Ancient Sindh, 15, 2018-19: 89-113

CHAKRANI, M.I• & MALLAH Q.H.••

ANALYSIS OF DIET PATTERN IN INDUS CIVILIZATION THROUGH ARCHAEOBOTANICAL AND ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH

ABSTRACT – The human diet pattern has long history. It was systematically changed when all three first civilizations like Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Indus started using staple resources supplemented with hunting fishing and fruits collecting and produce byproducts like clarified ghee and pickle as their food. To trace the food history, the people of Egypt and Mesopotamia has depicted pictures and kept written records of their activities associated with food and food production. Those records are further supported with physical data like bones, grains and residues on other objects.

In Indus civilization there is no absence of paintings or carving which explains the procedures of food preparation or cultivation activities. From Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, huge grain storage is found. The charred seeds and plant impressions are found from several smaller settlements. The figurines and terracotta models of plough ascertain the cultivation culture. The human skeletons also provide basic knowledge about the food and food types used by Indus Valley people but there are difficulties to reconstruct the process and procedures for cultivation and cooking. Therefore, in this paper focus is given to those factors which may help to reconstruct the hidden secrets and help to rewrite the history. In doing so, two types of the data are utilized (i) contemporary civilizations like Egyptian, Mesopotamian under “cross cultural approach” concept and (ii) Ethnoarchaeology which allowed looking into the traditional agricultural communities for comprehending and bridging the past.

This data set explained under two broader theoretical paradigms have thrown light on the process and procedures to be considered in archaeological explanation of diet pattern of Indus Valley civilization.

INTRODUCTION

The food Rotti is one of the basic needs for human survival. It was drastically changed during first human revolution of domestication of animals and plants. The three first civilizations like Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Indus (Fig.# 1). They relied on the permanent and reoccurring resources supplemented with hunting and fruits as their food. Not only this but they find out about the byproducts like clarified ghee and pickle, fats, oil extracts from plants and flowers and so on. This all can be seen from the historical footnotes left by the people of Egypt and Mesopotamia as they depicted pictures and kept written records of their activities associated with food and food production. The physical data like bones, grains and residues on other objects; all attest the record left on the walls of the tombs and carved on the stones.

• PhD Research Scholar, Department of Archaeology , Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur •• Professor, Department of Archaeology , Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur

89 On the other hand in Indus civilization there are no direct evidences like paintings or carving but huge grain storage which cannot explain the procedures of food preparation or cultivation activities. The artifacts types like human skeletons, figurines and terracotta models of plough ascertain the cultivation culture. The human skeletons also provide basic knowledge about the food and food types used by Indus Valley people.

Looking at the situation, it is utmost necessary to ponder upon basic questions about the crop processing and cooking pattern –how it was done? For answering this basic question, two types of the data is utilized (i) contemporary civilizations like Egyptian, Mesopotamian and (ii) ethnoarchaeology which allowed to look into the traditional agricultural communities of Sindh Pakistan.

This data set is theoretically used under the concept of “cross cultural approach” which is used in archaeological explanation since long time under the umbrella of ‘analogy’ as a “systematic method” for detailing explanations and interpretations. This method suggests that analogies/ parallels might be most accurately and appropriately drawn from known cultures with similar settings of the archaeological culture. For instance, Population living on the Nile River had intensive agricultural system during all seasons, such as, the wheat and barley was cultivated in winter shitawi season; the cotton, rice, and sesame in summer season sayfi and maize and sorghum during the annual flood times which was called Nili season of the Nile ( Bowman and Rogan 1999). The paining scenes and writings on Egyptian agricultural system has clearly described the soil types, animals used for plough, and plough types, storage, and the stages from cultivating to harvesting ( Bowman and Rogan 1999, Janick 2002).

The Indus Valley farmers were feeding the cities; they were cultivating two crops i.e. Rabi and Kharif. The rabi or spring harvested crop is planted in the fall and watered by winter rains. The kharif is planted in summer during monsoon and harvested in fall. The major grain crops like wheat and barley were planted in the fall and harvested in early summer. The other crops of this season were sesamum, peas, vegetables, and perennial cotton (Kenoyer 1998: 163).

The Kharif crop including cotton, mustered, sesamum, dates, melon, peas, rice, sorghum and various millets were grown. The discovery of terracotta plow from Banawali (Bisht 1982:113-124) and plowed field from Kalibangan (Thaper 1975: 19-32) indicated the procedures of cultivation that a plough pulled by draft oxen may have been used (Kenoyer 1998: 50). The complex system of double cropping agriculture produce tremendous surplus that was need to the cities and their residents who were engaged other craft activities. This type of cultivation procedure is still prevailing in traditional farmers of Sindh and other communities of Pakistan.

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Fig. # 1: Location of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley Civilization.

Archaeological remains of agriculture in Indus Valley

Indus civilization is among world civilization where people lived with full scale prosperity having all luxuries of life. The Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Lakhan-jo-Daro Dholavira are few among the cities which defiantly attest the living pattern of people some five thousand years ago.

The growth of this prosperous civilization lies deep into the history when they started domestications of both animals and plants. The majority of early sites have enriched with remains of grains which appropriately attest the crops domesticated. Through this paper the details about two broad factors (1) crop processing and (2) diet pattern of Indus valley people have highlighted.

The Archaeological research at so many settlements has proved presence of various types of charred grains including wheat, barley, rice and millets along with a list of spices necessary for cooking the curry and chapatti /bread.

The Indus people had atleast four types of wheat (a) bread/club (Triticum aestivum/ T.a subsp. compactum) (b) shot (T.a subsp. sphaerococcum) (c) wheat/einkorn (T. monococcum) and (d) emmer wheat ( T. tuigidum subsp. dicoccum). The three types of Barley like (i) Six-row hulled (Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare) (ii) naked (H.v. subsp. vulgare var.nudum) (iii) shot (H.v. subsp. sphaerococcum) (Meadow 1993).

91 Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa has huge granaries where a huge amount of grains can be stored, however, those facilities have given us a problem of comprehending the actual source of cultivation with appropriate / basic questions like how the cultivation may have been done and where the grains come from?

This has been the missing link for which until now the archeologists of Indus valley civilization have not been able to find remains about the processing of crops. Therefore to understand this missing links, we have collected the data from (a) archaeological sites (b) ethnoarchaeological sources.

As mentioned earlier, there are so many archaeological settlements where the remains of grains are found. Among them the earliest one is Mehrgarh. This archaeological site is located near the village of same name Mehrgarh situated at the foot of Bolan Pass along the Bolan River. The ancient mound covers 300 hectares covered with archaeological objects associated with 8th to 3rd millennium BCE. The site was excavated by French team from 1975- 1985 AD and has accomplished excellent results and became the first oldest village settlement of South Asia (Jarrige 2008).

From this settlement the remains of both the domesticated and wild plants like wheat and barley have been found. Lorenzo Costantini (1984) has identified naked 6-row barely associated with Neolithic period; (H. vulgare, subsp. vulgare) wild and domestic hulled two-row barley (H. vulgare subsp. spontaneum and H. vulgare subsp. distichum) have also been recorded associated with a ceramic Neolithic period (Fig.# 2). Costantini (1984) has also recorded domestic einkorn (hulled: Triticum monococcum), domestic emmer (hulled: T. turgidum subsp. dicoccum) and Triticum durum (Costantini 1984). Some of these species still continue in this region (Meadow 1998).

Plate # 1: Impressions of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (Triticum dicoccum) (after L. Costantini)

Another site was Nausharo excavated by same French team during 1985-1996- the site is located at least 6 kilometer south of Mehrgarh and was occupied during 3000 to 2000 BCE. From this settlement along with other remains the terracotta yolk was found suggesting plowing and cultivation system (Jarrige 2008).

Mohenjo Daro and Harappa both are the mega cities of Indus Civilization where thousands of human lived for several hundred years. People having the lavish life style

92 may have enjoyed the collective storage facility of the grains; because the grains were stored in huge facilities located within city premises. The cultivation process is not illustrated in any from except the artifactual repertoire as in direct element. At Harappa, the round platforms are discovered which are somehow related with grain processing activity.

Plate # 2: Grain storage at (A) Mohenjo-Daro, (B) Harappa, (C) charred seeds found from Mohenjo-Daro and (D) granary reconstruction at Harappa.

The Ravi River urban center named as Harappa was another large city of Indus civilization. Within this city the storage along with grain processing platforms has been discovered (Plate 2 B&D), there is theory that those platforms were used for indigo processing. Nevertheless, the Indus Civilization had sufficient agricultural sources to feed the large cities and collect the grains at one place. The Ghob is a small village site located in Thar Desert of Sindh along the Hakra River system. The settlement has permanent houses were made of burnt bricks. From this site the charred gains of wheat have been recovered suggesting the cultivation activity of the residents. Those grains were stored in house (Plate.3).

93 Ghob site of Thar Desert

A

B

wheat

Plate # 3: Charred seed from Ghob site of Thar Desert

From Kalibangan the plowed field is discovered which indicate the agricultural system. These direct and systematic furrows are only possible when animal driven plough is used in the field.

Agricultural fields at Kalibangan Yolk from Naushero site of Baluchistan

Kalibangan : An agricultural field, showing criss-cross pattern of furrows. Circa 2000 BC.

Plough from Banawali site

Plate # 4: Cultivated land, terracotta yolk, terracotta plow and contemporary plow.

94 A terracotta plough in complete shape is found from Banawali site of Rajasthan India (Plate 5). This plow is has plowshare and hole in the distant end of curved shaft which means that yolk was tied/ added with it for oxen. The yolk is found from Naushero settlement of Baluchistan. These discoveries suggesting that the cultivation technology and tradition was similar from Baluchistan to Rajasthan and beyond covering entire Indus Civilization.

In addition to wheat and barley the Indus people living in the eastern part of Indus civilization territory had cultivated Rice. Till now both the cultivated and wild rice like Oryza rufipogon and Oryza sativa have been found from Lahuradewa settlement present in district Sant Kabinagar of Utter Pradesh India. From this site a list of grains like cultivated rice (Oryza sativa ) wild rice (Oryza cf. rufipogon and Oryza officinalis), barley (Hordeum vulgare), dwarf-wheat (Triticum sphaerococcum), bread-wheat (Triticum aestivum), lentil (Lens culinaris) and job's tear (Coix lachryma-jobi ), foxtail- millet (Setaria cf. glauca), Artemis/Mugwort (Artemisia sp.), flatsedge (Cyperus sp.) and Kodon-millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) (Tewari et al 2006). In addition to the Grains, Indus people had consumed the pulses and vegetables.

Indus Curry: pulses and vegetables

Indus people today eat the curry Bhaji or Saalan suing meat/beef, vegetables, pluses Dall and fish. The rice is cooked separately or Rotti/ Chapatti is also made. In the ancient times particularly during urban phase of Indus Valley civilization 2600-1900 BCE a variety of food item were part of daily life which continued till today with meager modification. The remains of Indus Curry can be understood through the remains of various item used by Indus people like lentils (lens culinaris), chickpeas(Cicer arietinum), peas(Pisum sp.), flax (Linum usitatissimum) and brown mustard (Brassica juncea) (Meadow 1993) . The recent research on Farman settlement located in Haryana state of India has various types of staple grains for both chapatti and curry.

The most popular vegetables and pluses were Vigna sp. (gram) , Vigna radiate (green gram) Solanum sp. (eggplant) Macrotyloma sp. (horse gram), Lens culinaris (lentil) and Latherus sp. (Weber et. al., 2011)

Spices and Herbs

The recent Archaeological research has shown that Indus People cooked their food and used various spices. During the investigation of burial unearthed at Farmana settlement various types of spices have been found. Among that turmeric, ginger roots and others were used. The most common spices and herbs were Allium sp. (garlic, clove), Zingiber sp. (ginger), Curcuma sp. (turmeric) (Weber et al 2011).

Recently from Farmana settlement of Indus period (2600-1900BCE); several archaobotanical remains are documented. In creals Hordeum sp. (barley), Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley), Triticum sp. (wheat), Triticum sphearococcum (dwarf wheat),

95 Triticum aestivum (bread wheat), Panicun sp. Panicun sumatrense, Brachium rumosa, Setaria sp., Sorghum sp. and Oryza sativa(Weber et al 2011).

From excavation of the site several oil seeds fruits remains were found. Among those Cucurbita sp., Mangifera sp. (mango) , Sesamum indicum (sesame) , Linum sp. (linseed) . In addition to those some other seeds have been found like Cyperus sp., Dioscorea sp., Rumex dentatus Aegilops sp. , Abutilon sp., Cleome sp. , Chenopodium album , Chenopodium sp. , Trianthema portulacastrum , Trianthema triquetra , Tamerix sp. , Salvadora sp. (Weber et al 2011).

From Farmana several burial were documented – in those burials – the Burial 14 showed remains of Discorea, Cyperaceae, Panicum, Setaria, Zingiber and Burial 48 – Curcuma, Panicum, Setaria, Hordeum, Vigna, Zingiber . Likewise the other burials also represent good information on the use of various grains and spices.

All the investigations and discoveries have highlighted that Indus valley people had diversity of grains, fruits, herbs and spices in very similar way as other civilizations. The archaeological discoveries have proved that various things were present in the Indus Valley but the crop processing procedures are still lacking.

Utensils for cooking and preparing food

It is noticed that curry and chapatti was made in almost similar way as still is being cooked into villages by traditional communities. The chapatti cannot be prepared without flour and for flour (Aatta) making was done thought grinding stones – commonly found from all sites of Indus valley. The Handi (cooking pot) discovered from Harappa from Ravi Phase and mature phase are same as are used today.

The use of mortars and pestle was again important as these items were utilized for several purposes including making or grinding spices and herbs, cracking nuts etc.

Eating and Serving Food

All ancient civilizations had eating manners- it was perceived through pots and pan, paintings, and carving and ancient documents mainly found from Egypt and Mesopotamia.

The kings and Pharaohs were served food lavishly and varieties of eating items were presented. The ancient tombs in Egypt had illustrations showing offering processions in which food is carried by servants or followers to the temple for deity – and in other presentation it is showed how a king is being served.

The storage pots and jars are large enough to store the food or water enough for large family. Pots and pans are decorated and coated with beautiful colors which suggest that they did have good aesthetic sense and manners for eating food some five thousand years ago. The earthen/ clay object were common. The metallic and other object were

96 rare but in exercised for common use in daily life. There are visible categories in utensil usage in the society. Poor with simple and rich with diversity seems simple rule. But the grains, spices, vegetable, fruits were available to all from king to servant and from Pharaoh to farmer and from trader to herder.

In Indus valley had the similar bread basket as was with Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, in Indus there is absence of painting and record keeping therefore we have relied upon the object found. A huge repertoire of pots and dish-on- stand made of terracotta material, plates made of both terracotta and metal (bronze), spoon made of shell are clear indication of the eating habits and manners of Indus people. The Dish- on –stand is high caliber object which may have the mythological and ritual significance as well (Plate 6). This type of utensil is seen in the seal of Indus where it is placed under the mouth of every animal.

Indus Valley : Pots and Pans

Dish-on-stand (table) Dish-on-stand (table)

Spoon (shell)

Plate (copper)

Cooking pot

Plate # 6: Dish-on-stand, spoon, plate, and Handi.

All major ancient civilizations provided sufficient historical material on the cultivation, cooking, and eating habits. The crops and their proper system were maintained. Egyptians were most complicated in the record keeping as the cropping and taxing system was associated with ritual activities.

In Indus only huge granaries have been identified which suggest that grains were collected and stored under supervision of any type of authority. No any record or illustrative representation is found yet hence the Ethnoarchaeology has played major role to comprehend the cropping system.

97 ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH

The agriculture system is formulated as human+ plant+environment + land. This combination is again a set of activities and procedures in which human has piloted and exercised and remaining cohorts/partners have responded. The end result is production used for survival and socio economic purposes. The set of activities has at least four parts as (a) Propagation/ breeding, sowing of chosen seeds (b) husbandry – the care of plants as they grow (c) harvesting collection of mature seeds/fruits and (d) transportation and storage of yield / seeds / fruits (Redman 1978:91).

The wheat crop consists of several steps like: The steps include: (1) Threshing; (2) Raking; (3) Winnowing to remove light weed seeds and awns, which may be used as fodder later; (4) Coarse sieving to remove weed seeds, unbroken ears and straw fragments; the unbroken ears are re-threshed; (5) Fine sieving to remove small weed seeds and awns; (6) Pounding; (7) Winnowing to remove lemmas and paleas; (8) Coarse sieving to remove spikelet forks and unbroken spikelets, which are re-pounded; (9) Fine sieving to remove glumes bases, awns and small weed seeds; (10) Hand-sorting for removal of grain-sized weeds (Fig.2). ”(Gilligan n.d:33, Stevens 2003:63)

Fig. # 2: Crop-processing steps (c.f Stevens 2003:63).

The Fruit is of every type is processed differently. In the Indus valley civilization most commonly found fruits are found as dates and jujubes. Both type of fruits are eaten fresh and dried as well. The Jujubes are simple as they are collected and dried either on the roof top or on the ground with simple care and maintenance.

The food crops like wheat, barley, curry crop and spices have following steps:

98 Land preparation

The very first step in agriculture system starts from preparation of land (Plate 7). After the previous crop land is left open as the ground may get some rest and rejuvenate the energy. As new season approaches, the first thing will be to water the land from nearby facility or arranged facility. The purpose of this activity is to make ground soft for plowing or opening the ground and finishing the remains of weeds, leftovers or any other unnecessary thing on the ground. At least two to three time ground is plowed. All large nodules are broken/ smashed and ground is perfectly leveled.

Plate # 7: Traditional plowing. Sowing

As soon as the ground is ready – it in once again watered called (Reej). This watering enables the ground for plowing. Plow is main tool which has four esstial parts ( a) yolk in which bulls are tied (b) central pole tied with yolk (c) presser with handle and (d) plowshare fixed at bottom of presser (Plate 8). The ground has to be plowed properly after which the sowing of the seeds starts. For wheat crop at least two types of sowing is carried (a) spread with hand called (Chatt) and (b) grain dropping during plowing called (Narri). The Experienced farmer would hold the grain on the back and keep handful to spread in prepared ground. Similarly, in the Narri system different plow is used which the funnel has attached. The seeds are again kept with farmer and dropped carefully along with plowing which is very difficult task and only experienced farmer can perform.

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Plate # 8: Traditional plow

After Narri, the ground is covered and leveled with smoother Sanher, after which the farmer wait until plant appears. As soon as plant appears from the ground – watering and caring starts – three to four time water is needed. All extra weeds are removed and birds are chased when plant reaches at grain level. During the sowing, traditionally more than one pair of plowing is used – there is a social system called Wingar in which the farmers voluntarily help each other. This is high time for farmers- the bulls are decorated, plows are also decorated –noise of the instruments tied in their neck create very pleasant environment in which farmers work. The delicious and rich food is served to the working team.

Harvesting

As soon as the plant is ripen – the grains are mature and start changing color/; no water is provided. The plant it left to consume the moisture from ground and when it began drying – the preparations for harvesting are done. The mature cop before it starts dropping on its own weight – it must be chopping off the ground (Plate 9). The crescent shape iron sickle with wooden handle is used to cut the plant. It is chopped just little higher from ground – the reason is to have more chaff which is later on used as fodder for animals at home and is also used for other purpose if necessary. Entire family is engaged in the activity- sometimes Wingar is called. There are several people engaged in the activity – one who cut the plant, others would collect it and remaining team members will tie and make bundles. Bundles are tied with either reed ropes or date palm leaves – it is noted that reed ropes are more effective to tie the bundles.

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Plate # 9: Harvested bundles of the wheat crop Threshing

After making bundles, the ground is prepared, cleaned and leveled where bundles are collected and heap up in round. There are at least two types of threshing (a) moving of bulls and (b) moving of sledge. In first methods a wooden pole is erected/ fixed in the ground and bulls are tied around it to move and crash the dried plant. The more quantity of plants would require more bulls and time. For the sledge – a tree branch from Kandi or Babur tree having many braches is cut and some weeds are fixed in it so the plant which is being threshed may not hang-up with sledge. It is tied in yolk and drawn by bulls. A cut is made in the circular/ round heap which makes process easy for turning and mixing the plant. Mouth of bulls is tied and they move around the pole. At least two people are engaged in activity – one for bulls to keep them moving and other for flipping and mixing the plant (Plate 10). Continuous movements of bulls break the plant into pieces to make it as chaff and grain separated. During the process the dung dropped by bull is thrown away to keep grains clean which would prevent the grains being diseased when stored at one place.

Plate # 10: Threshing types of plants

101 Winnowing and Separation of grain and husk

The winnowing is end process of separation of grains from the husks when crop is crushed well. The chaff and grains are separated. It is done through a team depending upon the volume of crop. At least two people are necessary one has to throw the crushed plants in air with specific tool in the wind direction. The wind blows away the chaff and grains accumulate at one place. Other person will wipe off the chaff pieces if dropped on the grains. After this the final winnowing is done with Chajj. The Chajj is filled with grains and taken high to pour on ground (Plate 11). The air would blow the chaff pieces away and person will remove the other chaff pieces if not blown through wind. Finally the grains are collected at one place (Plate 12). Prayers are offered and very small amount is separated for the purpose of charity to be distributed among the children and needy persons.

Plate # 11: Winnowing the threshed grains

Plate # 12: Separated grains – a final yield.

102 Transportation and Storage

As soon as the grains are clean and piled up at one place – it has to be measured with specific measuring device called Toyo. Now-a-days, the scale is used and kilograms system is adopted. After measuring the grains – the sags are filled – the yield depends upon work done by farmer and climatic conditions. If all favored there will be excellent yield more than the consumption of family for one year. The extra yield has to be marketed.

Plate # 13: Crop yield measurement and storage (a) Grains (b) Grains measured with Toyo (c) winnowing before storage and (d) storage.

For sending market the bull cart or packed animals were used traditionally. Now-a-days it is done through fast moving vehicles. The grains are transported to home and stored in earthen pots (Plate 13).

Those earthen pots are built very carefully and slowly by hand and layer by layer. The pot when completed it is treated both inside and out site. Inside scullery layer is give to keep it smooth and outside chaff mixed plaster which has to be maintained all times. This earthen pots are kept outside of the house in open ground so the heat/temperature is maintained and grain are saved from any type of bugs and remain fresh. Probably this is the reason that archeologists have difficulty to find such type of object in excavation of any site.

103 After storage – the grains can be used all year but two things should be note (a) pot is made of clay and after destruction it will leave no traces and (b) the pot is kept away from residential compound in open grounds. This is the reason that we do not find proper storage within houses during archaeological excavation of any ancient settlement.

Spices, dried fruits and lentils are also marketed wherefrom the people buy them to use in kitchen. In the spices some are used fresh such as green coriander leaves (dhaniya), mint (pudina) garlic,(lehsan) ginger (Adrak). All are used as dried form including bay leaf (tez patta). For maintain test the red chilies, black paper and salts are used. According to one studies at least 100-300 different spices are used in South Asia (Kenoyer 1985). Kenoyer explains that “no other region in the world has access to such a wide variety of flavoring as does South Asia” (Kenoyer 1985:84).

All these and others make food delicious. Some of the spices are very expensive and beyond the purchasing of the common people. Hence, there may be regional variation in the choice of using the spices and herbs. Finally, there is no kitchen without some basic spices like Zera – Dhanya Darchini , Black peppers Kali mirch,Tumarik Haldi , Red peppers Lal mirch, Salt, Tez patta and Ellaichi and others.

Traditional Kitchen and Cooking

The traditional kitchen is popularly representing the food pattern of common people living either in rural areas or even within cities. The traditional communities living in rural regions would have simple setting of the Kitchen area like (1) flour making spot (2) hearth or oven area (3) cutting and preparing the vegetable spot (Plate 14).

They do not require highly lavish setting; all activities can be conducted either on the floor or on charpoy or even charpoy type stand. It is observed that kitchen area has two portions one is hearth area and other one for the storage where the grains, Aatta, spices and utensils in use are stored.

Before the mechanized living pattern – most of things were achieved through manual practice – for instance making flour Aatta for meal chapatti– the sandstone have been used for crashing or grounding the grains it is called hand mill or Jannd which has two parts i.e. lower and upper. The lower part is round slab and upper part contain handle on top and hallow center for pouring the grains to make flour. Through ages its shape has changed – these both parts are kept in one tuff clay pot to hold the flour. Generally this is women’s job to prepare Aatta before the dawn for one day consumption of entire family and possibly any guest.

As soon as Aatta is made it is kept in the earthen and or metallic pot and cover properly. Some amount sufficient for family consumption is taken and prepared for chapatti.

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Plate # 14: Traditional way of (1) flour making (2) chapatti cooking, and (3) vegetable cooking.

Hearth is set up at two places (i) within house or in kitchen mainly at center and (ii) outside of the house. It is made in two ways (a) small wall type is made at one side opened having three or four stands on top of the wall (b) three pieces of brick or large cones made of clay are kept in triangular or semi-circular shape. The purpose of keeping wide opening is to maintain the fire or temperature and prevent smoke which can disturb the cook during preparing meal. The other purpose is to clean the ashes regularly. It is observed that the animal dung create more ashes as compare than the wood. The tuff wood like of, Babur and Kandi in plain areas; Kirir and Phog in desert areas; makes excellent charcoal which can be reused in rainy days. Two hearths can be set at one place for making Roti /chapatti and Salan curry simultaneously. In the morning, the breakfast is done with butter and Lasi or curd. There is no or rare concept of lunch or midday meal. Only dinner is prepared which includes the curry of any type because the chapatti is always eaten with curry and the most common curries made from vegetable are given in following table (cf. Wikipedia.com)

The Handi or cooking pot made of either earthen or metallic is used for curry making and vegetables are mainly kept is baskets made of Lao shoot or the kana. Ghee, onions, spices, chili and salt are base ingredients to make any curry and maintain its deliciousness or test.

The kitchen maintaining is an activity which has transferred from mother to daughter and from one generation to another without any pause. This phenomenon

105 suggests that traditional cuisine is linked with cropping system and have deep roots in human history. The knowledge of producing several plants in abundance and sharing them with each other has made humanity to survive with delicious and nutritious foods.

Evaluation and Discussion of Collected Data

In this study at least three aspects has been considered (i) Cross cultural studies (ii) Finding from Indus valley and (iii) Ethnoarchaeology to comprehend the issue of crop remains in archaeological context.

The cross cultural studies have focused on two large and first civilizations i.e. Mesopotamia and Egypt. The reason to focus on those civilizations is that Mesopotamia has the oldest remains about crops and cropping system wherefrom it spread towards rest of world through interaction system. The discussion doesn’t offer details about diffusion theory or independent and/ or simultaneous domestication. Nevertheless, the Mesopotamia has chronologically oldest settlements wherefrom the remains of crops have been discovered. When all those settlements were mapped within the context of potential geomorphological features suitable for domestication and cultivation; it look like a crescent and hence it became popular as ‘Fertile Crescent’. The benefit of this Fertile Crescent was that it provided sufficient and staple food sources to a large population.

It is visible that the Mesopotamian civilization had strong support of two great rivers named as (a) Euphrates and (b) Tigris where first agricultural activities were conducted having a culture with very complex and intensified system. The civilization had took off from early stage in which both killing of animals called ‘hunting’ and collecting of food items called as ‘gathering’ was exercised during 12500 BC. These were the people who understood importance of both remarkable aspects. They sorted out both plants and animals having nature and behavior to live alongside the human and plants which can yield both enough and essential nutrition. Archaeologically, the people who finally settled at one place and known to us as a sedentary village of Ain Mallaha in Jordan valley. From this village several grinding tools like mortars and querns and storage pits were found (Price and Feinman 2010:209) . This type remains are found from several places all contemporary and called as Natufian period of 12500 -10000 BC (Caubet and Pouyssegur 1998:21). The hallmarks were not seen in domestication but other aspects like people continued living into artificial house in round shape and had created figurines out of pebble stone this society is known as early part of Neolithic which lasted until 8700BC. Hereafter a change started in which people began to domesticate the wild wheat and barley (Caubet and Pouyssegur 1998:23).

Jericho is an oldest settlement on the earth that was occupied for three thousands and five hundred continuously during 10000 - 7500 BC. The agricultural implements like sickles , grinding stone and storage pits are found along with several other cultural objects very similar found from other sites which demonstrate that settlement had interaction with communities around ( Price and Feinman 2010:222-223).

106 When people understood fully that domestication of plants and animals is highly beneficial for them a large number of people started living at one place, for instance, the Jericho had population in few hundred; but the Catalhoyuk became the first city in central Turkey having with 10,000 people living at one place. This first city existed around 7250 BCE and after more or less one thousand years living at same spot it abandoned around 6000 BCE. The settlement enjoyed long distance trade of Obsidian, domestication of plants and animals along with excellent repertoire of material items used for daily life. In the diet the wheat, barley, wild tubers, lentils, fruits such as pistachios, apples, and hackberries were included. The burials of child and infants were seen in the house floor (Price and Feinman 2010:227-229).

This type of cultural footing did not encircle / enclosed only those who belonged to the Fertile Crescent. In other words, the arrival and usage of long distance commodity obsidian in Catalhoyuk clearly suggest the contacts with other regions. Either people have come to the city or the city people have gone to resource or vice versa – the movement of people spread a culture and the meeting of different people results merger of cultures – most beneficial things are shared which include staple crops (at least knowledge and technology). Sometimes, few things are regional and rare to others – this phenomenon creates a link / contact to go and/or arrive consequently it spreads and shares the culture as well. The obsidian was not available to Catalhoyuk people but the commodity itself is so essential that has greater effects on the various things associated with hunting, cutting and scraping. The quickness in preparation and efficiency in use are the properties of a commodity that attains the commonality among activities. Those staple crops are the initial and found everywhere in the first civilizations. The cultivation seasons are same, it is somehow amazing that the process and procedures are same but rituals and implement carry little variety.

The initial crops on one hand were best thing for continued existence and simultaneously created strong bondage among several components.

Fig.# 3: Circular flow chart of Crop processing (prepared by authors)

107 Like initial crops, these components are also basic in all three farming civilizations. The ritual and offering and documentation as social complexity are different. Mesopotamian had clay tablets to document details. Nevertheless, the Egyptian civilization seems more complex.

The Egypt is neighboring civilization to the Mesopotamia- the interaction would have been an unavoidable phenomenon. It is documented that the interaction among two civilization increased during Uruk period in which Uruk features were adopted in the Egypt. Particularly the utensils used for making and brewing wines were similar (Millard 1988, Chazan and Lehner 1990 as cited by Joffe 2000).

Egyptian civilization became more complex as it had several ways to document whatever they wanted. The agricultural scenes in several tombs combine both the writings and painted or carved illustrations as seen in following figure.

Like Mesopotamia, in Egypt the farmers are given clear instruction for cultivation, taking care of crop and associates and document, transport and taxing the yield and performing the rituals. The farmers are advised to pay tribute and offering to the powerful gods for goodness and future prosperity.

The above document portraits the entire procedure from preparing ground for cultivation to the recording yield. The procedures of activity and implements used are shown very clearly and are self-explanatory.

The Indus civilization is the distant civilization from both Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Indus people were in contact with Mesopotamians this can be seen from the objects found from Kish in which Unicorn seal with Harappan writings and carnelian beads are evidence (Mackay 1925 as cited by Prabhakar 2013).

These contacts suggest that the people had information about the life pattern not only within their territory but beyond. If this is the case – so they knew about the system of cultivation and crop processing. In Indus there are no writings – no paintings or carving which directly inform about the agriculture. The larger cities like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro had large granaries, grinding stone, charred seeds, storage jars. The burial also carry evidence, micro residue on utensils of various type indicate use of various plants, spices and herbals. Nevertheless, we have to rely on Ethnoarchaeology for comprehending the process and procedure involved in agricultural activity.

The Ethnoarchaeological documentation has from Sindh-Pakistan strong correlation with Egyptian civilization.

108 Cross Cultural Comparison Egyptian Civilization

Ploughing

Harvesting

Threshing

Winnowing

Plate # 15: Cross cultural comparison of Ancient Egypt with contemporary agriculture in Sindh

The strong correlation and similarities of Egyptian past and the traditional communities of Indus valley attest the interaction which may have carried in remote past and continued till today (Plate 16). This is because, the activities are almost the same like preparing the land, farming, plowing, harvesting, threshing, winnowing all look like the same.

This type of presentation is absent in Indus valley however, the correlations can be made based on the Ethnoarchaeology and archaeology of same region. Some example are seen in the similarities in cooking pot, , kitchen and kitchen system (Plate 16 & 17), cereals, spices, fruits, and herbs are the same.

Plate # 16: (A) Hearths found from Lakhan-Jo-Daro and (B) traditional contemporary kitchen

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Indus Valley civilization Cooking Pots With thanks by Kenoyer

2600-1900 BC Harappa Phase

3300 BC Hakra/Ravi Phase

Copper Handi, Modern metal Handi

Plate #17: Ancient and traditional Handi.

The hearths found from Lakhan-Jo-Daro 2600-1900 BC settlement has almost similar hearth as is commonly present with traditional communities. The cooking pot of Ravi phase dated 3300 BC, discovered from Harappa site is also another correlative example.

When the kitchens and stores of traditional societies would observe – one would find the same items as discovered from archaeological context. Henceforth, the Ethnoarchaeology becomes a guiding factor to the archaeologists for making possible explanations about the past societies. The authenticity has yet to be confirmed but stylistic similarities carry the potential.

The charred seeds and impression found at so may object are compared with contemporary it has similarity – now all thing may make the history of crop cultivation. The absent factors can be attained and attested through Ethnoarchaeological record.

The plough is mainly made of wood a perishable item but the plowshare is made of either of stone or metal – the same here is seen in the modern people (Plate 18). The long beam, and presser are made of wood but the plowshare is made of iron. Archaeologically only plowshare is possible to find. But the discovery of terracotta plow has cleared all riddles – the shape and style of Terracotta plow is comparable with contemporary - The other items associated with them are also found in different

110 settlements – like yolk found from archaeological site named as Naushero and located in Baluchistan near Mehrgarh has similar morphology as is used today.

The harvest measurement system is also present – it was done with a specially made article called as Toyo – through this object large quantities of grains can be weighted. Following this the earthen object for storage have category and are made considering the measurement.

Agricultural fields at Kalibangan Plough used by Sindhi farmers today

Kalibangan : An agricultural field, showing Yolk from Naushero site of Baluchistan criss-cross pattern of furrows. Circa 2000 BC.

Plough from Banawali site

Plate # 18: Furrows ancient and traditional, Terracotta plough and yolks.

These are sufficient evidence to explain the crop and cropping system that was exercised in the cities and settlements of Indus valley civilization. The presence of granaries show the scale of cropping for which a proper system, knowledge, and technology was required. All evidences collectively provide explanation that the agricultural system was accomplished greatly.

CONCLUSION

This research has showed that all three ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus benefited from strong river systems, geographical setup and suitable weather pattern for growth of various plants.

It is observed that Mesopotamia being the oldest and first to take start in domestication of plants and animals had established strong system. The result was aggregation of people at one place – first cities appeared. Hierarchy in social system started- warfare, religious and rituals were strongly practiced and documents were made to keep record and instruction for generation to come.

111 The same was seen in the Egypt but they had further elaboration of social complexity. The kings, Pharaohs, deities, all needed servants, lavish and rich surroundings – rich food. They themselves cared about these things and were present in the cultivation fields, gardens of fruits, and at the time of sowing and harvest. All is represented in carvings and paintings and written documents.

The Indus on the other hand does not portrait these features – so the reliance to understand the cropping and diet patterns was made on the evidences discovered from various archaeological sites.

According to the researchers the archaeological remains like the impressions of the grains and charred seeds from larger cities and village sites have been found commonly.

The burials provided good information about the use of various grains and spices. Artifacts like hearth pots and pans indicated food cooking and consuming process. Storage pots and granaries showed large scale of cropping and control.

Finally it can be said that Indus people processed their crops at considerable distance from living quarters and brought product home or other facilities. The remains of grain plants are perishable; therefore, it is almost impossible to find the exact processing spot. Very large scale research would be required for best results. Another way is to have Ethnoarchaeological documentation of traditional societies.

Presently, it is seen that the crop processing is done at distance from their residences, particularly in the fields. And grains are then transported to the houses. The procedure is same as is seen at Egyptian civilization. Now it must be understood that the procedure for crop processing has similar stages and procedures same are observed in the contemporary civilizations.

The diet is same – but the pattern might have been different. The traditional kitchen has similarities with those as found in the various sites of Indus valley. And the delicacy and taste is also distinct not found in the foods of other countries and cultures of the world.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Bisht, Ravindra Singh, 1982 - Excavations at Banawali: 1974-1977. In Harappan Civilization: A contemporary Perspective. G.L. Possehl, ed. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH publishing, pp. 113-124. Bowman, Alan K. and Eugene Rogan, 1999 - Agriculture in Egypt from Pharaonic to Modern times. Proceedings of the British Academy, 96 1-31. Costantini, L. ], 1984 - The Beginning of Agriculture in the Kachi Plain: the Evidence of Mehrgarh, in B. Allchin (ed.) South Asian Archaeology 1981, pp. 29-33. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

112 Gilligan, Nikolah, Seedy work! The what, why and how of archaeobotanical analysis. The Post Hole Issue 31. www.theposthole.org Janick, Jules, 2002 - Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture. Proceedings of the conference on Mediterranean Horticulture. Edited by S. Sansavini & J. Janick, ISHS 2002. Acta Hortic. 582, 23-39 DOI:10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.582.1https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.582.1 Jarrige, Jean-Franois, 2008 - Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective”, Lucknow, India, 18-20 January, 2006, revised in 07 May 2008 and published in Pragdhara, No. 18. Joffe , Alexander H., 2000 - Egypt and Syro-Mesopotamia in the 4th Millennium: Implications of the New Chronology , Current Anthropology Feb 2000 v41 -University of Chicago Press. Kenoyer, J.M., 1998 - Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press- American Institute of Pakistan Studies. Meadow, R.H., 1998 - Pre- and Proto-Historic Agricultural and Pastoral Transformations in North-Western South Asia, in O. Bar-Yosef (ed.) The Review of Archaeology (Special Issue) 19, 2: 12-21. Meadow, R.H., 1993 - Continuity and change in the Agriculture of the greater Indus Valley. Prabhakar, V.N. 2013 - Harappans and their Mesopotamian Contacts. Lecture delivered at the India International Centre on March 1, 2013. Published in Occasional Publication 48 India International Centre 40, Max Mueller Marg, New Delhi-110 003. Stevens, C.J., 2003 - An investigation of agricultural consumption and production models for prehistoric and Roman Britain. Environmental Archaeology. 8 (1). 61-76 Thapar, B.K., 1975 - Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus Valley. Expedition 17 (2):19-32. Weber, Steven A., Arunima Kashyap, and Laura Mounce, 2011 - Archaeobotany at Farmana: New Insights into the Harappan Plant use strategies. In excavations at Farmana District Rohtak, Haryana, India 2006-2008. Edited, Vasant Shinde, Toshiki Osada and Manmohan Kumar; Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan ISBN 978-4-902325-62-1 Tewari Rakesh, R.K. Srivastava, K.S. Saraswat, I.B. Singh, K.K. Singh, 2006 - Early Farming at Lahuradewa. Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective', Lucknow, India, 18-20 January, 2006

______AUTHORS’ ADDRESS: M. ISMAIL CHAKRANI, PhD Research Scholar, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur (SINDH-PK) E-mail: DR. QASID HUSSAIN MALLAH, Professor, Department of Archaeology, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur (Sindh-PK) Email: [email protected]

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