The Auk A Quarterly Journalof Ornithology Vol. 118 No. 3 July 2001

The Auk 118(3):575-582, 2001

PERSPECTIVES IN ORNITHOLOGY

CURRENT CONSERVATION ISSUES IN

THOMAS BROOKS L3 AND I-IAZELL SHOKELLU THOMPSON 2 •Centerfor AppliedBiodiversity Science, Conservation International, 1919 M StreetNW,, Suite 600, Washington,D.C. 20036, USA; and 2AfricaDivision, BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 0NA, UnitedKingdom

BIRDCONSERVATION is lOW on the agenda in overemphasizethe importanceof ensuringin- Africa. This is hardly surprising.According to clusiveparticipation and empoweringa broad the World Resources Institute (2000), life ex- local constituencyfor conservation. pectancy across the continent averagesonly Data issues.--Themost urgent data require- -51 years (compared to -65 globally), the ment for African bird conservation is distribu- mean per capita gross domestic product is tional information: we cannot protect the con- -$760 per year (comparedto -$5,260 global- tinent'sbirds if we do not know where they are ly), and the mean national female enrollment found. Large areas remain almost unexplored into primary school is -60% (compared to by ornithologists,with recent expeditionsto -83% globally). Nevertheless,the continent the Congo,for example,breaking new ground holds over 2,000 bird species,20% of the plan- in our knowledgeof African bird distributions er's total, of which nine-tenths are African en- (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire1989). Equally, demics and most of the remainder are winter many areas have not been visited in recent visitors from the Palearctic (Dowsett and yearsand updatesof their avifaunaare desper- Forbes-Watson 1993). Further, about 200--one ately needed:the 1999 Mt. Namuli survey in in six--bird speciesconsidered globally threat- northern Mozambique is an exemplary case ened with a "high probability of extinctionin (Ryan et al. 1999). Perhapsthe widest frontier the wild in the medium-term future" are for fieldwork in African conservation ornithol- broadly African (BirdLife International2000). ogy is at a behavioral level, with the insights The need to conserve those is clear, from available from species-specificstudies again moral and aestheticviewpoints, utilitarian eco- and again proving critical for management. nomicviewpoints, and aboveall as functioning Good recent examplesinvolve someof the con- parts of the very ecosystemsthat sustainAfri- tinent's rarest bird, including Picathartes ca's people (Diamond and Filion 1987). How (Thompsonand Fotso 1995), Macronyxsharpei are we to achievethat, though,given the many (Muchai 1998), and Turdoideshindei (Njoroge demandshigher on African political agendas? and Bennun 1999). Such work forms the essen- Here, we highlight three broad sets of issues tial basisfor continental(e.g. Collar and Stuart that must be addressed to conserve Africa's avi- 1985) and regional (e.g. Bennun and Njoroge fauna: data, planning, and--most important- 1996) Red Lists. ly--implementation. Further, as a theme run- Such fieldwork goes hand in hand with re- ning throughout those issues, we cannot finementsof alpha taxonomy.Most exciting,of course, is the fact that the continent undoubt- 3 E-mail: [email protected] edly holds further speciesas yet wholly un-

575 576 Perspectivesin Ornithology [Auk,Vol. 118 known to science. Witness to that are the 26 on threatsand opportunitiesto set geographic new African speciesthat have been described priorities. The best examplesare BirdLife In- in the last two decades (van Rootselaar 1999); ternational's EndemicBird Areas (International the subsequentdescription of Stiphrornissangh- Council for Bird Preservation 1992, Stattersfield ensis(Beresford and Cracraft 1999) adds anoth- et al. 1998), Conservation International's Hot- er speciesto this total. Astoundingly,these in- spots(Mittermeier et al. 1999, Myers et al. 2000) clude two new genera:Xenoperdix (Dinesen et and WWF-US's "Global 200 "(Ol- al. 1994) and Cryptosylvicola(Goodman et al. son and Dinerstein 1998, Burgesset al. 2001). 1996). Equally, field-basedrevision of poorly Althoughthose exercises have clearly been con- known groupsis revealingthe specificstatus of ducted at differing resolutions--they cover numeroustaxa, for example,in the Certhilauda -5% of Africa with 41 priority regions,-5% curvirostrislark (Ryan and Bloomer1999) and with 5 regions,and -40% with 32 regions,re- Otus rutilusscops-owl (Rasmussen et al. 2000) spectively--overlap between them is consid- complexes.Less glamorousbut no lessimpor- erable (da Fonseca et al. 2000). Further, finer tant is the job of synonomizingtaxa that may resolution studies conducted at a continental not merit specific status, such as Malaconotus level reveal reassuringlysimilar regions--the monteiri (Williams 1998). Upper and Lower Guinea forests,the Albertine A final data issue is the importance of re- Rift, the EthiopianHighlands, the EasternArc, leasing biodiversity data into the public do- and the Cape ,plus Madagascarand the main and, especially,of repatriating them to otheroffshore islands--as the highestpriorities Africa. Initiatives within the continent have (Brooks et al. 2001a). had remarkablesuccess at that, with the pub- However, moving those global- and conti- lication of increasinglydetailed national-level nental-levelpriorities down to the regionaland avian datasets such as those for southern Africa national scale remains a major challenge.A (Harrison et al. 1997) and Uganda (Caswell et critical issue here is that as the area considered al. 2001).Ironically, given that the vastmajority decreases,it becomesmore and more impor- of specimensfrom the continentreside in Eu- tant to have local, up-to-date, information on rope or the United States,the publicationof Af- which to basepriority-setting, and to incorpo- rican data from outside the continent seems to rate views of all local stakeholders to ensure have slowedin recentyears, maybe because of conservationrecommendations are implement- a surprising and unfortunate reluctanceto ed. Further, it is essentialthat the biological make data available.A happy exceptionis the data are integratedwith socioeconomicdata to outstandingBirds oJ:AJ:rica series (Brown et al. determine conservationpriorities for the real 1982, Urban et al. 1986, 1997; Fry et al. 1988, world. One tool that hasbeen successfully used Keith et al. 1992, Fry and Keith 2000). Encour- to bring suchparticipation into a rigorouspri- agingly,the rapid growth of the internetin Af- ority-setting framework is the Conservation rica (for example,the hundred fold increasein Priority-settingWorkshop (Hannah et al. 1998), PC usersin Nigeria in the last two years) sug- with key African examplesto datebeing from gests that increasingquantities of bird data Madagascar (1995, Antanarvario), the Upper should become available within the continent Guinea forests(1999, Elmina), and the Congo and globally on the World Wide Web over the basin (2000, Libreville). Where less data exist next few years (Sugdenand Pennisi2000). That the trend hasbeen to focussuch meetings onto will necessitatethe implementation of careful underlying science,as with recent workshops standardsto prevent misuse (e.g. commercial for the EasternArc (1997,Morogoro), Ethiopia resale)of data (Graves2000), but suchdangers (1999, Addis Ababa), and the Sahel (2000, Ba- are minimal in the African context. mako). Conversely--and possibly most suc- Planningissues.--As ornithological data are cessfully-where high-quality data are avail- collectedand becomeavailable, the next key is- able, comprehensiveconservation plans can be sue facing African bird conservationis to put compiled,incorporating cutting-edge science thosedata to use in conservationplanning. At into numerous stakeholder workshops. The a global scale,several conservation organiza- only African exampleto date is the CAPE plan tions have taken the lead in integrating bird for SouthAfrica's Cape Fynbos(Cowling et al. and other biodiversity data with information 1999a). Major regions lacking any significant July2001] Perspectivesin Ornithology 577 prioritization exerciseto date includeNorth Af- ecologyinto conservationstrategy (Cowling et rica, the Sahara, the southern African miombo al. 1999b).One obviousecological process that woodlands, the Kalahari and Karoo, the An- has yet to be satisfactorilyaddressed is migra- gola Scarp, the Horn of Africa, and, most im- tion (Nicholls 1998), despite the high profile of portant, the Albertine Rift. the -200 bird speciesthat breed in Europe and Hardest of all is setting priorities for site- winter in Africa (Moreau 1972). Important Bird specific conservation.For birds, undoubtedly Areas do that to somedegree by includingsites the most successful work at that level has been holding congregations of individual birds BirdLife International's "Important Bird Are- (Bennunand Fishpool1998), but a method for as" (IBAs) program (Bennun and Fishpool measuringthe irreplaceabilityof stopoversites 1998). Using four criteria--the presence of to migrants--and the severity of species-spe- globally threatened,restricted-range, or - cific threats to such species--remains elusive. restrictedspecies, or of major congregationsof Another, more insidious, ecological process individuals--to identify sites, that prograin that should be considered is "relaxation": areas has so far publishedsite-conservation priorities that have lost extensivehabitat in recent years for Ethiopia (Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural are likely to continue losing speciesover at History Society1996); southernAfrica includ- least a century,necessitating proactive conser- ing Botswana,Lesotho, Namibia, SouthAfrica, vation to halt those losses (Brooks et al. 1999). Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (Barnes1998); Mad- Linking these issuesis the increasingrealiza- agascar (ZICOMA 1999); Egypt (Baha el Din tion that many speciesmigrate evenwithin the 1999);and Kenya (Bennunand Njoroge 1999). Afrotropics,for examplealtitudinally, and that Directories for a number of other countries are many local extinctionsare occurring as eleva- in preparation,and a regionaldirectory, which riohal gradientsof habitat are lost (Burgessand documentsall sites of global significancefor Mlingwa 1998). birds acrossAfrica, is scheduledfor publication Implementationissues.--The third set of chal- in 2001. Some national accounts have had to be lenges facing avian conservationin Africa in- reviewed through desk study due to financial volves translating strategy into action on the and logistical constraints(Fishpool 2001), po- ground.We argue that the fundamentalcore of tentially removing the critical local participa- conservationimplementation must be the strict tion from the process.That problem is being protectionof irreplaceablebiodiversity. How- circumventedboth by ensuringcomprehensive ever, we stressthat for suchstrict protectionto in-country review of the desk studies and by be both practical and morally defensible,the planning extensiveground-truthing in the near needsof the peopleaffected must be addressed. future. Anotherpotentially major criticism,es- The justification for strict protection is sim- pecially relevantat suchfine scales(Reid 1998), ple: uncertaintyin the ecologyand economyof is that IBAs may be insufficient to conservebio- resourceexploitation is too great (Ludwig et al. diversity more generally.Indeed, studieshave 1993). If any mistakesare made in the harvest- shown only poor congruencebetween birds ing of small-rangedand critically endangered and other groupsin both Cameroon(Lawton et speciesor their habitats,not only are they lost al. 1998) and (van Jaarsveldtet al. locally,but also globally. Extreme examplesof 1998). However, where comprehensivecross- such speciesinclude Geronticuseremita (Brin- taxonomicnational data exist, as for Uganda dley et al. 1995), Eutriorchisastur (Thorstrom (Howard et al. 2000), it has been shown that and Watson 1997), and Turdushelleri (Brooks et conservationpriorities for birds representother al. 1998), whereas irreplaceableAfrican avian taxa remarkablywell (Howard et al. 1998). Al- habitats include the last remnants of forest on though the verdict is not yet out, the current Silo Toms (Atkinson et al. 1991) and the East consensusis that although conservationprior- African coast (Burgess2000), and Madagas- ities for birds will never manage to represent car's Lake Aloatra (Hawkins et al. 2000). all biodiversity,they are a valid surrogatein the Critically, however, that strict conservation absence of better information on other taxa cannot take place without coveringits oppor- (Brooks et al. 200lb). tunity coststo the peopleliving in the vicinity A final planning issueof key importanceto (Jameset al. 1999a). That is the case from both bird conservation in Africa is incorporating a moral standpoint--in striving for equity and 578 Perspectivesin Ornithology [Auk,Vol. 118 redressing global resource disparities--and of nonconsumptiveuse of bird resources.The from a practical one--in avoiding local resis- most commonrealization of that is throughin- tance to conservation (Norton-Griffiths and ternational nature tourism, which can bring Southey1995). The opportunity costsof con- large economic benefits in some situations servationwill increaseprimarily with human (Sweeting1999). Safari tourism to the parks of population density,which is unfortunatebe- South Africa (Preston and Fuggle 1988) and causethere is a strongcorrelation between the Kenya(Moran 1994) is the classicexample; and distributions of people and of biodiversity specifically,for instance,bird tourism can be acrossAfrica (Balmford et al. 2001). As a result, seen in Kenya'sArabuko-Sokoke forest (Fan- overall cost of bird conservation in Africa will shawe1994). More significantin the long-term, doubtlessbe high, certainly an order of mag- however, is use of bird resources to build con- nitude or more greater than current expendi- stituencies for conservation,through small- ture (James et al. 1999b). Nevertheless, a few scalelocal ecotourism.An outstandingexam- examplesdo illustrate that such conservation ple is the constructionof a canopywalkway at tacticsare both possibleand affordable.One of Kakum National Park in Ghana:since its open- the most direct examplesis the implementation ing in 1995, the park has jumped to receiving of a conservation concession for Odzala, in more than 20,000 visitors per year, many of Congo Brazzaville, whereby logging conces- them Ghanaian, including large numbers of sions have been bought out to put the forest schoolchildren (Schildkrout 1996). The EastAf- into the conservationsystem (Aveling 2000). A rica Natural History Society'sfamous "Wednes- less direct instance comes from Bwindi, in day Morning Bird Walks" are anothercase of Uganda, where a trust fund to cover the costs suchlocal ecotourism (Njuguna 1989). of education and other community services Such educationalactivities clearly overlap around the reserve has been established to with the issue of capacitybuilding. There is compensatefor lack of exploitationof the forest strongevidence that support to local conserva- (Hamilton et al. 2000). tion nongovernmentalorganizations, for exam- In caseswhere the irreplaceabilityof species ple throughBirdLife International's Africa part- and habitatsis relativelylow, a rather different nership, stimulates motivation, transparency approach is possible.Here, costs of making and, critically,effective implementation (Hagen mistakesare relatively low, and so the most ef- et al. 2000).One particularlyexciting activity of fectiveconservation tactic may be to encourage thosegroups is developmentof "Site Support sustainability in natural resourceharvest. The Groups"of interestedlocal people for IBAs.An- most immediate examplesof that are in direct other key mechanismfor the nurturing of con- speciesofftake, suchas the trophy hunting of servationornithology in Africa is through the sandgrouse in Kenya (Simiyu and Bennun Pan-AfricanOrnithological Congress, which in- 2001). Equally valid is exploitationof renew- creasinglyserves as a vehiclefor the exchangeof able resources,for example,of grassfor graz- bird conservation information between African ing, papyrus for thatch,or wood for charcoal scientists(Thompson 2001). Meanwhile, most (Shackleton1993). At a broaderlandscape level, African nations have now established bird clubs that strategycould involve developing sustain- (Fanshawe1994), which further stimulatepro- able managementof entire watersheds,and of gressin conservationand ornithology,especial- planning conservationcorridors to link irre- ly by attractingand retainingbright, youngna- placeablesites togetherwith a matrix of "bio- tionals into the field. diversity-friendly" landuse (Dobson et al. The broadestconservation action must be pol- 1999). National and internationaldevelopment icy-level interventions.International conven- agenciescreate an important synergy for con- tionssuch as the Conventionon Migratory Spe- servation implementation in such situations, cies, the Convention to Combat Desertification, becauseoften they have exactlythe samegoals the International Wetland and Waterfowl Con- of sustainabilityin resourceexploitation (Ben- vention (Ramsar),and especiallythe Conven- edict and Chrisroffersen 1996). tionon Biological Diversity (CBD) have yet to in- Another bird conservation tactic, which can corporatebird conservationfully intopolicy. For be applied successfullyregardless of the irre- example,whereas 32 of the 50 African countries placeability of the biodiversity present,is that are party to the CBD reports submittedto the July2001] Perspectivesin Ornithology 579

Fourth Conference of the Parties by August of external data on the Birdsof Angola, while the 1999, few of those included accurate information civil instability of the country remains too about threatened or endemic birds (Herkenrath great too allow any work actually in-country,is 1999). Other potentially useful policy-level a casein point. Despite that, however, conser- mechanismscould includeestablishment of key vation in Africa will ultimately depend on es- conservationareas as UNESCO World Heritage tablishment of stable societies within which it Sites, and development of debt-for-nature is feasible for sustainable conservation to be swaps.Conservation finance is also moving to- conductedwith and by the peopleliving in and wards large scale,longer-term models, especial- around areas of high biodiversity. ly through establishmentof conservationtrust Conclusions. What, then, is the outlook for funds, but there have also been some recent ad- bird conservationin Africa? Against a frequent vancesin availability of short-termfunding in backdropof poverty and violence,the conser- priority areasfor conservation,such as through vation of Africa's avifauna seemsnear impos- the Critical EcosystemsPartnership Fund (Dal- sible. Nevertheless, there are success stories, ton 2000). and, in a few cases, negative conservation There is no doubt that conservation tactics trendsare evenbeginning to be reversed.Over- must be implemented with extreme care; con- all, in our opinion, we have made major in- servation's failures to date outnumber its suc- roads in tackling the data issuesand had some cesses(Oates 1999). Noss (1997) gives examples successwith the planning issues,but have yet where poorly planned conservationcompen- to have a significant, continent-wide effect at sation schemeshave merely attracted immi- the implementation level. We must meet this grants into the area, with the net effect of in- challengefor bird conservationto succeedin creasing pressure (the so-called "honeypot Africa. effect"). A further commonproblem with sus- tainable harvesting schemesis a lack of moni- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS toring to ensure that sustainability is indeed Thanksto JohnPilgrim and Luc Lensfor their com- being approached(Kremen et al. 1994). Even ments on the article. For more information about the ecotourismmust be developedwith great care, internet on the African continent,see: http://www. to ensurethat revenuesfrom the visitors go to hitechmarketing.co.za/ stats_africa.htm. the residents in whose hands the future of the resource rests (Wells 1996), and to ensure that LITERATURE CITED ecotourism itself does not degrade resources (Onyeanusi1986). Newmark and Hough (2000) ATKINSON,P. W., N. PEET,AND J. ALEXANDER.1991. suggestthat conservationprograms in the con- The status and conservation of the endemic bird tinent will be most effectiveif they are flexible speciesof Sao Tom• and Principe, West Africa. enough to apply different tacticsin different Bird Conservation International 1:255-282. placesand situations,a conclusionwith which AVELING, C. 2000. Extension du parc national we firmly agree. d'Odzala au Congo.Canop•e 16:10. BAHAEL DIN, S. M. 1999.Directory of Important Bird Nevertheless,the most seriouschallenges to Areas in Egypt. BirdLife International, Cairo, effective conservationimplementation in Afri- Egypt. ca remain external.Population growth is an ob- BALMFORD,A., J. MOORE, T. BROOKS,N. BURGESS,L. vious one.Although population growth across A. HANSEN, P. WILLIAMS, AND C. RAHBEK. 2001. the continent is very fast, however, absolute Conservation conflicts across Africa. Science population is still relatively low, presentingan 291:2616-2619. opportunity to conduct large-scaleconserva- BARNES,K. N. 1998. The Important Bird Areas of tion before populationsgrow. Other key exter- Southern Africa. BirdLife South Africa, Pretoria. nal factorsinclude corruption and greed,polit- BENEDICT,F., AND L. E. CHRISTOFFERSEN.1996. Envi- romnent and Developmentin Africa: Participa- ical and socialinstability, poverty and disease, and war. Such unrest continues to affect much tory Processesand New Partnerships.Scandina- vian SeminarCollege, Copenhagen, Denmark. of Africa, and can set back conservationby BENNUN,L. A., AND L. D.C. FISHPOOL.1998. Impor- many years(Kanyamibwa 1998). That is not to tant Bird Areas in Africa. Ostrich 69:150-153. say that all bird-conservationactivity in such BENNUN, L., AND P. NJOROGE.1996. Birds to Watch in regions must stop--Dean's (2000) compilation EastAfrica: A PreliminaryRed Data List.Centre 580 Perspectivesin Ornithology [Auk,Vol. 118

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