CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF WATER USE AND DEVELOPMENT DRINKING WATER FOR EARLY Roman aqueduct in Italy, for example, a bas-relief CIVILIZATIONS sculpture from Mesopotamia, or a temple in China. Ancient societies prospered when water supplies EARLY IRRIGATION AND were properly managed; conversely, poor water FLOOD-CONTROL PROJECTS management usually brought a decline in the health EARLY WATER TRANSPORTATION and well-being of citizens and, in extreme cases, even DEVELOPMENT extinction of an entire civilization. In this chapter, we pay close attention to the EARLY HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT ­historical context of early hydraulic civilizations. What similarities existed between irrigation in Egypt, Life must be lived forward, but understood backward. Babylonia, Spain, and Mexico? What role did Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), the qanat play in the settlement of desert regions Danish philosopher around the world? How important were canals in the settlement and prosperity of China and Western Throughout history, water development, management, Europe? We can learn important lessons from these and policy have evolved in a wide variety of ways. In ancient civilizations and gain insights into present- the arid Middle East, for example, elaborate irrigation day issues and opportunities regarding water projects were constructed thousands of years ago to development, management, and policy. raise food for humans and domesticated animals, and Knowledge of the past helps to anticipate the future. fiber for clothing. The region between the Tigris and Thucydides (460–400 B.C.), Greek philosopher Euphrates rivers was known as the Fertile Crescent in large part because of the abundance provided by ancient irrigation projects. In China, several canals in use today were built during royal dynasties around 600 b.c. and earlier DRINKING WATER FOR EARLY to transport people, cargo, and armies across that CIVILIZATIONS massive country. Later, Western Europeans developed similar construction techniques for elaborate water transportation networks. ForCOPYRIGHTED centuries waterwheels Water MATERIAL is the basis of life on Earth and the foundation were used to divert water for crops, to provide of all civilizations. The ancient Persians, for ­example, water for fountains in royal gardens, to grind grain, listed water as the first word in their dictionary, calling and to supply drinking water. The technology of it “ab,” to show its importance in their culture. The waterwheels—developed in Greece and Rome Egyptian civilization used a wavy line to represent 2,000 years ago—transformed the economy of the word water. This symbol later became the Western Europe by a.d. 1100. Hebrew letter “mem” (representing mayim or water) Much of our knowledge of ancient “hydraulic,” and eventually the Latin letter M.1 In ancient Hawaii, or water-based civilizations has been obtained from the word for freshwater was (and still is) “wai,” and ruins, artifacts, and artwork—the remains of a the Hawaiian word for true wealth is “waiwai.” 9 Cech4e_c01.indd 9 2/7/2018 7:24:49 PM 10 CHAPTER 1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF WATER USE AND DEVELOPMENT Long before these early civilizations flourished, our this nomadic culture traveled great distances across Stone Age ancestors lived in caves and other camps deserts to reach greener pastures. Whenever possible, that were close to sources of drinking water, such as the Somalians dug groundwater wells by hand, at springs and lakes. Wild game often congregated near regularly spaced intervals along their desert routes, these watering holes and provided a source of food, to provide drinking water for caravans of nomads but also potential danger. The needs of early people and cattle. Groundwater wells in the desert provided were quite basic—food, water, and shelter. As time a reliable source of drinking water for their own use passed and human populations increased, prehistoric and later served as the foundation for the development communities tended to form near lakes in central of small desert communities. Eventually, larger cities and along the coastline of southern Africa, as well as developed around these underground water sources along rivers in the Middle East, northern China, and in the African desert. India (see Figure 1.1). Why were ancient well diggers able to find As human numbers increased, wild animals, groundwater in the middle of an African desert? The disease, and dense vegetation that made it difficult to most probable answer is that during the Pleistocene cultivate crops may have driven some settlements to epoch—when glaciers covered portions of North relocate to drier climates. In other regions, drought America and Europe—the climates of northern Africa forced humans to relocate to wetter areas that had and the Middle East were relatively wet. Modern more reliable food supplies. The early Somalians of satellite imagery of the region shows evidence of eastern Africa were nomadic because of a constant ancient riverbeds that have long since been covered search for water and grass for their cattle herds. by blowing desert sands. Ancient water from that Between periods of drought and continual rains, geologic time remains underground even today. 80° Arctic Circle 60° ATLANTIC WEI/HUANG MESOPOTAMIA 40° 40° 40° RIVERS 40° Fertile ATLANTIC OCEAN Crescent Tropic of PACIFIC Cancer OCEAN NILE OCEAN MESOAMERICA VALLEY 20° 20° 20° 20° INDUS GANGES VALLEY DELTA WEST AFRICA INDIAN Equator 0° OCEAN ATLANTIC PACIFIC OCEAN ANDEAN 20° 20° 20° 20° 20° 20° Tropic of AMERICA Tropic of Capricorn OCEAN Capricorn CULTURAL HEARTHS 40° 40° 40° 40° 40° AND EARLY 40 SOUTHERN MIGRATION ROUTES OCEAN 80° 60° 40° 0° 20° 40° 60° Hearth 100 120° 60° 60° 60° 60° 60 Antarctic Circle Major direction of flow 0 1000 2000 Miles of ideas 0 1000 2000 Kilometers FIG. 1.1 Cultural hearths are centers of early civilization. Many of these regions were extremely dry, and water was a necessity to provide food and fiber for survival. Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts, 10th Edition, by Harm de Blij and Peter O. Muller. Copyright ©2002 H. J. de Blij and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This map was originally produced in color. Adapted and reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Cech4e_c01.indd 10 2/7/2018 7:24:50 PM DRINKING WATER FOR EARLY CIVILIZATIONS 11 Groundwater systems became more elaborate ­communities to develop in locations without reliable in many parts of the world with the development of water supplies. Today, most of the world’s qanats are qanats (underground water delivery systems, from a found in Iran (Figure 1.2).3 Semitic word meaning “to dig”). Since around 1000 Qanats are still the traditional source of water in the b.c., qanats have been constructed in southwest Asia, Middle East and parts of China (the Turpan Museum North Africa, and the Middle East to tap into reliable in Xinjiang, China, showcases these ancient karez sources of groundwater. A qanat consists of a mother ­systems). In northern Iraq, these ancient water delivery well connected to long, underground delivery tunnels systems are still used today to provide water to some that stretch to nearby communities. The mother well of the oldest cities of the world, including Sulaimaniya was dug by hand, generally near the foothills of a moun- (population approximately 400,000). Iran has over tain range, to tap into plentiful sources of groundwater. 22,000 qanats, which supply 75 percent of all water A gently sloping tunnel was constructed from the currently used in that country. Early Spanish explorers mother well to villages and fields at lower elevations. transferred the technology to northern Chile, where Gravity provides the means to move groundwater five hand-dug groundwater tunnels are still used today from the mother well along the subterranean system. in the nitrate-mining region of the Atacama Desert.4 Vertical shafts were constructed along the sloping Digging underground tunnels for a qanat was very delivery tunnel to allow numerous access points. dangerous work, and cave-ins were common. Gener- Qanats vary in length from 25 to 28 miles (40 to 45 ally, an underclass of the local population was forced km) and have depths up to 400 feet (122 m).2 to construct and maintain the water delivery system. In Afghanistan, Pakistan, and western China, a Small boys were often used to dig in the cramped and groundwater system with a mother well and sloped more confined areas during construction, and the loss delivery tunnel is called a karez. The word falaj of life was shocking. On some construction projects, or “unfailing springs” is used in Oman, while in workers wore their funeral clothes as they dug in case French Morocco and Cyprus, this system is called the earth above the tunnel collapsed. This eliminated a foggaras. Qanats, probably one of the greatest the need for coworkers to dig out a buried worker to hydrologic achievements of the ancient world, allowed provide a proper burial.5 Stream ds n la p U Bedrock Recharge zone Qanat Mountain range mother well Alluvial fan contour lines FIG. 1.2 A typical qanat Bedrock system. These water harvesting tunnels conveyed water from aquifers in highlands to lower elevations for irrigation and Village household consumption. It’s Conduit important to note that there Irrigated are some 22,000 qanat systems Debris farmland in Iran, representing more than heaps Shafts 170,000 miles (275,000 km) of Channel underground tunnels. The Iranian qanat systems rival the Aquifer (alluvial sand and silt) great aqueducts of the Roman Empire. Cech4e_c01.indd 11 2/7/2018 7:24:50 PM 12 CHAPTER 1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF WATER USE AND DEVELOPMENT The ancient Romans also developed extensive The construction of aqueducts and other water water delivery systems for their cities. Surface water delivery structures allowed Roman cities to grow and groundwater were stored in cisterns (underground in size and population and reduced the amount of reservoirs lined with clay or dug in limestone forma- time required for individuals (usually women) to tions) at higher elevations near a city.