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Open Gueyethesis.Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Department of Comparative Literature MAPPING THE LIMINAL IDENTITIES OF MULATTAS IN AFRICAN, AFRICAN AMERICAN, AND CARIBBEAN LITERATURES A Thesis in Comparative Literature By Khadidiatou Guèye Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2006 ii The thesis of Khadidiatou Guèye was reviewed and approved* by the following: Thomas A. Hale Liberal Arts Professor of African, French, and Comparative Literature Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee Professor Bernard W. Bell Professor of English Professor Christiane J. Makward Professor of French and Women Studies Iyunolu Osagie Associate Professor of English Pius Adesanmi Assistant Professor of Comparative Literature Caroline D. Eckhardt Professor of English and Comparative Literature In Charge of Graduate Programs in Comparative Literature *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii Abstract In twentieth-century African, African American, and Caribbean literatures, mixed-blood women are often misread as figures frozen in tragic postures. Such unrealistic portraitures replicate the traditional white-authored pathologizations of racial hybridity. Drawing on the theoretical framework of liminality, this study investigates how mulattas negotiate their identities in specific socio-cultural environments, times, and places. Four writers of African descent and dissimilar socio-historical backgrounds are studied: Abdoulaye Sadji from Senegal, Bessie Head from South Africa, Mayotte Capécia from Martinique, and Nella Larsen from the United States. The study is divided into five chapters that deal with the experiences of mulattas in autobiographical writing, sexuality, madness, racial passing, and expatriation. Thematic and stylistic discrepancies in the works examined are ancillary to the common liminal strategies of de-marginalization and self-reconstruction of female heroines. Their attempts at self-assertion appear in the ways in which they resist the constrictions of patriarchal and racist regimes. Their construction of spaces of agency is interwoven with ambiguity, ambivalence, and contradictions, which are emblematic of the discontinuities of their lives and paradigmatic of their intricate search for identity. In the works, the liminal experiences of mulattas are framed within the quests for social visibility, the affirmation of humanity, the renegotiation of space, and the anomic straddling between oppositional boundaries and statuses. Through their striving to rise above the limitations imposed on their gender and race, mulattas commit acts of transgression and dissemblance, and disrupt racial taxonomy. I demonstrate that liminality is a major unifying thread that runs through all the narratives and argue that it creates alternative iv existential paradigms for mixed-blood women. Liminality is an appropriate tool that challenges monolithic views of identities through the re-articulation of cultural meanings. My main contribution is twofold. First, I extend the traditional cartography of liminality, which is usually based on small-scale societies where individuals have loyalty to their primary communities. Second, I suggest new vistas for race criticism in diasporic studies. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements vii Chapter One Monoracial, Biracial, and the Entre-Deux 1 Introduction 1 Black/White Polarization 17 Racial Hybridity 38 Betwixt and Between: The Ambiguity of Liminality 50 Chapter Two Liminal Psychoautobiographies: Rites and Routes 59 Autobiography as Autrebiographie: Je-Jeu in Mayotte 60 Capécia’s Je suis martiniquaise Internal Drama: Spectralized Presences in Bessie Head’s 86 A Question of Power Chapter Three The Liminal Experience of Sexuality and the 108 Problematic of Respectability Sexuality at Point Zero in Nella Larsen’s Quicksand 109 and Mayotte Capécia’s La négresse blanche Sexuality and Normative Illegitimacy in Mayotte 125 Capécia’s La négresse blanche Nini, mulâtresse du Sénégal: Between Sexual 141 Empowerment and Disempowerment Chapter Four Herspace: Liminal Madness and Racial Passing of the 157 Mulatta I am Mad But I am Not Mad: Shuttling Between Seamless 158 Identities in Bessie Head’s A Question of Power Telling a New Story: Racial Performance and Ambiguity 180 in Nella Larsen’s Passing Chapter Five The Limen of Journeys: Mulattas and Colonial Paris 206 vi The French Métropole: Interior Landscapes in Nini, 207 mulâtresse du Sénégal Migration and Trans-Caribbean Identity in Je suis 228 martiniquaise and La négresse blanche Conclusion 245 Works Cited 251 vii Acknowledgements This project is brought to fruition thanks to the moral support and encouragement of many people. I dedicate it to my unrivalled parents Aïssatou and Malick, my beloved professors, and friends. I am particularly grateful to my thesis advisor and mentor Professor Thomas A. Hale, who has always boosted my morale and believed in my abilities. Without his guidance and advice, this project would not have been possible. I would also like to express my wholehearted gratitude to Professor Bernard William Bell for his mentorship, kindness, availability, and acute intellectual insights. I am indebted to Professors Adesanmi, Makward, and Osagie, whose support and valuable critical suggestions have been instrumental in the completion of the thesis. I cannot be thankful enough and grateful to Professor Caroline Eckhardt for her steady professional guidance and support throughout my career and careful reading of my dissertation. I am indebted to Professor Thomas O. Beebee, whose generosity, availability, help, and incredible sense of humor, spurred my professional steps. This project has benefited from several grants. Fulbright and Delta Kappa Gamma fellowships and a Penn State Africana Research Center Dissertation Award have provided valuable financial support that I am glad to acknowledge. Chapter One Monoracial, Biracial, and the Entre-Deux Introduction Colonialism and slavery have been instrumental in the creation of a web of racial complexities in Africa, the Americas, and the Caribbean. The blending of whites and blacks led to the emergence of biracial people known as mulattos. Since the eighteenth century, these people of mixed heritage have straddled racial borders and grappled with searing and unresolved tensions rooted in the desire for self-definition and self- identification. Race mixing produces biologically and culturally hybrid people whose inheritance of an unclearly and unstably defined identity makes them ambiguous. The figures of mulattos have long been and are still associated with the tragic by virtue of their liminal position. Their ambiguous situation generates inner clashes rooted in their contradictory and warring identities. Nineteenth-century French thinkers such as Arthur de Gobineau and Gustave Le Bon associate miscegenation with degeneration, danger, decadence, and sterility. In Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (1995), Robert Young shows how “racial difference became identified with other forms of sexual and social perversity as degeneracy, deformation or arrested embryological development” (180). Western theorists often demonized mixed-bloods because they threatened the teleological paradigms of their civilization or the supposed progression of evolution, which was sometimes believed to rest on the inheritance of acquired characteristics. However, it is worth specifying that the monolithically and stereotypically negative representation of mulattos is the product of Western conceptualizations of racial difference. The 2 pathologization of racial difference produces the situation that defines racially mixed people as excluded from the Western epistemological order. In The Biological and Social Meaning of Race (1971), Richard Osborne argues that “persons are likely to be treated not according to what they are as individuals, but according to the stereotypes of the group to which they belong” (15). These stereotypes appear in many media, especially literature, which has served as a disseminator of Western attitudes toward miscegenation. William Cohen’s The French Encounter With Africans: White Responses to Blacks (1980) and Pierre Loti’s Le roman d’un spahi (1974) exemplify the undesirability of racial intermixture. Cohen describes “interracial sex […] as the violation of the distance between two species” (235) and Loti’s spahi, Jean, a French soldier in the Senegalese colonial cavalry, wishes he did not have his “dignité d’homme blanc, souillée par le contact de cette chair noire” (208) [“white man’s dignity soiled by contact with [Fatou Gaye’s] black flesh”].1 However, such colonial discourse on miscegenation was rejected by anticolonialist writers from the colonies. For example, the Senegalese author Ousmane Socé, in his novel Mirages de Paris (1937), considers métissage as a challenge to European mono-ethnicism (147). Others like Léopold Sédar Senghor ascribe to métissage the political function of erasing differences (“Le problème culturel” 1-3). The meaning of hybridity changes with locality. In North America, it is often glossed as multiculturalism, in Latin America, as mestizaje, and in the Caribbean, as creolization. Édouard Glissant and Antonio Benitez-Rojo are prominent creolization theorists who view hybridity as a contestation of dominant cultural inscriptions and a ceaseless process of possibilities. 1 All translations are mine unless otherwise specified. 3 Anthropologists, historians, psychologists, and cultural geographers
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