the direct effect of volcanic hazard by Douglas Paton, School of Psychology, perception and adjustment adoption. activity is generally immutable, some of Massey University, Palmerston North; the emergent social, economic and David M. Johnston, Institute of Geological Longitudinal assessment of hazard physical consequences are amenable to and Nuclear Sciences, Taupo; Mark 5. impact reduction through the adoption of risk Bebbington, Statistics, Institute of Several studies have measured percep- reduction behaviour and adjustments Information Sciences and Technology, tions of volcanic hazards and risk either (e.g. storing food and drinking water, Massey University, Palmerston Norlh; during periods of quiescence at a volcano purchasing insurance). Consequently, (D'Ercole, Rancon & Lesales 1995; John- Chin-Diew Lai, Statistics, institute of determining the precursors of these ston & Houghton 1995; Perry 1990; Ponter, reduction activities is an important issue. Information Sciences and Technology, Doorman & Feist 1993) or after a volcanic A key focus in this area has been on risk Massey University, Palmerston North; and crisis (Kartez 1982; Saarinen & Sell 1985; perception and its implications for Bruce F. Houghton, Department of Yoshii 1992). While such studies provide reduction. Despite the intuitive appeal of Geologyand Geophysics, valuable information, the lack of pre-event their being a link between perceived risk University of Hawaii. data makes it difficult to assess the specific and adjustment adoption, this may not ...... - .. -~ role of experience in forging beliefs about always be justified, even when a hazard is risk or changing behaviour. For example, well understood (Burger & Palmer 1992; While resilient capacity must also be when relying on post-event comparisons, Lindell & Whitney 2000; Mulilis & Duval developed at community and institutional particularly when data is derived from self- 1995). levels, understanding the mechanisms that report public surveys, findings could be Two issues that affect interpretation of underpin individual adjustment adoption biased by over-representation of those data in this context are the timing of its is important in areas vulnerable to with appropriate beliefs or who engage in assessment and the nature of personal potentially destructive earthquake and appropriate behaviour to start with. While hazard experience. Hazards can be volcanic hazards. The potential disruption longitudinal analysis does not eliminate experienced directly or vicariously (e.g. to utilities and social institutions from this potential sampling bias, it does where individuals are aware of hazard hazard activity means that residents in provide a more objective basis for activity in other parts of the country but affected areas must be capable of meeting assessing the specific influence of an event are not themselves directly affected). essential needs for several days. High levels on beliefs and behaviour. Although little work has been done to test of personal and household adjustment A survey of hazard perceptions was this possibility for infrequently occurring adoption is also required to minimise conducted in two communities prior to natural hazards, some authors have damage and costs (e.g. insurance) resul- the 1995 eruption (Johnston 1997). By suggested that vicarious experience can ting from hazard activity (e.g. minor comparing post-event responses with influence risk perception (Sjoberg 2000). shaking or ashfall) capable of, for example, similar data obtained prior to the eruption Others have argued that only direct toppling furniture, disrupting hot water it was possible to more objectively experience is influential (Lindell & Perry systems, or blocking air conditioning units. determine the specific influence of this 1992). Assessing the capabilities of These initiatives also aim to encourage event on hazard knowledge, risk percep- indirect or vicarious experience is insurance adoption to reduce subsequent tion, and preparedness. By conducting this important for several reasons. For financial demands on households from analysis in two communities (one of example, because volcanic ash fall can, repairing or replacing items destroyed or which was not directly affected) it was depending on meteorological conditions, damaged. possible to explore the implications of affect communities that are some dis- This paper compares the role of direct both direct and vicarious experience for tance from the source of the hazard, and vicarious hazard experience on risk these parameters. indirect or vicarious experience could perception and adjustment adoption. It Because communities can be vulnerable provide a valuable means of generating focuses on the role of the 1995 Ruapheu to several hazards, a core facet of contem- awareness of the kinds of effects that eruption, but also draws upon a study of porary emergency management is the people need to prepare for. The rarity of the effectiveness of a public information need for intervention to be applicable with hazard activity and the fact that most campaign (the Auckland survey). Risk across all hazards. Consequently, a salient hazard education occurs during periods perception and preparedness were issue for emergency managers concerns of hazard quiescence makes it important examined before the campaign was the generalisability of hazard beliefs. If to test whether vicarious hazard expe- conducted and then again some 6 weeks people group similar classes of experience rience or risk communication initiatives afterwards (Ballantyne, Paton, Johnston, together, experience of one hazard (e.g. can positively influence risk perception Kozuch & Daly 2000). Although focusing volcanic eruption) could lead to improve- and adjustment in a manner that increases on volcanic hazards, the findings have ments in hazard beliefs and preparedness resilience to hazard effects. more general implications for under- for other salient hazards (e.g. earthquakes)

Australian Journal of Emergency Management (Sjoberg 2000; Spedden 1998). By examining perception of risk attributed to a Hastings Whakatane range of hazards, it was also possible to 27,000 14,000 examine the efticacy of this process. llOh SE 190h NE Contrasting communities The characteristics and hazard experience 1931 (magnitude Z2) 1987 (magnitude 6.2) of the communities discussed in this 93 deaths paper, Hastings and Whakatane, are Minor ash fall 7-8on ash described in Table 1. Comparisons 1896 1886 between the two communities should be treated cautiously because they are 1948 100 deaths subject to different magnitudes and 1975 frequency of hazards. They do, however, 2mm ash No ash have broadly similar hazard histories and both have experienced impacts from 11% 26% historic earthquake and volcanic hazard activity. The major difference between these 60% 75% communities, from the perspective of this paper, concerned the fact that Hastings was exposed to ash fall from the 1995 Table 1:The hazard histories and characteristics of the experience of the 1995 eruption of Ruapehu volcano eruption, while Whakatane was not. This in Hasting and Whakatane difference was used to frame questions regarding the influence of direct and vicarious experience respectively on Hastings Whakatane residents threat knowledge and percep- N 96 N % tions of risk from volcanic hazards, and 216 48 203 45 how each type of experience influenced November 1995 99 46 102 50 hazard adjustment adoption. Awareness, risk and preparation Eruption activity occurred over an 8-9 Table 2:The hazard histories and characteristics of the experience of the 1995 eruption of Ruapehu volano week period. Such sustained activity in Hasting and Whakatane provided a substantial period of time within which information could be obtained, beliefs tested, and adjustments of volcanic activity to personal safety and Method adopted. In order to attribute risk to a to daily life (i.e. residents perception of A survey assessing individuals' hazard hazard, awareness of hazard activity and the likelihood of volcanic ash fall causing knowledge, risk perceptions and actual its threat potential is an essential precur- disruption to their work, leisure activities and perceived preparedness was adminis- sor. Threat knowledge and risk perception or property) (Lindell 1994). In order to tered first in March 1995 and then again have been linked to hazard salience, level examine the role of experience within an in November to establish the immediate of past activity and contact with hazard all-hazards framework (i.e. whether influence of the 1995 Ruapehu eruption information sources (Lindell 1994; Lindell experience of the effects of one hazard on these parameters. & Whitney 2000; Perry & Lindell 1990). influenced beliefs regarding others), The survey was initially distributed to These factors were used to guide the perception of the risk attributed to 450 households in each centre. The rates selection of the variables discussed here. earthquakes as a result of exposure to of return of the questionnaire and the Both towns have a history of vulnerability volcanic hazard effects was also examined. sample sizes are described in Table 2. Of to volcanic hazards and have experienced Next, the influence of each type of those who completed the first survey 50% damageandash fall (Table I) from historic experience on preparation was examined. in Whakatane and 45% in Hastings eruptions (Johnston 1997), allowing the The relationship between the above completed the second. inference of a comparable degree of variables and adjustment adoption is Data were analysed using the ANU sign hazard salience. Both had comparable more complex. While this link has been test. A significant proportion of the levels of access to media coverage (regar- described in several studies (Perry & respondents did not change their mind ding ash falland its effects) ofthe eruption Lindell 1990), more recent studies have between the two surveys and hence there and to information from local emergency suggested caution in assuming this are many tied observations. management offices (Table I). relationship (Lindell & Whitney 2000). There are many sign tests that deal with Threat knowledge was measured by Here, residents were asked if, in regard to ties, but the sign test of Putter (1995) was assessing knowledge of local eruption any natural hazards, they had adopted recommended by Coakley and Heise history and, in particular, ash thickness. adjustments such as purchasinginsurance, (1996) after different procedures were The importance of this information lies planning evacuation routes, obtaining a reviewed and compared. with its role as a guide to what could battery powered radio, and having sup- This test is the uniformly most power- happen and what protective measures plies of food and water. Respondents levels ful (UMP), and perfarmsvery well in most could be necessary. Risk perceptions were of perceived preparedness were also settings, even when the sample size is assessed in terms of the perceived threat assessed. small.

Summer 2001 Results Threat knowledge I Hastings Whakatane I Threat knowledge was measured using I re post Pre Post the proportion of respondents indicating I an accurate knowledge of ash fall from previous eruptions (Table 3). Prior to the 1995 eruption, 19% of Whakatane respondents identified the correct range. This Table 3: Percentage of respondents with accurate knowledge dropped to 15% following the eruption of eruption history (ash thickness) (Table 3). The vicarious experience of Whakatane residents neither affected their knowledge of ash thickness nor Hastings Whakatane encouraged the search for information Pre Post Pre Post about the nature or extent of hazard effects (despite their having more access 3.75 3.15 (p

Australian Journal of Emergency Management in risk attributed to earthquake hazards Hastlngs Whakatane even though both are objectively salient Pre Post Pre Post hazards. A similar trend was evident in Whakatane. 3.00 3.41 lpc0.000) While these data indicate that experience of one kind of hazard activity can I= strongly agree - 5 =strongly disagree have cross-over effects on beliefs regarding I I others, the nature of the relationship was Table 6: Rlsk perception: Do you think the volanic threat to the region is overrated? contrary to expectations. From the data available, it is not possible to determine the duration of this effect. These data suggest that more research is required to Hastlngs Whakatane elucidate the processes that underpin the issue of risk sensitivity (Sjoberg 2000), and ;;;t ;;; its implications. For example, with respect 1 1 to risk communication within an all- hazards framework, if the operation of a compensatory mechanism is confirmed, Table 7: Preparedness: Proportion undertaking protective it will be necessary to frame communi- measures I%) cation in ways that does'not link behaviour to a specific hazard. It also raises the possibility that community responsiveness Hastlngs Whakatane to natural hazard issues will be sensitive to Pre Post Pre Post the salience of other societal events. For example, an increase in the salience of 3.24 2.94 (pCO.000) 3.03 2.73 (pCO.000) social 'hazards' such as crime, economic 3.43 3.1 3 (pO.000) 3.17 3.04 (pC0.05) adversity, or unemployment, could lessen the perceived importance of natural 2.60 2.19 (pCO.000) 2.30 2.20 (p = 0.219) hazard issues. While additional work is required to elucidate this issue, this 1= very prepared - 4 =not prepared at ail I possibility suggests that hazard reduction and readiness initiatives could benefit Tabe 8: Perceived preparedness at personal, community and local government levels from inclusion within community development programmes. The fact that vicarious experience of provision of information not result in the an actual eruption did not influence these desired changes in hazard beliefs, it also Vicarious experience and adjustment beliefs raises questions about the effec- resulted in some 28% of respondents adoption tiveness of risk communication initia- reporting that they were less concerned In regard to the effect of direct and tives undertaken during periods of about volcanic hazards, the opposite of vicarious experience on adjustment hazard quiescence. It can be inferred from what was intended. When faced with adoption and perceived preparedness, the this that, during quiescent periods, hazard issues about which they have little situation is more complex. In Hastings, salience will be lower, lessening the knowledge, people may infer responsi- despite improved hazard awareness and likelihood of information or advice being bility for protection to those they perceive risk perception, the proportion of respon- attended to. This possibility was tested in as having the requisite expertise (in this dents making adjustments (given that the the Auckland survey of the effectiveness case the agencies responsible for the eruption continued for 8-9 weeks) such of a volcanic hazard public information public information campaign). Mulilis as planningevacuation routes, purchasing programme (Ballantyne, et al. 2000). The and Duval (1995) and Lindell and Whit- insurance, storing food, water, torch, radio efficacy of this form of vicarious expe- ney (2000) concluded that attributing and spare batteries dropped following the rience was assessed by comparing responsibility for personal safety to others eruption. In Whakatane the proportion knowledge and beliefs of 405 respondents would result in a reduction in adjustment stayed the same. While having a substan- prior to and after the campaign. N o adoption. tial majority prepared may seem to significant change in awareness of A secondary objective of this paper indicate reasonable levels of prepared- volcanic threat (pre: x=0.88; post: x=1.08, concerned the examination of the poten- ness, caution in the interpretation ofthese t = -2.02, p = 0.331) or risk perception tial for the experience of one hazard to data is required. (pre: x=1.62; post: x=1.57,t = 1.59, p = positively influence beliefs regarding The assessment of preparation in the 0.119) was found. Since most hazard others. This possibility was based on the Ruapehu study did not examine the education and reduction initiatives are assumption that people group similar validity of claims made by respondents. conducted during quiescent periods events (in this case, 'natural hazards') This is an important issue. For example, alternative strategies for education and together so that decisions and beliefs in the Auckland study, some 41% of the encouragement of adjustment adop- regarding one member of this class are respondents stated that they could tion are required. automatically applied to others (Spedden describe the list of protective actions Other findings from the Auckland 1998). InHastings theoppositewas found. described in the Civil Defence pages of survey are informative in the context of An increase in risk attributed to volcanic the Yellow Pages. When asked to do so, the present discussion. Not only did the hazards was accompanied by a decrease however, only 15% of them (i.e. only 6%

Summer 2001 of the total sample) could actually recall the assumption that a better informed a direct relationship between risk percep- them. While respondents had a better public will be a better prepared public. tion and adjustment adoption. (though still poor overall) recognition of Also ifinterest was the pattern ofresults The data discussed here illustrate the the existence of these actions, their ability in Table 8. Within each community, dynamic nature of the relationship to recall them was significantly poorer, respondents rated local government between individuals, hazard activity, and suggesting that people tend to overestimate preparation as greater than their own readiness strategies. The social environ- their knowledge and preparedness. This preparedness and theirs as greater than ment within which natural hazard reduc- is likely to lessen their attentiveness to new that of the community in general. These tion and readiness activities are conducted information and reduce their perceived data raise several issues. For example, they is not stable. Several mechanisms influence need to develop better preparedness. are consistent with the operation of an how people interpret experience, make Anecdotal (e.g. from respondents actually unrealistic optimism bias (Weinstein & decisions regarding responsibility for their checking their emergency supplies and Klein,1996; Sjoberg 2000) whereby res- protection, and develop preparedness finding that they did not posses items pondents rate themselves as less vul- beliefs and behaviour. These relationships assumed to be present) and contradictory nerable and more skilful than average. must be understood and their contingent (e.g. the number of people keeping spare Individuals may be aware of possible implications incorporated into planning batteries for torches outnumbered those shortcomings in preparedness within agenda. with torches) reports also suggests that their community, but these attributions More work needs to be done to investi- people overestimate their preparedness. do not extend to themselves. While gate how compensatory mechanisms link Self-reports regarding actual and per- individuals may appreciate a need for risk beliefs regarding different hazards and how ceived preparedness must be verified. reduction activities, they may be less these change with experience of specific Despite both direct and vicarious likely, as a consequence of the influence hazards (given that even in areasvulnerable experience resulting in respondents of differential attributions regarding to diverse hazards, not all will be experien- reporting positive shifts in perceived preparedness (i.e. they attributed greater ced at any one time). This issue has preparedness, the ratings obtained here existing preparedness to themselves), to implications for strategies designed to suggest that this remains a problematic act on warnings or participate in com- promote all-hazards preparedness. One issue. Perceived personal and community munity activities presented in public approach to countering this constraint preparedness was low both before and information campaigns. would involve incorporating risk manage- after the eruption (Table 8). While a The perceived preparedness that comment activities with community develop- significant improvement in perceived munity members attributed to local ment initiatives. While acknowledgement preparedness was observed in both government emergency management of the existence of a threat from a hazard communities, these data should be agencies (Table 8) could also reflect a remains a precursor, more research is interpreted cautiously. Despite the in- tendency of people, when dealing with required to articulate the processes that creased threat knowledge and risk hazard effects they feel they know little mediate between risk perception and perception recorded in Hastings, a about, to transfer responsibility for safety behaviour change and adjustment adop- reduction in preparatory activities was to those perceived to have greater tion. observed. In Whakatane, an improvement knowledge. Data concerning perceived in perceived preparedness was observed preparedness should thus be viewed with References despite their not recording any change in caution and the possibility that it signals Ballantyne M., Paton D., Johnston D., other parameters. Taken together, these the delegation of responsibility for safety Kozuch M. and Daly M. 2000, Information data are consistent with the operation of from themselves to emergency manage- on volcanic and earthquake hazards: the a 'normalisation' bias (Mileti & O'Brien ment agencies cannot be discounted. impact on awareness and preparation. 1993). This described how individuals Further, if perceived personal respon- Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences infer from their ability to cope with an sibility for safety is low, adjustment Limited Science Report 200012. (objectively) minor impact the ability to adoption is likely to be correspondingly Burger J.M. and Palmer M.I. 1992, cope with any future occurrence or compromised (Mululis & Duval 1995). 'Changes in and generalization of un- assume that futureevents will not exercise realistic optimism following experiences an adverse effect upon them. The ensuing Conclusion with stressful events: reactions to the 1989 increase in perceived preparedness could A number of general conclusions can be California earthquake',]ournalofPersonality result in their vulnerability to more drawn from this study. While direct and Social Psychology, No. 18, pp.39-43. exacting levels of hazard activity being experience of hazard effects heightened Coakley C.W.,HeiseM.A. 1996,'Versions increased. threat knowledge and risk perception, of the sign tests in the presence of ties', A similar picture emerged from the vicarious experience did not. If the Biometrics,Vol. 52, pp. 1242-1251. Auckland survey. The provision of occurrence of an actual eruption did not D'Ercole R., Rancon J-P. and Lesales T. information on volcanic hazards and influence threat knowledge and risk 1995,'Living close to an active volcano: protective activities failed to influence perception in residents in a community popular hazard perception in three adjustment adoption (pre: x=0.34; post: with known vulnerability to volcanic communities of North Martinique (F.W.I.)', x=0.37,t = -0.669, p = 0.447). Nor was their hazards, the likely success of reduction IUCG XXI General Assembly Abstracts, any correlation between risk perception and risk communication strategies Boulder Colorado, July 2-4th p.,B20. and adjustment adoption (r = 0.007, p = undertaken during periods of hazard johnston D.M. 1997, Physical and social 0.831). Collectively, these data reinforce quiescence is low. This conclusion was impacts of past and future volcanic the need for caution in assuming a link reinforced by the results of the Auckland eruptions in New Zealand. Unpublished between risk perception and preparation. survey which was conducted under just PhD thesis, Massey University, New This is an important issue given that most these circumstances. These findings Zealand. public education programmes operate on reiterate the need for caution in assuming Kartez J.D. 1982, 'Emergency planning

Australian Journal of Emergency Management implications of local governments' res- state-of-the-art assessment. Oak Ridge Saarinen T.F.and Sell J.L. 1985, Warnings ponses to Mount St Helens', Natural Laboratory ORNL-6609. and response to the Mount St Helens Hazard Research Working Paper 46, Mulilis J.P.and Duval T.S. 1995,'Negative eruption, State University of New York Natural hazards Research and Application threat appeals and earthquake prepared- Press, Albany. lnformation Center, Institute of Beha- ness: a person-relative-to-event (PrE) Sjoberg L. 2000,'Factors in risk percep- vioral Sciences, University of Colorado. model of coping with threat', lournal of tion', Risk Analysis, No. 20, pp. 1-11. Lindell M. K. 1994, 'Perceived Charac- Applied SocialPsychology, No. 25,pp.1319- Spedden S. E. 1998,'Risk Perception and teristics of Environmental Hazards', 1339. Coping', in The Environment and Mental International journal of Mass Emergencies Paton D. and Bishop B. 1996,'Disasters Health: A Guide for Clinicians, ed. A. and Disasters, Vol. 12, pp. 303-326. and communities: Promoting psycho- Lundberg, Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Lindell M. K. and Perry R.W. 1992, social well-being', in Psychological Aspects Associates Inc., New Jersey. Behavioral Foundations of Community of Disaster: Impact, Coping, and Inter- Weinstein N.D. and Klein W.M. 1996, Emergency Planning. Hemisphere Publi- vention, eds. D. Paton and N. Long, 'Unrealistic optimism: Present and future', shing Company, New York. Dunmore Press, Palmerston North. lournal of Social 4 Clinical Psychology, No. Lindell M.K. and Whitney D.J. 2000, Perry R.W. 1990, 'Volcanic hazard 15, pp. 1-8. 'Correlates of household seismic hazard perceptions at Mt. Shasta', The Environ- Yoshii H. 1992, 'Disaster warnings and adjustment adoption', Risk Analysis, Vol. ment Professional, No. 12, pp. 3 12-2 18. social response-the eruption of Mt 20,pp. 13-25. Perry R.W.and Lindell M.K. 1990, Living Unzen in Japan', Disaster Manafement, No. Mileti D. S. and Fitzpatrick C. 1992,'The with Mount St. Helens: human adjustment casual sequence of risk communication to volcano hazards, Washington University Authors contact details in the Parkfield earthquake prediction Press, Washington. ' Associate Professor Doug Paton experiment', Risk Analysis, Vol. 9, pp. 20- Ponter D., Doorman P.and Feist R. 1993, Deparlment: School of Psychology 28. 'Survey of attitudes and perceptions Massey University, New Zealand Mileti D.S. and O'Brien P. 1993,'Public towards the environment in the Bay of E-mail: [email protected] response to aftershock warnings', U.S. Plenty', Bay of Plenty Regional Council Geological Survey Professional Paper, No. Resource Planning Publication, No. 21. 1553-B, pp. 31-42. Putter J. 1995,'The treatment of ties in Mileti D. S. and Sorensen J. H. 1990, some nonparametric tests', Annals of Communication of emergency public Mathematical Statistics, No. 26, pp. 368- warnings: a social science perspective and 386. - A strategic research agenda for emergency management

One of the Strategies defined in the National is to have theagenda finaiised by the end of ensure that the infonation needed for risk Emergency ~anagementStrategic Plan 2000- February. It will then guide the work of the management is available to those who need 2005 is to: 'Facilitate and Set Priorities for Initiativeand be available to other research it? Directed Emergency Management Research: groups. 6. Risk assessment What is needed to help In April 2000 the National Emergency Possible research topics setout in the paper with implementation of the risk assessment Management Executive Group (NEMEG) are (here the topics are in abbreviated form): process? How to cope with the ethical, legal endorsed the development of a collaborative and political aspects of risk assessment? research program based on a cooperative 1. Emergency management apbi1iIv: What centre incorporating RMIT, ANU and EMA. is it now and what could it consist of? How 7. Unceflainty How to deal with uncertainty The Risk and Community Safety Research do emergency services contribute to the in risk and emergency management? Initiative has been established (pending final development of sustainable communities? 8. Institutional and legal change What sort agreement between the three parties) to 2. Value: What is the value of emergency of changes are likely and how can emergency develop that program. services? What sort of performance management gain from them (eg privati- One of the first tasks of the Risk and indicators should be used? sation)? How to clarify legal uncertainty where Community Safety Research Initiative is to 3. Volunteers: How do we best find, it interferes with information exchange? establish an agenda of strategic research needs motivate, keep and value volunteers? 9. Lrsentialse~ices:How to best assess and for Australian emergency management. Should emergency management try to manage the vulnerability of essential services? The Initiativeis coilecting ideas and sugges- become more or less dependent on voiun- 10. Costs ofdisasters: Making sure that the tions about what the research agenda should teerism? true costs of disasters are documented. contain. We would like you to tell us the 4. Understanding communities. Three research areas or topics you think are elements: conceptualisingcommunity safety, Contact details: important, and to indicate the order of vulnerability and resilience; community Fax: 03 9663 2517 importance. Reasons for your choice would capacity, participation and policy; and what Phone: 03 9925 327912307 beappreciated. role should the private sector have? Email: [email protected] A paper setting out some initial suggestions 5. Information management: How can an Enquiries on this process can be sent to is available from the address below, The plan "infomationculture" be built? How can we [email protected]

Summer 2001 Emergency Management Australia (EMA) has project funding to support disaster prevention and management projects during 200112002. Project proposals aimed at reducing disaster-related loss of life, property damage, and economic and social disruption in Australia are now encouraged from individuals, community groups, ememen4 Manwernent businesses, non-government organisations and agencies at all levels of government. rumralh

EMA is looking for projects that will: Projects focusing on the following themes While the maximum amount of funding improve Australia's capabilities for identified for 2001-2002 are strongly will normally be $40,000, applicants preventing or dealing with natural or encouraged: should note that in the past the average technological hazards and disasters; cost-benefit analysis of mitigation funding granted to approved projects was improve community awareness of the measures and initiatives; $16,000. To obtain further information, risks posed by natural and technological emergency management in rural and please contact Rob Cameron at EMA: hazards; remote areas of Australia; Phone: (02) 6266 5408; fax: (02) 6266 5029 focus on prevention, preparedness, understanding and assessment of com- email: [email protected] response or recovery strategies; or munity vulnerability and resilience; Proposals should be addressed to Direc- reduce the vulnerability of communities - land use planning tor Development, Emergency Manage- or essential services to natural and volunteers (2001 is the International ment Australia, PO Box 1020, Dickson ACT technological hazards. Year of the Volunteer). 2602 by 28 February 2001.

Instructions on how to submit an application for EMA Projects Program funding are available on the EMA website at www.ema.gov.au.

The main objective of this conference is to bring Contacc An Internet conference: Enterprise, risk and the all concerned in the task of disaster management Stephanie Whitham and discuss the management techniques management of uncertainty Independent Technical Conferences Ltd applied with lessons learnt from these disasters PO Box 452 Hosted by: for possible improvement. Kempston. Bedford MK43 9PL, UK White Rose Centre for Enterprise (The Universities Contact: Phone: 44 (0) 1234 854756 of Leeds. Sheffield and York) Research Forum Prof. Satyendra P Gupta Fax: 44(0) 1234841375 Topics to cover Group Leader, Civil Engineering Group www.itc-conferences.com Risk and small business failure; Risk and BlTSPilani, 333 031 innovationltechnical change; Organisational Rajasthan, lndia March 19-April6,ZWl problems in high tech environments; Business Phone: 91-01596-45073 Ext.:353 or 254 (Office) Melbourne, Australia continuity planning and the small business; 91.01596-43066 (Residence) HELP 2000- Health Emergencies in Large Innovation, technical change and risk; Social Fax: 91-01596-44183 Populations Course aspects of new technologies; Managing new Email: [email protected] technologies in an enterprise culture. www.bits-pilani.ac.in. Sponsors: As pan of the conference process, debate and lnternational Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). interaction will be facilitated through the March8-9,2001 American Red Cross, and Pan American Health provision of discussion rooms and bulletin London, Heathrow Organization boards. Fires in Trains International Seminar Contact incorporating Escape and Crash Survival Contact: lnternational Committee of the Red Cross [email protected], or Before the tragic events, which took place. GEN-SAN Help Courses [email protected] outside Paddington in the UK in 1999, it was 19, avenue de la Paix Sheffield University Management School widely thought that a train crash would not result 1202 Geneva. Switzerland 9 Mappin Street in serious fire. Since then, there has been a Phone: +4122 73028 10 Sheftield SI 4DT, UK number of incidents ion other countries with Fax: +4122 7339674 similar severe consequences. The Seminar will Email: [email protected] March5-7, ZWI cover aspects on Emergency & Disaster Planning, www.icrc.org. Pilani, Rajasthan lndia Escape and Evacuation. Human Behaviour in Email: [email protected] exercises and real life situations, Legal issues Conference on Disaster Management with and moral dilemma's and emergency Suecial Sessions on Lessons Learnt from the March 21-23,2001 Management Strategies. The Seminar will be Co- Canberra,Australia Orissa Cyclone and Gujarat-Rajasthan Drought Chaired by Mr Vic Coleman HMRl Chief Sponsors: Inspector of Railways and Mr Alan Cooksey, GDIN-2001:FourthAnnualConferenceofthc Birla Institute of Technology & science (BITS) HMRl Deputy Inspector of Railways. Global Disaster information Nehvork

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Contacr: 11 I Park Place American Society of Civil Engineers Emergency Management Australia Falls Church, VA 22046-4513 1801 Alexander Bell Drive P.O. Box 1020 Phone: 703538 1795 Reston,VA 20191-4400,ASCE Dickson, ACT 2602 Fax: 703241 5603 Phone: 703 2956169 Phone: 61 262665219 Emdil: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Fax: 61 262665029 www.iaem.com Email: [email protected] April 18-22,2001 muw.ema.gov.au1gdin -or- http:llwww.gdin April242001 Baltimore,Maryland Madrid,Spain international.org/. Sixth World Congress on Stress, Trauma Safety in Road and Rail Tunnels: Fourth Infer- and Coping MarchZB-April1,2001 nationalConferencecC tmi TradeShow Tampa, Florida Sponsor OrganisedandSponsored by: International Critical Incident Stress Foundation 22ndAnnunl Infernational Disaster Manage The lndependent Technical Conference Ltd., (ICISF) mentConference:CommandingSolutions University of Dundee Conracr: Hyatt Regency Tampa This fourth conference in the series will present Shelley Cohen Two Tampa City Center more than 80 papers during three days, in which World Coneress Coordinator. IClSF Tampa, FL 33602 experts from around the world will meet to debate Phone: (813) 225-1234 and discuss the latest ideas, philosophies and Sponsor: recommendations for safety in road and rail tun- Phone: 4107509600 Florida Emergency Medicine Foundation nels. 'Sechnical Papers will be presented in Plenary Fax: 4107509601 and Parallel Sessions. Formal Discussion Forums Email: [email protected] Conracr: each day will cover topics such as Regulation. w.icisf.org Suzanne Labb Design and Response. Tunnel Management Inter- Conference Coordinator national will be hosting a Trade Show during 2-4 April21-25,2001 Florida Emergency Medicine Foundation April alongside the conference. Dallas, Texas 3717 South Conway Road Orlando, FL 32812 Confacf: 2001 National Disasfer MedicalSysfem (NDMS) Phone: 800 766 6335 (toll free) or 407 281 7396 Stephanie Whitham Conference Far: 407 281 4407 Independent Technical Conferences Ltd PO Box 452, Kempston, Bedford MK43 9PL, UK The conference is designed to promote interaction Email: [email protected] between local, State and Federal public health wwwfcep.org Phone: 44 (0) 1234 854756 Fax: 44 (0) 1234841375 ~ractitionersand .policy , makers. The conference Audience: ww.itc-conferences.com targets practitioners from the fields of clinical EMS Personnel, EM Managers, Hospital Admini- medicine, oublic health, emergency-. medical strators. Physicians, Nurses, DMAT Personnel, Aprils-11,2001 services, mental health, veterinary medicine, law Medical ~aiilit~Administrators, and others who Cambridge University,U.K enforcement, fire service, monuarv service, play an important role in critical incidents. disaster response, emergency management and XIIth Global Warming Infernational Conference Federal, State and local specialized response Topics: and Expo (GWXII): Kyoto teams. Over 75 accredited educational sessions Los Alamos Fire, Lowes Motor Speedway Walkway Compliance Review- Year 2001 Conference will be held focussing in areas such as planning, Collapse, Wild Turkey Distillery WarehouselKen- health, medicine, counter-terrorism, tactical tools, tucky River Fire. Ybor City Historic District Fire, Sponsors: Global Warming mentoring. and communications will be featured. Bio-Terrorism Panel Discussion. Donations Con- ~dditioni,prc-conference works will be held. trol, Swift WatedFlood Rescue, Major Aviation International Program Committee and Global Disasters Warming International Center Contact Contact: NDMS March 29-30,2001 Professor Sinyan Shen 12300 Twinbrook Parkway, Suite 360 Alexandria,Virginia GWIC-USA, 22W381 - 75th Street Rockville, MD 20857 Naperville, 11.60565, USA Phone: 301 443 1167or 8008726367 Risk Assesrrnenf and Policy Association Third Phone: 630910 1551 Fax: 301 443 5146or 800872 5945 Biennial Infernational Conference Fax: 6309101561 Email: [email protected] Conracr: Email: [email protected] w.oep-ndms.dhhs.gov John M. Gleason http:IIGlobalWarming.Net RAPA Conference Apri124-25,2001 Department of Information Systems and Technology April 16-20,2001 Boston, Massachusetts College of Business Administration Tokyo, Japan CPM (Confingency PlanningandManagementJ Creighton Universit 2001 Omaha. NE68178 SecondInlemafionalCivilEngineen'ngConference Phone: 402 2802624 in the Asian Region Sponsor: Email: [email protected] Organiser: Contingency Planning and Management Magazine wkw.fplc.edultfieldlrapa.htm Asian Civil Engineering Coordinating Council Conracr: March30-April3,2001 One of three conference tracks is 'Sustainable Alicia LoVerso Emmitsburh Maryland Development, with Emphasis on Natural Hazard Conference Coordinator Reduction.' WPC Expositions International Associafion ofErnergency 84 Park Avenue, For more informarion: Managers" (IAEM) ZOO1 Mid-YearMeefinx Flemington, NI 08822 National Emergency Training Cenfer www02.u-pageso-net.ne.jpltg7lcecarl or Phone: 9087880343,ext. 154 Contact: conract: Fax: 908 7889381 l AEM Noel Raufaste www.ContingencyPlanExpo.com