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Toward a Dynamic Process Model of Crisis Exploitation Yihong Crisis Rhetoric and Policy Change in China: Toward a Dynamic Process Model of Crisis Exploitation Yihong Liu Assessment Committee: Prof. dr. J.P.P.E.F. Boselie (Chair) Prof. dr. W.E. Bakker Prof. dr. M. Bovens Prof. dr. W.M. de Jong (Erasmus University Rotterdam) Prof. dr. J.F.M. Koppenjan (Erasmus University Rotterdam) Prof. dr. B. Vis Editing: Marceline Blangé ©2019 Yihong Liu. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing from the proprietor. Crisis Rhetoric and Policy Change in China: Toward a Dynamic Process Model of Crisis Exploitation Crisis Retoriek en Beleidsverandering in China: Naar een Dynamisch Procesmodel van Crisisexploitatie (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof. dr. H.R.B.M. Kummeling, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op donderdag 28 februari 2019 des middags te 12.45 uur door Yihong Liu geboren op 16 april 1984 te Chongqing, China Promotoren: Prof. dr. P. ’t Hart Prof. dr. R.A. Boin Copromotor: Dr. A.M.B. Michels Contents LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. IX LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... X Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. XI Chapter I: Crisis exploitation, policy change, and policy elites ............................................... 1 1.1 Introduction: Exploring the process of crisis-induced policy changes ........................ 1 1.2 The research puzzle: Explaining the variance of crisis-induced change ..................... 3 1.3 Towards a crisis exploitation framework: A focus on policy elites ............................. 5 1.3.1 A comparative case study ............................................................................. 10 1.4 Research aims ........................................................................................................ 11 1.5 Structure of this dissertation ................................................................................... 13 Chapter II: Policymaking and Power in Contemporary China .............................................. 15 2.1 The institutional structure of the party-state system at the central level ................... 18 2.1.1 Core leadership: Communist Party of China ................................................. 19 2.1.2 Legislature: National People’s Congress ...................................................... 22 2.1.3 Executive administration: State Council of China ......................................... 25 2.1.4 Connecting with society: Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference ........................................................................................................................... 28 2.1.5 The “party-state” system in change .............................................................. 32 2.2 Characterizing Chinese policymaking at the central level ....................................... 34 2.2.1 Agenda setting ............................................................................................. 36 2.2.2 Policy formulation ....................................................................................... 41 2.2.3 Policy implementation ................................................................................. 44 2.2.4 Policymaking during crisis periods............................................................... 47 2.2.5 Changes in the policymaking process ........................................................... 48 2.3 Policy elites in China ............................................................................................. 49 2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................... 50 Chapter III: Toward understanding crisis exploitation in China ............................................ 53 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 53 3.2 The policy paradigm: Crises as “windows of opportunity” ...................................... 54 3.3 Explaining the relation between crisis and policy change: Three theoretical approaches ................................................................................................................... 56 3.3.1 The theory of advocacy coalition: External shocks and policy change .......... 57 3.3.2 Kingdon’s theory of multiple streams: Focusing events and policy change ... 63 3.3.3 The theory of punctuated equilibrium: Triggering events and policy change . 67 3.3.4 Implications and limitations of the three theories .......................................... 71 3.4 Focusing on the role of policy elites: Introducing crisis exploitation theory ............ 74 3.4.1 Crisis exploitation without counter-framing? ................................................ 79 3.5 A crisis exploitation model for China ...................................................................... 84 3.5.1 Strategies of framing by policy elites during crises ....................................... 84 3.5.2 Exploring factors that influence the strategy choices of policy elites ............. 91 3.6 Summary ............................................................................................................... 94 Chapter IV: Testing the proposed framework: A research design ......................................... 97 4.1 Defining and operationalizing key variables ........................................................... 97 V 4.1.1 Dependent variable: Policy change............................................................... 98 4.1.2 Independent variable: Crisis frames ........................................................... 101 4.1.3 Operationalization of framing strategies ..................................................... 103 4.1.3 Operationalization of contextual factors ..................................................... 106 4.2 Methods and sources of data ................................................................................ 109 4.2.1 Case selection ............................................................................................ 110 4.2.2 Source of Data ........................................................................................... 114 4.2.3 Data analysis ............................................................................................. 116 4.3 Summary ............................................................................................................. 117 Chapter V: The SARS Crisis ............................................................................................. 119 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 119 5.2 The crisis response ............................................................................................... 120 5.2.1 Black box phase: From secret to public ...................................................... 121 5.2.2 National campaign phase ........................................................................... 123 5.3 From crisis response to crisis exploitation ............................................................ 128 5.3.1 Significance of the SARS epidemic: From denial to acknowledgment ........ 131 5.3.2 Exogenous causality and endogenous responsibility claims ........................ 136 5.3.3 Change-oriented policy exploitation ........................................................... 140 5.3.4 Toward a positive crisis exploitation strategy ............................................. 144 5.4 Major policy changes during and after the SARS crisis ......................................... 147 5.4.1 New paradigm: Scientific Outlook on Development ................................... 148 5.4.2 Health policy reforms ................................................................................ 151 5.4.3 Evolution of the emergency management system ....................................... 161 5.4.4 Major changes in abstract goals and norms after the SARS crisis ............... 166 5.5 Factors influencing policy elites’ choice of crisis exploitation ............................... 167 5.5.1 Situational factors and active propensity for crisis exploitation ................... 167 5.5.2 Temporal factors and active propensity for crisis exploitation ..................... 170 5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 172 Chapter VI: The Wenchuan Earthquake Crisis ................................................................... 177 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 177 6.2 The crisis response ............................................................................................... 179 6.2.1 National disaster relief meetings ...............................................................
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