Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 i A Publication of the Institute of Marine Affairs

Hilltop Lane, Chaguaramas, Trinidad, West Indies

http://www.ima.gov.tt Foreword

The Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) is the only multi-disciplinary coastal, marine and environmental research organization in the CARICOM States established to conduct inter-disciplinary studies. IMAwas established and incorporated in accordance with the provisions of an Act of Parliament, No. 15 of 1976, now Chapter 37:01 in the Revised Laws of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and became operational in 1978. For more than 35 years, the IMA has pioneered and participated in numerous programmes locally and regionally, and advised the Government of Trinidad and Tobago on the sustainable management of the coastal and marine resources. IMA’s mission is to conduct and foster research and to provide advice for the sustainable management of the coastal and marine areas and resources of Trinidad and Tobago.

The IMA uses widely accepted and published scientific methodologies to conduct its research and monitoring programme. This State of the Marine Environment Report attempts to convert sound scientific data into pertinent information that can be used by decision-makers, policy makers and the wider public to inform development planning. Trinidad and Tobago’s marine and coastal environment is extremely important for its development and sustainability. IMA is willing to partner with sister agencies, local and regional academic institutions and community based organisations to foster science-based management, and to support the Science-Policy nexus.

Mrs. Toylan Arneaud Director (Ag) Institute of Marine Affairs

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 iii Acknowledgements

The State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 is a publication of the Institute of Marine Affairs, with contributions from Dr. Rahanna Juman, Mr. Kahlil Hassanali, Dr. Farahnaz Solomon, Dr. Darryl Banjoo, Mr. Attish Kanhai, Ms. Wendy Nelson, Ms. Christine Bullock, Mr. Sheldon Ramoutar, Mr. Christopher Alexis and Ms. Rachael Amoroso.

Photographs were provided by Mr. Jonathan Gomez and maps were prepared by Mr. Hamish Asmath. The design and layout of the report was done by Mr. Karl Doyle with the assistance of Mr. Brent Yates. The report was reviewed by Dr. Floyd Homer, Dr. Beverly Foster-Hinds and Ms. Lorraine Barrow.

The IMA wishes to thank all its technical and support staff for their contribution to the production of this report. Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary 1

2. Introduction 4

3. Approach 5

4. Pollution 7 Total Suspended Solids 8 Hydrocarbons 9 Nutrient Pollution 10 Heavy Metals 11 Bathing Beach Water Quality 14 North Coast of Trinidad 15 West Coast of Trinidad 17

5. Beaches and Bays 21

6. Mangrove Swamp 29

7. Seagrass Beds 35

8. Coral Reefs 39

9. Soft-bottom Benthic Community 45

10. Marine Fisheries 47

11. Emerging Issues 53 Climate Change 54 Sargassum 55 Lionfish 56

12. Policy Intervention 59

13. Conclusion 63

14. Selected References 65

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 v

Executive Summary

The State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 pro- Coastal water pollution has also partially influenced vides a scientifically grounded understanding of the the observed decline of important ecosystems such as condition of some of Trinidad and Tobago’s important coral reefs and seagrass beds. coastal and marine ecosystems, habitats and species. It also details how the status of these resources have Many coral reefs around Tobago have been experienc- been, and are being affected by the range of natural ing phase shifts in benthic cover away from hard coral and human pressures to which they are subjected. In to species more tolerant of nutrient enriched water. compiling this report therefore, some degree of insight Similarly, waning health and loss of Thalassia domi- has been presented into the future prospects for the nated seagrass beds in both Tobago and Trinidad, have country’s coastal and marine environment should a been linked to poor water quality from land-based pol- ‘business as usual’ scenario be perpetuated into the lution (nutrients and sediments). Loss of seagrass beds future. would result in loss of their ecosystem services such as coastal protection and habitat for fish and other Pollution of coastal waters has proven to be an ongo- marine species. There is an urgent need to manage, ing and pervasive problem. In parts of the Gulf of Paria and in some areas, rehabilitate our seagrass communi- along Trinidad’s west coast the problem is particular- ty to ensure that they continue to provide a safe haven ly acute. However, country-wide, areas with elevated for rich biodiversity, and protect our coastline. parameters such as total suspended solids, hydrocarbons, nutrients, faecal coliform and heavy metals have At the same time, a third major coastal ecosystem, man- been identified. This pollution problem has been found groves, has been shown to be undergoing degradation to be mainly land-based; where run off and effluent and habitat loss, not so much because of pollution, but from terrestrial sources and activities have negatively through land-use change and development. impacted coastal sediment and water quality. Health and safety standards at several bathing beaches in Trinidad and Tobago have been compromised and some shellfish species may be unsafe for human consumption.

Sediment plumes emanating from the Maraval River and coastal reclamation activity in Port-of-Spain

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 1 Waning health and loss of Thalassia dominated seagrass beds in both Tobago and Trinidad, have been linked to poor water quality from land-based pollution (nutrients and sediments)

Loss of mangrove forest will increase threat to human is already a problem. Accelerated erosion in the future safety and increase damage to shorelines from coast- as a result of climate change and sea level rise has al hazards such as erosion, flooding, and storm waves the potential to put critical coastal infrastructure and and surges. It will decrease coastal water quality, coastal communities at further risk. The ongoing long reduce biodiversity, eliminate fish and crustacean term coastal monitoring program, which needs to be nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal strengthened, is essential for continued identification habitats, and eliminate a major resource for human of at risk areas, and the designing and implementation communities that traditionally rely on mangroves for of effective ecosystem-based solutions. This would numerous products and services. Furthermore, man- inform development planning in the coastal zone. grove destruction can release large quantities of stored carbon and exacerbate global warming trends. The Within the context of the ocean-based economy, this range of essential ecosystem services these ecologi- report has also shown the imperative need to safeguard cal communities provide cannot be overstated. Thus, Trinidad and Tobago’s fisheries resources – a source of reasserted efforts must be made to alleviate negative livelihood and nutrition for some of this country’s most pressures on them and boost their resilience. marginalised groups and communities. Several species of commercially important fish have been found to be Increased ecological resilience i.e. the capacity of an fully exploited or overexploited. However, legislation ecosystem to respond to perturbations by resisting needed to rectify the virtually open access nature of damage and recovering quickly, is especially needed in this country’s fisheries and modernise fisheries prac- the face of climate change and its associated hazards. tices to make them more sustainable, is in draft form For instance, climate change is expected to worsen and needs to be urgently laid in Parliament. Fish and incidences of bleaching as a result of elevated sea sur- shell fish nursery habitats such as mangrove swamps face temperatures on Tobago’s reefs, and increase the and seagrass beds also need to be conserved and/ or occurrence of diseases, making the reef less attractive restored to ensure food security. for tourism. Furthermore, the threats posed by climate change may become particularly evident when Updating relevant policy and legislation to enhance it comes to coastal erosion. This report has identified the coastal and marine governance framework, mak- a few areas around the country where coastal erosion ing it more effective in the context of Trinidad and

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 2 Tobago’s current and projected future reality, is essential if we are to treat with issues highlighted inthis State of the Marine Environment Report. Effective implementation of formulated plans and policies also hinge on the adequate resourcing of management and regulatory agencies and ensuring that these bodies, in partnership with civil society, genuinely co-ordinate actions and activities across sectors, space and time. Monitoring and evaluation of management interventions are also critical to facilitate adaptive management in an uncertain future. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) explicitly seeks this. The adoption of an ICZM Policy and the mainstreaming into practice of well-established ICZM principles would aid Trinidad and Tobago to sustainably use and develop its ocean and coastal resources while protecting the integrity of critical ecosystems and the services they provide.

Right: Coral bleaching events are expected to become more frequent due to elevated sea surface temperature associated with climate change

Bottom: Coastal erosion, which can be exacerbated by impacts due to climate change, threatens coastal infrastucture such as roads

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 3 Introduction

Trinidad and Tobago is the southern-most country in the Caribbean archipelagic chain. Trinidad has a surface area of 4,828 km2 while Tobago is substantially smaller with an area of 300 km2. Collectively the country has a coastline length of 704 km. The country’s jurisdictional sovereignty and responsibility extends beyond the terrestrial into the marine through its archipelagic waters, territorial sea and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The collective areal extent of these encompasses 77,502 km2 of waters surrounding the islands. Trinidad and Tobago therefore has a land to sea ratio of 1:15, which indicates the importance of the marine and coastal sphere to the country (Draft ICZM Policy, 2014).

The country’s economy has long been supported by coastal and marine resources, primarily oil and gas, tourism and fisheries. Data from the Central Statistical Office (CSO) has shown that for the past 10 years, the industrial sector has accounted for more than 50% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while the service sector (including tourism and shipping) has accounted for about 40% GDP, but more than 60% of the labour force. Tourism is especially important in Tobago as approximately 50% of employment is tourism related. The fishing sector, although contributing much less to GDP, cannot be underestimated, as it provides a source of livelihood, subsistence and nutrition, especially to some of the more vulnerable in society. The current population stands at 1,349,667 persons (CSO, 2016) and it is estimated that almost 80% of all socio-economic activities and 70% of the population are located along the coast (CSO, 2007).

New economic policies, aimed at diversifying the economy, have seen investments in the tourism, agriculture, aquaculture and maritime sectors, all of which depend on a healthy coastal environment. However, much of the nation’s coastal resources have already been destroyed, degraded or over-exploited to accommodate a growing population and their economic needs. Climate change, sea level rise and heightened erosion in some areas also exacerbate the problems associated with many interests competing for limited coastal space.

In September 2015, the government of Trinidad and Tobago joined the rest of the world and committed to 17 Global Goals to achieve 3 extraordinary things in the next 15 years - end extreme poverty, fight inequality & injus- tice and fix climate change. These 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), unlike Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) derived in 2000, take into consideration the environment and its link to economic and social development. Goal # 14 - Life below waters - speaks to the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. This goal has 10 targets one of which speaks to sustainably managing and protecting marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, by strengthening their resilience, and taking restoration action in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans by 2020. In addition, the PNM’s manifesto which highlights the need to conserve the country’s natural assets has become government policy, and the government is in the process of developing a National 2030 Vision.

In recent times, there has been increased awareness of the value of the services our coastal and ocean ecosystems provide, and their significant contribution to our national economy. The concept of the ‘blue economy’ which refers to “living with the ocean and from the ocean in a sustainable relation” (Behnam, 2013; pg. 14) is being given more consideration. Strengthening a national awareness of the role played by the oceans and its existence, and the need to develop an integrated coastal and ocean policy through advocacy and education, for- mal and informal and at all levels, is the gateway to the future (Behnam, 2013). To achieve this, the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) has to translate data collected using standardized and widely accepted scientific methods into pertinent information (knowledge products) that can be used by the decision-makers and civil society when developing policies. This State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 is one such knowledge product.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 4 Approach

The data provided in this report were collected under IMA’s on-going monitoring, and research projects using standardized scientific methods. The nutrients in the water were determined following Grasshoff et al. (1983) and Strickland and Parson (1972). Analyses for heavy metals were performed using the Perkin-Elmer AAnalyst 100 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer with deuterium background correction. Petroleum hydrocarbons were measured using chrysene standard and UV/ fluorescence spectrometric analysis (IOC, 1984). Microbiological analyses were done using rapid methods (Colilert-18, Colilert and Enterolert) and Standard Methods ISO 9308 (membrane filtration) in accordance with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Beach profiles were conducted using standard survey leveling techniques. Coral reefs were surveyed using both video and photo transect methods and the National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)/Nova South-eastern University Oceanographic Centre’s Coral Point Count with Excel extensions program (CPCe) Analysis. Seagrass sampling was done using methodology provided by CARICOMP (2000) while mangroves were mapped using GIS software (ArcGIS 9.0), topographic maps and IKONOS satellite imagery. In situations where IMA does not have primary data, information from reference sources was used.

IMA's researchers collecting field data

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 5

Pollution Pollutants that find their way into Trinidad and Tobago’s rivers through direct dumping or land based run-off can travel downstream and enter the marine environment. Our actions on land “far away”, although not necessarily immediately apparent, can have an impact on the marine environment. In fact, it is estimated that more than 75% of marine pollution in the Caribbean is due to land-based sources and activities.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 7 Pollution

Pollutants that find their way into Trinidad and Tobago’s rivers through direct dumping or land based run-‐off can travel downstream and enter the . marine environment ur O actions on land “far away”, although not necessarily immediately apparent, can have an impact on the marine environment. In fact, Temperature,it is estimated pH and dissolved that oxygen more concentration than 75% in of coastal marine waters pollution are generally in the Caribbean is due to land-‐based within the sources USEPA (1995) acceptableand activities. limits Temperature, for the protection pH of aquatic and life dissolved as well as oxygen the Trinidad concentration and Tobago in coastal waters waterare generally pollution rules (Table 1). within However, the poor water USEPA quality (1995) is noted acceptable at major limits for the rivers protection receiving of land-based aquatic discharge life as well the Trinidad such as Diego and Martin, Maraval,Tobago Caroni, water Madame pollution Espagnole, rules Couva, (Table 1). However, Guaracara, poor Cipero water and quality is Godineau. noted at The major Gulf of rivers Paria (GoP) receiving on the westland coast-‐based of Trinidad, discharge receives such excessive as pollution Diego loading Martin, from Maraval, agriculture, industrial, Caroni, and Madame domestic, Espagnole, Couva, Guaracara sources. ThisCipero has resulted and in Godineau. several The hot Gulf spot areas of Paria (GocharacterizedP) on the primarily west by coast elevated of levels Trinidad, of suspend receives solids, excessive pollution nutrients loading from agriculture, industrial, and domestic sources. This has resulted in several hot spot areas and hydrocarbons. characterized primarily by elevated levels of suspend solids, nutrients and hydrocarbons.

TableTable 1: Summary 1: Summary of physical of physical measurements measurements from the Gulf of Paria, from Trinidad the Gulf of Paria, Trinidad Dissolved Oxygen pH (mg/L) Temperature (°C ) Salinity ( ppt.)

Average (n=250)α 7.84 6.01 28.1 29.22

Minimum 7.22 0.51 26.0 0.88

Maximum 8.23 8.53 30.9 36.20

should not exceed 3.0°C 6.5-‐8.5 > 5.0 N/A US EPA 1995 Limits above ambient

Trinidad Water Pollution should not exceed 3.0°C 6.0-‐9.0 > 4.0 N/A Rules* above ambient

α Data from 250 measurements in the Gulf of Paria from Banjoo and Ramoutar ( 2016), Banjoo, (2013a) and Banjoo (2013b).

* Quantity, condition or concentration at which substance or parameter is define as a pollutant. Values not within ranges are considered pollutant.

N/A -‐ No Assessment.

Total Suspended Solids

TotalExcessive Suspended total suspended Solids solids (TSS) and sediment pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad Excessiveparticularly total suspended near the solids mouth (TSS) of and the sediment Caroni 30.5 River mg/L in (west the Bon coast) Accord and Lagoon the to 66 North Oropouche River (east coast) mg/L in where levels greater than ve 50 mg/L ha been recorded. Levels of TSS found in the GoP are pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad partic- La Guira Bay. Although southwest Tobago does not representative of ambient conditions at some locations and elevated at others locations. TSS varied ularlyfrom near 7.0 the L mg/mouth to 64.0 of theL mg/ in Caroni the dry River season (west with coast) an receive average riverine of 16.2 + 11.3 flow, mg/L and high from TSS may 9.2 beL mg/ to accounted for and132.1 the North mg/L in Oropouche the wet season River (east with coast) an where average lev of 21.5 +- 22.2 by resuspension mg/L. TSS levels of bottom in sediments Southwest in shallow Tobago were areas els quite greater variable than 50 mg/L ranging have been between recorded. 0.5 Levels to 30.5 with turbulent mg/L in conditions. the Bon There Accord is no standard Lagoon to 66 mg/L in La Guira Bay. level of TSS found in the GoP are representative of ambi- for TSS in marine waters, but the levels should not ent conditions at some locations and elevated at other affect photosynthetic organisms adversely, by reducing locations. TSS varied from 7.0 mg/L to 64.0 mg/L in the the available sunlight needed for primary productivity. dry season with an average of 16.2 + 11.3 mg/L and Excessive TSS (> 50.0 mg/L) can result the smothering from 9.2 mg/L to 132.1 mg/L in the wet season with an of benthic organisms, reduced photosynthetic activi- average of 21.5 + 22.2 mg/L. TSS levels in Southwest ty, low dissolved oxygen and reduced species diversity Tobago were quite variable ranging between 0.5 to and abundance.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 8 Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon pollution results from mainly acciden- Analysis of fish and shellfish tissue samples for tal spills via transport, and oil and gas operations. In AAPH in 2014 indicate low levels that ranged 0.07 December 2013, a major spill of refined oil (>7000 - 2.73 ppm in the edible/ muscle tissues of Carite barrels) contaminated the Southwestern Peninsula of (Scomberomorus brasiliensis), Cavali (Caranx hippos), Trinidad from Pointe-a-Pierre to Cedros. Generally, Croaker (Micropogonias spp.), Mullet (Mugil curema), petroleum hydrocarbon levels in water and sediment Red Snapper (Lutjanus synagris), Salmon (Cynoscion are higher on the west coast compared to other coast- jamaicensis) and Shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri and al areas of Trinidad and Tobago. Dissolved dispersed Panaeus schmitti) samples. There is no standard for petroleum hydrocarbon (DDPH) concentrations above AAPHs in biota tissues, but a comparison is made to a 10.0 parts per billion (ppb) are found close to oil and study in 1986 were levels were relatively similar rang- gas operations on the west coast whereas concentra- ing from 0.25 - 1.79ppm. tions less than 1.0 ppb are considered ambient, and found in other areas away from petroleum sourc- Analysis of oysters (Crassotrea rhizophorae) tissue es. Sediment quality off Pointe-a-Pierre, La Brea and collected at the Rousillac Swamp in 2014 for AAPH Granville indicated hots spot areas with elevated lev- indicate elevated levels ranging between 10.58 and els (>100.0 ppm) of hydrocarbons as adsorbed and 38.59 ppm. A history of oil contamination of oysters absorbed petroleum hydrocarbons (AAPH). Elevated in this area is established from a 2002 study. Caution levels of AAPH (>100.0 ppm) were also found in areas of should be taken when consuming oysters since these Port of Spain and Chaguaramas likely due to accidental organisms are filter feeders that can bio-accumulate spills from shipping activity. Levels less than 2.4 ppm toxic hydrocarbons. AAPH measures polycyclic aromat- in sediments are considered ambient and are found in ic hydrocarbons which are known carcinogens (US EPA, coastal areas not affected by petroleum hydrocarbons. 1995) that can be harmful to human health if ingested.

Oil spill cleanup at Coffee Beach, La Brea, 2013

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 9 Nutrient Pollution Coastal areas off the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and which is the base for marine food webs and the support the Caroni River mouth receive excessive nutrients, for fisheries. Average chlorophyll “a” values found in and have toxic ammonia levels exceeding the USEPA the GoP are above the value of 3.20 µg/L reported by 1995 acceptable limit of 1.43 µM for the protection Morrel and Corredor (2001), consistent with eutrophic of aquatic life (Table 2). Higher levels of ammonia and (nutrient rich) coastal waters. In comparison, marine chlorophyllof Trinidad “a” are found averaged in the GoP 0.08 compared µg/L s which suggest to low the primary water productivity in the East in Coast the of Trinidad East averaged Coast compared to 0.08 µg/L East coastthe of West Trinidad Coast. (Table 2). Chlorophyll “a” is a which suggests low primary productivity in the East common measure of total phytoplanktonic biomass Coast compared to the West Coast.

Table 2:Table Summary 2: dataSummary on dissolved data ammoniaon dissolved and chlorophyll ammonia “a” and concentrations chlorophyll in “a” marine concentrations waters of Trinidad’s in marine West and East Coast and Southwest Tobagowaters of Trinidad’s West and East Coast and Southwest Tobago Metric or guideline Location α Ammonia (µM) Chlorophyll “a” (µg/L) value

Average (n=68) 0.72 3.52 Standard Deviation 1.52 4.51 West Coast, Gulf of Paria Min. 0.01 0.11 Max. 9.05 31.83 Average (n =120) 0.34 0.08 Standard Deviation 0.39 0.13 East Cost Trinidad Min. 0.01 0.01 Max. 1.97 0.65 Average (n =6) 1.74 5.95 Standard Deviation 2.99 2.80 Point Lisas Bay Min. 0.01 3.11 Max. 7.63 10.83 Average (n =5) 2.01 2.52 Standard Deviation 3.96 0.70 Caroni River mouth Min. 0.01 1.60 Max. 9.05 3.19 Average (n=46) 1.3 1.0 Standard Deviation 0.65 1.8 Bon Accord Lagoon, Tobago Min 0.01 0.0 Max 6.0 5.5 Average (n=23) 1.1 0.32 Standard Deviation 1.0 0.49 Kilgwyn Bay, Tobago Min 0.12 0 Max 3.24 1.6 US EPA 1995 Limits 1.43 N/A

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 10 In Tobago, the coastal environment is more sensitive to be a problem as nitrate levels ranged between 0 to nutrient pollution as nitrogen enrichment enhances - 9.9 µM, ammonia levels ranged between 0 - 6 µM the proliferation of faster growing phytoplankton, epi- and Chlorophyll “a” concentrations ranged between 0 phytic and macro-algae that compete with seagrasses - 5.5 µg/ L in the Bon Accord Lagoon, which receives and coral reefs for light and space (Hauxwell et al. effluent from a sewage treatment plant. The USEPA 2001; Deegan et al. 2002). Coral reef and seagrasses 1995 acceptable limit of 1.43 µM for ammonia for the community changes are initiated by nutrient enrich- protection of aquatic life was exceeded at many sites ment above some threshold level (Birkeland, 1987), sampled in southwest Tobago both on the Leeward however these threshold levels are still contentious. (Bon Accord Lagoon, Buccoo Bay and Culloden Bay) In Southwest Tobago, land-based pollution continues and Windward coast (La Guira and Kilgwyn Bay). Heavy Metals Heavy metals have been identified as major pollutants This classification was based on how concentrations since human health disasters in the late 1970s were of total recoverable vanadium, chromium, manga- attributed to the release of mercury and cadmium efflu- nese, iron, cobalt, nickel, arsenic, barium and lead in ent into the environment. They encompass a range of sediments compared with metal concentrations at elements including chromium, nickel, manganese and the most pristine stations in the assessment or, where iron, as well as the more toxic mercury, cadmium and available, with Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines lead. Heavy metals occur naturally in the environment (CCME, 2007). Results of the assessment suggest that but anthropogenic activities increase the bioavailable heavy metals in sediments at some locations within metal pool. While some of these metals such as cop- the coastal area of Trinidad and Tobago may have the per, zinc and selenium are essential elements that are potential to adversely affect aquatic life. required for important biochemical functions in organisms, all metals can have toxic effects when present in Sediment quality is poorest in the GoP, off the west excess. Trace metals are persistent in the environment coast of Trinidad (Figure 1). Many anthropogen- and can bio-accumulate in aquatic organisms, posing ic activities occur on this coast and in its associated a threat to consumers, including man. Adverse effects watersheds. These include manufacturing, light and on human health may include neurological, systemic, heavy industries such as plants producing iron and carcinogenic effects and birth defects, depending on steel, iron carbide, power, gas, ammonia fertiliser, urea the metal involved. and methanol, liquid natural gas, cement; petroleum refining, oil and gas exploration and production as Coastal sediments are considered important reservoirs well as shipyard and yachting activities and intensive for heavy metals, as metals tend to become adsorbed agriculture (IMA/ UNEP, 2008). The main urban areas, onto suspended particles and are scavenged from the residential/ housing areas, commercial areas, employ- water column into bottom sediments (Daskalakis and ment centres and the two main seaports in Trinidad are O’Connor, 1995; Karickhoff, 1984), but may become also located on this coast. Other factors which may be re-suspended due to storm events, activities such contributing to sediment quality include the sediment as dredging and burrowing by benthic organisms. Total Organic Carbon (TOC)/ organic matter content Sediments also provide a time-integrated indication and the semi-enclosed/ sheltered nature of the water of metal contamination (Schropp et al., 1990). The body. TOC is the carbon found in organic matter that most recent island-wide assessment of heavy met- can be used as an indicator of organic matter, which als in coastal sediments was conducted in 2011. Total has an affinity for heavy metals. Only one area off the recoverable heavy metal concentrations in coastal sed- west coast is classed as “good”- this is in the southwest iments from Trinidad and Tobago are shown in Figure near Cedros, where there is limited anthropogenic 1 and 2. Sediment quality was classed as “very good”, activity. “good”, “fair” or “poor” in this report.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 11 Sediment quality on the north coast of Trinidad is Sediment quality in Tobago is better than sediment generally good; only two areas near Saut d’Eau Island quality in Trinidad. There is very little industrial activ- and La Filette are classed as “fair” (Figure 1). TOC con- ity in Tobago: the economy is largely tourism-based. centrations in sediment from these areas are higher Sediments in Tobago are classed as “very good” or compared with the other areas on the coast. On the “good” except for one area near the seaport in the cap- east and south coasts of Trinidad, levels also range from ital, Scarborough (Figure 2). Harbour sediments tend “fair” to “good” (Figure 1). While some land-based to be more polluted due to the associated shipping sources and activities exist along the east and south activities (Denton et al., 2005) e.g. dredging. Harbours coasts (such as small built-up/urban areas, agriculture are also often located near more urban/ built-up areas, and fishing), there is much more marine-based anthro- so the coastal sediments are subject to greater anthropogenic activity - extensive areas off these coasts pogenic input from the associated watersheds. are used for oil and gas exploration and production. Compared with the Gulf of Paria, however, these areas are better flushed and contain more sandy/ stony sediments with lower TOC/ organic matter concentrations so there is a lower potential for accumulation of metals in the sediments.

Poor Fair Good Very good

Figure 1: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Trinidad

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 12

Poor

Fair Good Very good

Figure 2: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Tobago Figure 2: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Tobago

Bathing Beach Water Quality

Bacteriological water quality studies conducted by the IMA since 1981 reveal that some of our popular beaches are sewage-‐contaminated. Some sources of sewage contamination for beaches in Trinidad and Tobago are non-‐functional sewage treatment plants, seepage m of sewage fro pit latrines built on river banks and along the coastline, as well as from improperly constructed septic tanks and runoff from livestock farming operations. Swimming in polluted an water c cause illness. Swimmers ould c contract any illness that is spread by ingestion of -‐ faecal contaminated water and polluted waters may contain several different disease-‐causing organisms. Viruses are believed to be the major cause of swimming-‐ associated diseases such as gastroenteritis, hepatitis, respiratory ar, illness and e nose and throat ailments. Microbial diseases that can be contracted by swimmers include salmonellosis, shigellosis and infections caused by Escherichia coli bacteria. Other microbial disease causing organisms found at varying concentrations in onal recreati waters include amoeba and protozoa which cause giardiasis, amoebic dysentery, skin rashes and pink eye.

Swimming-‐related illnesses are not usually -‐ severe or life threatening. However, some cases of gastroenteritis can be serious for certain uch people, s as, infants, the elderly and those with compromised immune systems. Swimming-‐related illness can take a substantial toll in terms of convenience, comfort and -‐ the well being of affected individuals. They can also result in substantial Industrialeconomic activities, costs both onshore in terms and offshore, of lost could significantly work/sick contibute days. to heavy metal The pollution swimmer in the marine who environment-‐ contracts a sewage borne illness may

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 13 Bathing Beach Water Quality Bacteriological water quality studies conducted by the amoeba and protozoa which cause giardiasis, amoebic IMA since 1981 reveal that some of our popular beach- dysentery, skin rashes and pink eye. es are sewage-contaminated. Some sources of sewage contamination for beaches in Trinidad and Tobago are Swimming-related illnesses are not usually severe or non-functional sewage treatment plants, seepage of life-threatening. However, some cases of gastroenteri- sewage from pit latrines built on river banks and along tis can be serious for certain people, such as, infants, the coastline, as well as from improperly constructed the elderly and those with compromised immune sys- septic tanks and runoff from livestock farming opera- tems. Swimming-related illness can take a substantial tions. Swimming in polluted water can cause illness. toll in terms of convenience, comfort and the well-be- Swimmers could contract any illness that is spread by ing of affected individuals. They can also result in ingestion of faecal-contaminated water and polluted substantial economic costs in terms of lost work/sick waters may contain several different disease-caus- days. The swimmer who contracts a sewage-borne ing organisms. Viruses are believed to be the major illness may also pass the disease on to household cause of swimming-associated diseases such as gas- members, thus multiplying the effects of the polluted troenteritis, hepatitis, respiratory illness and ear, nose water. Bacteriological water quality data can indicate and throat ailments. Microbial diseases that can be whether there would be potential health risks for per- contracted by swimmers include salmonellosis, shigel- sons participating in water contact activities at a beach losis and infections caused byEscherichia coli bacteria. or bay. Data of this type are available for some of the Other microbial disease causing organisms found at beaches and bays along the north and west coast of varying concentrations in recreational waters include Trinidad (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Bathing Beaches in Trinidad

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 14 The IMA assessed bathing water quality at some of the popular beaches by determining compliance with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Quality Criteria for Water (1976), in the absence of any local bathing beach standards.

North Coast of Trinidad Maracas Beach

Maracas Bay

Maracas Bay River

North Coast Road

• Eastern section safe for bathing (blue) • Western section unsafe for bathing in the wet season as well as occasionally in the dry season (green) • Mouth of the Maracas Bay River unsafe for bathing as water quality was poor (red) • The main source of pollution for the western Maracas Beach is the sewage contaminated Maracas Bay River.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 15 Las Cuevas Bay

Las Cuevas Bay

Fish depot

North Coast Road

• Western end of the bay, a section of which is now in its second season of Blue Flag Certification, has good bathing water quality (blue) • Eastern section of Las Cuevas Bay is unsafe for bathing (red) • The main source of pollution for eastern Las Cuevas Bay is a river which discharged to the bay andis contaminated with effluent from a sewage treatment plant and waste from a fishing depot.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 16 West Coast of Trinidad

Williams Bay

Chagville Beach

Welcome Bay

Williams Bay • Water quality is good at the popular bathing area at the eastern corner, just west of ALCOA (blue) • Water quality is poor from mid bay to the popular bathing area at the western corner of Williams Bay during the wet season (green). Chagville Beach • Water quality is good at the eastern section (blue) • Western section has poor bathing water quality after periods of heavy rainfall (green). This is attributed to increased land surface runoff and storm water flow as well as increased discharge from drains and Chagville River to the beachfront. Welcome Bay • Most popular bathing location at Welcome Bay is mid bay area • Safe for bathing during the dry season (green) • Bathing water quality sometimes adversely affected in the wet season when increased rainfall levels results in increased surface runoff, storm water flow, and increased flow from rivers and drains

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 17 San Fernando Coastline (from the cemetery on Lady Hailes Avenue to the Marabella River)

San Fernando Yacht Club

Gulf of Paria

San Fernando Hill

Lady Hailes Ave.

Cipero River

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 18 South of King’s Wharf • Unsafe for bathing in the dry season (red). • Sources of pollution include waste from fish market as well as five drains North of King’s Wharf to the Yacht Club • Two bathing areas (1) vicinity of Spring Vale Point and (2) off the iron ladder just south of the second break in the sea wall, approximately 300m north of King’s Wharf Jetty. • Bathing water quality is poor at both locations during the dry season (red). • A source of pollution for the bathing area closer to King’s Wharf Jetty is discharge from a large drain nearby. North of Yacht Club • Unsafe for bathing (red). • The main sources of contamination are seepage of sewage from pit latrines dug within a few meters of the seawall and discharge from the polluted Guaracara River and Marabella River.

Train line crossing the Marabella River mouth

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 19

Beaches and Bays The IMA has been monitoring the dynamic nature (erosion and accretion rates, littoral processes) of selected beaches and bays throughout Trinidad and Tobago since 1988. Currently, 27 bays in Trinidad (70 stations) and 27 bays in Tobago (55 stations) are monitored.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 21 Beaches are dynamic coastal features which respond Rijn, 1998). The majority of beaches monitored in to storms, wind, waves, currents and tides differently Trinidad and Tobago appear to be stable or in dynamic dependent on its geology. Where the coastal geolo- equilibrium, where there is no net loss of sediment. It gy is resistant to wave attack, erosion may occur at a should be noted that between November 9 and 15th reduced rate and where it is more susceptible, it may 2014, 2.5 km of this road was damaged primarily by be eroded at a faster rate (Van Rijn, 1998). In Trinidad, runoff from rainfall over several days. The Mayaro - the north coast is mainly rocky cliff, while the west Manzanilla Road is a coastal road built on a sand bar coast is rocky at the north, consists of wetlands and between the Nariva Swamp, a wetland of international mudflat at its central region and alluvium material importance (Ramsar Site), and the Manzanilla Beach. toward the south. The south coast is mainly sandstone The road was initially utilised by workers in the coco- cliff, and the east coast is varied with rock cliffs at the nut industry but in recent times, has been the main north and wetlands and cliffs toward the central and access route for coastal communities and workers/ southern regions. In Tobago, the coastline consists material going to the oil and gas industries located mainly of rocky cliff to the central and north east of in Mayaro/ Guayaguayare. The road and other infra- the island with coral limestone in the south west. structure such as electricity poles and houses were damaged as floodwaters from the swollen Nariva and During 2011-2015, the north coast of Trinidad experi- Dubloon Rivers removed sediments from under these enced the highest winds (range 0.0 -18.1 m/s) from the structures. The road was repaired by the Ministry of north-east, and the highest waves (range 0.3 -1.5 m) Works and Infrastructure and was reopened to traffic from a north-easterly direction compared to the other in early 2015. coasts. It also experienced the fastest longshore current speed (range 1.0 -67.0 cm /s) which was generally However, in Trinidad, Columbus Bay on the southwest to the west. The Windward coast of Tobago experienced coast, Cocos Bay on the east coast and Guayaguayare increased littoral impact compared to the Leeward Bay on the south coast experienced erosion during coast as wind speed (0.1 -8.0 m/s), wave height (0.1- 2011-2015. In Tobago, Richmond Bay, Goldsborough 1.5 m) and longshore current (1.2-44.0 cm/s) were Bay, and La Guira Bay experienced erosion during all greater on this coastline. Only the breaker height 2011-2015. (0.20-2.70 m) was higher on the Leeward Coast. The following maps, photographs and graphs illustrate Beaches can be classified as being in a state of ero- the dynamic nature of the country’s coasts and in par- sion, accretion or dynamic equilibrium (D.E.). Erosion ticular, some of the sites of severe erosion. On Cocos can occur either horizontally, where the backshore Bay (Figure 4) from 2011-2015 the erosion rate was recedes landward, or vertically, where the sand eleva- 0.14 m per year at IMA’s monitoring Station 5 (Figure tion decreases along the beach face (Cambers, 1998). 5). Continued erosion could threaten the Manzanilla/ Accretion occurs where there is an increase insedi- Mayaro Main Road which runs parallel to the beach ment on the beach face which can extend the beach and is located approximately 30m landward of the IMA horizontally increasing the width of the beach (Van benchmark (Plate 1).

Opposite page: Figure 4: Map of Cocos Bay showing location of monitored station

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 22 Cocos Bay

Point Radix

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 23

2.5

2 20110707 1.5 landward recession 20120720 1 3 20130515 0.5 2.5 20140819 Elevaton (m) 2 0 20110707 -‐10 0 1.5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20150826 -‐0.5 landward recession 20120720 1 20130515 -‐1 0.5 20140819 Elevaton (m) -‐1.5 0 -‐10 0 10 20 30 Distance 40 (m) 50 60 70 80 90 20150826 -‐0.5

-‐1

Figure 5: -‐1.5 The beach profiles at Station 5 (2011 on Cocos Bay, Trinidad -‐2015) Distance (m)

FigureFigure 5: The 5: beach profiles The at beach Station profiles 5 on Cocos Bay, at Trinidad Station (2011-2015) 5 (2011 on Cocos Bay, Trinidad -‐2015)

Plate 1: Coastal erosion occurring at Station 5, Cocos Bay (2013)

Plate 1: Coastal erosion State of occurring the Marine Environment at Trinidad Station & Tobago 5, Cocos Bay (2013) - 2016 24

At Guayaguayare Bay (Figure 6) erosion at Station 1 has led to landward recession representing an erosion rate of 0.75 m per year (Figure 7). This erosion also threatens critical infrastructure. For example, the erosion illustrated in Plate 2 lies just west of a pipeline landing site.

At Guayaguayare Bay (Figure 6) erosion at Station 1 has led to landward recession representing an erosion rate of 0.75 m per year (Figure . 7) This erosion also threatens critical infrastructure. For example, the erosion illustrated Plate in 2 lies just west of a pipeline landing site.

Galeota Point

Guayaguayare Bay

FigureFigure 6: Map6 : of GuayaguayareMap of G Bayuayaguayare showing location Bay showing of monitoredlocation stations of monitored stations

2 1.5 1

0.5 20110811 landward recession 0 20120327 -‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 -‐0.5 20130718 -‐1

Elevaton (m) 20140818

-‐1.5 20150602 -‐2 -‐2.5 -‐3 Distance (m)

FigureFigure 7: The 7:beach profilesThe beach at Station profiles 1 on Guayaguayare at 1 Station on Bay, Guayaguayare Trinidad (2011-2015) Bay, Trinidad (2011-‐2015).

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 25 Columbus Bay, on the southwest coast of Trinidad continues to suffer from erosion, a problem that has unfortunately ravaged the bay for the past forty years. The most noticeable physical coastline change to date is the erosion of the once protruding headland at Los Gallos Point, to three stacks, which are locally referred to as the “three sisters”.

Plate 2: Coastal erosion on Guayaguayare Bay at Station 1 (2013)

Plate 2: Coastal erosion on Guayaguayare Bay at Station Shoreline1 (2013) change analysis conducted by the IMA shows that between 1994 and 2007, there was a linear regression of coast Columbus Bay, on the southwest coast of as Trinidad large as continues 150 m to at Corral suffer from erosion, a problem that has unfortunately ravaged the bay for the past Point, forty and years. an opposite The most effect noticeable physical coastline change to date is the erosion of the once nd protruding headla at Los of accretion Gallos Point, noticed to three at Punta stacks, which are locally referred to as the “three sisters”. Shoreline del change Arenal; analysis an area conducted located by the IMA shows that between 1994 and 2007, there was a linear regression immediately of coast as large 150 m at south Corral of Point, Corral and an opposite effect of accretion noticed at Punta del Point. Arenal; Ongoing an monitoring area located at immediately south of Corral Point. Ongoing monitoring at Columbus Bay (Figure 8) has confirmed erosion continues to occur at the Columbus Bay (Figure 8) has southernmost station with landward regression of the shoreline occurring at a rate of about 1.91m per year from 2011-‐2015 (Figure 9). Plate 3 illustrates confirmed felled erosion coconut continues trees and a receding shoreline at Columbus Baystation 8. The coastal land is privately owned and coastal protectionto occur structures at the southernmost were installed he along t northern region of the bay to arrest ve the erosion but ha failed. station with landward regression of the shoreline occurring at a rate of about 1.91m per year from 2011-2015 (Figure 9). Plate 3 illustrates felled coconut trees and a receding

shoreline at station 8. The coastal land is privately owned and coastal protection structures were installed along the northern region of the bay to arrest the erosion but have failed.

Figure 8: Map of Columbus Bay showing location of monitored stations

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 26 12

8 20110518

erosion 20120508 6 12 20130326 Elevaton (m) 4 10 20130515

8 20110518 20140408 2 erosion 20120508 20150826 6 20130326 Elevaton (m) 0 4 20130515 -‐20 0 20 40 60 80 20140408 100 2 Distance (m) 20150826

0 -‐20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 9: Beach profiles at Station Distance (m) 8 Columbus Bay, Southwest Trinidad (2011-‐2015)

FigureFigure 9: Beach 9: profiles Beach at Station profiles 8 Columbus at Bay, Station Southwest 8 Trinidad Columbus (2011-2015) Bay, Southwest Trinidad (2011-‐2015)

Plate 3: C oastal erosion Station at 8 on Columbus 2013), Bay ( southern view.

Plate 3: Coastal erosion at Station 8 on Columbus Bay (2013), southern view

Plate 3: C oastal erosion Station at State 8 of on the M Columbus arine Environment 2013), Bay ( Trinidad & Tobago southern - 2016 view. 27

Mangrove Swamp Loss of mangrove forest will increase the threat to human safety and increase damage to shorelines from coastal hazards such as erosion, flooding, and storm waves and surges. It will decrease coastal water quality, reduce biodiversity, eliminate fish and crustacean nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal habitats, and eliminate a major resource for human communities that traditionally rely on mangroves for numerous products and services. Furthermore, mangrove destruction can release large quantities of stored carbon and exacerbate global warming trends.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 29 Much of the mangrove forests in the Caribbean have In Trinidad, the majority of mangrove forests are found been impacted by human activities, and now they are on the sheltered west coast (Gulf of Paria); which is projected to be negatively affected by sea-level rise the coastline that is occupied by more than 70% of especially where they are constrained on the landward the population and has experienced the most intense side by built development, or starved of sediment. In development activities within the past five decades. 2008, the Institute of Marine Affairs began an assess- Current mangrove coverage is estimated at 7,532 ha ment of mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago. on the west coast of Trinidad compared to 1,132.8 ha Using high resolution satellite imagery (2000-2007), on the east coast, 481.3 ha on the south coast, and 0.3 remote sensing and GIS technology, all mangrove for- ha on the north coast. ests were mapped and their extent determined (Figure 10 and 11).

Figure 10: Map of mangrove forests in Trinidad (Juman and Ramsewak, 2010)

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 30 Figure 11: Map of mangrove forests in Tobago (Juman and Ramsewak, 2010)

In Tobago, mangrove coverage was estimated at 222.9 decreased by 393.5 ha. Built development increased ha encompassing 11 systems, most of which are locat- by 835 ha while the Beetham landfill expanded from ed on the Windward Coast. Seventy percent of the 47.5 ha in 1986 to 73.7 ha in 2007. Generally, natural mangroves on the west coast are found in the Caroni wetland communities (mangrove, marshes and open Swamp, 10% in the Godineau Swamp and the remain- water/ pond) increased between 1942 and 2003, as ing 20% amongst smaller systems. agricultural lands reverted to marsh, and mangroves colonized new areas on the seaward side: mudflats While mangroves were cleared along the west coast and deposited dredged spoilt. However, between of Trinidad for housing, industries, agriculture, roads 2003 and 2007, natural wetland coverage declined by and ports, there has been some regeneration or about 346 ha as built developed and agricultural lands new growth, but at the expense of other wetland increased. In Godineau Swamp, mangrove coverage communities (brackish and freshwater marshes) in increased by approximately 48 ha between 1969 and most instances. In Caroni Swamp, mangrove cover- 2007 as salt water intruded further inland and col- age increased by 1,105 ha between 1942 and 2007 onised marsh area. while marshland decreased by 523 ha and agriculture

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 31 Mangroves however, were recently cleared on the seaward side for the construction of the Point Fortin Highway (Plate 4).

Mangroves are also spreading into freshwater marsh and open pond areas in Icacos Swamp, and the reason may be climate induced as opposed to human alteration. The Icacos wetland was predominantly freshwater marsh and open pond with some mangroves fringing Columbus Bay. As the mangroves along the coast are eroding, salt water is intruding further inland and mangroves are now colonizing marshland. Similarly in Los Blanquizales, which is on the south coast, east of Icacos, the mangrove forest continues to undergo erosion.

Plate 4: Plate 4: Strip Strip of mangrove of cleared mangrove on the seaward side cleared of Godineau Swamp on for highway the construction seaward (January 2014) side of Godineau Swamp for highway construction (January 2014) State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 32 Mangrove forests in the central region of the Gulf of Paria are expanding seaward onto extensive mudflats. Sedimentation seems to have increased from Brickfield in the north to Claxton Bay in the south as fish landing sites located in Brickfield, Orange Valley and Claxton Bay have become shallower and boats have had to be relocated. While the landward margin of these forests is being encroached upon by built development, the mangroves are expanding seawards. Further south on the west coast, in Claxton Bay, Guaracara, Marabella, Cipero, Rousillac and La Brea the mangrove forests are being negatively impacted, and encroached on up by housing developments. The December 2013 oil spill negatively impacted the mangrove forests from Rousillac to Iros Bay (Plate 5), however these systems have since shown signs / of recovery regrowth.

On the east coast, the largest mangrove forests are found within the Nariva Swamp (580.7 ha), North Oropuche/ Fishing Pond (268.8 ha) and Ortoire River (215.7 ha). Nariva Swamp is the largest wetland in Trinidad and Tobago (11,343 ha), but it is primarily a freshwater wetland, with mangrove accounting for less than 10 %. Unlike systems on the west coast, the wetlands on the East Coast (Atlantic Ocean) are subjected to higher wave energy. These wetlands are not open to the ocean but occur behind sand barriers, which are experiencing problems with coastal erosion. Mangrove forests in the central region of the Gulf of Paria are expanding seaward onto extensive mudflats. Sedimentation seems to have increased from Brickfield in the north to Claxton Bay in the south as fish landing sites located in Brickfield, Orange Valley and Claxton Bay have become shallower and boats have had to be relocated. While the landward margin of these forests is being encroached upon by built development, the mangroves are expanding seawards. Further south on the west coast, in Claxton Bay, Guaracara, Marabella, Cipero, Rousillac and La Brea the mangrove forests are being negatively impacted, and encroached upon by housing developments. The December 2013 oil spill negatively impacted the mangrove forests from Rousillac to Iros Bay (Plate 5), however these systems have since shown signs of recovery/ regrowth.

Plate 5: Oil spill clean- up in the Rousillac mangrove forest (January 2014)

On the east coast, the largest mangrove forests are Galeota has been fragmented by road construction. found within the Nariva Swamp (580.7 ha), North On the North Coast there are no extensive mangrove Oropuche/ Fishing Pond (268.8 ha) and Ortoire River forests, only small systems in Maracas and Scotland (215.7 ha). Nariva Swamp is the largest wetland in Bay. Trinidad and Tobago (11,343 ha), but it is primarily a freshwater wetland, with mangrove accounting for less In Tobago, the largest mangrove communities are than 10 %. Unlike systems on the west coast, the wet- found at the southwest end of the island which is the lands on the East Coast (Atlantic Ocean) are subjected most populated and developed part of the island. to higher wave energy. These wetlands are not open Mangroves were cleared in the 1990’s for the extension to the ocean but occur behind sand barriers, which are of the Crown Point Airport and for hotel development. experiencing problems with coastal erosion. In 2007, mangroves were cleared in the Bon Accord Lagoon for proposed resort development and in 2008 On the south coast of Trinidad relatively large man- for housing. However, there is indication that the Bon grove forests are found near the Moruga River and Accord mangrove forest is migrating landward as salt at Los Blanquizales. Smaller systems are found with- water appears to be intruding inland. Even in areas in Guayaguayare Bay and Erin Bay. Mangroves were that were recently cleared, there are signs of new cleared along the Moruga River and in Erin Bay for growth as many white mangrove seedlings have been Plate 4: Strip of mangrove cleared on the seaward side of Godineau unplanned Swamp for highway construction housing, while the mangrove forest in Point re-established. (January 2014) Plate 5: Oil spill clean State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 -‐ up in the 33 Rousillac mangrove forest (January 2014)

Mangrove forests in the central region of the Gulf of Paria are expanding seaward onto extensive mudflats. Sedimentation seems to have increased from Brickfield in the north to Claxton Bay in the south as fish landing sites located in Brickfield, Orange Valley and On the Claxton Bay have become shallower south coast of Trinidad relatively large mangrove forests are found near the Moruga River and at and boats have had to be relocated. While the landward margin of these forests is being Los encroached Blanquizales. Smaller systems are found within upon by built development, the mangroves are expanding seawards. cleared Further south on the west coast, in along the Moruga River and in Guayaguayare Erin Bay Bay for and unplanned Erin Bay. housing, while the mangrove forest in Mangroves were Claxton Bay, Guaracara, Marabella, Cipero, Rousillac and La Brea the mangrove Point forests are being Galeota has been fragmented by road construction. On the North Coast there are no extensive negatively impacted, and encroached on up by housing developments. The December 2013 oil spill mangrove forests, only small systems in Maracas and Scotland Bay. negatively impacted the mangrove forests from Rousillac to Iros Bay (Plate 5), however these systems have since shown signs / of recovery regrowth.

In Tobago, the largest mangrove communities are found at the southwest end of the island which is On the east coast, the largest mangrove forests are found within the Nariva Swamp (580.7 most ha), North populated and developed part of the island. Oropuche/ Fishing Pond (268.8 ha) and Ortoire River (215.7 ha). Nariva Swamp is the largest wetland in extension of the Crown Point Airport and Mangroves for hotel were development. cleared in the In 1990’s for the 2007, mangroves were cleared in Trinidad and Tobago (11,343 ha), but it is primarily a freshwater wetland, with mangrove accounting for less than 10 %. Unlike systems on the west coast, the wetlands on the the East Bon Coast (Atlantic Ocean) are Accord Lagoon for proposed resort development and in 2008 for housing. However, there is subjected to higher wave energy. These wetlands are not open indication to the ocean but occur behind sand that the Bon Accord mangrove forest is migrating landward as salt water appears to be barriers, which are experiencing problems with coastal erosion. intruding inland. Even in areas that were recently cleared, there are signs of new growth as many white mangrove seedlings have been re -‐established. Whether salt water construction or sea -‐level rise is unknown and needs to be determined. intrusion is due to channel concern in this area wi However, t here is a serious th regards ‘coastal to squeeze’ as built development occurs on the landward edge of the forest leaving y ver little space for landward migration of mangroves.

Whether salt water intrusion is due to channel con- Mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago have been struction or sea-level rise is unknown and needs to negatively impacted, and continue to be - threat be determined. However, there is a serious concern ened by human activities as present and proposed in this area with regards to ‘coastal squeeze’ as built developments are concentrated on the coast. These development occurs on the landward edge of the for- degraded systems are more susceptible to climate est leaving very little space for landward migration of change impacts especially where there is little space mangroves. for landward migration of mangroves as sea-level rises. Although mangrove coverage has expanded in There is little historical data for the smaller wetlands wetlands such as Caroni, Godineau, Icacos, and Nariva, on the Atlantic coast of Tobago such as Louis D’or, it has been at the expense of other freshwater com- Goldsborough, Belle Garden, and Rockly Bay. On this munities. The causes for vegetation change may be coast where most mangrove systems are found, there site-specific or climate related but this can only be are concerns that coastal erosion on the seaward side determined by undertaking vulnerability assessments, and encroachment by built development on the land- and long-term monitoring of parameters such as rela- ward edge, will lead to coastal squeeze of mangrove tive sea-level and sedimentation rates. forests.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 34 Seagrass Beds Seagrasses are flowering plants that grow on the seafloor in shallow coastal habitats. They are very productive, faunally rich and ecologically important marine resources that provide nursery habitats for a number of commercially important species such as conch and lobster, and they help sequester carbon dioxide in the ocean.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 35 Seagrasses are semi-permeable filters that stabilize Since 2002, IMA has been monitoring the health and bottom sediments, slow current flow, prevent erosion productivity of selected Thalassia dominated seagrass and filter suspended solids and nutrients from coast- beds around the islands. The healthiest and most al waters. These filters are becoming overloaded as productive seagrass sites in the country were found land-use changes in the coastal catchment and in the in Southwest Tobago at Buccoo Bay and Kilgwyn Bay, nearshore environment are impacting negatively on however since 2015, the seagrass beds in La Guira to them. Increasing population density in coastal areas Kilgwyn Bay have disappeared (Figure 12). This disap- has enhanced sediment and nutrient loading and nutri- pearance coincided with the Sargassum bloom in 2015. ent over-enrichment of coastal waters has been cited Bon Accord Lagoon has the lowest seagrass biomass as the main reason for seagrass bed decline worldwide. and density in Tobago, but while the monitored sites within the Lagoon are overgrown by macroalgae, sea- In 1997, the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) began an grasses have spread into adjacent areas near Buccoo assessment of seagrass communities around Trinidad Reef. Seagrass coverage in the Buccoo Reef/ Bon and Tobago. The inventory revealed that Thalassia Accord Lagoon Marine Protected Area has doubled testudinum (turtlegrass), the slow growing climax within the past 14 years. The grasses have colonized seagrass species in the Caribbean, was being nega- the Nylon Pool, a very popular shallow, sandy area in tively impacted by intense coastal activities and beds the back reef zone, where visitors are allowed to swim once reported in Cocorite, Balandra and Scotland Bay at the end of glass bottom boat tours. were no longer present. In Cocorite, the beds were destroyed by reclamation for housing and road con- In Trinidad, the most productive seagrass site was struction, while in Scotland Bay and Monos Island they found at William’s Bay. This area was home to a diversi- have been replaced by sparse communities of colonis- ty of species including fishes such as seahorses, grunts er species (Halodule wrightii and Halophila sp.). The and snappers, green turtles and invertebrates such as most extensive Thalassia dominated seagrass commu- starfish, conch and urchins. However, since 2012, a nity remaining in Trinidad was found at William’s Bay. decline in seagrass biomass and productivity has been recorded, and this coincides with the development tak- In Tobago, extensive Thalassia dominated commu- ing place on the peninsula (Figure 12 and Figure 13). nities were found in the southwest - in Bon Accord Thalassia community once found on the eastern side Lagoon, Buccoo Bay, La Guira Bay and Kilgwyn Bay - of St Peter’s Bay was destroyed in 2010 while the com- where there has been extensive development in the munity on the western side of the bay was destroyed tourism and housing sectors. The seagrass community in 2012. These areas are now overgrown with algae within the Bon Accord Lagoon was negatively impact- (Caulerpa sp.) and sparse communities of seagrasses ed by nutrient enriched conditions. Partially treated (Halodule wrightii and Halophila sp.). St Peter’s Bay or untreated domestic wastewater is discharged from has been impacted by land reclamation activities over water treatment systems and many households in the the past decade, and receives sediment laden waters coastal catchment have soak-away septic systems built from the coastal catchment which have been deforest- into the coralline limestone geology of the area. This ed for housing. limestone is porous, and nutrients from sewage filter down into the water table and then enter the sea. Seagrass areas in La Guira Bay, Tobago were reclaimed in the 1990’s for the extension of the airport runway, but the bed in the bay has recovered. La Guira and Kilgwyn Bays are now utilized by beach goers, since facilities have been provided, and by fishermen. Current land use in the coastal catchment include guest houses, an airport, residential development and an industrial estate.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 36 Poor water quality from land-based pollution (nutrients and sediments) and coastal development are the main factors affecting the health of the seagrasses in Trinidad and Tobago. The beds in Trinidad are found along the most intensely developed coastlines, and continue to be subjected to development pressures from the coastal catchment. Loss of seagrass beds would result in loss of their ecosystem services such as coastal protection and habitat for fish and other marine species. There is an urgent need to manage, and in some areas, rehabilitate our seagrass2500.0 community to ensure that they continue to provide a safe haven for rich biodiversity, and protect ) ) our coastline.2

2500.0

) ) 2000.0 2

2000.0 William's Bay 1500.0 West of Alcoa

St Peter's Bay West William's Bay 1500.0 St Peter's Bay East West of Alcoa 1000.0 Bon Accord Lagoon A St Peter's Bay West

total biomass (g dry wt. m Bon Accord Lagoon B St Peter's Bay East Buccoo Bay 1000.0 Bon Accord Lagoon A 500.0 La Guira Bay Bon Accord Lagoon B Kilgwyn Bay Buccoo Bay Thalassia testudinum total biomass (g dry wt. m 500.0 La Guira Bay 0.0 Kilgwyn Bay Thalassia testudinum

0.0 Year

Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass Year at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago

Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago

8.00

7.00 8.00 -‐1 Williams' sBay d 2 6.00 7.00 W. Of Alcoa

-‐1 Williams' sBay d 5.00 2 6.00 St Peter's Bay West W. Of Alcoa 4.00 St Peter's Bay East 5.00 St Peter's Bay West Bon Accord Lagoon A 3.00 St Peter's Bay East 4.00 Bon Accord Lagoon B 2.00 Bon Accord Lagoon A 3.00 Buccoo Bay Areal ProducXvity g dry wt. m Bon Accord Lagoon B 1.00 La Guira Bay 2.00 Buccoo Bay Kilgwyn Bay Areal ProducXvity g dry wt. m 0.00 1.00 La Guira Bay 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year Kilgwyn Bay 0.00 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 13: Thalassia testudinum areal productivity at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago Figure 13: Thalassia testudinum areal productivity Year at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 37 Figure 13: Thalassia testudinum areal productivity at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 38 Coral Reefs Coral reef communities around Tobago appear to be in a state of flux with the most noticeable trend being a decline in average hard coral cover around the island over the last three decades. The temporal trend in hard coral cover decline on the Tobagonian fringing reefs is not to the magnitude of that reported in some other Caribbean countries but it is still a cause for concern.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 39 With an average 33% decline in hard coral cover across the island since 1985, the extent of coral loss in Tobago is still substantial.

Hard corals are the reef builders – their polyps secrete the calcium carbonate that is responsible for the cementing and expanding coral reef structures over time. Percentage hard coral cover is used globally as an indicator of reef health. Findings of declining cover of these corals on reefs around Tobago is unfortunate but certainly not sur- prising. The ever increasing pressures on Tobago’s marine environment via a myriad of factors such as population increases; rampant unregulated coastal development; changing watershed and land use that promotes terrestrial run off; increased tourism volume; and rising artisanal fishing effort is negatively affecting the viability and resilience of the reef ecosystems there (Burke and Maidens, 2004; Mora, 2008; Lapointe et al., 2009; Mallela et al., 2010; Jackson et al., 2014; WTTC., 2015).

An examination of the data over the long term reveals the declining Hard coral cover Sponge cover hard coral cover in many 40 30 areas being accompanied 35 by concomitant increases 25 SoH coral cover in algae, soft corals, zoo- 30 35 anthids and/or sponges 25 20 30 (Figure 14). These long 20 15 term phase shifts away 15 25 from bottoms dominated 10 Mean % cover 10 Mean % cover by hard corals to those 5 5 20 dominated by other 0 0 organisms are as a result 15 of a combination of fac- Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale tors which kill or weaken Mean % cover 10 corals while promoting 1985 2009 2013 1985 2009 2013 the proliferation of alter- 5 native space occupiers. 0 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 1985 2009 2013 SoH coral cover Algae cover 35 35 30 30

25 25 Algae cover 20 20 35 15 15 30

Mean % cover 10

Mean % cover 10 25 Pgs. 40 and 41 5 Figure 14: Benthic 20 community cover of 5 gure 0 5 sites from 1985 to Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 15 2013. 0 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 14: Mean % cover 1985 2009 2013 1985 2009 2013 10 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 5 40 0 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale Figure 14: Benthic community cover of 5 sites from 1985 to 2013. 1985 2009 2013

Hard coral cover Sponge cover

40 30 35 25 SoH coral cover 30 35 25 20 30 20 15 15 10 25 Mean % cover 10 Mean % cover 5 5 20 0 0 15 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale Mean % cover 10 1985 2009 2013 1985 2009 2013 5

0 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 1985 2009 2013 SoH coral cover Algae cover 35 35 30 30

25 25 Algae cover 20 20 35 15 15 30

Mean % cover 10

Mean % cover 10 25 5 20 5 gure 0 0 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 15 Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 14: Mean % cover 1985 2009 2013 1985 2009 2013 10 5

0 Climate change and its associated impacts is a major contributor to hard coral cover decline around Tobago. Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale Figure 14: Benthic community cover of 5 sites from 1985 to 2013.For example, Buccoo, Culloden and Speyside were severely affected by temperature induced coral bleaching in 1998, 2005 and 2010. Bleaching occurs when corals expel symbiotic photosynthetic algae that provide the corals 1985 2009 2013 with food and give them their vibrant colours. The 2005 mass bleaching event resulted in up to 85% bleaching and up to 75% mortality of important reef-building species in some areas (O’Farrell & Day, 2005; Wilkinson & Souter, 2008; Eakin et al., 2010.).

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 41 Grooved Brain Coral, (Diploria labyrinthiformis), Flying Reef, Tobago

Great star coral, (Montastraea cavernosa), Man O War Bay, Tobago

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 42 White band disease affecting Star Coral, Flying Reef, Tobago

Following on from this, the 2010 event was Tobago’s Charlotteville and other localised regions where land most severe bleaching event on record but in this use is changing (Mora, 2008; Lapointe, 2010). Like case, while bleaching extent was high, mortality was bleaching, poor water quality can leave corals more low (Alemu, & Clement, 2014). Bleaching however, susceptible to disease and/or directly cause mortality. increases coral susceptibility to disease. Within recent The declining cover of hard corals and growth in cover times Tobagonian reefs have been plagued by occur- of soft corals, zoanthids and, in particular, algae, in rences of Yellow Band Disease, which primarily affects several locations, including parts of Buccoo, Speyside, the Orbicella complex, the most dominant framework Arnos Vale, Culloden and Charlotteville, is evidence builders on the island’s reefs. Yellow Band Disease is of cumulative impacts from land based sources of known to cause partial to total colony mortality and is pollution. considered to be one the most widespread and dam- aging coral diseases (Gil-Agudelo et al., 2004; Bruckner Speyside is an interesting location to pay particu- & Bruckner, 2006; Weil et al., 2009). It has therefore lar attention to because it is considered by some to been proposed that this disease has been partially have the best diving in Tobago. Substantial hard coral responsible for the waning reef health especially in the declines with concomitant increases in sponge cover aftermath of bleaching. from 2009 to 2013 also imply a shifting state here (Figure 14). Presently in Speyside the observed cover of Pulse disturbances such as bleaching and disease cou- the barrel sponge Xestospongia muta is high. Although pled with poor water quality encourages benthic cover this sponge is known to be susceptible to bleaching in dominance shifting away from hard corals (Hughes, elevated water temperatures, it is possible that both 1994; McManus et al., 2000; Szmant, 2002; Wolanski low mortality and high recruitment contributed to et al., 2003; Diaz-Pulido, et al., 2009). Analyses have observed population growth in recent times. While pinpointed high nutrients to be a problem in several Speyside is still relatively healthy and teeming with life, fringing reefs around Tobago with sewage pollution changing benthic assemblages on reefs have implica- and agricultural fertilizer run off identified as some tions for reef function and the ecosystem services they of the chief sources (Lapointe, 2010; Mallela, 2010). provide e.g. food, amenity value, animal habitat. Sedimentation is also problematic in areas such as

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 43 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 44 Soft-bottom Benthic Community Marine benthic communities are excellent indicators of local ecological health because, unlike migratory species, they generally have low mobility and thus cannot easily relocate when there are changes in environmental quality. In addition, several macrofaunal taxa, such as polychaetes, are considered sentinel species that may be amongst one of the first groups to respond to anthropogenic change such as eutrophication, sewage pollution or fisheries depletion.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 45 Benthic invertebrates play a key role in the nutrient resilience to changes that may occur over time. As a cycling, pollution metabolism and energy flows through contrast, when sampling was conducted in oil polluted the marine food webs. Epibenthic and benthic condi- areas from Pointe- a- Pierre to La Brea, 25,129 individ- tions can, in turn, have significant direct and indirect uals were collected from only 204 species (Gobin and effects on fisheries, as well as species of conservation Agard, 1992). A smaller number of species were able concern such as; sea turtles or rays that feed on the to thrive in disturbed communities, thus such a com- sea floor. Monitoring of key ecosystem indicators is an munity would be less resilient and more vulnerable to important component of successful management in disturbances. marine protected areas. Monitoring can help identify stresses on the environment which may lead to early In 2015, the IMA sampled the benthic community along mitigation of the problem, and is also crucial to detect the Caroni Swamp in the months of April and August. large-scale changes in environmental systems such as Of the three major bodies of water flowing through climate change so that resource managers can adjust the Caroni Swamp, the Blue River was found to have conservation strategies. the healthiest benthic community with the most species, number of individuals and highest diversity. One A study published by Gobin (2010) off five islands in thousand one hundred and thirteen (1113) organisms Chaguaramas provided one of the first comprehen- were collected during the two sampling periods. Thirty sive lists of hard substrate marine polychaetes for four (34) species were recorded in the dry season and Trinidad. The study yielded a count of 2,377 poly- 44 species in the wet season. Arthropoda accounted chaete worms belonging to 19 different families and for 52% of organisms found, polychaetes 45% and all comprising 89 species. Analysis suggested that more other organisms 3%. Evidence from this study showed than 25% of these polychaete worms could be new that the Caroni Swamp is dominated by species that are species. Another study on Salybia Bay, Guayaguayare tolerant to pollution. This coupled with the presence of and Chagville beach identified 41 macroinvertebrate few pollution intolerant species supports the hypoth- species (Fanovich, Nelson, & Lawrence, 2010). The esis that the Caroni Swamp is slightly to moderately phylum Annelida, represented by polychaete worms, polluted as it receives polluted water in its catchment was the most species rich group, with most species area from industrial, agricultural and domestic sourc- being found in Chagville. Only at Salybia was this group es. Gobin and Agard (1992) have suggested that areas surpassed in richness by the arthropods, consisting of of impoverished benthic fauna are characteristic of isopods and amphipods with 11 species. In compar- being moderately disturbed. ison, 10 species of annelids were identified. Porifera and Cnidaria were also present only at Salybia.

In 2009 the IMA studied the benthic macro-faunal communities characterized in Thalassia testudinum (turtlegrass) dominated beds in Bon Accord Lagoon and La Guira Bay in Tobago and Williams Bay in Trinidad. A total of 461 species comprising 6,488 individuals were recorded; 206 species in Williams Bay, 130 species in Bon Accord Lagoon and 125 species in La Guira Bay. Polychaetes accounted for 48% of the species while amphipods accounted for 17 %; decapods 12%; non segmented worms 11%, molluscs, other arthropods, echinoderms and miscel- laneous accounted for the remaining 12% indicating Using a PVC corer to sample soft bottom benthic communities a highly diverse benthic community. The diversity- stability hypothesis suggests that communities contain- ing more species will vary less through time in response to various disturbances thus conferring a higher

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 46 Marine Fisheries Marine fisheries is important both economically and socially for many rural/coastal communities who depend either entirely or partially on fisheries for their livelihood (Potts et al., 2003; Ferreira and Martin, 2005; GOTT, 2005). Fisheries contributes towards food security, poverty alleviation, foreign exchange earn- ings, culture, recreation and tourism.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 47 A total of 1,013 finfish species belonging to 474 genera, 170 families and 36 orders (Ramjohn, 1999) have been identified in the waters of Trinidad and Tobago. However, only a small percentage of these species is caught and landed by the commercial fisheries (Table 3). Other coastal and marine resources present include crustaceans (shrimps, lobsters, crabs), cephalopods (squids), mollusks or shellfish (oysters, conch, mussels) and sea turtles (Kenny and Bacon 1981; Chan A Shing, 2002). Some of the main species exploited are listed in Table 4.

Table 3:Table Main finfish 3: Main species finfish exploited species in Trinidad exploited and Tobago (Chan in A Shing, Trinidad 2002) and Tobago (Chan A Shing, 2002) Finfish catfish Arius ( spp., Bagre spp.); cavalli and other Caranx jacks ( spp., Trachinotus spp., Seriola , spp. Decapterus , spp. Selene spp.); shark Carcharhinus ( spp., Rhizoprionodon ., spp Sphyrna spp.); snook (Centropomus spp.); herring Opisthonema ( oglinum, Harengula spp., Sardinella .); spp dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus); flyingfish Hirundichthys ( affinis, Cheilopogon spp., Cypselurus spp.); blinch (Diapterus ); spp. grunt-‐ (Haemulon , spp. Anisotremus spp., Genyatremus luteus); snapper Lutjanus ( spp., Rhomboplites aurorubens, Etelis oculatus); mullet (Mugil ); spp. ancho Pomatomus ( saltator); salmon/croaker Cynoscion ( spp., Macrodon ancylodon, Micropogonias furnieri); mackerel/tuna (Thunnus spp., Scomberomorus brasiliensis, S. cavalla, Acanthocybium solandri, Euthynnus alletteratus); grouper Epinephelus ( spp., Mycteroperca spp., Cephalopholis spp.); barracuda (Sphyraena spp.); cutlassfish (Trichiurus lepturus); swordfish (Xiphias gladius)

Table 4:Table Marine 4: fisheries Marine resources fisheries exploited resources in Trinidad exploited and Tobago (finfish in excluded) Trinidad excluded) and Tobago (finfish

Shrimps Brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus ( subtilis), pink shrimp F. ( notialis), pink-‐spotted shrimp (F. brasiliensis), white shrimp (Litopenaeus schmitti), seabob (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri)

Lobster Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus ( argus)

Crabs Cirique/serrette/swimming crabs (Callinectes spp.); blue Cardisoma crab ( guanhumi); hairy crab (Ucides cordatus)

Shellfish Oysters Crassostrea ( rhizophorae); Queen Conch/Lambie (Strombus gigas); Black conch (Melongena melongena); Rock mussel Perna ( perna); Green mussel (Perna veridis); mok Mytella ( spp.); Pachro/Sea Cockroach (Chiton marmoratus, C. tuberculatus; Acanthopleura granulata); Chip chip Donax ( denticulatus, D. striatus)

Turtles Leatherback Dermochelys ( coriacea); hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green Chelonia ( mydas), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead Caretta ( caretta)

Shellfish, Crabs and Turtles Bacon, 1981). Stocks in Tobago are perceived to CollectionThere is on are a small five scale (5) species casual of basis marine for most turtles occurring spe- be in commercially the waters endangered. of Trinidad Over and Tobago (Table the 4). past The three cies, by Protection villagers living of in Sea some Turtle coastal areas and and Turtle by decades,, Eggs Regulations promulgated a drastic under decline Section has 4 been of observed the Fisheries Act, in the families stipulates on recreational that: visits no to person beaches shall, (Kenny kill, and catch harpoon, per unit catch effort of or conch otherwise on traditional take harvesting possession of or purchase, sell, Bacon, offer 1981). or Bullock expose and Moonesar for sale (2003) or found cause to be sold or offered grounds (Lovelace, or exposed 2002). for sale any turtle or turtle meat. that oystersDespite (Crassostrea this, illegal rhizophorea poaching ), mok is (Mytella a pervasive problem on both islands. For example, it is not uncommon to guyanensishave ) turtle and green meat mussels being (Perna served viridis in ) were Tobago Several at harvest species of festivals. crabs (Table 4) Additionally, this resource is are threatened also utilized by for sold at incidental roadside stalls. catch Oysters (the and ‘mok’ accidental were sold entanglement food locally. of The sea blue crab turtles and the in hairy nets crab are set for fish). Several hundred the raw withleatherback sauce as cocktails turtles whilst are green ensnared mussels each were two year most along important the species north in and terms east of numbers coasts of Trinidad, a number which sold bought may unopened represent by customers at least and 25% cookedesting of the n before females in active markets in throughout that area Trinidad (Bachan, 2009). (Kenny and Bacon, consumption. The Queen conch (Strombus gigas) is 1981). Due to limited studies however, the level of found on Trinidad’s North Coast and Tobago’s Lagoons, present exploitation for most species is unknown. sandy bottoms and turtle grass beds (Kenny and

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 48 There are five (5) species of marine turtles occurring (1) Coastal pelagic (mainly gillnetting for carite, king- in the waters of Trinidad and Tobago (Table 4). The fish, flyingfish, and shark) Protection of Sea Turtle and Turtle Eggs Regulations, promulgated under Section 4 of the Fisheries Act, (2) Soft substrate demersal (trawl fishery for shrimps stipulates that: no person shall, kill, harpoon, catch and a number of bottom methods for associated or otherwise take possession of or purchase, sell, groundfish i.e. salmon, croaker, snapper and catfish) offer or expose for sale or cause to be sold or offered or exposed for sale any turtle or turtle meat. Despite (3) Hard substrate demersal (mainly snappers and this, illegal poaching is a pervasive problem on both groupers; bycatch may include lobster and grunts) islands. For example, it is not uncommon to have turtle meat being served in Tobago at harvest festivals. (4) Oceanic (highly migratory) pelagic (targets tunas Additionally, this resource is threatened by incidental and swordfish; dolphinfish, marlins, sharks and wahoo catch (the accidental entanglement of sea turtles in are considered bycatch; main fleets are semi-industri- nets set for fish). Several hundred leatherback - tur al longline, semi-industrial multi-gear and recreational tles are ensnared each year along the north and east (Ferreira and Martin, 2005)) coasts of Trinidad, a number which may represent at least 25% of the nesting females active in that area Except for the oceanic (highly migratory) pelagic fish- (Bachan, 2009). ery, all fisheries are coastal. In terms of landings, the artisanal gillnet fishery for coastal pelagics is one of Finfish and Shrimp the most important fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago The finfish and shrimp resources exploited in Trinidad accounting for the largest finfish and shark catches and Tobago can be broadly categorized into the follow- of any fishery. It is second only to the trawl fishery in ing groups based on the type of sea bottom substratum terms of landings and revenues (Ferreira and Soomai, and oceanographic conditions (Fabres and Kuruvilla, 2001). Estimated annual landings for some -commer 1992): cially important species groups in the marine capture Fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago is given in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Estimated annual landings (tonnes) for some commercially important species groups in the marine capture fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago from fishing fleets for which data are available, 1998- 2007. Source: Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago Figure 15: Estimated annual s) landings (tonne for some commercially important species groups in the marine capture fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago from fishing fleets State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 for which data are -‐ available, 1998 2007. 49 Source: Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago

Main Factors Impacting on the Exploitation and Status of Marine Fisheries Resources

(1) An open access fishery for marine resources result in an environment of competition rather than management. The ultimate result is over fishing with assessments indicating that most coastal marine resources are either heavily exploited or over-exploited. (2) There are large quantities of by-catch discards from the trawl fishery which includes undersized fish of commercially important species. (3) Illegal fishing by foreign vessels of neighboring countries (Venezuela, Barbados and occasionally Guyana) also exploit local resources. (4) Given the over exploited state of many commercial species and the over-capitalization of some fleets, financial incentives provided by concessions, rebates and subsidies to encourage development of the fisheries sector may be supporting inefficient operations and contributing to overfishing. Table 5: Status and Management of Marine Fisheries Resources

ASSESSMENT SPECIES STOCK STATUS MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS YEAR Table 5: Status and Management of Marine Carite No increase in fishing effort; minimum mesh size of 4.75”; Fisheries Resources encourage line fishing (Henry and Martin, 1992) (Scomberomorus 1991-‐1992 Fully exploited brasiliensis)

Improve input data for generating growth parameters; reduce Kingfish 1996-‐1998; fishing mortality; implement close season; enforce fish or mesh Overexploited 2004 size regulations; do not increase fishing effort (Martin and (S. cavalla) Hoggarth, 2007)

Determine stock range, migration patterns, growth, and Kingfish 1996-‐1998; mortality rate parameters. Include catch, effort and biological Inconclusive data from all countries harvesting the stock in the assessment (S. cavalla) 2006-‐2007 (Martin and Dié, 2008).

Shark Precautionary approach to harvesting due to the vulnerability 1992 Under exploited of sharks to overfishing (Walker, 1992) (Carcharinus porous)

Four-‐winged flyingfish Fully exploited Conservative approach to increasing local effort; reduce foreign 1990-‐1992 (Hirundichthys affinis) fishing effort (Samlalsingh and Pandohee, 1992).

Lane snapper Uncertain; possibly Preliminary assessment; monitor fishing effort and do not 1980-‐2004 growth-‐overfished increase until further research (Soomai and Porch, 2007) (Lutjanus synagris)

Caribbean red snapper Restrict fishing effort and increase age of first capture to 3 1990-‐1991 Fully to overexploited years (Manickchand-‐Heileman and Phillip, 1992 and1996) (Lutjanus purpureus)

Vermillion snapper Restrict fishing effort and increase age of first capture to 3 1990-‐1991 Overexploited (Rhomboplites years (Manickchand-‐Heileman and Phillip, 1992) aurorubens)

A 20% reduction in existing levels of effort to improve profits to 1995 -‐ 1998 Fully to overexploited Shrimp fishery (All the fishery and reduce the probability of the biomass falling shrimp species) Over capitalized between sustainable levels (Seijo et , al. 2000; Ferreira and Soomai, 2001)

Implement closed season for trawling; increase stakeholder 1975; 1988 -‐ Overexploited. Stock Shrimp Fishery involvement; limit number of trawlers in the fishery; enforce 2004 biomass declining regulations (Ferreira and Medley 2007)

Croaker 1989-‐1997 Overexploited No increase in fishing effort; limited entry into fishery; reduce fishing mortality (Soomai et al., 1999)(Alió et al., 1999) (Micropogonias furnieri)

Salmon 1989-‐1997 Overexploited No increase in fishing effort et (Soomai ., al 1999) (Cynoscion jamaicensis)

Groundfish Fishery 1989-‐1997 Fully to overexploited Limit fishing effort for all fleets (Soomai and Seijo, 2000) (Croaker and Salmon)

Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares) ICCAT Database – annual submissions Implement Total Allowable Catch (TAC) Limits on a yearly basis; from countries establish Observer Programme and Port Sampling Plan; Bigeye Tuna exploiting the Fully to overexploited contracting and operating parties to implement -‐ a Multi annual resources and Management and Conservation Programme for 2012-‐2015; (Thunnus obesus) findings of implement a -‐ time area closure for FAD associated fishing. scientific research papers

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 50

Stock assessments using a variety of methods have supporting inefficient operations and contributing been conducted to determine the status of marine to overfishing. fisheries resources in Trinidad and Tobago since the late 1980s. Some of these assessments have been in 5. Very little is known about recreational fishery. collaboration with neighbouring Venezuela due to the Studies are needed to determine the impact shared nature of the resources. Table 5 shows a subset of recreational fisheries on the resources. of these assessments. Research findings suggest that the marine fisheries resources of Trinidad and Tobago 6. Lack of implementation and enforcement of - reg are either heavily exploited or over exploited. There ulations pertaining to the management of marine does not appear to be any potential for expansion of resources. the coastal fishery for shrimp and groundfish, or the coastal pelagic fishery for carite and kingfish (Henry 7. The absence or lack of accurate verifiable data on and Martin, 1992; Martin and Hoggarth, 2007; Ferreira fisheries is a major impediment to the planned and Soomai, 2001; Soomai and Seijo, 2000). Hard strategic approach to fisheries management. bottom demersal stocks such as snappers are fully exploited (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip, 1992) 8. Out-dated and inadequate fisheries legislation and over-capitalization is evident in the trawl fishery as a legal basis for a modern national fisheries (Seijo, et al., 2000; Ferreira and Soomai, 2001). Highly management system. The legislation provide for migratory pelagic species are currently the manage- rudimentary controls (type and mesh size of fishing ment responsibility of the International Commission nets, closed seasons and areas) as far as fisheries for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) of management is concerned. which Trinidad and Tobago is a contracting party. Assessments are conducted and reviewed annually by ICCAT. These assessments indicate that the main species exploited by the local oceanic pelagic fishery are fully to overexploited.

Main Factors Impacting on the Exploitation and Status of Marine Fisheries Resources 1. An open access fishery for marine resources result in an environment of competition rather than management. The ultimate result is over fishing with assessments indicating that most coastal marine resources are either heavily exploited or over-exploited.

2. There are large quantities of by-catch discards from the trawl fishery which includes undersized fish of commercially important species.

3. Illegal fishing by foreign vessels of neighboring countries (Venezuela, Barbados and occasionally Guyana) also exploit local resources.

4. Given the over exploited state of man commercial species and the over-capitalization of some fleets, financial incentives provided by concessions, rebates and subsidies to encourage development of the fisheries sector may be

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 51 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 52 Emerging Issues • Climate Change • Sargassum • Lionfish

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 53 Climate Change The occurrence of anthropogenic induced climate physical and chemical oceanographic conditions. change is now a largely undisputed phenomenon Climate change impacts represent added stressors to which has far reaching implications for the current and the marine environment which compound the numer- future management of Trinidad and Tobago’s coastal ous challenges our aquatic and coastal flora and fauna and marine environment. Climate change is a process have to overcome in order to survive. Through all these whereby increasing concentrations of greenhouse impacts, the climate change phenomenon therefore gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide threatens the viability and sustainability of a number

(CO2) emitted through the burning of fossil fuels and of important coastal sectors including tourism, oil and deforestation, is causing average global temperatures gas and fisheries. It will necessitate the protection of to rise. These atmospheric alterations are bringing with existing coastal infrastructure located in vulnerable it a suite of meteorological and oceanographic changes areas and will require livelihood diversification and which threaten a number of species, ecosystems and adaptation throughout coastal communities. livelihoods in the marine and coastal sphere. For successful future mitigation of and adaptation Modelling forecasts of climate change impacts for to climate change impacts in Trinidad and Tobago, a Trinidad and Tobago have found that the two islands multi-pronged approach is required. Strategies include would experience rising sea levels, less frequent but conducting coastal vulnerability and risk assessments more intense rainfall, sea surface temperature increas- and applying this to development planning; main- es and extreme events, including hurricanes and storm taining and restoring environmental integrity through surges, occurring more regularly. In addition, it has alleviation of pollution and protection of critical eco-

been observed that some of the extra CO2 in the atmo- systems; continuous monitoring and research so that sphere is absorbed by the world’s oceans and seas management decisions are informed by sound sci- leading to the pH of their waters decreasing – a pro- ence and the effect of interventions can be properly cess known as ocean acidification. assessed; and extensive sensitization, awareness rais- ing and education of various publics to the climate Through climate change our coastlines would be more change phenomenon and methods to limit its social, at risk to erosion and flooding, coastal aquifers more economic and environmental impacts. These strate- vulnerable to salt water intrusion and coral reefs are gies and several others aiming to mainstream climate anticipated to experience more frequent and pro- change mitigation and adaptation into management longed bleaching. Less understood, but no less likely, of coastal and marine resources are all inherent to the are a range of potentially negative species specific and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) program trophic level interactions that come with the changing which Trinidad and Tobago is seeking to implement.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are especially vulnerable to climate change and its impacts, including coastal erosion

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 54 Sargassum Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae (Class and local tourists and beach-goers. Ecologically, both Phaeophyceae) that has both attached and free-float- adult and juvenile sea turtles can become entangled ing forms. The former has always been a part of in the thick masses while the prolonged presence of Trinidad and Tobago’s local marine flora with at least the seaweed could have negative effects on the natu- eight species documented. The latter consists of just ral environment as it shades the sea floor and marine two species, Sargassum natans and Sargassum flui- habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. During tans which are only found in the Atlantic Ocean and past Sargassum events the Tobago House of Assembly have never been part of this country’s marine flora. (THA) and affected Regional Corporations have had However, first occurring in 2011, massive quantities of to dispense resources to remove and dispose of the the floating form of Sargassum seaweed have inter- beached Sargassum plants which emanate noxious mittently fouled beaches off the windward coasts of fumes upon decay. Decomposing Sargassum has had Trinidad and Tobago. In incidents occurring in Tobago, human health impacts, which is one of the main rea- mats up to 0.6m thick have washed ashore at Pinfold sons that clean-up activities need to be conducted Bay, King’s Bay, Hope Beach, Kilgwyn and Little Rockly when influxes occur in populated areas. Most recent- Bay while in Trinidad, east coast communities from ly, in July 2015, the coastal village of Speyside, Tobago Cumana to Guayaguayare have been impacted. was inundated with Sargassum in an overnight event which necessitated the THA spending millions of dol- An area spanning across the tropical Atlantic, near to lars in clean-up efforts over the course of 30 days. the equator, has been identified as the source region for the Sargassum plants affecting Trinidad and Tobago Sargassum invasion of Trinidad and Tobago’s beaches and the wider Caribbean within recent times. A combi- is a relatively novel phenomenon for which we have nation of factors have been postulated as contributing been largely unprepared for in the past. However, to the flourishing of the floating plants there: warming with climate change causing continuous warming of sea surface temperature; increased nutrient input from the oceans, it appears that future events are likely. In land-based sources via massive continental rivers such preparation for these, consultations with key stakehold- as the Amazon and Orinoco in South America and the ers from government, academia, community-based Congo in Africa; and fertilization from iron rich Sahara organisations (CBOs), non-governmental organisations dust. Changing oceanic circulation patterns subse- (NGOs) and the private sector have been taking place quently transport mats of Sargassum northwards into in an effort to develop a National Sargassum Response the Caribbean basin where they break up and come Plan. The Plan will foster a coordinated approach to ashore when influenced by local currents. the problem involving key sectors and stakeholders, and will include an early warning component, com- During Sargassum invasion events fishers have difficulty munication mechanism and strategy for clean-up and launching their boats and accessing fishery resources, disposal/utilisation of plant material. while the sight and smell of piles seaweed deter foreign

Sargassum seaweed inundating Tobago's Atlantic coastline in 2015 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 55 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 56 Lionfish The Indo-Pacific lionfish’s (Pterois spp.) presence in the held in 2014, 2015 and 2016. As well as seeking to Atlantic was first reported off Florida’s coast in 1985. control the growth of the population, these activities Non-native to this hemisphere, it was not until the gave some indication of hotspots (North east Tobago) year 2000 that the species began to be regularly sited and changing population structure in the early years off the south east Atlantic coast of the United States. of the invasion. Outreach and education were also a Subsequently, a rapid spread of this invasive fish took major component of this project. place throughout the wider Caribbean region. Its anticipated arrival in Trinidad and Tobago’s waters was What is required now is for culling activities to become confirmed in February 2012 in Castara, Tobago. more self-sustaining through the creation of a lionfish fishery. Lionfish has proven that it can be a versatile, Lionfish are recognised as a significant threat to reef tasty meal and might now be on the cusp of entering ecosystems. This voracious predator feeds on resi- the seafood mainstream appearing on menus as a dent marine species, particularly small and juvenile sustainable option alongside salmon, shrimp, and the reef fish, shrimp and lobster. Being non-native to this occasional mahi mahi. They are being marketed as a region, there is a scarcity of natural population con- sustainable eco-friendly food option with the added trols such as predators, parasites and/or diseases. This, appeal that eating Lionfish is beneficial to reefs and coupled with its high fecundity and wide environmen- marine ecosystems. tal tolerance, has led to populations rapidly expanding in the coastal waters surrounding Trinidad and Tobago. This expansion, especially threatens Tobago’s reef ecosystems as the potential exists for lionfish to decimate organisms that serve important ecological roles e.g. herbivorous fish that keep algae in check on reefs, and also out compete other reef predators for food.

Efforts to control the proliferation of lionfish in this country have centred around attempts to actively cull individuals. From 2013 to present the Green Fund financed a lionfish removal program where dive pro- fessionals were paid to shoot the fish, and lionfish derbies were hosted in Tobago. About 1000 lionfishes were removed from the environment during derbies

Opposite page: Credit Dr. D. Buddo

Left:Dissecting of Lionfish at the 2015 Lionfish Derby, Castara, Tobago

Right: Lionfish tempura

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 57 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 58 Policy Intervention In Trinidad and Tobago, there are 24 policies that touch on aspects of coastal and ocean management. The Draft Fisheries Management Policy (FMP) (2011), National Forest Policy (2011), National Protected Areas Policy, and the National Policy and Programmes on Wetland Conservation for Trinidad and Tobago (2001) deal with conservation of biodiversity. The National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) focuses on climate mitigation.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 59 State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 60 Additionally, economic and planning policies that institutions having a defined legal and/or policy role in affect the marine and coastal environment include aspects of coastal and ocean management. The sheer the National Tourism Policy (2010), the draft Yachting number of agencies with responsibility for coastal and Policy, the Draft National Spatial Development Strategy marine area management creates problems such as for Trinidad and Tobago (2013) and the Comprehensive overlapping jurisdiction and improper co-ordination Economic Development Plan for Tobago: Clean, with regards to enforcement. The work of these agen- Green, Safe and Serene. Alongside these the National cies is hindered by insufficient capacity and resources. Environment Policy (2005) and the Integrated Solid A further setback faced by enforcement agencies is the Waste / Resource Management Policy for Trinidad absence of sanction levels that offer a strong deterrent and Tobago (2012) treat with pollution. Trinidad and to breaching laws. These low financial penalties have Tobago has also acceded to the Cartagena Convention contributed to the lack of enthusiasm on the part of - Land-Based Sources (LBS) Pollution Protocol which agencies for bringing court actions in order to enforce requires the adoption of measures aimed at prevent- the law (Ramlogan, 2013). ing, reducing and controlling pollution of coastal and marine areas from land-based sources and activities. Global climate change and climate variability adds to In 2008, a National Plan of Action for the Protection of the continuous pressure on the coastal and marine the Coastal and Marine Environment from Land-based environment, especially since Trinidad and Tobago is Sources and Activities, 2008-2013 was submitted to faced with a limited resource base, logistical challeng- Cabinet for approval. However, this plan was never es and rising pressures for economic development. A adopted and therefore not implemented. key challenge would be minimising, and adapting to sea level rise, and in particular the increased coastal The main issues with respect to many policies are erosion and salinization of coastal aquifers that may that they are outdated, lack specificity, or have been result. High levels of threat exist to coastal infrastruc- inadequately implemented. In addition, the various ture, housing and other built development, but this can policies address problems in the coastal and marine be minimized by promoting sustainable land-use and environment in a piecemeal and fragmented manner better planning and development control, including (Ramlogan, 2013) and does not allow for a comprehen- controlling land-based sources of coastal and marine sive, coordinated approach. pollution which degrades coastal ecosystems that can protect coastal developments. Mainstreaming climate To complement policy there are also some 20 pieces change mitigation and adaptation across all sectors of legislation that can potentially address problems in should help improve the way the government “does the coastal and marine environment. These include business” and achieves sustainable development. This the State Lands Act (revised 2011), Fisheries Act 1916 will be via stimulating actions that strengthen- verti (amended 1966; 1975), the Water Pollution Rules 2001, cal policy, planning and budgeting processes between Shipping Act (revised 2011), the Archipelagic Waters national (Trinidad and Tobago) and sub-national and Exclusive Economic Zone Act (1986), and the more institutions (e.g. Tobago House of Assembly), and hor- recent Planning and Facilitation of Development Act izontal cross-sectoral initiatives that aim to contribute (2014). While it is perceived that sufficient laws exist in to coastal sustainability. the country to enable effective planning and management of coastal and marine resources and activities, most of the laws are worded in a general manner, with the intent being the passage of regulations to provide for specificity. Unfortunately, there has been a reluctance to use such regulatory powers and this has resulted in some laws being largely unenforceable (Ramlogan, 2013).

Opposite page: Land-based sources of coastal and marine pollution degrade The many laws and policies impacting on coastal and coastal ecosystems that can protect coastal developments. marine areas give rise to as many as twenty-nine (29)

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 61 An important part of climate change mainstreaming is reached. Going beyond government-led mainstream- climate risk analysis, which aims to define the extent of ing, issues such as “green jobs”, social enterprises, and the current and future climate risk within the sector or wealth accounting are among other initiatives which area under consideration. Climate risk analysis should are increasingly being seen as ways to address the become an integral part of strategy or policy develop- integration of true social and environmental costs for a ment in all sectors and areas. When the climate risk better quality of sustainable development. is appropriately addressed at the national level within strategic plans and policies, this creates an enabling For Trinidad and Tobago to achieve the Sustainable environment for government agencies to engage with Development Goals there must be an enabling leg- climate risk reduction and risk management, and islative and policy environment that allows for for the private sector and communities to take their cooperation and co-ordination among state agencies, own steps to reduce risks and manage residual risks. the private sector and civil society organizations. The Climate-responsive policies and strategies thus pave draft ICZM Policy Framework attempts to create such the way for practical on-the-ground activities that a platform. It seeks to address impacts from climate manage the climate risk (Sustainable Seas Ltd., 2014b). change, and to attenuate anthropogenic impact from the range of coastal stakeholders across the land-sea A major issue is ensuring that changes to national continuum and encourage sustainable management plans, and impacts from new sectoral priorities start to aimed at maintaining and where necessary, enhanc- reach people on the ground. This will require contin- ing, the functional integrity of the coastal and marine ued coordination across the range of different activities resource systems while enabling sustainable econom- going on at the national, sub-national, and local levels. ic development through rational decision-making and Mainstreaming experience has demonstrated that, planning. In pursuing this policy, all state and non-state for example, many national development goals are agencies would have to instill public awareness about interlinked, and that achieving the goal of coastal and the dangers of the degradation of environmental con- marine conservation will not be possible if other relat- ditions in the country’s coastal zones and oceans, and ed goals, including poverty reduction, are not met. encourage active participation of the people inall Newly emerging ideas of measuring coastal commu- undertakings to conserve and enhance these resourc- nity and the environmental dimensions of livelihood, es. Scientific research conducted/undertaken by state and going beyond measurements of GDP, are gaining agencies would need to be policy-driven and policy-rel- traction internationally. Experience from many nations evant using sound methods and the best available has shown that quality of life can be expressed beyond technology. Data would have to be readily available, the measure of GDP per capita and that the integra- and translated into pertinent information (knowledge tion of social and environmental factors are equally products) that can be used by the decision-makers and important in ensuring wider development goals are civil society when developing policies.

Stakeholder consultations have proven to be integral to the policy formulation process

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 62 Conclusion

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 63 1. The Gulf of Paria (GoP) receives excessive pollu- • north of Yacht Club, San Fernando tion loading from agriculture, industrial, and domestic sources. This has resulted in several hot spot areas 8. While most of the beaches and bays ( 27 in characterized primarily by elevated levels of suspend Trinidad and 27 in Tobago) monitored are in dynamic solids, nutrients and hydrocarbons. equilibrium, during the 2011-2015 period, erosion was recorded at Manzanilla, Columbus and Guayaguayare 2. Excessive total suspended solids (TSS) and sed- Bay, Trinidad and at Richmond, Goldsborough and La iment pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad Guira Bay, Tobago. particularly near the mouth of the Caroni River (west coast) and the North Oropouche River (east coast) 9. Mangrove forests continue to be cleared to where levels greater than 50 mg/L have been recorded. facilitate built development, and are more susceptible to impacts from climate change (coastal squeeze). 3. Petroleum hydrocarbon levels in water and However, in Caroni, Godineau, Nariva and Icacos sediment are higher on the west coast compared to Swamp mangrove coverage is increasing at the expense other coastal areas of Trinidad and Tobago. Dissolved of freshwater marsh communities. dispersed petroleum hydrocarbon (DDPH) concentrations above 10.0 part per billion (ppb) were found 10. Thalassia dominated seagrass beds were lost close to oil and gas operations. along the north-western peninsula of Trinidad and in Kilgwyn and La Guira Bay in Tobago due to poor water 4. Sediment quality off Pointe-a-Pierre, La Brea quality. Seagrasses have spread into Nylon Pool as and Granville indicated hots spot areas with elevated consequence of nutrient pollution. levels (>100.0 ppm) of hydrocarbons as adsorbed and absorbed petroleum hydrocarbons (AAPH). 11. Coral reefs are negatively impacted by land- based sources of pollution (nutrients and sediments) 5. Analysis of oysters (Crassotrea rhizophorae) making them more vulnerable to impacts from climate tissue collected at the Rousillac Swamp in 2014 for change (bleaching) and diseases. Many coral reefs AAPH indicate elevated levels ranging between 10.58 around Tobago have been experiencing phase shifts in and 38.59 ppm. Caution should be taken when con- benthic cover away from hard coral to species more suming oysters since these organisms are filter feeders tolerant of nutrient enriched water. that can bio-accumulate toxic hydrocarbons. AAPH measures polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are 12. Several species of commercially important fish known carcinogens (US EPA, 1995) that can be harmful have been found to be fully exploited or overexploited. to human health if ingested. 13. The degradation of coastal and marine ecosys- 6. Heavy metal pollution of sediments is reported tems mainly from anthropogenic impacts (pollution) at sites within the GoP make them more vulnerable to impacts from climate change, and other emerging issues like impacts 7. Bathing beach quality was poor - from invasive alien species (IAS) such as lionfish, and • near the mouth of the Maracas River, Maracas Sargassum blooms. Bay • eastern section of Las Cuevas Bay 14. To arrest the degradation of our coastal and • mid bay to the western section of William’s Bay, marine resources, immediate policy and legislative Chaguaramas in the wet season interventions are required. • western section of Chagville Bay, Chaguaramas after heavy rainfall 15. Increase in citizen awareness of the fragility, • Welcome Bay, Chaguaramas in the wet season importance, and benefits derived from our marine • south of King’s Wharf, Sean Fernando resources is required. • nouth of King’s Wharf at Spring Vale Point and off the iron ladder south of the seawall

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016 64 Selected References

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