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Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance in Construction Bookkeepers Contents Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance In Construction Bookkeepers Contents 1 Cognitive dissonance 1 1.1 Relationship between cognitions ..................................... 1 1.1.1 Magnitude of dissonance ..................................... 1 1.2 Reducing ................................................. 1 1.3 Theory and research ........................................... 2 1.3.1 Belief disconfirmation paradigm ................................. 2 1.3.2 Induced-compliance paradigm .................................. 2 1.3.3 Free-choice paradigm ...................................... 3 1.3.4 Effort justification paradigm ................................... 3 1.4 Examples ................................................. 4 1.4.1 “The Fox and the Grapes” .................................... 4 1.4.2 Other related phenomena ..................................... 4 1.5 Applications of research ......................................... 5 1.5.1 Education ............................................. 5 1.5.2 Therapy .............................................. 5 1.5.3 Promoting healthy and pro-social behavior ............................ 5 1.5.4 Consumer behavior ........................................ 5 1.5.5 Social engineering ........................................ 6 1.6 Challenges and alternative theories .................................... 6 1.6.1 Self-perception theory (Bem) .................................. 6 1.6.2 Balance theory (“P-O-X” Theory) (Heider) ........................... 7 1.6.3 Cost-benefit analysis (Dupuit) .................................. 7 1.6.4 Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins) ................................ 7 1.6.5 Averse consequences vs. inconsistency (Cooper & Fazio) .................... 8 1.6.6 Free-choice paradigm criticism (Chen et al.) ........................... 8 1.6.7 Action and/or motivation based model (Harmon-Jones) ..................... 8 1.7 Neuroscience findings ........................................... 8 1.8 Modeling in neural networks ....................................... 9 1.9 See also .................................................. 9 i ii CONTENTS 1.10 References ................................................ 10 1.11 Further reading .............................................. 13 1.12 External links ............................................... 13 2 Motivation 14 2.1 Types of theories and models ....................................... 14 2.2 Psychological theories ........................................... 14 2.2.1 Rational motivations ....................................... 14 2.2.2 Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation ....................... 14 2.2.3 Behaviorist theories ....................................... 15 2.2.4 Push and pull ........................................... 17 2.2.5 Self-control ............................................ 18 2.2.6 Drives ............................................... 18 2.2.7 Drive-reduction theory ...................................... 18 2.2.8 Cognitive dissonance theory ................................... 18 2.2.9 Content theories .......................................... 19 2.2.10 Temporal motivation theory .................................... 20 2.2.11 Achievement motivation ..................................... 20 2.2.12 Cognitive theories ......................................... 21 2.2.13 Models of behavior change .................................... 22 2.2.14 Thematic Apperception Test ................................... 22 2.2.15 Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory ........................ 22 2.2.16 Attribution theory ......................................... 22 2.2.17 Approach versus avoidance .................................... 23 2.3 Practical applications ........................................... 23 2.3.1 Employee motivation ....................................... 23 2.3.2 Drugs Use and Abuse ....................................... 24 2.3.3 Education ............................................. 24 2.3.4 Business .............................................. 26 2.3.5 Games ............................................... 27 2.4 See also .................................................. 28 2.5 References ................................................. 28 2.6 Further reading .............................................. 32 2.7 External links ............................................... 33 3 Effort justification 34 3.1 Theory and research ............................................ 34 3.2 Implications ................................................ 34 3.3 Competing views ............................................. 34 CONTENTS iii 3.4 References ................................................. 35 3.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ............................ 36 3.5.1 Text ................................................ 36 3.5.2 Images .............................................. 37 3.5.3 Content license .......................................... 38 Chapter 1 Cognitive dissonance In psychology, cognitive dissonance is the mental stress 1. The importance of cognitions: The more the elements or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two are personally valued, the greater the magnitude of the or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same dissonant relationship. time; performs an action that is contradictory to one or more beliefs, ideas, or values; or is confronted by new information 2. Ratio of cognitions: The proportion of dissonant to that conflicts with existing beliefs, ideas, or values.[1][2] consonant elements Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance focuses on The pressure to reduce cognitive dissonance is a function of how humans strive for internal consistency. An individual the magnitude of this dissonance.[1] who experiences inconsistency (dissonance) tends to be- come psychologically uncomfortable, and is motivated to try to reduce this dissonance—as well as actively avoid sit- uations and information likely to increase it.[1] 1.2 Reducing Cognitive dissonance theory is founded on the assumption 1.1 Relationship between cognitions that individuals seek consistency between their expectations and their reality. Because of this, people engage in a pro- cess called “dissonance reduction” to bring their cognitions Individuals can adjust their attitudes or actions in vari- and actions in line with one another. This creation of uni- ous ways. Adjustments result in one of three relation- formity allows for a lessening of psychological tension and ships between two cognitions or between a cognition and distress. According to Festinger, dissonance reduction can a behavior.[1] be achieved in four ways.[1] In an example case where a per- son has adopted the attitude that they will no longer eat high Consonant relationship Two cognitions/actions that are fat food, but eats a high-fat doughnut, the four methods of consistent with one another (e.g., not wanting to get reduction are: intoxicated while out, then ordering water instead of alcohol) 1. Change behavior or cognition (“I will not eat any more Irrelevant relationship Two cognitions/actions that are of this doughnut”) unrelated to one another (e.g., not wanting to get in- toxicated while out, then tying your shoes) 2. Justify behavior or cognition by changing the conflict- ing cognition (“I'm allowed to cheat every once in a Dissonant relationship Two cognitions/actions that are while”) inconsistent with one another (e.g., not wanting to get intoxicated while out, then consuming a large quantity 3. Justify behavior or cognition by adding new cognitions of alcohol) (“I'll spend 30 extra minutes at the gym to work this off”) 1.1.1 Magnitude of dissonance 4. Ignore or deny any information that conflicts with ex- isting beliefs (“This doughnut is not high in fat”) The amount of dissonance produced by two conflicting cog- nitions or actions (as well as the subsequent psychological Categorization is used by humans to simplify the world distress) depends on two factors: around them. How categorization happens is usually what 1 2 CHAPTER 1. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE is the most noticeable or basic categories; race, gender, and be resurrected from the dead.[7] Some have suggested the age. Once these groups are identified, a set of attributes same process might explain the belief two thousand years (emotions/attitudes) towards that group come into mind as ago that Jesus was resurrected from the dead.[8] well. These attributes are prejudices (whether positive or negative) and are expectations held over individuals who might not identify with the labeled group.[3] 1.3.2 Induced-compliance paradigm 1.3 Theory and research See also: Forced compliance theory In Festinger and Carlsmith's classic 1959 experiment, stu- Most of the research on cognitive dissonance takes the form dents were asked to spend an hour on boring and tedious of one of four major paradigms. Important research gen- tasks (e.g., turning pegs a quarter turn, over and over again). erated by the theory has been concerned with the conse- The tasks were designed to generate a strong, negative at- quences of exposure to information inconsistent with a prior titude. Once the subjects had done this, the experimenters belief, what happens after individuals act in ways that are asked some of them to do a simple favour. They were asked inconsistent with their prior attitudes, what happens after to talk to another subject (actually an actor) and persuade individuals make decisions, and the effects of effort ex- the impostor that
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